Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Thermal comfort
According to ASHRAE 55-74 standard , thermal comfort is defined as "That of mind which expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment". However, the comfort zone is defined as the range of climatic conditions within which the majority of people would not feel thermal discomfort, either of heat or cold. The main criteria for thermal comfort for the human body as a whole can be divided into environmental variables: air temperature, mean radiant temperature, humidity, air velocity and personal variables: clothing and metabolic rate (activity). In addition there are other
environmental parameters that can cause local thermal discomfort such as draught, a high vertical temperature difference between head and feet, radiant temperature asymmetry and warm or cold floors.
Thermal Materials
Effects
of
Building
Givoni (1976) points out that the envelope of a building is not only a separator from the external environment but also is a prevention for climatic elements to affect the building directly. Three types of building materials can be used to build this envelop which are: opaque, transparent and translucent.
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combined effect of material properties and colour. The thermal resistances of the materials play an important role in heat flow. Increasing the thermal resistance of a wall or a roof reduces the heat flow through the building. Givoni (1976) further explains that the temperatures within ventilated buildings are determined by combination of the effect of two factors: heat flow across the walls, and outdoor air entering the space. When the external colour is light, the effect of ventilation is dominant and marks the influence of wall thickness. On the other hand, when the exterior is dark, the possible heat flow across the walls is increased greatly, so that the effect of thickness on temperatures is much more noticeable (pp. 137). He also mentions the effect of materials on internal heating. The experiments they have done in Haifa Building Research Station shows that when there is a significant internal heating the response depends on the thermophysical properties of the materials. The effect of thermal resistance is in the opposite direction from its effect when the heat load operates on the external walls (pp. 144).
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Traditional Materials
Traditional material is considered in this study as being used from the earliest building on and being as a raw material that can be produced by local means as a building material. a) Stone:
Stulz and Mukerji (1993) reports that stone is a natural resource which is one of the oldest, durable and abundant. When located near the building site, it is an inexpensive building material. By processing, some other building materials can be produced. The stone types mainly used in building are divided into three geological categories: (i) Igneous rocks such as granite and volcanic stones; (ii) Sedimentary rocks such as sandstones and limestones; and (iii) metamorphic rocks such as slates, quartzites and marble. For extraction, from a simple cutting tool to more sophisticated
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aggregate for concrete and terrazzo, granules for surfacing bituminous felts, powders for extending paint, limestone for lime and cement production. Some of the advantages are: abundantly availability, easily accessibility in hilly regions, low investment cost for extraction, strength and durability, impermeability to provide rain protection, and appropriateness to arid zones as it has high thermal capacity. Some of the problems are:
deterioration from atmospheric pollution, efflorescence caused by certain salts and sea spray, damage due to thermal movement of some stones, surface damage due to water, low resistance to earthquake forces (Stulz and Mukerji, 1993, pp. 3-6).
b)
Earth:
Stulz and Mukerji (1993) reports that earth is a natural resource which is one of the oldest and versatile that is commonly used through out the world as building material.
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c)Fired Clay Products: Stulz and Mukerji (1993) reports that the technique of firing clay is more than 4000 years old. When firings between 850-1000C, an irreversible reaction occur that give the particles the property of glassy ceramic. A large variety of soils are suitable for this process. The essential property for this process is plasticity to facilitate moulding.
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d)
Lime:
Stulz and Mukerji (1993) report that the history of lime production begins more than 2000 years ago. Temperatures above 900C required to produce quicklime which can then be slaked to produce hydrated lime. Being one of the most known versatile, it is used for numerous industrial and agricultural processes, environmental protection and building construction. The areas of application of lime are as a stabilizer in soil constructions with clayey soil; as hydraulic binder with a pozzolanas; hydraulic lime without pozzolanas; non-hydraulic lime to use as a binder in renders; mixture in the cement mortar and plasters; limewash.
