ABSTRACT

Living languages never hold still, every language is the product of change and as long as it is spoken. One way languages change is through the influence of other languages. The English word (patio) for example, was not part of the English vocabulary. Now it is the addition of constitutes a change in our linguistic system. The addition of (patio) to the English vocabulary results from the influence of Spanish. This paper deals with a specific issue that is linguistics borrowing a very common linguistic phenomenon since in most languages, the vast majority of new words are in fact borrowings from other languages. This paper consist of five chapters , chapter one presents several definitions of borrowing and loanwords , chapter two points out to the reasons of borrowing and why do languages borrow from one another , chapter three tries to show the different types of borrowing and lexical borrowing as a topic for general linguistics and discuss the adaptation and integration of loan words and other topics , chapter four show the loan words in Arabic culture from the influence of Arabic loanwords on English and makes clear the factors which contributed to the rapid modernization of the Arabic language and some words that Arabic borrowed from other languages , chapter five present the Arabic loanwords in English language ,....etc. Finally this paper ends with a conclusion and bibliography for those who wish to take things further.

(1)

Loanwords

Loanword is a lexical item (a word) which has been borrowed from another language, a word which originally was not part of the recipient language but was adopted from some other languages and made part of borrowed languages, vocabulary, for example, old English did not have the word (pork) this became an English word only after it was adopted from French (pig-pork) borrowed in the late of middle English period (Campbell 2004:63). Loanword: is a word borrowed from one language and incorporated into another. The word (loanword) is itself a caique of the German (lehnwort) while caique ia a loanword from French the term (borrow) and (loanword) although traditional, conflict with the ordinary meaning of those words because nothing is returned to the host language. (Haspelmath and Tadmor 2009:36), say that loanword is ( a word that at some point in the history of a language entered it is lexicon as a result of borrowing transfer or copy) . Fortunately, this definition is uncontroversial, but there are a number of things to note.

This term has been used in two different senses:

1. As a general term for all kinds of transfer or copying processes, whether they are due to native speakers adopting elements from other languages into the recipient language. 2. To refer to the incorporation of foreign elements into the speaker of native language.

(2) Borrowing
As (Yule, 1996: 65) states that borrowing is one of the most common sources of new words in English is the process simply labeled (borrowing) that is taking over of new words from other languages. The English language has adopted a vast number of loanwords from other languages including alcohol (Arabic), piano (Italian), croissant (French), and lilac (Persian). Other languages of (Italian), croissant (French), and lilac (Persian). Other languages of course borrow terms from English as can be observed in the Japanese rajio (radio). A special type of borrowing is described as loan-translation. In this process there is a direct translation of the elements of words into the borrowing language. According to (Crystal 2008:58) borrowing is a term used in comparative and historical linguistics to refer to a linguistic form taken over by one language or dialect from another, such borrowings are usually knows as (loanwords) e.g. ( restaurant, chargin) which have been come into English from French and several types have been recognized. Less commonly, sounds and grammatical structures may be borrowed.

Another source for new words in our language especially in earlier periods is the acceptance of words from other languages. Among loanwords that have been acquired or have achieved prominence during the last decade are perestroika and glasnost from Russian, intifada, and fatwa from Arabic. Words or expressions may also come from another national variety of English; American English in particular is a rich source of words and expressions for other varieties of English. They are spread through the mass media and may be rapidly assimilated without people being aware of their origin. http://havref.am/uploads/kursavin. doc Some of these reasons are given below: 1. When some people travel for study, trade, tourism or any other reason they borrow some words from the language of the country they are in, and use them with their native language to show off i.e. they can speak foreign language.

2.There is a constant need for synonyms of effective words they have lost their expressive force for example (WC) instead of (Loo).

3.Geographical closeness meaning that when two languages are close or near to each other, they can influence one another readily. Such casecan be finding between Arabic and Kurdish. 4.Cultural influence: whenever there is a cultural contact, there is a linguistic contact since the language is the medium through which people can say whatever they like.

5- Translators poor knowledge of their native language some may transfer the foreign terms i.e. they are enable to such foreign terms.

6- The lack of a native substitute or the ignorance of the native equivalent even if available, for example, the Arabs start using (computer) this word is kept in Arabic for a long time. Now days, they create an equivalent word to (computer) which is {hasub) but in many cases (hasub) is still ignorant and the word (computer) is retained in use.

7- Immigration or regional domination: the domination of one country over another can lead to spreading the language of the dominators. This domination may be in the form of a military conquest, commercial dominance etc. For example French was widely spread in the north part of Arab homeland (the north part of America).

8- The need of finding new words for new objects, concepts, places, it is easier to borrow an existing word from another language than to make up one. For example, many place names on the north of American continent are taken from Indian languages, Mississippi, Michigan, Chicago, etc.

