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International Journal of Application or Innovation in Engineering & Management (IJAIEM)

Web Site: www.ijaiem.org Email: editor@ijaiem.org, editorijaiem@gmail.com Volume 3, Issue 1, January 2014 ISSN 2319 - 4847

Environmental Impacts of Natural and Man-Made Hydraulic Structures-Case Study Middle Zambezi Valley, Zimbabwe
Samson Shumba1, Hodson Makurira2, Innocent Nhapi3 and Webster Gumindoga4
1-4

Department of Civil Engineering, University of Zimbabwe, P.O Box MP167 Mount Pleasant, Harare, Zimbabwe

ABSTRACT
The Mbire District in northern Zimbabwe lies in the Lower Middle Zambezi catchment between the man- made Kariba and Cahora Bassa dams. The district is occasionally affected by floods caused by overflowing rivers and, partly, by backwaters from the downstream Cahora Bassa hydropower dam. This flooding affects soil properties due to rapid moisture fluxes and deposition of fine sediments and nutrients. Despite the hazards associated with the floods, the riparian communities benefit from high moisture levels and the nutrients deposited in the floodplains. The residual moisture after flooding events enables the cultivation of crops just after the rainfall season with harvesting taking place around July-August. These periods are outside the normal rainfed agricultural season elsewhere in Zimbabwe where such flooding is not experienced. This study sought to investigate the soil moisture and nutrient dynamics in relation to natural and man-made flood occurrence in the Middle Zambezi valley of Zimbabwe. Twelve trial pits were dug using manual methods along four transects at three different study sites across the floodplain during the period April 2011 to May 2012. At each trial pit, three soil samples were collected at depths of 0.2 m, 0.5 m and 1.2 m and these were analysed for moisture content, nutrient status, pH, texture and electrical conductivity. Statistical analysis tools and GIS interpolation techniques were used to characterize the soil properties. NDVI and soil moisture distribution at different depths were also correlated. Backwaters from the hydropower structure at Cahora Bassa Dam increased the moisture content of the soil to above the field capacity and provided nutrients to the soil. At Manyame River there are no backwaters observed and the research data show reduced effects of moisture and nutrient variation with distance from the floodplain. In the floodplains, moisture content decreased with increasing distance from the river. The moisture content increased with depth and decreased with time during the study period. There is a weak correlation between moisture content and NDVI. There were significant differences (p < 0.05) of moisture content with time where backflows were experienced. There were no significant differences (p > 0.05) in soil pH with the distance from the river. The soil nutrient concentration tends to decrease with an increase in distance from the floodplain and with an increase in depth. The soils were confirmed to be saline (normal). The findings of this study show that the temporal and spatial variation of soil properties in the Middle Zambezi Valley is affected by a number of factors caused by the natural and man-made hydraulic structures. The research recommends use of soil moisture probes and data loggers and installing a gauging station at Kanyemba for measuring the flows and water levels for more accurate spatial and temporal data.

Keywords: Floods; Nutrient Dynamics; Soil Moisture Dynamics; Normalised Difference Vegetation Index

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background The Middle Zambezi Valley communities in Zimbabwe have seen the hydrological benefits that can be derived from the floods while researchers and policy makers seem not to have understood the benefits and the processes involving soil moisture and nutrient dynamics in the floodplains of the Middle Zambezi. [13] noted that soil moisture is critical to the study of ecohydrology which is the interdisciplinary field studying the interactions between water and ecosystems. The spatial and temporal distribution of soil moisture has enormous implications in hydrological, agricultural, economic and social planning and development [29]. Soil moisture is an important parameter in the hydrological cycle since it has close relationships with infiltration, evapotranspiration, surface runoff and groundwater recharge. Soil moisture trend analysis has important roles in drought and flood prediction, water resources management and agricultural production [13]. Flooding events experienced in the Mbire District of Zimbabwe result in the deposition of alluvium which has an effect on soil nutrient levels. The contribution of the four major rivers (Angwa, Mwazamutanda, Musengezi and Manyame) and their tributaries in the Mbire District and the impact of the Cahora Bassa hydropower reservoir on soil properties and ecohydrology can be fully understood if a study of the water, soil and fertility dynamics is done. Two types of floods affect the Mbire District; namely, (i) flash and cyclone induced floods in January and February [14] and (ii) the backwaters from

