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Fluid flow, Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

FLUID FLOW, THERMODYNAMICS & HEAT TRANSFER

THERMODYNAMICS

Lecture Notes & Examples 2012

Mechanical Engineering

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1. Introduction
Thermodynamics: Science of relations between heat and other (mechanical, electrical etc.) forms of energy (The Concise Oxford Dictionary). The word thermodynamics stems from the Greek words therme (heat) and dynamis (force). Engineers seek to improve quality of life. Engineering activity requires transfer of energy from sources such as fossil and nuclear fuels, solar energy in its various forms (direct solar radiation, wind, hydro), and other forms regarded as renewable (geothermal, tidal) to heat, light, electricity etc. Although this transfer brings to mind the picture of energy in motion, the classic methods of thermodynamics (which we will study) deal only with systems in equilibrium and with changes of matter from one equilibrium state to another (we could thus call it equilibrium thermodynamics). Dealing formally with the true rates of everyday processes requires a much more complex approach. We can say, however, that real processes, which occur within finite time, will always be less efficient than the theoretical processes. Theoretical processes could be visualised as a series of very small steps, with the rate of progress so slow that at each step equilibrium is attained within the whole system. Such theoretical processes would produce work, but they would take infinitely long time to complete, thus power produced would be zero. Classical thermodynamics also uses macroscopic approach and deals with average properties of very large numbers of molecules, as opposed to statistical thermodynamics, which deals with properties of individual particles (molecules) and statistical distribution of these properties. An example of such an approach is the kinetic theory of gases. Despite all its limitations, the science of classical equilibrium thermodynamics is extremely important to an engineer, as it describes the laws and limitations of the idealised world of energy conversion. Thus we can learn the rules, develop the conceptual and mathematical tools of thermodynamic modelling and know the limits of possibilities, even if in real life we will never be able to achieve these limits. Thermodynamics is a physical science which endeavours to explain many aspects of processes occurring in nature and which has great bearing on practically every aspect of human activity. It is based on two master concepts and two fundamental principles. The concepts are that of energy and entropy. The principles are the first and second laws of thermodynamics. The First Law states: the sum of all forms of energy remains constant in the physical universe (despite the obvious flux of energy). Not all forms of energy, however, are equally useful. A radiator full of hot water is more useful for heating the bathroom than a bathtub full of tepid water, although they may both have the same total energy content. Mechanical energy (such as shaft work and potential energy) is the most useful form of energy, we can convert it into many other forms, in some cases with high efficiency, and we can completely convert it into heat. Count B Rumford published this last observation in 1796, and James Joule (1818-89, English) proved formally in 1846 the mechanical equivalence of heat, thus finally disproving the previously believed theory of a caloric fluid which represented heat transferring from one body to another. We cannot, however, convert all heat energy back into work. The limitations imposed by nature on this conversion have been stated by Sadi Carnot (1796-1832, an officer in the French Army engineers) in the only paper he published during his lifetime Reflections on the Motive Power of Heat. There he devised the use of cycles for thermodynamic analysis and analysed the Carnot cycle. By stating the Carnot principle he laid the foundations for the Second Law of Thermodynamics (he was then only 23 or 24!). The measure of usefulness of energy to complete a task (for example to run a machine or to heat a room) is called availability or exergy. Every flux and transformation of energy in real life is accompanied by a penalty, which is the loss of the usefulness of energy. Entropy is a measure of the loss of usefulness of energy.

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The Second Law states that the usefulness of energy decreases all the time or at least it cannot increase (entropy of the universe increases, or at least cannot decrease). Another statement of the Second Law says that heat can only spontaneously flow from a hot body to a cold one (Rudolph Clausius, 1822-88, German). Time will come in the future when all the universe will reach uniform temperature and there will be no more fuels to burn either. This is the heat death of the universe as envisioned by Clausius. In this first year course we will concentrate on understanding the thermodynamic properties of working fluids, the First Law and its applications to energy balances in closed and open systems. We will also analyse some basic power cycles and in this analysis we will refer to the implications of the Second Law through the Carnot principle.

Some recommended books: (Note possibly there are new book editions) Cengel Y.A., Boles M.A. , Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach, 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York 1994, ISBN 0-07-113249-X (lots of examples) Moran M.J., Shapiro H.N., Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics, 2nd Edition, SI version, J. Wiley , New York 1993, ISBN 0-471-59275-7 (as good and in some respects better than Cengel, more to the point) Eastop T.D., McConkey A., Applied Thermodynamics For Engineering Technologists (5th Edition), Longman Scientific & Technical, Harlow, 1993, ISBN 0-582-09193-4 (a bit simpler, quite practical, more of a Polyversity approach, but everything is there and it makes a faster reading) Look, D.C., Sauer H.J., Engineering Thermodynamics, SI Edition, Van Nostrandn Reinhold, 1988, ISBN 0 278 00052 5 (one of my favourites, lots of good examples) Rogers, G.F.C., Mayhew, Y.R. Engineering Thermodynamics Work and Heat Transfer . Longman, London and New York . (an evergreen British classic) Russell L.D., Adebiyi G.A., Classical Thermodynamics International Edition, Saunders College Publishing, Fort Worth 1993, ISBN 0-03-032417-3 (not as good as the first two, half of examples in imperial units) Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics, J.R Howell and R.O Buckius, Published by McGraw Hill.

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1.1 The first law of thermodynamics The 1st La of Thermo!ynamics tells "s that energy is neither create! nor !estroye!# th"s the energy of the "niverse is a constant$ %o ever# energy can certainly &e transferre! from one 'art of the "niverse to another$ To or( o"t thermo!ynamic 'ro&lems e ill nee! to isolate a certain 'ortion of the "niverse )the system* from the remain!er of the "niverse )the s"rro"n!ings*$ The 1st La of Thermo!ynamics ill &e m"ch more "sef"l if e can e+'ress it as an e,"ation$ E - . / 0

E - The change energy of the system# . - The heat transferre! into )/*/o"t )1* of the system# 0 - The or( !one &y )1* /on )/* the system$

This reform"lation of the 1st La tells "s that once e !efine a system )remem&er e can !efine the system in any ay that is convenient* the energy of the system ill remain constant "nless there heat a!!e! or ta(en a ay from the system# or some or( ta(es 'lace$ 1.2 Forms of energy Energy can e+ist in vario"s forms s"ch as mechanical# 'otential# (inetic# thermal# electric# magnetic# chemical# n"clear# an! their s"m constit"tes the total energy E of a system$ The magnetic# electric an! s"rface tension effects are significant in some s'eciali2e! cases only an! ill not &e consi!ere! in the content of 1st year thermo!ynamics$ 3n the a&sent of these effects# the total energy of a system consists of the (inetic# 'otential# flo an! internal energies$ Internal Energy U: sum of all microscopic forms of energy (molecular structure: chemical energy, nuclear energy and degree of molecular activity: sensible and latent energy) Kinetic Energy: The energy possessed by a moving body. A body with mass, m, moving with velocity, v, has kinetic energy:

KE =

1 2 mv 2

Potential Energy: Energy possessed by a body at a height relative to a datum. A body of mass, m, at height, z, above a datum has potential energy:

PE = mgz
Flow Energy or Flow work: Energy required to push element across boundary FE = pv TOTAL ENERGY:

1.3 Closed and open systems 4 thermodynamic system is !efine! as a ,"antity of matter or a region in s'ace for st"!y$ The mass or region o"tsi!e the system is calle! the surrounding an! the s"rface that se'arates the system from its s"rro"n!ings is calle! the boundary$ System may &e consi!ere! to &e closed or open# !e'en!ing on hether a fi+e! mass or a fi+e! vol"me in s'ace is chosen for st"!y$ Closed system consists of a fi+e! amo"nt of mass that can5t cross its &o"n!aries$ 6o mass can enter of leave a close! system# &"t energy# in form of heat or or(# can cross the &o"n!ary$

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Energy $E!