9. The prestige factor: Latin and Greek had great prestige in the world of the scholarship during the middle ages. Consequently words from these languages found their ways into English as well as other European languages since the renaissance. Many of these words are formed by combining Latin or Greek morphemes after the model of these languages or combining them to be looked scholarly.

(Shatawy 2007:10) Borrowed words enter the language as a result of influence of two main causes: 1- Linguistic causes. 2- Extra- linguistic (economic, cultural, industrial) causes. Political relations of speakers of the language with other countries refer to extra linguistic factors due to the great influence of the Roman civilization Latin was for a long time used in English as the language of learning and religion. Borrowing enter the language in two ways through (oral speech by immediate contact between people) and through (written speech by indirect contact through books), word borrowed orally are usually short and undergo more changes in the act of adopter. Written borrowings are often rather long and they are unknown to many people speaking the language.

We distinguish translation loans, borrowing proper and semantic loans, translation loans are words and expressions formed from the material already existing in the language but according to patterns taken from another language by way of literal morpheme, for morpheme translation, e.g. wall-newspaper. Borrowing proper words are taken from another language with their sounds, graphic forms and their meaning. http://hayeref.am/uploads/hcrsayin.doc

(1) Types of borrowing:

(1.1) Lexical borrowing

The most familiar result of linguistic contact is lexical borrowing, i.e the adaptation of elements such as single words, phrase, idioms, collocations, etc., by one language from another. In discussing the possibility of borrowing various lexical items, namely, such as nouns, verbs and adjectives, pronouns, conjunction and prepositions stating the members of the former are more likely to be borrowed than those of the latter. On the other hand, the class of borrowing items sometimes depends on the nature of the sociolinguistics context where the borrowing takes place for instance the borrowing of adverbs and conjunctions is found more clearly in bilingual communities. Generally, it has been found out that nouns constitute the majority of borrowed words, while verbs and prepositions are less commonly borrowed, because it is difficult to assimilate then into another language, especially when the source and the borrowing language differ in origin, structure and form as in the case of English and Arabic.

(1.2)Translation borrowing/calque:
This type of borrowing is common in scientific terminology. When the English use Latin roots from education, this is a borrowing but when the Germans translate ( e as er ), {due as ziech) and (ion as ung) to make up the word erziechung, it is a translation borrowing. Crystal (1985:40) defines as a term used in comparative and historical linguistics in which the morphemic constituents of the borrowed word or phrase are translate item by item equivalent morphemes in the new language, for example, power politics for German machtpolitik

(1.3) Direct borrowing:

It is the commonest form of the borrowing. When the Romance invaded England, thousands of the romance words were brought into the Anglo-Stock, though they did not make English a romance language. The borrower of foreign words criticized for pronouncing a foreign language in accurately but in real borrowing, he is adopting words to his own phonemes trying to speak the language, for example ( a menu) is spelt mainju: is a list of dishes, whereas in French, it is pronounced as mem meaning a complete dinner.

(1.4) Syntactic borrowing:

Changes in the syntax of a language also result from borrowing. This change is less frequent because the syntactic system of any language has integrated series of rules and the modification of one rule could have drastic consequences elsewhere in the system, for example, the language of Balkan peninsula, such as Albanian, Bulgarian, Greek and Romanian are syntactically alike in that infinitival clauses are restricted in their use. Grammar is more resistant to borrowing than lexicon and phonology. It can be noted than even if a language has borrowed extensively from other languages it will keep it is grammatical core as characteristic of it is language family, which demonstrated its true affiliation.

(1.5) Cultural borrowing:

Bloomfield (in Diannen 1967:289-290) says that any person has a good command of a foreign language, he may speak the foreign form in foreign phonetics; even in it is native context For example, in English sentence he will speak his French rouge with an English ( r ) in place of the French urular trill and an English (u w) in place of the French tense, non-diphthongal [u:]. This process is known as phonetic substitution. He also adds that the borrowed form is subject to the phonetic change that occurs after it is adoption which is distinct from phonetic substitution. For example, we may suppose that an old French from like vision vizfo:n was taken into middle English with some slight amount of no longer traceable phonetic substitution with on the first syllable.
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(1.6) Phonological borrowing:

Phonological borrowing is rather difficult to recognize, but it does occur. There are two mechanisms that make the phonology of one language affect that of another. The first is through the influence of borrowed words, which carry with them some foreign characteristics. For example, if English borrow many words with nasal vowels from French and if these words are used constantly by English speakers, then a distinction between oral and nasal vowels.