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the Cahora Bassa hydropower dam. Most of the seasonal floods are caused by flows from upstream catchment area. Since time immemorial, civilisations have prospered on floodplains, deriving benefits from floods. The residual moisture after flooding is normally sufficient to support crops grown after the rainy season. The floodplain is the area from the river to the maximum distance the water reaches in the event of flooding and this differs from one site to the other. Floods result in damage and destruction to infrastructure and affect millions of people worldwide [32]. Water resources development projects have substantially altered the hydrological regime of the Zambezi Delta. The Zambezi catchment has become regulated with the operation of the Kariba and Cahora Bassa dams [2]. The Zambezi basin is a drought prone area and communities that stay in this area are likely to settle in the floodplains where better yields are realised. The benefits of floods include deposition of nutrients and rich sediments on the land and replenishing waters within the wetlands. The other benefits include serving as recharge areas to the aquifer and improving water quality by filtering pollutants and sediments out of the floodwater [26]. To mitigate against drought challenges, the people practice streambank and riverbed cultivation in search of better soil and nutrient conditions. Cultivation during flooding seasons is affected by crops being washed away during flooding events. Persistent droughts, siltation and high temperatures have negatively reduced yields in the floodplain fields over the years ([5]; [18]). There are limited structural flood mitigation measures such as dams and weirs put in place in the Zambezi Valley part of Zimbabwe. Therefore farmers are not even able to make use of the water after the flood and rainy season and most of the water flows into the Zambezi River and Cahora Bassa Dam before it is fully utilized by the communities upstream [18]. It is necessary to study the spatial and temporal links between vegetation, climate and soil moisture in order to understand why communities in the Zambezi Valley widely practice recession farming with success. This research seeks to explore the benefits of cultivation in the floodplain and to analyse the impacts of flooding on soil moisture distribution and nutrient deposition and the viability of riverbank and riverbed cultivation. Understanding hydrological processes and applications in floodplain recession farming and climate variability and maximising the water use efficiency and increasing productivity for policy makers to make informed decisions. An understanding of the spatial and temporal variation of soil moisture and fertility variation will facilitate better understanding of floods in the context of Integrated Water Resources Management for the improvement of the livelihoods of people in the district. Middle Zambezi Valley communities have seen the benefits of the hydrological benefits that can be derived from the floods, researchers and policy makers have not understood the benefits and processes involving soil moisture and nutrient dynamics in the floodplains of the Middle Zambezi.

2. Materials and methods


Description of the study area The study was carried out in Mbire District (Figure 1) at Chidodo (Ward 5), Mushumbi Pools (Ward 12) and Kanyemba (Ward 1). Mbire District lies between longitudes 30 4E and 31 10E and latitudes 15 37 S and 16 15S. The District falls within Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) Zone 36S. The altitude in the study area varies from 320 m to 450 m above mean sea level, meaning the area is generally flat. Mbire District falls in Lower Manyame and Angwa-Rukomechi Subcatchment Councils. There are 17 wards in the district. The study area was chosen because it is one of the districts mostly affected by flooding in Zimbabwe. The Mbire District is characterised by high temperatures, low rainfall and frequent floods due to a combination of flash floods and operation of the Cahora Bassa Dam [2]. Historically, settlement in the valley has been discouraged due to tsetse fly problems and that the area is a wildlife habitat [11]. Due to population pressures, some areas in the district were opened up for settlement [11]. People have been allocated 5 hectare plots outside the floodplains by the government but they continue to shun these upland plots in favour of the floodplains where there is greater potential to realize higher yields. There has been continued deposition of sediments in the floodplains over time and this has altered soil properties with some of the farmers now digging holes to depths of more than one metre in search of moisture for crop growth.

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Figure 1: Map of the study area showing service centres, road and river network

Selection of study sites and data collection methods Chidodo and Kanyemba villages were selected because there are a number of communities whose livelihoods are affected by flooding from upstream catchments as well as from the operation of Cahora Bassa Hydropower structure. Mushumbi was selected because it is almost the most downstream settlement along the Manyame River on the Zimbabwean side and experiences frequent flooding due to upstream river flows. The selection of specific sites was also influenced by accessibility of the areas. Having selected the study area the next step was to select the transects on which the samples were to be taken. The transects were generated on a map in a GIS. These were then plotted on a map and the coordinates of each transect established. Two coordinates of each transect were then entered in a Global Positioning System (GPS). Four transects were chosen for each site as shown in Figure 2. Soil samples were collected in the field from trial pits. The spatial and temporal variation of moisture content, electrical conductivity, soil texture and density, pH and soil nutrient (calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, phosphorus and nitrogen) concentrations were measured across the floodplain. Figure 2 shows the Location of soil sampling trial pits at different positions within the floodplain for Chidodo, Kanyemba and Mushumbi Pools sites. Points FP1 are located at the beginning of the floodplain, FP2 at the end of the floodplain and FP3 outside the floodplain for each of the transects. The extent of the floodplain was determined using satellite images and local information. After each trial pit position was identified and located, its actual coordinates were then recorded using a GPS. Four transects were chosen per site based on their accessibility and spacing. On each transect three trial pits were excavated, the first pit at the beginning of the floodplain, the second at the end of the floodplain and the last outside the floodplain. Samples were collected at depths of 0.2m, 0.5m and 1.2m using hand augers for moisture content and nutrient analysis.