Mass %

Closed system Closed system will be considered to be stationary, hence total energy E will be identical to internal energy U, since kinetic, potential and flow work are equal to zero. .12 / 012 - U2 8 U1 First Law of Thermodynamics per unit mass is: ,12 / - " 2 8 "1

12

Open Systems# or a control volume# is a 'ro'erly selecte! region in s'ace$ 3t is "s"ally encloses a !evice hich involves mass flo s"ch as a com'ressor# t"r&ine# or no22le$ 9ontrol s"rface

9ol! 4ir )Mass*

9ontrol :ol"me %ot 4ir )Mass*

Energy $E! %eat

pen !ystem

Hence the 1st law of thermodynamics can be written: Q12 + W12 = E2 E1

or,

Q12 + W12 =

1." #roperties of a system

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A thermodynamic property is a property that is independent of the shape, position or velocity of a particular system or quantity of substance, and does not require a reference frame to determine its value: Mass, pressure, volume and temperature are all example of thermodynamic properties. Pressure (p) We define pressure as the normal component of force per unit area. Pressure is therefore an intensive property. Hence p= F/A [N/m2] The SI unit of pressure is N/m2, this is also known as the Pascal, i.e 1Pa = 1N/m2 Two other units of pressure are also common, these are the bar, and the standard atmosphere, where 1bar = 105 Pa = 0.1MPa 1atm = 0.101325MPa Volume (V) The volume of a substance is an extensive property and has SI units of m 3. A unit commonly used for volume is the litre: 1 litre = 10-3 m3 = 0.001m3 It is common in thermodynamics however to deal in terms of specific volume (v): v =V/m [m3/kg] By dividing the volume of a substance (extensive property) by the mass (extensive property) we obtain an intensive property, and this is denoted by the term specific Note: An intensive property is often denoted by using lower case; and extensive quantity by upper case. Note: The density ; of a substance is simply the inverse of the specific volume, i.e. ; = m/V [kg/m3] Temperature (T) A number of temperatures scales have been devised, although only two are now in regular use: the Fahrenheit and SI Celsius scale. Temperature (oF) = 1.8xTemperature (oC) + 32 Another temperature scale arises from the Second Law of Thermodynamics and is know as the absolute temperature scale. This predicts an absolute zero of temperature which can then be adopted as zero on our temperature scale. A common absolute temperature scale is the Kelvin scale; To convert to Celsius we add 273.15, hence K= oC + 273.15 This may be thought of as thermodynamic temperature and temperature must always be expressed in degree Kelvin when performing thermodynamic calculations.

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Properties of a system are considered to be either intensive or extensive

4n intensi&e property is a 'ro'erty hich is in!e'en!ent of the si2e of the system# i$e$ it !oes not !e'en! on the amo"nt of the s"&stance 'resent$ )=ress"re# >ensity an! Tem'erat"re* 4n e'tensi&e property !e'en!s "'on the si2e of the system$ )Mass# :ol"me*

m V T p (

m/2 V/2 T p (

m/2 V/2 T p (

Extensive properties

Intensive properties

)ntensi&e and e'tensi&e properties

Thermodynamic equilibrium A system is said to be in equilibrium if no further changes will occur in it, when it is isolated from its surroundings. This requires that all the properties (pressure, temperature etc.) must be uniform throughout the system. It is only under equilibrium conditions that a single value of a property can be used to characterise the system, and, hence, its state be determined. In this course the system will always be assumed to be in equilibrium at the beginning and end of a process.

Zeroth law of thermodynamics Consider a system A consisting of a gas in a closed vessel of fixed volume. If this system is placed in contact with a second system B consisting of a block of metal and no change of pressure occurs in the gas, then systems A and B must have the same temperature, and are in equilibrium with each other. If A is now placed in contact with another system C, and again no change in pressure occurs, then A and C have the same temperature and are in equilibrium. Therefore, as A is in equilibrium with both B and C, then B and C must also have the same temperature and are in equilibrium with each other. This principle is known as the Zeroth Law, and is the basis for temperature measurement.

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2$ Thermo!ynamic 'ro'erties an! 'rocesses

2.1 Thermodynamic #roperties of *aterials Specific Heats It is commonly observed that if heat is transferred into an object, its temperature will rise. Experimentation shows that different substances react differently: some require a greater heat input to produce a specified change in temperature than others. This leads to the idea that each substance has a property, called its specific heat that describes its reaction to heating. Definition The specific heat, C, of a substance is the amount of heat that must be transferred into a unit mass of that substance to raise its temperature by one degree. Observe that, by referring to unit quantities, the effects of mass and temperature difference have been factored out of the definition. Also note that the numerical value of C depends on the units that are used to measure heat transfer, mass and temperature. We will always adhere to SI units and specify C as the number of kJ required to raise 1 kg through 1 K so that C will always have the units kJ/(kg K). For the general case of a mass m, the heat transfer Q required to bring about a temperature change T is given by the equation: Q = m C T

This completes the theory of specific heats for solids and liquids. Gases require more careful consideration because temperature changes are often accompanied by significant volume changes, which have important effects as discussed below. The figures below show two ways in which heat, Q, may be transferred into a mass of gas. In the first figure, the gas is contained within a rigid box so that the volume remains constant throughout the process. In the second figure, the gas is trapped under a piston that is free to rise or fall without friction.

(a)

(b)

(c)

Different Processes for Transferring Heat to a Gas

All the heat energy transferred into container (a) will be used to raise the temperature of the gas: there is nowhere else for it to go. This is not true for case (b). As heat is transferred into the second container, the temperature of the gas will begin to rise, but so will the internal pressure. However, the downward pressure on the gas (due to the atmosphere and the weight of the piston) remains unchanged, so there will be a pressure difference that will cause the piston to rise until the internal pressure regains its original value.

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Movement of the piston implies that work is being done since a force (that on the inside face of the piston) is being moved through a distance. Thus, only part of the heat transfer will be used to raise the temperature of the gas; the remainder of the energy will be used to lift the piston (i.e. to do work). It follows that the temperature change for container (b) will be less than that for container (a). To obtain the same temperature increase, more heat must be transferred into (b) and hence the specific heat will be higher since C = Q/(m T). The specific heats for these two cases are designated by the symbols C v and Cp, the subscripts referring to the fact that one process occurs at constant volume, whilst the other occurs at constant pressure. Example For air, Cv = 0.718 kJ/(kg K) and C p = 1.005 kJ/(kg K), so Cp is larger than Cv, as expected from the previous discussion. In fact, for the constant pressure case, 0.718/1.005 = 71.4% of the heat input is used to raise the temperature whilst (1.005 0.718)/1.005 = 28.6% provides the work needed to expand the gass volume. Cases (a) and (b) are not the only ways in which heat may be transferred into a system. Case (c) shows the situation where the piston is restrained by a spring. As the piston rises, the spring will become more compressed and hence the downward force will increase. This means that the internal pressure, and hence the work done, will vary in a way that is quite different to cases (a) and (b). In turn, this implies the need for a different heat transfer and hence different value for the specific heat. Using this logic, it is quite easy to infer that gases have an infinite number of specific heats, one for each of the different ways in which heat transfer may occur. (Just think of rerunning case (c) but with springs of different stiffness.) Although this observation is true, only the values of Cv and Cp are of practical importance, as shown in later sections. The Perfect Gas Thermodynamics describes what happens when a substance undergoes a process that changes its energy content. A complete description requires two kinds of information: a description of the process and a description of the substance on which the process acts. Only when we have both kinds of information is it possible to derive equations that predict changes in temperature, pressure, energy, etc. To understand what happens when a gas undergoes a process, we need equations that describe how the gas responds to changes in its environment. Specifically, we require equations that express relationships between the gass various properties: its temperature, pressure, volume, etc. This can lead to some fairly complex theory if we try to model the gas to high precision. Instead, we will start with an approximate but very useful model - the so-called perfect gas model. A perfect gas is defined by the two equations: pv = RT the equation of state and u = CvT Because the above define a perfect gas, the equations are always valid, irrespective of what happens to the gas. R and Cv are constants whose values depend upon the particular gas being considered. A third perfect gas equation describes the relationship between the temperature, T, and the enthalpy, h. Enthalpy is the property defined by the equation: h = u + pv Substituting, we obtain: h = u + pv = CvT + RT = (Cv + R)T = CpT where the constant Cp is given by: Cp = Cv + R