Some of the advantages are: less energy input than cement for production, superior to portland cement as mortars and plasterwork, providing gentle surfaces which can deform rather than crack and help to control moisture movement and condensation; cheaper and structurally more suitable
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They further add that there are two types of pozzolanas: natural and artificial. Natural pozzolanas are basically volcanic ashes from geologically recent volcanic activity. Artificial pozzolanas result from various industrial and agricultural processes, usually as by products and if not been used, they will cause a waste problem. Compared with cement these materials contribute to cost and energy savings. Furthermore, they help to reduce environmental pollution and improve the quality of the end product. The first natural pozzolanas that is used in building construction is said to be the volcanic ashes. The natural pozzolanas that is suitable for construction is limited to a few regions of the world. Pozzolanas can be found as fine grained ashes or as solid form, but it had to be ground to use as a pozzolanas. The most important artificial pozzolanas are burnt clay, pulverized-fuel ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag and rice husk ash. When clay soils are burnt, the water molecules are driven off to form a quasi-amorphous material that is reactive with lime and is called burnt clay. This was discovered in ancient times and the first pozzolanas were made from crushed pottery fragments. This is a traditional technology that is still being widely practised in India, Indonesia and Egypt. Pulverized fuel ash is preferable to
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comfortable and healthy living environments. It is a renewable in the sense of re-afforestation. Most species has very high strength regarding earthquake and hurricane resistance.
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processing of timber is requires less energy than many other building materials. Timber provides good thermal insulation and sound absorption. It is better than steel in the sense that the building frame do not collapse after fire. Some of the problems of timber are as follows: High costs and diminishing of species due to uncontrolled cutting. Thermal and moisture
movement causes distortions, shrinkages and splitting. Some species are weak to fungal decay and insect attack. It has significant fire risk. The toxic chemical preservatives are unhealthy in long term. Failure of joists between timber members dueto shrinkage or corrosion of metal connectors may occur. It may loose its colour and be brittle due to exposure to sunlight, windborne abrasives or chemicals (Stulz and Mukerji, 1993, pp. 101-109). As it is mentioned by Carey Simonson (2000) indoor climate and indoor air quality is important in order to provide comfort, health, productivity for the occupants. For this fact, regulating the indoor temperature and humidity is important but energy consuming. The need for passive and less energy intensive methods for moderating indoor environment brought the idea of moisture storage of the building materials. According to the Healthy Building Workshop 2000 wood and wood based products in the building envelope and furnishings control the indoor climate by moderating the diurnal changes in indoor humidity. And furthermore the following wood based materials have shown particular suitability for moisture storage applications: medium density fibre board, parquet tile, chip board, organic insulation, and perforated and non-perforated wood (pp. 1).
Contemporary Materials Contemporary building materials in this study are considered as being mostly manufactured and the common usage of the material dates only a few centuries back. a) Factory Produced Brick:
BS 3921 Specification for clay bricks and blocks describes a brick as a walling unit designed to be laid in mortar and not more than 337.5 mm long, 225.0 mm wide and 112.5 mm high, as distinct from block which is defined as a unit having one or more of these dimensions larger than those quoted. The conductivity varies with density. Diatomaceous earth bricks which are very light, have a thermal conductivity of about 0.14 W/mK (Everett, 1994, pp 92).
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b)
Concrete:
As Alan Everett (1994) declares concrete is generally understood to be a mixture of cement, water and aggregate which takes the shape and texture of its mould, When cured at a
formwork, on site.