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Figure 2: Location of soil sampling trial pits at different positions within the floodplain for Chidodo, Kanyemba and Mushumbi Pools sites

The moisture content was determined in the laboratory using both the gravimetric and volumetric methods as described by [10; [25] and [31]. The mass of an empty tare was measured and wet soil added to the tare. The mass of the tare and wet soil was determined. The soil was then dried in an oven for twenty four hours and the mass of the tare and dry soil determined. Soil texture was determined by the sieve analysis and the hydrometer analysis methods as described by [2]. The soil was passed through a series of nested BS sieves and the mass of soil retained on each sieve determined. The compositions of the different samples were determined from the tests and the classification was done using the USDA textural triangle [30]. The permanent wilting point is the minimum limit of moisture in the soil in which the plants lose their turgidity of the leaves and from this point they do not recover when they are put in a dark and saturated environment [27]. [33] observed that the soil water retention at field capacity and permanent wilting point can be useful in the determination of the water depth applied to a plant by irrigation and that the soil water content affects the transport characteristics of water and solutes in the soil. For the determination of the field capacity and permanent wilting point, tests were carried out using the pressure membrane apparatus (330kPa for field capacity and 1,500 kPa for permanent wilting point) as described by [16]. atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) was used to analyse the soil for Calcium,

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Magnesium, Potassium and Sodium. The Olsen Method as described by [23] was used in the determination of phosphorus content. The determination of the mineral nitrogen content was conducted using methods described by [1] and [25]. The Model 370pH/mV Meter which measures both pH and temperature was used with a soil: water ratio of 1:5. The electrical conductivity was measured by mixing 10 g of soil to 50 ml of distilled water using the Model 4071 Jenway Conductivity Meter. The soil moisture maps for the three sites (Chidodo, Kanyemba and Mushumbi Pools) were produced using spatial analysis tools on ArcGIS. The inverse distance weighting (IDW) method was used because it is dependent on pattern of data locations. Quantitative data was analysed using statistical methods in Excel such as regression analysis and Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) using the repeated measures analysis and ANOVA as described by [12].The repeated measures analysis with a significance level of p< 0.05 was used to analyse the relationships of soil moisture content, electrical conductivity and pH with time, distance from the river and depth. The repeated measures designs involve each subject being measured p times on the same dependent variable [19]. The independent sample t-Test with a significance level of p< 0.05 was used to analyse the relationship between soil nutrient concentrations with depth. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) or F-Test with a significance level of p< 0.05 was used to determine the differences in moisture with the distance from the river or the position within the floodplain. ANOVA was done using SPSS 16.0.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS


3.1 Moisture content, field capacity and permanent wilting point The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) soil textural classifications were Chidodo (50% of the soil was sandy loam, 29% was loamy sand and 2% was sand); Kanyemba (46% of the soil was loamy sand, 17% was sand and 7% was sandy loam) and Mushumbi Pools (54% of the soil was sandy loam, 25% was loamy sand and 8% was sand). The field capacity for sandy loam is 15% and the permanent wilting point was 5%. The field capacity for loamy sand was 14% and the permanent wilting point is 6%. The values for sandy loam (12-18% field capacity and 5% permanent wilting point) for Chidodo were taken, for Kanyemba the values for loamy sand (14% field capacity and 6% permanent wilting point) were taken and for Mushumbi Pools the values for sandy loam (12-18% field capacity and 5% permanent wilting point) were taken. Table 1 shows the moisture content as a percentage of the wilting point. The shaded cells show the locations at which crops wilt as the water content will be lower than the wilting point. It is not practical to grow crops in these places as the crops will quickly wilt. The work by [3] in the Field Guide to Soil and Site Description in Zimbabwe records similar observations that soil moisture contents below the wilting point of the crop will result in drying out of the crop. At Mushumbi Pools at the end of the floodplain, crops could only grow in the field in May 2011 and during the other months the moisture content recorded was below the wilting point. This shows the importance of residual moisture after flood events as cropping is only possible at the beginning of the floodplain at Mushumbi Pools. At Chidodo the crops permanently wilted in April 2011 and May 2012 outside the floodplain. In May 2011 there were backflows from Cahora Bassa Dam and this increased the soil moisture content to values above wilting point. At Kanyemba the soil moisture could sustain plant growth from April to June without irrigation water required which suggests that the backwater from Cahora Bassa Dam contributed to attaining higher yields. At Musengezi and Mwazamutanda rivers, high moisture content values were obtained during the month of April and May 2011 near the river due to the residual moisture. [22] established that there is a direct relationship between the operations of the Cahora Bassa Dam (reservoir) in the Lower Middle Zambezi Valley and the occurrence of floods in the Mbire District. Moisture content decreased with distance from the flood plain (see description of FP1, FP2 and FP3 in Figure 2). The change in field capacity across the floodplain was 32% and the change in field capacity from the start of the floodplain to a point outside the floodplain was -53.3%. Since the moisture content of the soils in the floodplain was higher than outside the floodplain it follows that the soil within the floodplain was better able to support crops during the period March to June and even until July of each year after the rainy season. The effect of the floods was therefore to increase the water productivity potential within the floodplain. The results show that the moisture content decreased with distance from the floodplain.
Table 1: Moisture content as a percentage of the wilting point for the period April 2011 to May 2012