(Shatawy 2007: 16)

(2)Adaptation and integration of loan words:

The source words of loanwords often have phonological, morphological and syntactic properties in the donor language that do not fit into the system of the recipient language. For example, Russian lacks affront rounded vowel, so that French word like resume rezyme summary are problematic and French words are either masculine or feminine, so that English in animate genderless nouns are Loanword adaptation is sometimes indispensable for the word to be usable in the recipient language. In particular language with gender and inflection classes need to assign each word to a gender and inflection class, so that it can occur in systematic patterns which require gender agreement or certain inflected forms, similarly, loanwords from Arabic have to be adapted orthographically in English because otherwise they would not be readable.
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If a large number of loan words come from a single donor language patterns will be imported along with the words. Japanese borrowed many Chinese words that ended up with long vowels and diphthongs, so that now these phonological patterns are integral parts of the Japanese sound system. (Haspelmath and Tadmor 2009 : 42)

(3) Recognizing loanwords.

Linguists identify words as loanwords if they have a shape and meaning that is very similar to the shape and meaning of a word from another language from which it could have been taken, and if the similarities have no plausible alternative/ explanation. In general, a word can only be recognized with certainty as donor language can be identified. In the world loanword database, the vast majority of loanwords are associated with a source word. If the word is phonological aberrant in a way that would be explicable by a borrowing history of the word. For example, (Thurgood 1999:11) notes that many loanwords from Mon-Khmer languages into chamic language can be recognized by their loan phonemes, sounds, which occur only in borrowed words. We have found a pair similar words in two languages that are not genealogically related and are certain that borrowing must be involved it is often still unclear what the borrowing direction was.

(Haspelmath and Tadmor 2009 :144)

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(5) changes after borrowing.

(5.1)Changes in meaning Words are occasionally imported with a different meaning than that in the source language. Among the best known examples of this is the German word Handy, which is a adaptation of the English adjective "handy", but means mobile phone and thus a noun. Conversely, in rarely used in German.

(5.2)Changes is spelling
Words taken into different languages are sometimes spelled as in the original language Sometimes adopted words retain original (or near-original) pronunciation, but undergo a spelling change to represent the orthography of the adopting language. Welsh is a language where this is done with some consistency, with words like gem (game), cwl(cool), and ded-gifawe (dead giveaway). The French expression "cul de sac" (meaning "dead end" or "no through road") is used in English as is, with the same meaning but a spelling pronunciation: the (l) is mute in French but enunciated in English.

(5.3) Changes in pronunciation

In cases where the new word has a very unusual sound, the pronunciation is frequently radically changed, a process sometimes referred to by the archetypal name of the law of Hobson-Johson; this is particularly noted in words from South Asian and Southeast Asian languages, as in this example. Some languages, such as Jerriais, have a tendency to apply historical sound-shift patterns to newly introduced words.
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Most languages modify foreign words to fit native pronunciation patterns. An excellent example is Japanese, which has an enormous number of foreign adoptions . In other cases words are copied, seemingly at random, and used in totally inexplicable contexts. This is often the case in the names of small businesses.

http://en. wikipedia. ore/wiki/Loanword

(i)

The influence of Arabic loanwords on English.

Human cultures are mutually influenced. Language is the vehicle of culture and the medium of culture transmission. A word is the basic unit of language. As a result, lexical borrowing from one language to another takes place. This phenomenon seems to be universal. It is almost impossible to find a pure language, that is a language that has not been influenced by another language at certain point of it is history. Arabic loanwords have influenced hundreds of languages, and in return Arabic has been influenced by many other languages. Classical Arabic was influenced by languages such as Greek, Latin, Persian, and Aramaic. Long before the advent of Islam, when die Quran was revealed it contained many of these words which appear to have been completely assimilated into the Arabic lexicon, this lead some early Arabic an Muslim scholars to reject the idea that there were loans in Quran.

13

Word such as Sayan Satm and Stat from latin starta mearnng (way), are though, to be borrowed, because of it is long history. Arabic has borrowed more word, and expression from Different languages with which it came into contact Words such as fatsafu (philosophy) and musiqa (music) are from the Greek language. The cousin of the prophet Ibn Abbas (7 century) is considered the first arab philologist to become aware of foreign words in the Arabic language. His primary concern with the Quran led him inquire into the etymologies it is vocabulary. As a result, there is attributed to him and his school the singling out of a series of Quran words as being of foreign origin. The Arab change those foreign words which are absolutely jncongruous with their own, sometimes assimilating them into the structure of their words and sometimes not. When they want to Arabize foreign words they assimilate them into the structure of Arabic words in the same manner that they assimilate their letters to Arabic letters. Often they change the condition of a word from what it was in the foreign language, by assimilating to Arabic letters such as are not Arabic and replacing a letter, even though it be like Arabic by another one. Furthermore, they change the vocalization and the position of argumentative letters without reaching by it the Arabic word structure.