suitable temperature and humidity it hardens (pp. 119). Some of the applications of concrete are as plain mass concrete, nofines concrete, lightweight aggregate concrete, aerated concrete, reinforced concrete, and prestressed concrete. Within these Applications no-fines concrete is a lightweight concrete with only single size coarse aggregate leaving voids between them, suitable for loadbearing and non-loadbearing walls in framed structures or base coarse for floor slabs. rendering, good thermal insulation due to air gaps, and low drying shrinkage. The large void also prevent capillary action. The thermal conductivity (k) of nofines gravel aggregate concrete is comparable brickwork. to To that have of a typical quick No-fines concrete\ provides an excellent key for
understanding in thermal conductivity, thermal transmittances (U-Value) for walls are as follows: Stulz and Mukerji (1993) reports that concrete has various advantages. Some of them are as follows:
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Concrete has high compressive strength and can take any shape. When reinforced it combines compressive strengths with high tensile strengths, so that it can be used in any building design and all structural requirements. It is suitable for prefabrication of components and for
constructions in dangerous conditions such as earthquake and expansive soils. The energy requirement to produce 1 kg of plain concrete is the lowest of the manufactured building materials. It has high thermal capacity and high reflectivity which is an important feature in hot dry or tropical highland climates. Properly executed concrete is highly durable, free of maintenance, resistant to moisture penetration, chemical action, fire, insects, and fungal attack. They further add that concrete has some problems such as high cost of cement, steel and formwork. It is difficult to control the quality of concrete regarding the risk of cracking and gradual deterioration on building sites. Corrosion of reinforcement that leads to expansion cracks in moist climates is another problem. Reinforced concrete begins to fail in high temperature due to steel that it contains. The negative electromagnetic effects of reinforced concrete create an unhealthy environment (Stulz and Mukerji, 1993, pp. 75-76). c)Ferrocement: According to Stulz and Mukerji (1993) ferrocement is concrete having following differences: The energy requirement to produce 1kg of plain concrete is 1 MJ/kg while reinforced concrete (with 1 % by volume of steel) is 8 MJ/kg. R. Stulz and K Mukerji, Appropriate Building Materials, 3rd ed., (London: SKAT Publications and IT Publications, 1993), 75. Its thickness rarely exceeds 25 mm, while reinforced concrete (RC) components are seldom less than 100mm. A rich portland cement mortar is used, without any coarse aggregate as in RC. Compared with RC, ferrocement has a greater percentage of reinforcement, comprising closely spaced small diameter wires and wire mesh, distributed uniformly throughout the cross-section. Its tensile strength to weight ratio is higher than RC, and its cracking behaviour is superior. Ferrocement can be constructed without formwork for almost any shape. principally the same as reinforced
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Some of the advantages of ferrocement are as follows: The materials required to produce ferrocement are readily available in most countries. It can take almost any shape and it is adaptable to almost any traditional design. It is a useful substitute in the absence of timber. As a roofing material, ferrocement is a climatically and environmentally more appropriate and
cheaper than galvanized iron and asbestos cement sheeting. The manufacture of ferrocement components requires no special equipment, is labour intensive and easily learnt by unskilled workers. Compared with reinforced concrete, ferrocement is cheaper, requires no formwork, is lighter, and has ten times greater specific surface of reinforcement, achieving much higher crack resistance. Ferrocement is not attacked by biological agents, such as insects, vermin and fungus. Some of the problems of ferrocement are as follows: Ferrocement is still a relatively new material, therefore its long term performance is not sufficiently known. Structural design and calculation requires considerable knowledge and
experience. Galvanized meshes can cause gas formation on the wires and thus reduce bond strength. The excessive use of ferrocement for buildings can create unhealthy living conditions, as the high percentage of reinforcement has harmful electromagnetic effects (Stulz and Mukerji, 1993, pp. 77-82). d) Cement:
Stulz and Mukerji (1993) reports that most common type is ordinary portland cement. Fine grey powder, mixed with sand, gravel and water produces a longlasting concrete and mortar. It is usually produced in large centralized plants,
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Dark heat absorbing frames should be preferred to white or polished aluminium frames. A ventilated cavity behind glass helps in cooling it, and consequently removes condensation. Although glass is dense and is a good conductor of heat (k= 1.05 W/mK), its surface resistances are high which causes for example a 3 percent increase in thermal resistance by doubling the thickness of a 6mm glass pane (pp.190-199).
f) Aluminium: Arthur R. Lyons (1997) report that aluminium has only been available as a construction material for about a hundred years. It is extracted from the ore bauxite, an impure form of aluminium oxide or alumina which is then dissolved in caustic soda, filtered, impurities are removed and dried. And several other processes are made to produce the pure aluminium. Typically the production of 1 tonne of aluminium requires 14000 kWh of electrical energy, although recycling waste aluminium requires only one twentieth of this energy.
