SOME IMPORTANT ASPECTS IN CIVIL WORKS DESIGN OF A MINI HYDRO POWER PROJECT By Eng Upali Malla a A!a"#"#i A$%&!

a"&
Civil Works of a mini hydro power project have some distinct characteristics. One of the significant features is that the true contribution of the quality of Civil Works to the projects performance is not adequately reflected in the capital cost component. Unlike in the case of lectro!mechanical Works where products of standard designs which can be directly incorporated in the power plant are available" location specific factors restrict the use of standard designs in Civil Works. #herefore" quality of civil works largely depends on a thorough understanding of site conditions" accuracy of surveys" involvement of e$pertise in different fields of civil engineering and more particularly" a very systematic design procedure which ensures an economical and workable design. $amination of the site to assess the relative merits of alternative solutions to location of components of the project would be the first step in the design process. %ecision on the best alternative is taken based on economy and technical feasibility. &n the detailed design too" a similar procedure should be adopted in selecting the most suitable type and si'e of the structure. Use of the most appropriate design parameters in both hydraulic and structural design is also vital in ensuring a good quality design. (anagement of the design process must ensure obtaining appropriate e$pert opinion and reference to literature to decide such parameters and recording them for reference. #he )uthor highlights in this paper" some special considerations in designs and the methodology to achieve a good quality design of civil works of a mini hydro power project. &t is e$pected that the paper would provide some useful guidelines to civil engineers and hydro power developers regarding the procedure to be followed in the design.

'( In&!)*+"&i)n
*ydro power generation means the conversion of potential energy available in water flowing in a stream to electrical energy with the use of a turbine. #his process essentially involves diversion of water at a point of higher elevation and conveying it to the turbine installed at a lower elevation. #he energy generated is directly proportional to the difference in elevation +available head, and hence the process of diversion of water should be done with great care to save the potential energy i.e. head loss should be kept to a minimum. ) series of Civil ngineering structures are built for this purpose" namely" diversion dam" intake" head race channel" sedimentation tank" forebay tank" penstock line" power house and tail race. #he above set of structures is common for any hydro power project. #here are some distinguished features in a mini hydro power generating facility +Capacity within the range -.. / .- (W,. 0ome of those features of interest are1

(ini hydro power projects are generally 2un Off the 2iver +2O2, type and hence storage of water is not required. #herefore a short weir is used across the stream for diversion. nvironmental impact is generally less compared to reservoir type projects. Cost of Civil Works is generally in the range of .- / 34 5 of the total capital cost. #his cost ranges between .-- / 34- U06 per kW capacity +2s 7---! 894--,. #his can also be represented as -.-9 / -.-7 U06 per kWh of average annual energy generation +2s 3.-- / 9.4-,. &f the cost of Civil Works is close to the upper limit of the range" financial viability of the project is in doubt. #hese facilities are operated at relatively low flows and hence any deficiency in performance of Civil Works +canal structures etc, would significantly affect the generation efficiency.

:or the above reasons" strict controls during design phase of civil works is a very critical factor for the success of a mini hydro power project. #here is a well known phenomenon that the cost control be best achieved at the early stages of a project. :rom project feasibility to the construction stage" the freedom for cost control measures gradually diminishes. #his phenomenon is applicable to mini hydro power projects as well. ;e$t section of the paper deals with the special considerations and the procedure in design of Civil Works in view of achieving an economical solution appropriate to the prevailing conditions. Only the part of project feasibility aspects which has direct relevance to Civil Works design has been included in the paper as feasibility studies as a whole is a broad subject which should be dealt with separately. <reliminary site studies as pre planning for a systematic design and design considerations in each component of the project are described separately in detail.

'( Si&, In-,%&iga&i)n an* P!,li.ina!y S&+*i,%

'( G,n,!al #he initial and the most important part of the Civil Works design is the decision on appropriate location of each part of the structure. #his has to be done to a considerable e$tent during the feasibility stage. #he process should be continued with more accurate information as the designs proceed. Whole process can be divided into various sections namely &nitial &nvestigation" 0pecialist )dvice" ngineering 0urveys" 0ub surface investigations" )nalysis of )lternatives and Conclusions. ach of these is described in detail in the following sections. /( Ini&ial Si&, In-,%&iga&i)n

#his is basically site visits with minimum amount of measurements. &t consists of the following simple steps 1 a. Identification of a prospective site #his is done using contour maps or any other means of information. )vailability of a significant head within a short distance is the main criterion +eg. 9- m head within . km distance,. %istance to the nearest transmission line is also a factor to be considered.