April 2011 m % (%) WP Beginning of floodplain-FP1 Chidodo Kanyemba 10.60 22.86 212 381

May 2011 m % (%) WP 8.50 28.1 170 469

June 2011 m % (%) WP 7.50 18.00 150 300

December 2011 m (%) 5.25 18.48 % WP 105 308

May 2012 m (%) 5.75 17.16 % WP 115 286

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4 Mushumbi 14.15 283 5.45 109 6.70 134 7.10 142 6.15 123

End of floodplain-FP2 Chidodo Kanyemba Mushumbi 5.45 27.18 3.85 109 453 77 6.00 10.2 6 7.35 120 171 147 5.25 8.16 4.40 105 136 88 5.05 13.08 3.90 101 218 78 5.65 6.45 4.65 113 109 93

Outside floodplain-FP3 Chidodo Kanyemba Mushumbi 3.05 17.88 4.95 61 298 99 5.20 8.58 3.90 104 143 78 5.15 6.84 4.35 103 114 87 4.45 10.26 3.65 89 171 73 4.05 7.26 4.80 81 121 96

Below permanent wilting point. Crops permanently wilt.


At Musengezi and Mwazamutanda rivers the moisture content values of 6% to 28% were obtained during the month of April and May 2011 near the river due to the soil moisture created during backwater flooding events in the same period. The backwater events were experienced during the month of June 2011 in Mwazamutanda River. The results might also be affected by different infiltration, evapotranspiration rates and soil porosity and the interaction of soil water with shallow ground water and topography as observed by [7] and [24]. [21] concluded that evaporation and groundwater infiltration are directly affected by land cover and use. Table 2 shows that there is no relationship between moisture content and distance on the Manyame River at Mushumbi Pools. The regression analysis was done according to the method by [4] at =0.05. [37] also observed that soil moisture is temporally and spatially variable and is affected by other factors like evapotranspiration. [15] considered measuring moisture content at different depths within the root zone only so as to obtain a more accurate variation. [27] concluded that the relationship between the spatial mean soil moisture and variability is not uniquely defined and changes throughout seasons. Table 2: Pearsons product-moment correlation coefficients for the relationship between moisture content and distance from the river for Mbire District for n= 461 and p<0.05 River Correlation Coefficient 95% Statistical Strength of coefficient of variation Confidence significance relationship (r) (R2) level (=0.05) Musengezi 0.134 0.018 0.164 Not Significant Weakly positive Mwazamutanda 0.022 0.005 0.164 Not Significant No association Manyame -0.044 0.002 0.164 Not Significant No association Spatial variation of soil moisture Figure 3 shows the moisture content variation with distance from the Musengezi River at Chidodo, Mwazamutanda River at Kanyemba and Manyame River at Mushumbi Pools respectively.

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Figure 3: Moisture content variation with distance from Musengezi River at Chidodo, Mwazamutanda River at Kanyemba and Manyame River at Mushumbi Pools respectively for the period April 2011 to May 2012

The results show that the moisture content decreased with distance from the flood plain. At Musengezi and Mwazamutanda rivers high moisture content values were obtained during the month of April and May 2011 near the river and this might be attributed to the residual moisture. This resulted in higher moisture content values at the beginning of the floodplain (FP1). This also explains the reason the farmers grow crops within the floodplain where the residual moisture is enough to support crops to maturity after the rainy season (April to July). [16] observed that soil moisture content is an indicator of the effect of land use and cover change on hydrological processes. The results might also be affected by different infiltration, evapotranspiration rates and soil porosity and the interaction of soil water with shallow ground water and topography as observed by [7] and [24]. [21] concluded that evaporation and groundwater infiltration is directly affected by land cover and use and the results are influenced by the different land covers. This can be attributed to the flood effects which increase infiltration and evapotranspiration. Temporal variation of soil moisture The temporal variation in moisture content is shown in Figures 4, 5 and 6. From these results it also can be seen that the highest value of moisture content is at the start of the floodplain and the lowest value at the end of the floodplain. Figure 5 shows that the average moisture content for each site decreased with time. For May and June 2011 the highest values were recorded for Musengezi River at Chidodo followed by Mwazamutanda River at Kanyemba and finally Manyame River at Mushumbi Pools. This was due to the backwaters in May 2011and June2011.