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Lyons (1997) further adds that aluminium is one of the lightest metals with a density of 2700 kg/m3, compared to steel 7900 kg/m3. Its duration is linked to the protection of the natural oxide film, which is always present on the metal surface. The strength of aluminium is halved from its ambient value at a temperature of 2000C, and for many of the alloys is minimal by 3000C. Several finishes are applied to aluminium such as anodising, surface texturing, plastic coating, and paint. For longterm durability all external aluminium finishes should be washed regularly with a mild detergent solution, at intervals less than three months. Applications of aluminium in buildings include roofing and cladding, curtain wall and structural glazing systems, flashings, rainwater goods, vapour barriers and, internally, ceilings, panelling, luminaries, ducting, architectural hardware and walkways. The probable thermal bridging effects where aluminium extrusions are used for double-glazing systems, thermal breaks are inserted between the aluminium in contact with the interior and exterior spaces (Lyons, 1997, pp. 125-
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Conduction Thermal conduction is the process of heat transfer from one part of a body at a higher temperature to another (or between bodies in direct contact) at a lower temperature. This happens with negligible movement of the molecules in the body, because the heat is transferred from one molecule to another in contact with it. Heat can be conducted through solids, liquids and gases. Convection The convection is the transfer of heat from one part of a fluid (gas or liquid) to another part at a lower temperature by mixing of fluid particles. Heat transfer by convection takes place at the surfaces of walls, floors and roofs. Because of the temperature difference between the fluid and the contact surface, there is a density variation in the fluid, resulting in buoyancy. This results in heat exchange between the fluid and the surface and is known as free convection. However, if the motion of the fluid is due to external forces (such as wind), it is known as forced convection. Radiation Radiation is the heat transfer from a body by virtue of its temperature; it increases as temperature of the body increases. It does not require any material medium for propagation. When two or more bodies at different temperatures exchange heat by radiation, heat will be emitted, absorbed and reflected by each body. Of the three, radiation is the primary mode of heat transfer; conduction and convection are the secondary and come into play only as matter interrupts or interferes with radiant heat transfer. As the molecules of the built form absorb radiant energy, it is heated, develops a difference in temperature, and results in molecular motion (conduction in solids) or mass motion (convection in liquid and gas). All substances, including air, building materials, such as wood, glass and plaster and insulation obey the same laws of nature; they do transfer heat. Solid materials differ only in the rate of heat transfer, which is affected by difference in: density, weight, shape, permeability and molecular structure. Materials which transfer heat slowly is said to resist heat flow.
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Evaporation Evaporation generally refers to the removal of water by vaporisation from aqueous solutions of non-volatile substances. It takes place continuously at all temperatures and increases as temperature is raised. Increase in the wind speed also causes increased rates of evaporation.
Materials and Heat: The building materials in general react in three different ways to dissipate the heat that they have received either from a natural or artificial heat source. They are: The materials which releases heat very fast The materials that release heat in a moderate speed The materials that take a long time to reradiate the incident heat.