b. Inspection of possible diversion sites &t is generally economical to have the weir close to the starting location of the fall. Other considerations are1 ! &f the river is narrow" weir length is less" hence less cost. ! &f the sides are high" less erosion problems ! &t is better to have strong rock outcrops either side ! :oundation condition should be good. &f different rock layers +foliations, are found" there is a possibility of water leakage underneath the weir. c. Measurement of the head and deciding on approximate location of power house )ppro$imate difference in elevation between the diversion point and the toe of the fall should be measured. #his can be done either using a level instrument or a water tube. =ariation of the level of stream downstream of the fall should be e$amined. &f the variation of the level is insignificant at a certain location" power house be best located at a relatively flat site +close to the stream, at that particular location. d. Inspection of possible routes for head race channel and penstock &n most cases" head race channel is constructed along a contour starting from the intake location. #here may be several contours with the elevation of weir starting from intake location running in downstream direction. <enstock route is selected so that the head race channel contour is connected to the power house with a shortest length. (inimum cost of the combination of canal and penstock portions is the main criteria for selection of the best route out of the alternatives available. ) ratio of . > 8 can be assumed as the ratio of per metre cost of channel > penstock under general circumstances. *owever" if any geotechnical problem e$ists" e$pert advice should be sought before selection of the best route.

e. Flood Characteristics &t is possible to assess the general flood heights by local enquiries. *owever" e$pert advice should be obtained on flood with different return periods +84" 4- ? .-- year,. f. Land Availability %uring e$amination of alternative locations" it is essential that" land ownership" purchase price and associated legal problems are studied. @ocation of a particular structure may have to be changed due to problems of land availability.

/(0 P!,li.ina!y C)%& E%&i.a&, )1 Ci-il W)!2% <reparation of preliminary estimates can be started after the initial site inspection. 0uch estimates /among other values! are an essential part of the project appraisal process. *owever" before starting estimating civil work costs" certain aspects related to operational characteristics should be finalised. 0ome important aspects are1 +a,#ype of equipment +turbines and generators, based on the available head and equipment characteristics +b,*ydrological )nalysis and design flow based on the criteria of ma$imum power generation and load factor considerations (ethod of determination of +a, and +b, above is beyond the scope of this paper and hence will not be discussed in detail. Aasic design decisions important for a preliminary estimate are1 a. eight of the weir #his depends on the required head and effect of upstream inundation. b. !ub surface Conditions #ype of material below surface to a reasonable depth should be investigated using a simple method such as trial pits. c. Approximate si"e of structures #he si'e of intake" headrace canal" sedimentation and forebay tanks and penstock" based on design flow" hydraulic considerations and site conditions. 0uch considerations are further illustrated later in this paper.

d. Approximate si"e of #ower ouse #his depends on the equipment layout and specific water level requirements for the turbines. e. Location of discharge and si"e of tail race canal <oint of discharge of tail water is decided mainly based on river water levels and cross sections. When the above aspects are finalised preliminary estimate can be made using cost factors +unit costs, determined using market rates. 0ome e$amples of such factors are1 ! Weir" channel" penstock etc ! per linear metre basis ! :orebay and 0edimentation tanks / per cubic metre +capacity, basis ! <ower *ouse ! per square metre +floor area, basis #he following appro$imate values are useful in arriving at the cost factors1 Channels and tanks #hickness of reinforced concrete walls can be taken as +.4- B hC.4 , mm where h is the depth of the section from top +in mm,. 2einforcements can be assumed as -..- tonnes and -.-74 tonnes for one cubic metre of concrete in tanks and channels respectively. #enstocks #he cost per metre would be about twice the cost of one metre of head race channel.

#ower ouse #he cost of the power house per one square metre of machine floor would be around 2s 9-"--- for hori'ontal a$is :rancis type turbines. *owever" this may vary depending on the type of equipment and condition of the ground +presence of rock" hard soil etc,.

&f alternatives are available with respect to materials and technology" those factors can be computed for the most e$pensive alternative with respective probabilities" so that there will be greater fle$ibility during the detailed design stage.

0( Sp,"ial C)n%i*,!a&i)n% in D,&ail,* D,%ign '( W,i! Weir of a mini hydro power project is generally a gravity structure. *ydrostatic force for the highest flood condition" uplift forces due to seepage and impact of floating objects are the loading conditions to be considered. #he shape of the cross section of the weir is something similar to that of a large dam. ) typical shape is shown in :igure .. 0cour protection measures should be adopted if the weir is founded on soil. )nalysis involves normal stability checks such as safety against sliding" overturning and bearing. %owelling or keying into rock is normally done under the foundations as an e$tra precaution. Other special considerations are the provision of minimum flow and silt removal pipes at appropriate points of the weir.