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The following values apply for air. Symbol R Cv Cp Name Gas constant Specific heat at constant volume Specific heat at constant pressure Value for air in kJ/(kg K) 0.287 0.718 1.005

A mol is a unit that measures of the amount of substance in terms of the number of atoms or molecules that are present. Thus, 1 mol of oxygen contains the same number of molecules as 1 mol of nitrogen, or 1 mol of hydrogen or 1 mol of any other substance. 1kmol of substance contains 6.022 x 10 26 atoms or molecules, depending on how the substance exists in nature. The molar mass, M, is number of kilograms that contain 1 kmol of substance; it is numerically equal to the substances atomic or molecular mass. The gas constant, R, for a given gas may be computed from the Universal Gas Constant, R u, and the gass molar mass, M. R = Ru/M where Ru = 8.314 kJ/(kmol K)

2.2 #hases of a substance

3n this mo!"le e ill 'rimarily# &"t not e+cl"sively# consi!er the thermo!ynamic &ehavio"r of gases$ %o ever s"&stances can of co"rse e+ist in !ifferent 'hases 8 gases# li,"i!s an! soli!s$ 0hich 'hase act"ally e+ists !e'en!s 'rimarily "'on the 'ress"re# tem'erat"re an! s'ecific vol"me of the str"ct"re$ Aor some com&ination of these 'arameters !ifferent 'hases can e+ist at the same time$ The fig"re &elo sho s a ty'ical 'lot of the 'hase of a s"&stance against 'ress"re an! tem'erat"re$ 4long the lines in the !iagram t o !ifferent 'hases can co1e+ist$ 4t the 'oint mar(e! T# hich is (no n as the tri'le 'oint# all 'hases can e+ist together$

=ress"re Soli!

Li,"i!

Bas

Tem'erat"re
#hase of substance Aor many a''lications it is necessary to consi!er ho a s"&stance &ehaves if !ifferent 'hases e+ist together# an! ho the energy content varies as a s"&stance changes from one 'hase to another$ These iss"es ill &e consi!ere! to only a limite! e+tent in this mo!"le# &"t ill &e ta(en f"rther in some secon! an! thir! year mo!"les$

2.3 +e&ersible and irre&ersible processes What Is a Reversible Process?

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The First Law of Thermodynamics for a closed system containing a unit mass of substance may be written: q12 + w12 = u2 - u1 where subscripts 1 and 2 denote the start and end states, respectively. Frequently we wish to calculate separate values for the specific heat transfer, q, and the specific work done, w. (Why? Think of calculations for an engine, where q is related to the fuel consumption and w is directly related to the power output both important but distinct parameters of engine performance.) In such situations, we have two unknowns but only one equation (the First Law) and so a second equation is required. The standard way of obtaining the second equation is to make a further assumption about the process 1 2; namely, that it is reversible. A reversible process may be thought of as one that occurs perfectly, with no friction or other kind of losses. This simplicity allows us to derive a further equation (usually for the work, w) as described in the following sections.

A Ball Rolling in a Track The motion of a ball rolling in a U-shaped track provides a simple example of a reversible process and provides some clues as to why these processes are useful in analysis. If there is no rolling friction between the ball and track and no aerodynamic drag on the ball, then it will oscillate backwards and forwards forever, once it is set in motion. Each oscillation will be the exact reverse of the previous one, hence the term reversible process. This is a very simple, very predictable situation. Since the motion is frictionless, there are no energy losses (or gains) and hence the motion can be predicted using energy analysis: the ball will exchange potential energy and kinetic energy in such a way that their sum remains constant. This can be described by the equation of motion:
1

/2V2 + gz = C, a constant

where C = gzmax is the balls potential energy when it reaches its highest point, where its velocity is zero. Using this equation, we can calculate the velocity at any other height. Now consider the case where the effects of friction are significant and cannot be ignored. In this situation, the motion of the ball will not be reversible: the balls maximum height will decrease with each oscillation until it finally comes to rest. The analysis will also be more complex. Instead of using simple energy arguments, we must apply Newtons laws of motion to formulate an equation that includes terms for the aerodynamic and rolling friction. This analysis results in a second order differential equation that is difficult to solve. A third and final case is where there is a finite but small amount of friction; that is, where the ball and track are fairly smooth and the velocities are not too high. In this situation, we can approximate the real motion by its reversible equivalent. The benefits of doing this are obvious. We regain the simple analysis and all the

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predictions that follow from it. However, we must remember that our results are now only approximate, not exact. We must also be careful not to over-extend the approximation: in the case of the ball, it might work for one or two oscillations but it would probably fail if we tried to apply it to 20 or 30 oscillations where the cumulative effects of friction begin to be significant again. Equally, we must not forget the assumptions on which the approximation was based. For example, we could not use this type of approximation if the ball and track were submerged in oil because there would be large viscous friction forces, which would invalidate the original assumption. When making first estimate thermodynamic analyses, this type of reversibility assumption turns out to be very useful. There are many situations where the energy losses are not so great as to invalidate the assumption and where approximate but reliable results are quite sufficient for design purposes. The previous discussion was designed to provide a working introduction to the concept of reversibility and its role in thermodynamics. It should be mentioned that the reversibility concept has a rigorous definition and that it is fundamental to much thermodynamic theory. Having set the scene, we now use the reversibility assumption to derive a very important equation that enables the work, w, to be calculated from the pressure and volume changes that occur during a process. Relationship between Work, Pressure and Volu e Consider the figure below, which shows a mass of gas being compressed inside a piston/cylinder. It will be assumed that the piston is free to move without friction or other losses i.e. that the motion is reversible. We will analyse the pistons movement to find an equation that relates the work done to the applied force, F, and thus to the internal pressure, p. This will lead to the desired relationship between work, pressure and volume. When performing the analysis, we will follow a standard methodology for constructing theoretical models of physical systems. Using this, we will consider only infinitesimal (i.e. very small) changes. This simplifies the mathematics since the squares and higher powers of infinitesimals are so small that they can be ignored. Having derived an equation involving infinitesimals, we will take limits so that a differential equation can be obtained. Pressure, p System boundary

Cross-sectional area, A

Force, F

Displacement, x Work Done during Compression In thermodynamic terminology, the gas trapped inside the piston/cylinder is the system and the walls of the piston/cylinder comprise the systems boundary. The fact that the externally applied force, F, is being moved through a small displacement, x, means that work is being done on the system. Under the standard sign convention, the work is reckoned to be positive since it is being done on the system - i.e. it acts to increase the gass energy by raising its pressure and temperature. The small displacement, x, will cause a small amount of work, W, to be done: W = F x Assuming that the small size of the displacement causes only a negligible change in pressure, p, the applied force can be found from: F=pA

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where A is the pistons cross-sectional area. Combining these equations and recalling that the volume of a cylinder is the product of the cross-sectional area and the height: W = F x = ( p A ). x = p (A x) = p (-V) = - p V where V is the change in the systems volume due to displacement, x. Observe the minus sign, which is required because the displacement causes a negative change in volume i.e. a reduction in the systems volume. Taking limits, we obtain: dW = - p dV Integrating between the initial volume, V 1, and the final volume, V2, gives an equation that relates the work done to the pressure and volume:

W = 1 p dV
V1

V2

Note that this equation applies to the total system. It may also be written in per unit mass form:
v2

= 1

v1

' !v

where w is the specific work done (kJ/kg), p is the pressure (kPa) and v is the specific volume (m 3/kg). When making the above analysis, it was assumed that the piston was free to move without friction or other losses. Thus, if the applied force F was removed after compressing the gas, we would expect the piston to move back down the cylinder and return to its original position. In a similar manner, all the other values (the gas pressure, temperature, etc) would also return to their original values. In other words, the analysis and the equation obtained from it depend on the assumption of reversibility. Consider events if friction were present, as shown in the diagram below.