(Bakalk 1984:72)

(2) The factors which contributed to the rapid modernization of the Arabic language.
One of the most important factors which contributed to the rapid modernization of the Arabic language was the assimilation of a great number of
14

words from modern language are (French, English, Italian, Spanish, Turkish and Portuguese). The study of the Arabic spoken or written vocabulary shows that the extent of this influences is enormous in terms of the linguistic elements. The introductions of modern loanwords into Arabic enrich the language as it provides it with words or concepts which are lacking in the language or its users. Certainly, modern technology and the speed of modernization and development require a vocabulary which develops with equal speed. The process of this assimilation into Arabic is called {taarib) or Arabization as a solution to the urgent need for adequate modern terms in science. The total elimination of loan words cannot be achieved by any natural language. It established later that arabization neither contaminates nor degrades the language. Loan words in spokenArabic are more numerous than in written Arabic, naturally loanwords can go out of use -then they are no longer required in the vocabulary of society.

(Bakalla 1984i75)

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(5.2)Changes is spelling
Words taken into different languages are sometimes spelled as in the original language Sometimes adopted words retain original (or near-original) pronunciation, but undergo a spelling change to represent the orthography of the adopting language. Welsh is a language where this is done with some consistency, with words like gem (game), cwl(cool), and ded-gifawe (dead giveaway). The French expression "cul de sac" (meaning "dead end" or "no through road") is used in English as is, with the same meaning but a spelling pronunciation: the (l) is mute in French but enunciated in English.

(5.3) Changes in pronunciation

In cases where the new word has a very unusual sound, the pronunciation is frequently radically changed, a process sometimes referred to by the archetypal name of the law of Hobson-Johson; this is particularly noted in words from South Asian and Southeast Asian languages, as in this example. Some languages, such as Jerriais, have a tendency to apply historical sound-shift patterns to newly introduced words Most languages modify foreign words to fit native pronunciation patterns. An excellent example is Japanese, which has an enormous number of foreign adoptions . In other cases words are copied, seemingly at random, and used in totally inexplicable contexts. This is often the case in the names of small businesses.

http://en. wikipedia. ore/wiki/Loanword

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(ii)

The influence of Arabic loanwords on English.

Human cultures are mutually influenced. Language is the vehicle of culture and the medium of culture transmission. A word is the basic unit of language. As a result, lexical borrowing from one language to another takes place. This phenomenon seems to be universal. It is almost impossible to find a pure language, that is a language that has not been influenced by another language at certain point of it is history. Arabic loanwords have influenced hundreds of languages, and in return Arabic has been influenced by many other languages. Classical Arabic was influenced by languages such as Greek, Latin, Persian, and Aramaic. Long before the advent of Islam, when die Quran was revealed it contained many of these words which appear to have been completely assimilated into the Arabic lexicon, this lead some early Arabic an Muslim scholars to reject the idea that there were loans in Quran. Word such as Sayan Satm and Stat from latin starta mearnng (way), are though, to be borrowed, because of it is long history. Arabic has borrowed more word, and expression from Different languages with which it came into contact Words such as fatsafu (philosophy) and musiqa (music) are from the Greek language. The cousin of the prophet Ibn Abbas (7 century) is considered the first arab philologist to become aware of foreign words in the Arabic language. His primary concern with the Quran led him inquire into the etymologies it is vocabulary. As a result, there is attributed to him and his school the singling out of a series of
17

Quran words as being of foreign origin. The Arab change those foreign words which are absolutely jncongruous with their own, sometimes assimilating them into the structure of their words and sometimes not. When they want to Arabize foreign words they assimilate them into the structure of Arabic words in the same manner that they assimilate their letters to Arabic letters. Often they change the condition of a word from what it was in the foreign language, by assimilating to Arabic letters such as are not Arabic and replacing a letter, even though it be like Arabic by another one. Furthermore, they change the vocalization and the position of argumentative letters without reaching by it the Arabic word structure.

(Bakalk 1984:72)

(2) The factors which contributed to the rapid modernization of the Arabic language.
One of the most important factors which contributed to the rapid modernization of the Arabic language was the assimilation of a great number of words from modern language are (French, English, Italian, Spanish, Turkish and Portuguese). The study of the Arabic spoken or written vocabulary shows that the extent of this influences is enormous in terms of the linguistic elements. The introductions of modern loanwords into Arabic enrich the language as it provides it with words or concepts which are lacking in the
18

language or its users. Certainly, modern technology and the speed of modernization and development require a vocabulary which develops with equal speed. The process of this assimilation into Arabic is called {taarib) or Arabization as a solution to the urgent need for adequate modern terms in science. The total elimination of loan words cannot be achieved by any natural language. It established later that arabization neither contaminates nor degrades the language. Loan words in spokenArabic are more numerous than in written Arabic, naturally loanwords can go out of use -then they are no longer required in the vocabulary of society.

(Bakalla 1984:75)

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