0(/ In&a2, #his is the structure which draws water from the river. #his can be a channel" pipe or a tunnel depending on the site conditions. <ipes may not be ideal in high flows where very large diameter pipes are necessitated. 0ome important considerations in the design are1 a. Capacity &ntake capacity should be adequate to draw the required quantity of water during normal design flow conditions. ) control weir at the entrance and curved edges are some measures adopted in this regard +:igure 8,. b. #revention of $ntry of %ed Material #he sediment movement pattern should be studied before making a decision in this aspect. *owever" a silt removal pipe at the entrance and several silt traps have to be provided at various points along the channel.

c. Controls during flood conditions ) flood condition results in a rise of water level at intake" which would give rise to a high flow in the head race channel. #his is undesirable because spilling may occur along the channel path which can cause severe erosion on the sides of the channel. *ence flood water should be diverted from the channel path within the intake channel itself. ) series of breast walls +walls above normal flow level, and spillway arrangements are suitable measures for this. *ydraulic jumps may occur in breast wall arrangement causing rise of water level in downstream of those walls. 0pillways at each of these locations and also surface protection measures +by applying a rip rap, are some important elements to be designed. 0pillway capacity can be computed taking the broad crested weir formula as a guide. Ao$ sections can be used as an alternative to the open channel" which should be analysed using pressure flow principles. d. Control &ate Arrangements Control gate is a very important component in intake structure. #he following factors to be considered.

Date should be located at a position where diverting flood water before the gate is possible. @evels should be decided by taking the factors such as opening required" easy access for control specially during floods" maintenance and installation requirements into consideration. #ype and si'e of gate +manualCmotorised" radialCrectangular" steelCtimber, are decided based on the forces +thrust, and convenience in operation.

a. #revention of $ntry of 'rash ) trash rack should be provided near the entrance to avoid floating objects entering the channel. #his generally consists of steel flat sections welded to a frame. 0pacing between flat sections should be decided based on the si'e of trash e$pected in the stream +generally adopted value E 4- mm,. @arger objects such as logs" bushes etc can be prevented from reaching the trash rack by having a screen mechanism upstream. #o minimise the head loss" velocity of water through trash rack should be very small" preferably less than -.4 mCs. *ence the total area of trash rack should be about 9!4 times the si'e of intake" and it should be ideally located upstream of the intake entrance. :or design calculations" a condition with one half of the trash rack blocked with trash is generally considered. Cleaning mechanism +a rake operated manuallyCmechanically and a platform to collect and remove materials, is a must for a trash rack arrangement.

'( H,a* !a", C#ann,l (ain criteria of head race channel design should be minimising the head loss between intake and the forebay tank. *ence" the bed slope is kept at a fairly low value. 0ome important considerations are1 a. !election of !i"e and shape of the channel #his mainly depends on the terrain conditions. ) trape'oidal section would be the most economical one in most cases" but this section needs a relatively flat terrain condition. 2ectangular sections are common. )queducts have to be provided at places where bed level is considerably above the ground level. (annings equation is widely used in deciding on dimensions" bed slope etc. Ao$ sections can be used where deep e$cavations may cause severe stability problems. )lternative materials available for channel construction are discussed elsewhere in this paper. (b) $ffect of *ain +ater and $xtraneous Items (ain problems that the rain water may cause to smooth functioning of head race channel are1

#ransport of soil and debris into the channel <ore water pressures on channel walls &nstability of slopes adjoining the channels

)n effective catch drain system" adopting slopes appropriate to the ground materials" a filter medium behind the channel walls +specially in the case of thin linings, are some effective measures in overcoming these problems. (c) $ffect of Flood or Abrupt !hut ,own 0pilling may occur during a high flood situation or a shut down of the power house operations. )dequate spillways should be provided along the channel +best at a location close to an e$isting stream, by removing the free board at those locations. %rainage path of the spill water should be protected using rubble paving or concrete. (d ) 'ransitions #ransitions between different sections of channel should be made smoothly with gradual variation of dimensions +generally along a length not less than 4 times the change,.