Ariction force# f

Applied Force, F

Irreversible Compression In this case, part of the applied force, F, would be needed to overcome the friction force, f, between the piston and cylinder. In energy terms, this implies that only part of the applied work (i.e. F x the distance piston is moved) will be available to compress the gas, because some of the work will be used to overcome the friction. Thus, in the irreversible compression case, the actual work, w, must be larger than - p dv because some additional work will be needed to overcome friction. The reverse argument applies in the irreversible expansion case. Here, the actual work output, w, will be less than suggested by the integral - p dv because part of the energy will be dissipated by friction. To summarise the above analysis is valid only for reversible processes .

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3. ,pplication of first law of thermodynamics to closed systems with ideal gases

3.1 How the First -aw is ,pplied Having set-up the background to thermodynamics, we now apply the First Law to construct a theoretical toolkit that can be used to predict the performance of various kinds of machinery. This toolkit comprises sets of equations, each set describing a specific type of process. Five kinds of process will be considered. For each process, the following method will be used to derive detailed equations that apply only to that specific case: 1) Assume a specific type of process and write down the equation describing it. For example, the equation for a constant pressure process is p 1 = p = p2 which states that the pressure at all stages of the process remains the same: at the start, p 1, anywhere in the middle, p, and at the end, p2. 2* Assume that the process is reversible. This allows us to use the equation w = - p dv. The pressure (p) will be expressed as a function of specific volume (v) so that the integral can be evaluated to obtain specific work (w) in terms of properties at the start and end states. 3) Write down the First Law and insert the result of step 2, so as to obtain an equation for q in terms of properties at the start and end states. 4) Make the additional assumption that the process involves a perfect gas . This will allow us to combine the perfect gas equations with the results of steps 2 and 3 to obtain to a more detailed description of the process. Note that, as we make each assumption, the resulting theory only applies when that assumption and those that precede it are valid. Thus, the theory obtained in steps 2 and 3 only apply to reversible processes. Similarly, the equations obtained in step 4 only apply when a perfect gas undergoes a reversible process. The processes that will be considered are as follows. Constant volume processes Constant pressure processes Constant temperature (isothermal) processes Polytropic processes (with a defined relationship between pressure and volume) Adiabatic and isentropic processes (an adiabatic process is one that takes place without heat transfer, and an isentropic process is an adiabatic process that is also reversible).

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3.2

Constant .olume #rocess

Process assumption. Since the process occurs at constant volume: v1 = v = v2

p
p1

State 1

p1v1=RT1

State 1 p1, T1, v1

Q
p2 State 2 p2v2=RT2

T1

T
T2

Q State 2 p2, T2<T1, v2=v1

v1 = v = v2

p-v diagram: Constant Volume Assume reversibility. Then:

v2

w12 = 1 p !v = 0
v1

since &oth limits are the same# v1 = v 2

First Law of Thermodynamics per unit mass is: q12 + w12 = u2 - u1 But w12 = 0 so: q12 = u2 - u1 Assume a Perfect Gas. If the process involves a perfect gas, then u = CvT so, on substituting for u w12 = 0 and q12 = Cv (T2 - T1)

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3.3

Constant #ressure #rocess

Process assumption. Since the process occurs at constant pressure: p1 = p = p2

p

Q
1) 2)
T2

p 1= p = p 2

W
V1 Q (+) p=Const State 1 W (-) State 2 V2
V

T1

P-V Diagram: Constant Pressure Assume reversibility. Use the fact that p = constant to move p outside the integral for the work done:

w12 = 1 p !v = 1 ' !v = 1 p)v2 v1 *

v1 v1

v2

v2

First Law of Thermodynamics per unit mass is: q12 + w12 = u2 - u1 Insert the expression for w into the First Law to find q in terms of quantities at the end states: q12 = u2 - u1 + p( v2 - v1) Use the constant pressure assumption to evaluate p at end states: p = p 1 = p2 So: q12 = (u2 + p2v2) - (u1 + p1v1)

The combination u + pv occurs so frequently that it is treated as a property in its own right. It is known as the specific enthalpy and given the symbol, h. h = u + pv So, finally: q12 = h2 - h1 Assume a Perfect Gas: If the process involves a perfect gas, then pv = RT and h = CpT and so:

w12 = - p(v2 - v1) = - (p2v2 - p1v1) = - R(T2 - T1) q12 = h2 - h1 = Cp(T2 - T1)

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3." Constant Temperature #rocess Process assumption. Since the process occurs at constant temperature: T1 = T = T2
p
1)

p1 p2

2)

W
V1 WQ+ T=Const State 1 State 2
V

p-v Diagram: Constant temperature Assume reversibility. The reversibility assumption does not lead immediately to results of general utility. We simply restate the fact that the following integral may be used if p can be expressed as a function of v:
v2

= 1

v1

' !v
pv = RT. But T is a constant so:

Assume a Perfect Gas: If the process involves a perfect gas, then pv = RT = C where C = p1v1 = RT1 = RT2 = p2v2 It follows that: pv = C so p = C/v Inserting this in the w-p-v integral:

w 12 = 1 p !v = 1 9
v1 v1

v2

v2

v2 v1 !v = 1 C ln = 9 ln v v v 1 2

Substituting the various expressions for the constant, C:

v1 w12 = '1 v1 ln v 2

v1 v1 = ' v ln = CT ln 2 2 1 v v 2 2

v1 = CT ln 2 v 2
since T2 = T1

By definition u = CvT for a perfect gas, so the First Law may be written: q12 + w12 = u2 - u1 = Cv(T2 - T1) = 0 Thus q12 = - w12 where w12 may be calculated from any of the expressions given above.

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3./

#olytropic #rocess

Process assumption. Polytropic processes are observed in many practical situations where gases or vapours undergo expansions or compressions. They are characterised by a curved p-v profile, as illustrated below:
Process 1 2: Expansion
State 2

p p1

1)

State 1

WQ+
Process 2 1: Compression W
2)

W+

State 2 State 1

p2 V1 V2 V

Q-

p-V Diagram: Polytropic Process The process 1 2 is an expansion whilst the process 2 1 is a compression. Expressing the shape of the pv curve mathematically results in the equation: p1v1k = pvk = p2v2k = C a constant

where k is known as the index of expansion or index of compression, as appropriate. In practice, k often has values around 1.3. An important sub-case, where the process is reversible, adiabatic and involves a perfect gas, will be described in detail below. For that case, k = , the ratio of the gass specific heats, which is 1.4 for air. We now return to the general case of a polytropic process. Assume reversibility.
v2

Using this assumption, we may substitute p = C / vk in the w-p-v integral:

v2 v2 v 19 v 1( +1 v ( 1 ( + 1)

w12

!v = 1 p !v = 1 9 ( v v v
1 1

1 9 v 1( dv =
v1

9 [ v2k v2 1 v1k v1 ] ( ( 1 1)