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Figure 4: Moisture content variation with time at three positions in a transect in the floodplain for Mwazamutanda River at Kanyemba for the period April 2011 to May 2012

Figure 5: Moisture content variation with time at three positions in a transect in the floodplain for Musengezi River at Chidodo for the period April 2011 to May 2012

Figure 6: Moisture content variation with time at three positions in a transect in the floodplain for Manyame River at Mushumbi Pools for the period April 2011 to May 2012

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3.2 Repeated Measures Analysis with SPSS for Moisture Content There were significant differences in moisture content with time at Musengezi River and Mwazamutanda River as shown in Table 3. Table 3: Summary of repeated measures analysis method of moisture content distance factor (n= 432) at p< 0.05 for Mbire District for the period April 2011 to May 2012

River Within subject effects Month Sphericity Assumed

F Value

p Valuesig. 0.801 0.000 0.041

Comment

Manyame, Mushumbi Musengezi, Chidodo Mwazamutanda, Kanyemba Manyame, Mushumbi Musengezi, Chidodo Mwazamutanda, Kanyemba Manyame, Mushumbi Musengezi, Chidodo Mwazamutanda, Kanyemba

0.334 6.621 2.861

Not significant Significant Significant

Time distance interaction Month*Distance Sphericity Assumed

0.334 1.150 1.251

0.801 0.340 0.287

Not significant Not significant Not significant

Between subjects effects Distance Sphericity Assumed

0.213 0.627 4.328

0.809 0.540 0.021

Not significant Not significant Significant

There were no significant effects of the combination of time and distance with respect to moisture content at Manyame, Musengezi and Mwazamutanda Rivers as also confirmed by the findings of [33]. For Manyame and Musengezi rivers there was no significant difference of moisture content with the distance from the river. This confirmed the findings by [6] and [31] who observed that soil moisture is highly variable in the horizontal and vertical directions among other factors 3.3 Potential flooding due to Cahora Bassa Water Levels At the full supply level of 329 m above sea level the water level in the Cahora Bassa Dam covers 3,000 km2. At 318 m above sea level the water in the lake, this extends 1,900 km2 and at 324 m above sea level the area of water is 2,651 km2 [22]. At the beginning of the floodplain at Chidodo, (FP1) is at an elevation of 320 m above mean sea level (amsl) while the end of the floodplain, FP2, is at 324 m; therefore most of the areas are likely to be flooded. The mean monthly water levels at Cahora Bassa Dam for the period January 2000 to December 2008 are shown in Figure 7. The floodplain is measured from the river outwards.

Figure 7: Cahora Bassa Dam monthly average water levels for the period January 2000 to December 2008

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Levels above FP1 indicate the frequency of flooding at the beginning of the floodplain (near the river bank) while levels above FP2 show the frequency of flooding outside the floodplain at Chidodo. The lowest point in the study site at Chidodo was at an altitude of 321m and the highest was at an altitude of 327m. Figure 7 confirms that most of the areas within the floodplain are prone to flooding almost on an annual basis. Figure 8 shows that the water level was highest at the beginning of January 2012. The rising levels were a result of the backwaters from Cahora Bassa Dam on Musengezi River. The peak values in January 2012 and February 2012 show the flooding due to upstream runoff generation or a combination of natural floods and backwaters. From March 2012 the water level was below the flood level and backwaters were not experienced in 2012.

Figure 8: Water levels at Musengezi River, Chidodo for the period May 2011to June 2012

3.4 Soil pH Analysis Table 7 shows the summary of repeated measures analysis of soil pH distance factor (n= 432) at p< 0.05 for Mbire District for the period April 2011 to May 2012. For tests of within subjects on the soil pH relationship with time, the null hypothesis Ho was that there were no significant differences in soil pH with time versus H1, that there are significant differences in soil pH with time. The results showed that there were significant differences of soil pH with time at Manyame, Musengezi and Mwazamutanda Rivers and the results were statistically significant (p< 0.05). There were no significant effects of the combination of time and distance with respect to pH at Musengezi and Mwazamutanda Rivers and the results are not statistically significant. At Manyame river there is a significant effect of the combination of time and distance with respect to pH. There were no significant effects of the combination of time and depth with respect to pH at Manyame, Musengezi and Mwazamutanda Rivers and the results are not statistically significant. The variations might also be due to the movement of water and sediments with varying amounts of nutrients during flood periods. Table 4: Summary of repeated measures analysis of soil pH distance factor (n= 432) at p< 0.05 for Mbire District for the period April 2011 to May 2012 Source (pH) River F Value p Value-sig. Comment Within subject effects Month Sphericity Manyame, Mushumbi 10.721 0.000 Significant Assumed Musengezi, Chidodo 20.762 0.000 Significant Mwazamutanda, Kanyemba Time distance interaction Month*Distanc e Sphericity Assumed Manyame, Mushumbi Musengezi, Chidodo Mwazamutanda, Kanyemba Manyame, Mushumbi Musengezi, Chidodo 3.180 1.153 1.600 0.007 0.338 0.155 Significant Not significant Not significant 14.637 0.000 Significant