There are certain properties of materials that play important role in deciding on the surface irradiation, they are: Specific Heat of material
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Quantification Building
of
Thermal
Performance
of
The thermal performance of a building refers to the process of modelling the energy transfer between a building and its surroundings. The thermal performance of a building depends on a large number of factors. They can be summarised as 1. Design variables (geometrical dimensions of building elements such as walls, roof and windows, orientation, shading devices, etc.) 2. Material properties (density, specific heat, thermal conductivity, transmissivity
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Thermophysical Materials
Properties
of
Building
Conduction, convection, radiation and evaporation / condensation are the four ways of the heat transfer in buildings. Givoni (1976) reports that during the process of heat entry through the building, the mode of heat transfer may change. For example; solar energy reaches the wall surface in the form of radiation, absorbed atthe external surfaces and flows across the wall material by conduction. If the wall contains an air space then convection and radiation occurs. Continues by conduction and finishes by convection and radiation through inside air and other surfaces. The properties of materials that affect the rate of heat transfer throughbuilding, and as
a result the indoor thermal conductions and comfort of the occupants are: thermal conductivity, resistance and transmittance; surface characteristics; surface convective coefficient; heat capacity and transparency to radiation of different wavelength (Givoni, 1976, pp. 103). CLASSIFICATION OF THERMAL EFFECTS ON MATERIALS Classification by type of substance On (solid) materials On fluids Classification by type of effect Physical effects (dimensional change, phase change, heating) Chemical effects (decomposition, reaction) Biological effects (metabolic ralentisation, sterilisation) Classification by temperature range Cryogenic effects (superconductivity, superfluidity) Mid-temperature effects High-temperature effects (dissociation, ionisation) Classification by purpose of its study (study target) To know the effects (e.g. expansion, melting, decomposition) To avoid the effects (e.g. refractories, ablation, food preservation)
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Determination of materials
In determining the type of materials to use, it is dependent to the type of climate of an area. Typologies depending on the climate Cold climates In cold regions, the most important factor for the habitability of the buildings is keeping the heat trapped inside. This leads directly to a preference for compact built forms, with as few surfaces exposed to the outside as possible to reduce heat loss. In the most extreme case the forms of architecture become semi-spherical, seeking the maximum volume for the minimum shell surface, while in other cases the building is set underground, seeking the greatest possible protection. It is clear that these solutions reduce the possibilities of ventilation and lighting in the interior, but once again the most critical condition of the architecturein this case the cold takes preference over the others in the definition of its general volumetry. As a complement to the above features, popular architecture in these climates attempts to obtain the maximum possible insulating power of the enclosure walls, at the same time as a high level of airtightness to avoid draughts. Since in primitive technologies it is not easy to find insulating materials and hermetic openings, the result tends to be buildings in which the apertures are few and small, thus increasing still further the darkness inside. As it is difficult to obtain good insulation in opaque wall faces, complex and sometimes very ingenious strategies are used to improve the defence against the cold. Typical solutions found in these climates are the following: Using heaped snow on the roofs and walls of the buildings to benefit from its insulating power. Using granaries and lofts as heat barriers, storing straw in them to increase their insulating power. Using the heat produced by the kitchen, locating it in the interior of the building in a central position or in the coldest orientation of the house. Using the heat given off* by the cattle, by locating the stables under the inhabited zone. In addition to these specific solutions, which are common to most buildings in these zones, there are strategies of a more general nature for improving on unfavourable initial heat conditions.
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Houses in these climates are frequently arranged in compact patterns, one very near to another, leaving small separations in the form of alleys or courtyards. Thus, the surfaces exposed to solar radiation are reduced and the built weight per unit of volume occupied is increased, which raises the thermal inertia of the ensemble. The generation of shade between neighbouring buildings reduces the warming of their walls by radiation and at the same time enables them to be cooled by contact with the fresh air at night.
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In these buildings with great thermal inertia, the way their openings are handled is of vital importance: windows should be totally closed during the warmest hours of the day, not letting in either the Hght or the hot air from outside. At night these windows should be fully opened to use the cooling effect of nocturnal ventilation.