Recalling that for a polytropic process C v1-k = p1, etc, we finally obtain:
1 [ p v 1 p1v1 ] ( ( 1 1) 2 2 The heat transfer, q, may be obtained by rearranging the First Law: w 12 =

q12 = (u2 - u1) - w12 where w may be calculated from the above equation Assume a Perfect Gas: If the process involves a perfect gas, then rewritten in terms of start and end temperatures: w12 = C [T 1 T1 ] ( ( 1 1) 2 pv = RT and the equation for w may be

since ' 2 v 2 = CT2 # etc$

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3.0

,diabatic and )sentropic #rocess

In thermodynamics, the word adiabatic is used to describe a process with zero heat transfer. An isentropic process is one that is adiabatic and also occurs reversibly. At first sight, isentropic processes appear to be a fairly restricted sub-case of the First Law. In fact, isentropic approximations are frequently used because many real processes occur sufficiently quickly that there is little time for significant heat transfer to take place. With the exception of combustion, heat transfer is usually a slow process and hence a long period is required if a large amount of energy is to be transferred. As an everyday example of this, consider how long it takes for heat to be conducted up the handle of a spoon when stirring a cup of hot tea or coffee - minutes rather than seconds.
Process 1 2: Expansion
State 2

p p1

1)

Q=0

State 1

W-

Process 2 1: Compression W p2 V1 V2 V
2)

W+

State 2 State 1

p-V Diagram: Adiabatic and Isentropic Processes Process assumption. By definition, an adiabatic process is one that occurs with zero heat transfer, so: q12 = 0 First Law of Thermodynamics w12 = u2 - u1 since q = 0. The rest of the analysis is easier if we work with differentials. That is, if we work in terms of the changes that occur in an infinitesimally small part of the process. Differentiating the First Law, we find that a small amount of work, dw, is equivalent to a small change in specific internal energy, du: dw = du Assume reversibility. Then, as usual:

w12 = 1 p !v
v1

v2

The equation may be differentiated to express it in terms of differentials: dw = - p dv Assume a Perfect Gas: For a perfect gas u = Cv T which may also be expressed in terms of differentials: du = Cv dT

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We thus obtain -p dv = Cv dT Since the process involves a perfect gas, we may use the equation of state pv = RT to replace the dT term in equation by p and v terms. The aim is to obtain an equation involving just p, v and some constants. Again, we may take differentials to obtain: d(pv) = p dv + v dp = R dT Eliminating dT gives: -p dv = (Cv/R) (p dv + v dp) Gathering terms: -(1 + Cv/R) p dv = (Cv/R) v dp Recall that Cp = R + Cv so (1 + Cv/R) = Cp/R

Inserting this in the above, canceling R and using the definition = Cp/Cv gives - p dv = v dp

Or
!v v = !' '

This may be integrated. Recognising the integrals as natural log terms and recalling that c ln(x) = ln(xc) gives:

v2 ln v 1

v1 = ln v 2

'2 ln ' 1
= p2v2

Taking anti-logs finally gives the p-v relationship for an isentropic process involving a perfect gas: p1v1 = pv

Combining the above with the equation of state, pv = RT, and eliminating either v or p provides some other important relationships that apply when a perfect gas undergoes an isentropic process:
T2 T1 ' 2 = ' 1
1

T2 T1

v1 = v 2

The specific work done, w, for an isentropic process is given by:

C (T 1 T1 ) ( 1 1) 2 Since we are dealing with a perfect gas RT = pv, we can also use: w12 = " 2 1 " 1 = 9 v (T2 1 T1 ) =

w12 =

('

v2 1 '1v1 ) ( 1 1)

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". ,pplication of first law of thermodynamics to open systems with ideal gases
A large number of engineering problems (e.g. turbines, compressor, radiators, heaters) involve mass flow in and out of the system. Mass and volume flow rates The amount of mass flowing thorough a cross section per unit time is called the mass flow rate and is denoted . The mass flow rate thorough a differential area dA can be expressed as: m

Vav $ dA = dm
For one dimensional flow (i.e. constant velocity across the entire cross section) the mass flow rate from the integration of the above equation is:

= Vav A (kg/s) m
Where = density (kg/m3), Vav. = average fluid velocity (m/s), A = cross-sectional area (m 2).
and the mass flow rate m are related by: The volume flow rate V

=V = V m

Steady-flow process (no change with time) A process during which a fluid flow through the system boundary and the fluid properties can change from point to point (position) within the system, but at any fixed point they remain the same during the entire process. In most practical problems including a large number of engineering devices such as turbines, compressors and nozzles operate for long period of time under the same conditions, and they are classified as steady-flow devices. As we discussed earlier the total energy of a simple compressible system consists of internal, kinetic, potential and flow energy. E = U + (mV2) + mgz + pV However, the sum of the terms U and pV gives the enthalpy H = U + pV, or if both side divided the mass gives the specific enthalpy h= u +pv. Hence: Q12 + W12 = or, q12 + w12 =

,pplications !ir heater"

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Potential energy PE12 = mgz = 0, Kinetic energy KE 12= (mV ) = 0, Work W= 0, Hence,
2

z1 = z 2 = 0 V1 = V2 = assume very small change there is not shaft or moving parts q12 = h2 h1

Nozzle Potential energy PE12 = mgz = 0, Work w= 0, Heat q=0, Hence, 0 = (h2 h1) + (V22 V12)/2 z1 = z 2 = 0 there is not shaft or moving parts assume adiabatic

Turbine1
Potential energy PE12 = mgz = 0, assume z1 = z2 = 0

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Kinetic energy KE 12= (mV2) = 0, Heat q=0, Hence,

V1 = V2 , assume very small change assume adiabatic expnasion w = h2 h1

Throttlin#"
Potential energy PE12 = mgz = 0, Kinetic energy KE 12= (mV ) = 0, Work w= 0, Heat q=0, Hence, 0 = h2 h1
2

assume z1 = z2 = 0 V1 = V2 , assume very small change there is not shaft or moving parts assume adiabatic expnasion

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5. Thermodynamic cycles for ideal gases and the second law of thermodynamics
5.1 Introduction to Cycles Many machines operate using a cycle of processes that are repeated continually while the machine is running. A common example is the petrol engine which works on the four stoke cycle shown below The process comprising a petrol engines operating cycle are: 1 Induction Starting with the piston at the top of its stroke (the smallest volume, marked as point 1 on the p-v chart), the inlet valves are opened and the piston begins to move down the cylinder, thus drawing in a fresh charge of air and fuel vapour. This stoke corresponds to an increase in volume at a pressure just less atmospheric, as shown by the bottom curve on the chart. The pressure in the cylinder is explained by slight pressure drop required to draw air from the atmosphere through the carburetor and the inlet manifold.

Operating Cycle of a Petrol Engine 2 Compression At the bottom of the stroke (i.e. the largest volume, point 2 on the chart), the inlet valve is closed and the piston begins to rise, thus compressing the air/fuel mixture. Close to the top of the stroke, the spark plug fires, thus initiating combustion and causing a rapid rise in gas pressure and temperature. As shown on the chart, combustion may cause the pressure to climb even after the piston as passed the top of its stroke (point 3) and the volume has begun to increase again. 3 Expansion The high pressure gases produced by combustion force the piston down the cylinder, thus delivering work. This continues until the piston reaches the bottom of its stoke (point 4), when the exhaust valves open to allow the waste products to escape. 4 Exhaust The cycle is completed as the piston moves back up the cylinder and the waste gases are ejected through the exhaust open valves. This corresponds to a decrease in volume at a pressure just above atmospheric, as shown by the second to bottom curve on the chart. The pressure level is set by the need to push the waste gases through the exhaust system and out into the atmosphere. It is possible to approximate the true cycle by a sequence of simple processes and use the equations developed in the previous section to obtain first estimates of pressures, temperatures, power, etc. Before doing this, it is helpful to develop some general theory about the thermodynamics of cycles.