Between subjects effects Distance Sphericity Assumed

0.357 3.220

0.702 0.053

Not significant Not significant

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Mwazamutanda, Kanyemba 2.914 0.068 Not significant

3.5 Soil moisture content-NDVI correlation graphs Table 6 shows the Pearsons product-moment correlation coefficients for the relationship between NDVI and moisture content for Mbire District at 0.2 m depth. Results show that there was a weak positive relationship between NDVI and moisture content at 0.2 m depths for April 2011. The results are not statistically significant at the 95% confidence level. Linear regression to justify cause-effect relationships among variables and to establish a link between NDVI and climatic variables was used by [9] and [17]. For May 2011 there is no relationship at 0.2 m depth as shown in Table 5. The results were not statistically significant at the 95% confidence level since the correlation coefficient was less than the critical value. The same applies to the June values shown in Table 5. This is explained from observations by [30] who concluded that the root and below root zone moisture content in semi arid climates (like the Mbire District) has a good correlation with NDVI during the growing season and soil moisture has small correlation with NDVI during the non growing season.
Table 5: Pearsons product-moment correlation coefficients for the relationship between NDVI and moisture content for Mbire District at 0.2 m depth for n= 36 and p<0.05

Month

April 2011 May 2011 June 2011

Correlation coefficient (r) 0.381 -0.15 0.125

Coefficient of variation (R2) 0.145 0.023 0.016

95% Confidence level (=0.05) 0.304 0.304 0.304

Statistical significance Not Significant Not Significant Not Significant

Strength relationship Weakly positive Weakly negative Weakly positive

of

3.6 Electrical Conductivity results analysis Table 9 shows a summary of the EC values obtained for the three sites in the Mbire District. The highest values were observed in May 2011 which corresponds to the time period increases in water levels were recorded due to backflows from Cahora Bassa Dam. The high values of standard deviation were due to the varying soil properties and soil nutrient concentrations. From studies by [8] and [25] most salt affected soils occur in the arid and semi arid climates like the Zambezi valley, having insufficient soil moisture to leach the salts which is confirmation to the high electrical conductivity values obtained confirming the presence of high salt concentrations.
Table 6: Electrical conductivity values for Chidodo, Kanyemba and Mushumbi Pools for the period April 2011 to May 2012

SITE

EC Apr. 2011 (mS/ m) MEAN STD. DEV MAX MIN 5.05 3.46 10.80 1.08 14.48 17.14 44.86 2.14 7.68 6.08 19.44 3.23

EC May 2011 (mS/ m) 17.25 17.56 85.76 3.66 11.88 22.10 85.05 1.14 11.25 16.45 75.35 0.89

EC June 2011 (mS/ m) 16.33 21.03 102.33 2.10 9.76 19.55 87.16 0.91 8.03 9.39 53.67 1.62

EC Dec. 2011 (mS/ m) 11.10 9.28 33.76 1.76 19.16 14.43 80.40 2.00 17.51 23.18 134.56 1.84

EC May 2012 (mS/ m) 22.93 17.91 78.80 6.56 16.38 18.67 87.12 5.44 23.33 26.30 118.32 6.24

Chidodo

Kanyemba

MEAN STD. DEV MAX MIN

Mushumbi Pools

MEAN STD. DEV MAX MIN

Repeated Measures Analysis: Electrical conductivity distance factor Table 7 shows the summary of repeated measures analysis of electrical conductivity distance factor (n= 432) at p< 0.05 for Mbire District for the period April 2011 to May 2012.

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Table 7: Summary of repeated measures analysis of electrical conductivity distance factor (n= 432) at p< 0.05 for Mbire District for the period April 2011 to May 2012

Source (EC) Within subject effects Month Sphericity Assumed Time distance interaction Month*Distanc e Sphericity Assumed

River Manyame, Mushumbi Musengezi, Chidodo Mwazamutanda, Kanyemba Manyame, Mushumbi Musengezi, Kanyemba Mwazamutanda, Kanyemba Manyame, Mushumbi Musengezi, Chidodo Mwazamutanda, Kanyemba

F Value 8.253 5.795 2.225 2.810 1.851 0.958 2.062 2.748 4.577

p Value-sig. 0.000 0.001 0.090 0.014 0.097 0.457 0.143 0.079 0.018

Comment Significant Significant Not significant Significant Not significant Not significant Not significant Not significant Significant