'( S,*i.,n&a&i)n an* F)!,$ay Tan2% #he purpose of sedimentation tank is the separation of fine material +silt, which would be harmful to the turbine from the water flow. :orebay tank is meant for providing some storage for operation of penstocks in conveying water to the turbines. Common practice is to combine both the functions in one tank. #wo separate tanks would be required if the topography of the location of entrance to the penstocks is not favourable for a tank sufficiently long for sedimentation function. &mportant consideration of sedimentation tank design are1 a. !i"e and !hape #his is governed by the criteria that the tank should be capable of settling all materials with a particle si'e bigger than which is allowed to enter the turbine +#his si'e should be obtained from the turbine manufacturer,. *ori'ontal velocity of water through the tank should be maintained at a low value +around -.8 mCs, to facilitate settling" hence the cross section of the tank is governed by this aspect. @ength is determined by applying 0tokes @aw. ) special shape += or W, should be provided to the bottom part of the tank for accumulation of fine material. &f the tank is combined with forebay" two sections should be separated with an internal weir to avoid passage of silt to penstocks. b. *emoval of !ediments Washout pipes with valves should be provided at the bottom to flush the tank periodically to remove sediments. Aottom of the tank should be adequately sloped +appr$ .>9-, to facilitate removal. *owever" since these arrangements are not very effective" provision for manual cleaning should also be introduced. #he outlet of the pipes should be directed to a water course with adequate protection from erosion. c. 'rash *emoval #ank is a good location to have a trash rack" since the head loss will be very small due to low velocity of flow.

0ome considerations for a forebay tank are1 a. !i"e and ,imensions 0i'e of the forebay is generally governed by the minimum storage required. Fuantity required for operation during time needed for would be a useful guide. %epth of the tank at the outlet area should be such that a depth of water of at least

..4 times the penstock diameter should be available above the penstock pipes" to avoid vorte$ formation. b. #rotection Covering of the tank to avoid foreign materials entering the penstocks would be very important. c. !tability of $xcavations &t is always important to consider the stability of slopes around the tank. )ppropriate slopes and proper drainage systems are essential.

'( P,n%&)"2 An"#)!% an* S+pp)!&% <enstock anchors and supports are used to hold the penstock pipe +usually steel pipes, in position under various loading conditions. )nchors are provided at the places of change of direction +vertically" hori'ontally or both, of the pipe" whereas supports are provided at a predetermined spacing. '( An"#)! $l)"2% )nchor blocks are gravity structures built for resisting forces at a bend of penstock pipe. #he following considerations are important in the design. a. Location :actors considered in locating the anchors are1

(inimising support heights (inimising ground disturbance along the penstock path )voiding acute angles in penstock path )ppropriate physical conditions to place the anchor

a. Forces <rincipal forces acting on an anchor block are1

:orces due to thermal e$pansion C contraction of the pipe +%irection / along the pipes,. #his can be eliminated by introducing e$pansion joints at appropriate places +#hese are normally provided just after an anchor location,.

*ydrostatic forces +%irection / along the pipes,

! :orce due to %ead Weight +%irection / vertical, ! Centrifugal force +%irection / perpendicular to the pipe, ! :orce due to friction at supports +%irection / along the pipe, ! :riction between anchor blockCground interface :riction coefficient takes a value between -.3 and -.G depending on the material +soil / rock, Certain components of these forces act as disturbing forces and other components along with the weight of the anchor block act as stabilising forces. Weight of the anchor block is determined using an appropriate safety factor +preferably around ..4,. a. &round Conditions Aearing capacity of the ground should be correctly assessed for deciding the hori'ontal dimensions of the anchor block. 2estrictions due to physical barriers such as rock outcrops" steep slopes" large trees or permanent structures should also be taken into account. )nchors on sloping ground would require benching of ground and stepping of the foundation. %owels are provided for foundations on rock" as an additional precaution against sliding.

0(3(/ P,n%&)"2 S+pp)!&% a. !pacing 0pacing between the supports is determined by two main considerations" i.e. pipe stresses and convenience in handling. <ipe stresses to be considered are1

*oop stresses 0tresses in the radial direction Aending stresses 0hear stresses at the supports

0upport spacing should be such that the combined effect of these stresses should not e$ceed the allowable values.

a. Forces (ain forces acting on a support are reaction of the pipe and the friction force. #he two forces are perpendicular to each other. :riction coefficient between pipe and the support depends on the material used at the interface. &f properly lubricated rollers are used the coefficient can be reduced to -... :or normal steel concrete interface the value will be around -.3" whereas rusting of steel may increase the coefficient to even -.G. %irection of the friction force during e$pansion of pipe would reverse during contraction.

b. !tructural form 0upports can be designed as either gravity structures or framed structures. Ay having the sides of the structure parallel to the direction of the resultant forces" moment at the central a$is of the base can be eliminated. %ifferent types of structural forms are shown in :igure 3. #he most economical type should be selected for a given situation.