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/.2

Cycles1 2efinition and Theory

A thermodynamic cycle is defined to be a closed sequence of processes that returns the system to the state from which it began. This is shown below where a sequence of n processes begins and ends at state 1. 2 1 Process 1 -> 2 3

Process 2 -> 3

Process n -> 1 A Cycle of n Processes n If we apply the First Law to each of the n processes in the cycle and sum the results, we find: n-2 n-1 Process 1 -> 2: Process 2 -> 3: Process 3 -> 4: ... etc ... Process (n-1) -> n: Process n -> 1: Summing over cycle: or: q1,2 q2,3 q3,4 q(n-1),n qn,1 q + + + w1,2 w2,3 w3,4 ... etc ... + w (n-1),n + wn,1 + w = = = = = = u2 - u1 u3 - u2 u4 - u3 un - u(n-1) u1 - un 0 since the u terms cancel out

q = -w

It is common to refer to the two sums as the net heat transfer, qnet, and the net work, wnet. Thus, the previous result shows that the net heat transfer is the negative of the net work done for a complete cycle. This provides a useful check when performing calculations: if your answers dont confirm this result, you have made an error! On occasion, it can also provide a useful shortcut. There are some cases where direct calculation of the net work is a lengthy and tedious procedure, and it is much easier to find the net heat transfer and infer the work using the previous result. Cycles lead to the concept of cycle efficiency, c, which provides a measure of the overall efficiency of a machine. The definition of cycle efficiency is: c = -wnet / qin where: wnet qin The sum of all the work terms, irrespective of their sign. The sum of the positive heat transfers; i.e. the sum of all the heat inputs to the system.

The efficiency is usually quoted as a percentage rather than a fraction - e.g. a machine is said to be 30% efficient rather than 0.3 efficient. The formal definition also agrees with common sense ideas about the concept of efficiency. In laymans terms, it is the ratio: What you want - i.e. the work output, which is related to an engines power What you must pay - i.e. the heat input, which is related to the fuel consumption Observe that the work term is wnet - that is, the sum of all the works, not just the work outputs. Using this value takes account of the fact that engines consume work in part of their cycle (e.g. during compression) and well as producing it in others parts. Recall that wnet is the overall work produced during the complete cycle.

5.3 The second law of thermodynamics

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The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that all engines reject heat. In other words, it is fundamentally impossible to design an engine that converts all the supplied heat (i.e. all the fuel) into useful work. Some heat is always wasted. As an example, observe that all cars have radiators and hot exhausts, both of which involve the rejection of heat. Let us define qin to be the sum of all the heat inputs (i.e. all the positive heat transfers) and q out to be the sum of all the heat rejections (i.e. all the negative heat transfers). Thus, the net heat transfer is: qnet = qin + qout Combining this with the definition of cycle efficiency and the fact that q net = -wnet for a cycle: c = -wnet / qin = qnet / qin = (qin + qout) / qin = 1 + qout / qin < 100%, since qout is a negative value. This leads to another expression of the Second Law: no engine can be 100% efficient, no matter how well it is designed. Subject to some additional assumptions, it is possible to relate the two heat transfers, q in and qout, to the maximum and minimum temperatures found in a cycle. This enables a theoretical upper limit to be set on an engines cycle efficiency: (c) max = 1 - Tmin / Tmax where both temperatures must be specified in Kelvin. This is the so-called Carnot efficiency, Carnot being the Frenchman who first discovered the result. The equation serves two purposes: 1) As guide for designers the way to get best efficiency is to burn fuel at the highest possible temperature, T max. The temperature at which heat is rejected, Tmin, is generally set by the atmosphere to which all waste heat is eventually dumped; 2) More prosaically, it acts as a quick and easy check on calculations if you obtain a c value that is larger than the Carnot value, (c) max , you have definitely made a mistake. Finally let us consider the work done during a cycle. Recall that the work done during a reversible process is given by the integral w = - p dv, which is represented graphically by the area under the p-v curve. Let us apply this observation to the figure below which show a cycle of two processes, a -> b -> a, that are performed in the order shown by the arrows. Process a -> b is a compression (observe that the volume decreases) during which the system is consumes work. Numerically, a positive amount of work is done during this process. Process b > a (is an expansion where the system delivers work to the surroundings. This involves a negative work term since the system is giving up some of its energy to do work on the surroundings.

' & a

' & a

' & a

v
(a)

v
(b) (c) Interpretation of the p-v Chart for a Cycle

Taking the two processes together, the positive work consumed during compression is cancelled by part of the negative work delivered during expansion, leaving the area inside the loop, which represents the net work delivered over the complete cycle.

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5.4 The Carnot Cycle In this section we consider and idealised heat engine, that is taking heat from a high constant temperature reservoir and rejecting it to a low constant temperature reservoir. As a consequence the engine delivers some work. We assume that the engine considered is of the piston and cylinder type, that is operating with an ideal gas as the working fluid in a cycle with the properties at the start of the cycle the same as those at the end. The pv curve for the Carnot cycle is shown in the figure below. It is assumed that heat is taken in between states 1 and 2 at constant temperature and rejected between states 3 and 4 also at a constant temperature (i.e. isothermal processes). We also assume that the parts of the cycle between states 2 and 3 and 4 and 1 are adiabatic and reversible (i.e. isentropic).

1 %eat in )isothermal* ' 4!ia&atic# reversi&le 4 2 4!ia&atic# reversi&le %eat o"t )isothermal* 3

v
At point 1 the piston is at the inner limit of its stroke, and the gas then expands reversibly and isothermally between 1 and 2, as the piston moves outwards, whilst in contact with the high temperature heat source. Between 2 and 3 the gas is insulated from the heat source and expands reversibly and adiabatically as the piston continues to move outwards. Between 3 and 4 the gas is in contact with the lower temperature source, and, as the piston moves inwards, is compressed isothermally and reversibly. Between 3 and 4, the gas is isolated from the source and compressed further adiabatically and reversibly.

For an isothermal process between states 1 and 2 we have from section 5.4

v1 w12 = CT1 ln v 2
and also q12 = - w12 Similarly for the isothermal process between 3 and 4 we have
34

v3 = CT3 ln v 4

and also q34 = - w34

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For the adiabatic, isentropic process between 2 and 3 we have from section 5.6
23

C ( T 1 T2 ) ( 1 1) 3

And similarly between 4 and 1 we have

= C ( T 1 T4 ) ( 1 1) 1 = C ( T 1 T3 ) ( 1 1) 2

41

The sum of the work done is

D =

12

23

34

41

v1 v3 = CT1 3n + CT 3n 3 v v 2 4

The total heat input is q12 which is given by

v1 , 12 = 1 CT1 ln v 2
Thus the efficiency is given by

E=

T D = 1+ 3 ,12 T2

ln)v 3 /v 4 * T3 ln)v /v * = 1 T 1 2 2

The last step arises from the simple application of the ideal gas equation and the p v relation for isentropic and adiabatic flows which shows that v2 v3 = v1 v 4 The above is the expression for the Carnot efficiency introduced in an earlier section.

5.5 The Otto cycle The Otto cycle provides a zeroth order approximation of the performance of petrol engines. The aim is to construct a theoretical model that will give rough, working estimates of power output, fuel consumption, temperatures, pressures, etc., but with a minimum of calculation. The first step is to simplify the model by ignoring those parts of the cycle that make only small contributions to the overall performance. This is done using information taken from the engines p-v chart. Now applying the concept of work done during a cycle to that for a petrol engine, it is clear that the work done during the compression, combustion and expansion phases of the cycle (i.e. in the large loop in the upper part of the figure) is significantly greater than that done during the exhaust and induction phases (the thin Constant volume horizontal the bottom of the figure). Thusprocesses we may simplify calculations by ignoring the exhaust and p loop at 3 induction stokes, providing we are willing to incur a small error. Isentropic processes The final step is to approximate the remaining processes using equations taken from the theoretical toolkit that was developed in section 5. Inspection of the above figure shows that combustion occurs very rapidly near the top of the pistons stroke, where there are only small changes in volume. Thus, we may idealise combustion by a constant volume process. 2 4