Between subjects effects Distance Sphericity Assumed

There were significant differences of electrical conductivity with time at Musengezi and Mwazamutanda Rivers and no statistical significance for Manyame River. The electrical conductivity is a measure of the total soluble salts and this is affected by the moisture content of the soil from the findings by [1]. There were no significant effects of the combination of time and distance with respect to electrical conductivity at Musengezi and Mwazamutanda Rivers and the results were not statistically significant. At Manyame River (Mushumbi Pools) there was a significant effect of the combination of time and distance on the electrical conductivity. There were no significant effects of the combination of time and depth with respect to electrical conductivity at Manyame, Musengezi and Mwazamutanda Rivers and the results were not statistically significant. For Manyame and Mwazamutanda Rivers there was a significant effect of the combination of time and depth with respect to electrical conductivity. Repeated Measures Analysis: Electrical conductivity depth factor For the tests of between subjects effects on the electrical conductivity relationship with depth the null hypothesis Ho was that there was no significant difference in electrical conductivity with depth. From the results in Table 8 it can be concluded that the results were not statistically significant for Manyame, Musengezi and Mwazamutanda Rivers and there was no significant difference in electrical conductivity with the depth.
Table 8: Summary of repeated measures analysis of electrical conductivity depth factor (n= 432) at p< 0.05 for Mbire District for the period April 2011 to May 2012

Source (EC) Within subject effects Month Sphericity Assumed Time distance interaction Month*Depth Sphericity Assumed

River Manyame, Mushumbi Musengezi, Chidodo Mwazamutanda, Kanyemba Manyame, Mushumbi Musengezi, Chidodo Mwazamutanda, Kanyemba Manyame, Mushumbi Musengezi, Chidodo Mwazamutanda, Kanyemba

F Value 7.423 5.327 2.140 0.869 0.368 0.293 0.096 0.968 0.049

p Value-sig. 0.000 0.002 0.100 0.521 0.898 0.930 0.909 0.390 0.952

Comment Significant Significant Not significant Not significant Not significant Not significant Not significant Not significant Not significant

Between subjects effects Depth Sphericity Assumed

3.7 Soil nutrient analysis The independent t-Test or t-Statistic was used to analyse the variation of soil nutrient concentration with depth or the difference between concentrations at the 0.2 m and 0.5 m depths. The null hypothesis Ho was that there were no

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significant differences in soil nutrient concentration with depth. This test was done only in one month so the repeated measures analysis was not used. Independent sample test (t-Test) for soil nutrient variation with depth Table 9 shows the summary of the independent sample t-Test for the soil nutrient concentration for Mbire District (n= 72) at p< 0.05 for May 2011. This test was done only in one month so the repeated measures analysis was not used. From the results it can be concluded that there were no significant differences of soil nutrient concentrations with depth up to 0.5 m at Manyame, Musengezi and Mwazamutanda Rivers and the results were not statistically significant. From the results it can be concluded that there were no significant differences of soil nutrient concentrations with depth up to 0.5 m at Manyame, Musengezi and Mwazamutanda Rivers and the results were not statistically significant.
Table 9: Summary of the independent sample t-Test for the soil nutrient concentration for Mbire District (n= 72) at p< 0.05 for May 2011

Manyame River, Mushumbi Pools

Musengezi River, Chidodo

Mwazamutanda River, Kanyemba

Element Calcium Magnesium Potassium Sodium Phosphorus Nitrogen Element Calcium Magnesium Potassium Sodium Phosphorus Nitrogen Element Calcium Magnesium Potassium Sodium Phosphorus Nitrogen

t value 1.623 -0.053 -0.272 -0.440 0.524 -0.434 t value 0.619 0.182 -0.290 -0.701 -0.467 0.271 t value 0.225 0.130 0.489 0.078 -0.143 0.166

p: Sig. (2-tailed) 0.119 0.958 0.788 0.664 0.606 0.669 p: Sig. (2-tailed) 0.542 0.857 0.775 0.491 0.645 0.789 p: Sig. (2-tailed) 0.824 0.898 0.630 0.938 0.887 0.870

Comments Not significant Not significant Not significant Not significant Not significant Not significant Comments Not significant Not significant Not significant Not significant Not significant Not significant Comments Not significant Not significant Not significant Not significant Not significant Not significant

One Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA or F-Test) for the soil nutrient variation with distance from the river The One Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA or F-Test) was used for the analysis of soil nutrient variation with distance from the river. There are three variables of the test pit at start of floodplain (FP1), end of floodplain (FP2) and outside the floodplain (FP3) so the t-test was not used. The one way analysis of variance (ANOVA) or the F-test was used for the analysis. The null hypothesis Ho was that there were no significant differences in nutrient concentration with distance from the river or position within the floodplain. Table 10 shows the summary of the One Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Test for the soil nutrient concentration for Mbire District (n= 72) at p< 0.05 for May 2011.
Table 10: Summary of the One Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Test for the soil nutrient concentration for Mbire District (n= 72) at p< 0.05 for May 2011