0(4 P) ,! H)+%, 5 Tail !a", %esign considerations of power house and tail race mainly depend on the following aspects1 a. 'ype of turbine 2equirements for impulse type and :rancis type differ considerably. &n :rancis type turbines" turbine runner is fi$ed inside a casing the water head will be the difference in water surface elevation at forebay tank and at just outside the draft tube. quipment need not be installed above high flood level as the outside wall of the power house can be sealed to avoid inflow of flood water. &n case of an impulse type turbine" water passing the turbine flows under gravity. 0ince the inflow of water under high flood conditions cannot be prevented" generators should be installed above the high flood level" to avoid damage under floods. b. ,ischarge point on the stream.

#he head required for ma$imum efficiency of the equipment should have been finalised before commencement of detailed designs. %ischarge point on the stream should be selected considering the possibility of maintaining the tail water level to obtain the head required. c. $-uipment layout and the elevation details provided by the e-uipment manufacturer. d. !ub surface conditions at site <roperties of material present underground should be studied to design the foundations and basement walls. e. Method of handling e-uipment during installation <rovision should be made for overhead cranes" loadingCunloading bays etc required for installation of equipment f. !ite conditions ('errain and other limitations) #errain conditions" physical and legal boundaries of site etc may cause limitations in design of layout" deciding structural form etc. 0(4(' P) ,! H)+%, a. !tructural Form Deneral structural form would be a framed structure similar to that of a two to three storeyed building with a basement. quipment floor is generally a basement. quipment foundation is a reinforced concrete raft. b. !pecial Loading Conditions #he following loading conditions should also considered in addition to the normal dead and live loads1

0hort circuit torque of the generator #his is generally about twice the dead weight. #his torque has a lifting effect.

Auoyancy under high water table conditions 0tability of the whole structure under buoyancy conditions should be checked.

&nstallation loads

Weight of travelling overhead crane" sway" impact and braking loads are to be considered.

Wind forces

%epending on the terrain conditions and height of the building a. .ther Considerations 0ome other aspects to be considered are1

Overall appearance and landscaping Cable trenches" transformer and metering rooms Office and accommodation space

0(4(/ Tail!a", #his can be an open channel or a closed conduit. 2equired level at the draft tube can be maintained by constructing a regulating structure +like a weir, at the location of discharge.

3(6 Ma&,!ial S,l,"&i)n an* D,&ailing

3(' W,i! 0ince the weir is a gravity structure" mass concrete with plums can be used. *owever" as forces from flowing water and impact from floating objects occur" its advisable to construct outer layers with concrete of strength of about 84 ( <a.

3(/ C#ann,l% :or channels +eg. head race," the alternatives available are1

arth canals 2ubble masonary Unreinforced concrete lining 2einforced Concrete

(a) $arth and *ubble Masonry :rom the above" earth canals are not preferred in mini hydro power projects for reasons such as difficult terrain conditions" maintenance difficulties and high possibility of sediment accumulation. 2ubble masonry can be used for a smaller canals of less than ..4 m depth" but the main problem arises in protection from decay and erosion of mortar in the masonry wall. &t is recommended that interior rubble masonry walls should be covered with a ferrocement coating to ensure durability of the structure. (b) /nreinforced Concrete Linings Canal sections with a thin +4- / .-- mm, unreinforced concrete lining is also an economical solution. *owever" this type requires a trape'oidal section +preferably with .>. side slopes, which occupies a larger area" and also reasonably good soil condition. (inimum strength of concrete to be used is 84 ( <a. :ollowing aspects should not be ignored1

0oil should be well compacted before placing the lining :ilter media and adequate drainage outlets should be provided $pansion C Contraction joints should be provided at appropriate intervals +preferably less than .4m,. #hickness of lining should be adequately increased at the joints. ) good surface water system should be provided

(c) *einforced Concrete reinforced concrete is the commonly adopted solution to larger canals in hilly terrain. &t is sufficient to use provisions of A0 H..- in the design as the structure is designed for flowing water under a low head. Cantilevered or counterforted walls can be used. <ressure applied by the backfill should also be considered in the design. Critical load combinations are1

arth and pore water pressure at empty condition Water pressure under full flow condition

0tability of the whole channel under buoyancy forces at empty condition should also be checked.

&t is necessary to provide e$pansion C contraction joints +with water stops, at appropriate intervals. Cover to reinforcement at the inner face should be high +about G- mm, to withstand erosion effect of water. a. &eneral Considerations