v Clearance volume Swept volume

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The Otto Cycle The compression and expansion stokes occur very quickly (a typical engine turns at 2,500 - 4,000 rpm, so both processes are completed in milliseconds) and hence there is insufficient time for a significant amount of heat transfer through the cylinder walls, heat conduction being a relatively slow process. It follows that isentropic processes are suitable for modelling these parts of the cycle. The cycle is completed by a final process that simulates the exhaust of the hot waste gases and the induction of a cool, fresh charge of fuel and air. Since these processes begin and end with the piston at the bottom of its stroke (i.e. at maximum volume), they may be simulated by a constant volume cooling process. Applying these approximations results in the Otto cycle, which is shown in the p-v chart below The ratio of the maximum volume (vmax = v1 = v4), to the minimum volume (vmin = v2 = v3) is known as the compression ratio, rv: rv = vmax / vmin Sample Calculation An engine works on the Otto cycle with a compression ratio of 10:1. The air/fuel mixture enters the engine at a temperature and pressure of 17oC and 1 bar, respectively. If combustion is simulated by a specific heat transfer of 195 kJ/kg, find the temperature and pressure at the end of each process in the cycle. Also calculate the specific net work done and the cycle efficiency. Solution Refer to above figure for the sequence of processes that define the Otto cycle and the notation used to mark the various states. Assume air is a perfect gas with constants: R = 0.287 kJ/kg K, CV = 0.718 kJ/kg K, CP = 1.005 kJ/kg K and = CP/CV = 1.4. State 1 T1 = 17oC => (273 + 17) = 290K Always work in Kelvin, nor Celsius

Process 1 -> 2

This is an isentropic compression with compression ratio, r v = v1/v2 = 10.

For isentropic processes involving a perfect gas, we have: p1v1 = p2v2

T2 T 1 v1 = v 2
1

p 2 = p1 (v1 / v2) = p1 rv = 1 x 101.4 = 25.15 b

T2 v1 = T 1 v 2
1

= T 1 rv

= 290 x 100.4 = 728.4 K

Also for an isentropic process:

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q1,2 = 0 and w1,2

= (u2 - u1) = Cv(T2 - T1) = 0.718 x (728.4 290) = 314.8 kJ/kg

Process 2 -> 3

Combustion is simulated by heat addition (q = 195 kJ/kg) at constant volume.

For a constant volume process involving a perfect gas w2,3 = 0 q2,3 = (u3 - u2) = Cv(T3 - T2) T3 = T2 + q / Cv = 728.4 + 195/0.718 = 1000 K

For a constant volume process involving a perfect gas, the equation of state shows that: p3 / p2 = T3 / T2 p3 = p2 (T3 / T2) = 25.15 x ( 1000/728.4) = 34.5 b

Process 3 -> 4

This is an isentropic expansion with expansion ratio, r v = v4/v3 = 10.

For isentropic processes involving a perfect gas: p3v3 = p4v4

T4 T3 v3 = v 4
1

p 4 = p3 (v3 / v4) = p3 / rv = 34.5 / 101.4 = 1.37 b

T4 v3 = T3 v 4
1

= T3 / rv

= 1000 / 100.4 = 398.1 K

Again, q3,4 = 0 since the process is isentropic. The specific work done is: w3,4 = (u4 - u3) = Cv(T4 - T3) = 0.718 x (398.1 - 1000) = -432.2 kJ/kg

Process 4 -> 1 Exhaust of burnt fuel and induction of a fresh charge of air/fuel is simulated by heat rejection at constant volume. For such process, w4,1 = 0 and q4,1 = u. Treating air as perfect gas: q4,1 = (u1 - u4) = Cv(T1 - T4) = 0.718 x (290 - 398.1) = -77.6 kJ/kg Overall Results Recall that, for a cycle, the net heat transfer and the net work done should sum to zero. This provides a useful check on the calculations. Adding results from each of the four processes: Net value = Process 1 -> 2 wnet = 314.8 qnet = 0 + Process 2 -> 3 + 0 + 195 + Process 3 -> 4 + (-432.2) + 0 + Process 4 -> 1 + 0 + (-77.6)

= -117.4 kJ/kg = 117.4 kJ/kg

which confirms the expected result. Observe that net work done is negative, indicating that the overall cycle produces work. Similarly, the net heat transfer is positive showing that the cycle consumes heat (i.e. fuel). Also observe that the cycle rejects heat during process 4 -> 1. This is true of all cycles. No matter how well a cycle is designed, it can convert only part of the heat input into work, the remaining heat being rejected. The cycle efficiency, c, is defined to be the ratio of the net work done (i.e. what we want from an engine) to the heat input (i.e. the fuel we must burn). Conventionally, signs are not shown when calculating c and the result is expressed as a percentage: c = wnet / q+ve = 117.4 / 195 = 60.2% 5.6 Entropy $ack#round

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The concept of reversibility has been discussed above It is shown that, for a reversible process, there exists a relationship between work, pressure and volume:
v2

w=-

v1

p dv

It is useful to interpret the relationship in terms of its underlying physics. By definition, work is done when a force moves through a distance. What causes the force? Answer: pressure, which acts to move the boundaries of the system, thus causing changes to another property, the volume. The combination of these two changes results in work being done. Also observe that the relationship involves an integral. Why? Because pressure and volume describe the state of a system at a specific instant in time, whereas work is done over the duration of a process. It follows that we must sweep over (i.e. integrate over) the full range of pressures and volumes that occur during the process in order to find the work done. !nalo#% $etween Heat Transfer and Work The question arises: does a similar relationship link the heat transfer, q, to the fluid properties that are involved in the thermal movement of energy? The answer is, of course, yes. Drawing an analogy with the work equation, the relationship will involve an integral and q will appear on the left hand side, in place of w. The analogy also suggests that the temperature, T, should appear in the same place as the pressure, p, because temperature is the driving force that causes heat to flow. What appears in place of the specific volume, v? That answer is: a new property, the specific entropy, s. The integral for the heat transfer during a reversible process is thus:
s2

q =

s 1

Tds

&ntrop% and its 'eanin# For the present, treat the above integral as the definition of the specific entropy, s. The analogy argument is very informal, so you should be aware that the q-T-s integral and the existence of entropy may be proved rigorously using the Second Law of Thermodynamics. Because it cannot be perceived by the senses or be directly measured by experiment, entropy is a notoriously difficult property for neophytes understand. We now make some comments that suggest its role in thermodynamics. Entropy as a measure of irreversibility. As stated above, the q-T-s integral is valid only for reversible processes. Suppose a reversible process takes place adiabatically (i.e. with zero heat transfer, q = 0), then the integral shows that the entropy must remain constant, s 1 = s2. Such a process is said to be isentropic. Thus, isentropic reversible + adiabatic. (Note: The other option, T = 0, is not physically possible.) It can be shown from the Second Law that if an adiabatic process occurs irreversibly, then the entropy always increases, so that s2 > s1. In fact, the greater the degree of irreversibility (e.g. the greater the friction during the process), the greater the inequality. In this sense, entropy acts as a measure of irreversibility. The entropy at the end of an irreversible process is always greater than that at the end of its reversible counterpart. Entropy as a measure of disorder. These notes approach thermodynamics from an engineering standpoint. A number of fundamental results were introduced by reference to engines and the processes that occur within them. However, it is also possible to take a statistical approach to thermodynamics whereby events at the molecular level are analysed to discover the macroscopic behaviour. The kinetic theory of gases, which you may have encountered in your earlier studies, is a well-known example. When interpreted in this way, entropy is revealed as a measure of the disorder within a system.

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Consider a block of ice placed in a hot environment. Initially, the ice is in a very orderly state where the intermolecular forces hold the water molecules in fixed positions with respect to each other. As the ice melts, the degree of disorder increases: the water molecules still interact with each other (this is why we sense water as a dense substance) but they are not held in fixed positions (this is why water flows). If further heating is applied, the water evaporates to form steam and the degree of disorder increases yet again. The molecules now become very diffuse and move almost independently of each other. Entropy provides an objective measure of this disorder: the entropy of ice is numerically smaller than that of water, which is much smaller than that of steam. This agrees with the q-T-s integral; a positive heat transfer (i.e. heat addition) always increases the entropy, s.