In the dwellings found in these climates the kitchen is located outside, thus avoiding adding heat to interior spaces which could worsen t eir living conditions. The outside of the buildings is
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Moisture effects
Moisture is NOT damaging to construction in its vapor formthe problems arise as TEMPERATURE CHANGES! Condenses (liquefies) Freezes (solidifies) These may cause organic materials to decay, metals to corrode, paint coatings to blister, and in the case of freezing, may cause concrete and masonry to crack. Key Moisture Absorption Considerations Dimensional instability the changes in moisture can cause a change in material dimensions (ex: wood drying) Deterioration causes physical, chemical, and biological breakdown of materials (ex: steel rusting) Condensation tolerance varies for each material Effect on heat flow if material contains moisture it can increase the conductivity
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Providing a VAPOR RETARDER on the interior side of the assembly which limits vapor entering the structure
Provide ADEQUATE VENTILATION for the structure in spaces such as attic areas and crawl spaces
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Factors Materials
Causing
Deterioration
of
Building
Deterioration of building materials can be caused by intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Intrinsic factors are those inherent of the nature of the building material such as a defect in its processing and manufacture, a defect in the cutting, shaping, distribution and all other substandard conditions of the material. Extrinsic factors include natural catastrophes e.g. earthquakes, floods, cyclones, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis, climate, temperate variations, and after effects of human activity and industrial processes e.g atmospheric pollution. It is the extrinsic factors that do most harm to historic structures and is the major cause of deterioration in building materials. Climate Buildings that are exposed to temperatures ranges of 25 to 30 degrees Celsius and relative humidities of 70% and above are susceptible to chemical disintegration and biological attack. Chemical disintegration occurs when moisture is present in the material, accelerated by the rise in temperature. Where there is moisture, cryptogamic growth, bacteria and insects flourish.
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TYPES OF INSULATION Spray Polyurethane Foam (SPF) Insulation A two component mixture comes together at the tip of a gun, and forms an expanding foam that is sprayed onto concrete slabs, into wall cavities of an unfinished wall, against the interior side of sheathing, or through holes drilled in sheathing or drywall into the wall cavity of a finished wall. Rigid panels/Insulation Rigid panel insulation is made from fibrous materials (fiberglass, rock
and slag wool) or from plastic foam. They are sometimes sold in sections designed to fit tightly in standard wall cavities.
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Insulated Concrete Forms ICFs are hollow, light-weight "stay in place" forms made of two Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) panels which are connected by polypropylene webs. During construction, the forms are stacked to the desired height then filled with concrete making stable, durable and sustainable walls. Structural insulated panels Structural insulated panels (SIPs), also called
stressed-skin walls, use the same concept as in foamcore external doors, but extend the concept to the entire house. They can be used for ceilings, floors, walls, and roofs. Oriented strand board, (OSB) or Sterling board (UK), is an engineered wood product formed by layering strands (flakes) of wood in specific orientations.
Blanket Insulation made from fibrous materials like mineral wool, wood fiber, cotton fiber or animal hair and manufactured to form a mat with thickness of 4 . Batt Insulation Batts are precut, whereas blankets are available in continuous rolls. Loose Fill Cellulose is 100% natural and 75-85% of it is made from
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REFERENCES: Nevin and Gezer, THE EFFECTS OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS ON COMFORT IN RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS Maronilla B. Preservation of Building Materials in Historic Structures (unpublished) Historic Preservation Division, National Historical Institute, Manila, Philippines URL: www.nhi.gov.ph Construction Materials and Processes, 3rd Edition. Watson, Don A.. McGraw-Hill, 1986. Imprint 2000. ISBN: 0-07-068476-6 Construction Principles, Materials, and Methods, Seventh Edition. H. Leslie Simmons, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 2001. Olins Construction Principles, Materials, and Methods, Eighth Edition. H. Leslie Simmons, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 2007 Architectural Materials for Construction, Rosen, Harold J. and Heineman, Tom. McGraw-Hill, 1996. ISBN: 0-07-053741-0 c. Gallo, M. Sala, Architecture Comfort and Energy,ELSEVIER SCIENCE Ltd The Boulevard, Langford Lane Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, U, 1998 D. Kannamma, OPTIMISING HEAT GAIN BY BUILDING MATERIALS THROUGH LANDSCAPE ELEMENTs, nternational Journal of Management, IT and Engineering http://www.ijmra.us THERMAL
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