Entropy: A measure of the amount of energy in a physical system not available to do work. As a physical system becomes more disordered, and its energy becomes more evenly distributed, that energy becomes less able to do work. For example, a car rolling along a road has kinetic energy that could do work (by carrying or colliding with something, for example); as friction slows it down and its energy is distributed to its surroundings as heat, it loses this ability. The amount of entropy is often thought of as the amount of disorder in a system.

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,ppendi' , 3 !ol&ing thermodynamics problems 45ases6

$ack#round When you are new to a subject, solving even the simplest problem can seem difficult. The key to making progress is to acquire a general framework of skills and knowledge that you can use when tackling problems. The purpose of this appendix is to present such information. All thermodynamics problems share some common characteristics. These are: Problems involve a system (usually a mass of gas or sometimes a liquid) that undergoes a process. This means that two sets of equations are used during calculations: one set to describe the gas or liquid and the other to describe the process The gas or liquid that comprises the system may be described by either equations or tables of properties. In this module, we primarily restrict our attention to perfect gases (usually air) for which the appropriate equations are: pv = RT u = CvT h = CpT

The process undergone by the system involves three elements: i) a start state, ii) an interaction in which work and/or heat transfer change the systems energy, iii) a resulting end state. Problems generally require you to find one of the three elements given data about the other two. Each process has three equations that describe the nature of the process, the work done, w, and the heat transfer, q, during the process. The word state is used to refer to the condition of the system at a specified instant of time. The state is described by means of properties such as pressure, volume, temperature, internal energy, enthalpy and entropy. Experience shows that a knowledge of two independent properties is enough to determine the state, and hence all the other properties. For a perfect gas u, h and T are not independent properties, as shown by the previous equations.

(irst Steps Once you have understood the four points listed in the previous section, you will find that solving thermo problems is largely a question of organising information. None of the equations developed in this module are complicated (they usually involve just three terms, two of which you are given or can find quite easily) but they often involve a fairly large volume of data that needs to be applied at different stages of the problem. Thus, managing and applying data is a key skill that you should aim to develop. The following steps are recommended: Draw a graph showing the process or cycle of processes. A p-v chart is a good choice because the area under the curve is equal to the work done during the process - With a little practice, you will find the graph to be an invaluable aid for organising your thinking, especially if the problem involves a sequence of processes. See the following example. Write down the equations describing the substances properties. In this module, the substance will nearly always be a perfect gas, which is described by the three equations given above. Remember that these equations always apply, irrespective of whatever the process might be. Write down the properties describing the start state of the process. Remember, if you know two independent properties then you can always calculate the others from the property equations. Write down the properties describing the end state. Remember, if you know two independent properties then you can always calculate the others from the property equations. Finally, write down the equations describing the process undergone by the system. Remember, in general there will be three equations: i) an equation characterising the process - e.g. constant pressure implies p1 = p = p2. Although this is a simple equation, it provides key information and

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is often overlooked by novices; ii) an equation relating the work done, w, to properties at the end states; iii) an equation relating the heat transfer, q, to properties at the end states. Remember that every thermodynamic process involves just three things (a start state, a process and an end state) and that you generally know two and wish to find the third. Having organised the data, check which two pieces of information you know and calculate the third. Working in this way will help you to organise your approach to problem solving and reinforce your understanding of thermodynamic theory. &)a ple A closed system undergoes a sequence of three reversible processes. Starting from an initial pressure of 1 bar and a specific volume of 1 m 3/kg, a mass of air undergoes an isentropic compression until its volume is reduced to one-fifth the original value. Find the final pressure and temperature and also calculate the specific work done and the heat transfer during the process. The air then undergoes an expansion at constant pressure until the volume returns to its original value. Find the final temperature and calculate the specific work done and the heat transfer during this second process. Finally, the system returns to its original state by means of a constant volume process. Find the specific work done and the heat transfer. Also calculate the total work done and the total heat transfer over all three processes, compare the two values and explain what you find. Solution 1) Draw a diagram of the processes . A p-v chart is a good choice because the area beneath a curve is equal to the work done during the process. p 2 p2 = p3

p2 = ? v2 = v1/5 = 0.2 m3/kg const pressure

3 p3 = p2 = ? v3 = v1 = 1 m3/kg

const volume

isentropic

1 p1 = 1 bar = 100 kN/m2 v1 = 1 m3/kg v v3 = v1

v2 = v1 / 5

2) Write down the equations describing the fluids properties . Fluid is air, so treat as a perfect gas pv = RT For air: R = 0.287 kJ/kg K = 1.4 Cv = 0.718 kJ/kg K Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg K u = CvT h = CpT

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3) Write down what you know about each state . Remember, if you know two independent properties, you may apply the equations given in 2) above to calculate any third property. Add this summary to the p-v chart. State 1 State 2 State 3 p1 = 1 bar = 100 kN/m2 v2 = v1 / 5 = 0.2 m3/kg v3 = v1 = 1 m3/kg v1 = 1 m3/kg

4) Write down and then use the equations describing each process . Remember, these equations may be used in addition to those that describe the gas: one set of equations describe the gas whilst the other set describe what happens to the gas. Because the problem involves three steps, we will use a subscript notation to identify the work and heat transfer that occurs in each process. Thus, w 1,2 is the work done in process that links states 1 to 2, whilst q 3,1 is the heat transfer in the final process that takes the system from state 3 back to state 1. a) Isentropic process, 1 -> 2 For an isentropic process: p1v1 = pv = p2v2 The appropriate equations for w and q are: w1,2 = u2 - u1 = Cv(T2 - T1) q1,2 = 0 Note: By definition, an isentropic process is both reversible and adiabatic, so q = 0, always. Use the first equation to calculate the pressure at the end of the process: p2 = p1 (v1 / v2) = 1 x 5 1.4 = 9.518 bar = 951.8 kN/m2 We have two end state properties (p2 and v2) so we can now find the temperature from perfect gas theory: T2 = (p2v2)/R = 951.8 x 0.2 / 0.287 = 663.3 K To calculate the work done, we also require initial temperature: T1 = (p1v1)/R = 100 x 1 / 0.287 = 348.4 K Then: w1,2 = Cv (T2 - T1) = 0.718 x (663.3 - 348.4) = 226.1 kJ/kg Also: q1,2 = 0

b) Constant pressure process, 2 -> 3 for which p2 = p = p3 = 951.8 kN/m2. We also told that v3 = v1 = 1 m3/kg. The equations for w and q for a constant pressure process are: w2,3 = -p (v3 - v2) q2,3 = h3 h2 = Cp(T3 - T2)

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Since we have two properties at the end state (p 3 and v3) we can calculate any third in this case T3: T3 = (p3v3)/R = 951.8 x 1 / 0.287 = 3316.3 K We can now find the work done and heat transfer during process 2 -> 3: w2,3 = -951.8 x (1 - 0.2) = -761.4 kJ/kg q2,3 = 1.005 x (3316.3 - 348.4) = 2666.3 kJ/kg

c) Constant volume process, 3 -> 1 constant volume process are:

for which

v3 = v = v1 = 1 m3/kg.

The equations for w and q for a

w3,1 = 0 q3,1 = u1 - u3 = Cv(T1 - T3) = 0.718 * (348.4 - 3316.3) = -2130.9 kJ/kg

d) Total heat transfer and total work done over all processes. qnet = q1,2 + q2,3 + q3,1 = 0 + 2666.3 - 2130.9 = 535.3 kJ/kg 0 = - 535.3 kJ/kg

wnet = w1,2 + w2,3 + w3,1 = 226.1 - 761.4 +

So qnet + wnet = 0 as expected for a cycle of processes. The correctness of this overall result encourages us to believe that the detailed calculations are also correct.