Manyame River, Mushumbi Pools

Musengezi River, Chidodo

Element Calcium Magnesium Potassium Sodium Phosphorus Nitrogen Element Calcium Magnesium Potassium

F value 0.358 0.047 5.172 0.703 2.622 4.124 F value 0.330 0.222 3.724

p: Sig. 0.703 0.954 0.015 0.507 0.097 0.013 p: Sig. 0.722 0.802 0.041

Comments Not significant Not significant Significant Not significant Not significant Significant Comments Not significant Not significant Significant

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Sodium 0.659 0.528 Not significant Phosphorus 1.649 0.216 Not significant Nitrogen 6.849 0.005 Significant Mwazamutanda Element F value p: Sig. Comments River, Kanyemba Calcium 1.108 0.349 Not significant Magnesium 0.012 0.988 Not significant Potassium 1.454 0.256 Not significant Sodium 2.131 0.144 Not significant Phosphorus 0.246 0.784 Not significant Nitrogen 5.508 0.012 Significant There were no significant differences in calcium, magnesium, sodium and phosphorus concentrations with the distance from the river for the Manyame, Musengezi and Mwazamutanda Rivers and the results were not statistically significant. At Manyame River there was no significant difference of nutrient concentration with the distance from the river and the results were not statistically significant. There was a significant difference in nitrogen concentration with distance from the river at Chidodo, Kanyemba and Mushumbi Pools sites and the results are statistically significant. At Mushumbi Pools and Chidodo there was a significant difference in potassium concentration with distance from the river.

4. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS


4.1 Conclusions

The findings of this study show that the temporal and spatial variation of soil properties in the Middle Zambezi Valley is affected by a number of factors caused by the natural and man- made hydraulic structures. Floodplain agriculture benefits farmers throughout the dry season (recession farming). Residual moisture is sufficient to support crops to maturity. Enforcement of current cultivation laws will deprive Mbire communities of source of food security. Temporal and spatial variation of soil moisture (soil moisture dynamics) and nutrient dynamics are greatly influenced by flooding occurrences. Soil moisture, pH, electrical conductivity and nutrient composition are highly variable but there is statistical significance in the variation.
4.2 Recommendations The study needs to be conducted over a minimum of three years to have the temporal and spatial variability for all scenarios since flooding events change from year to year. The number of transects need to be increased so as to get spatial variation over a wide area of the catchment. There is need to use moisture content probes in order to cover more transects. The manual gravimetric method, although the most accurate is labour intensive and the destructive method causes affects in situ soil moisture content. Use of data loggers (e.g. the Profile probe, Time Domain Reflectometer and Theta probe) is recommended so as to improve data collection. Acknowledgements This work is part of the research activities of the Project titled Integrating Social and Natural Systems in Enhancing Environmental Sustainability in the Lower Middle Zambezi Valley funded by the EchoHydro-Zambezi Project. The authors also sincerely acknowledge the financial support received from the University of Zimbabwe Research Board and WaterNet.

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[32.] WMO., 2006. Social Aspects and Stakeholder Involvement in Integrated Flood Management. World Meteorological Organisation. Associated Programme on Flood Management Technical Document No. 5, Flood Management Policy Series. Geneva. Switzerland. Zhou, X., Lin, H.S., White, E.A., 2008. Surface soil hydraulic properties in four soil series under different land uses and their temporal changes. Catena. 73, 180-188.

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Authors Profiles
Mr Samson Shumba is currently employed as a lecturer in the Department of Civil Engineering, University of Zimbabwe where he teaches geotechnical engineering and construction materials technology related courses. Mr Shumba graduated with a BSc Civil Enginering Honours and MSc Integrated Water Resources Management from the University of Zimbabwe. He has previously worked for LBK Consulting Engineers and the Harare Polytechnic as a Principal Lecturer and Head of Division for Civil Engineering and Construction before joining the University of Zimbabwe in 2007. Mr Shumba has worked as a part time capacity development consultant for the Institute of Water and Sanitation Development (IWSD) and German Development Cooperation (GIZ) Water Quality Capacity Development Training for Norton, Gweru, Kadoma, Kariba and Chinhoyi towns in Zimbabwe. Mr Shumba is a member of various national councils which include the Standards Association of Zimbabwe Building and Civil Engineering Standards Council. His research interests include geotechnical engineering, concrete technology, water resources management, solid waste management, environmental engineering, materials technology and low cost infrastructure design. Dr Hodson Makurira is a Senior Lecturer in the Civil Engineering Department and is currently the Chairman of the Department. Dr Makurira has over 20 years experience working in the water sector having worked for the Ministry of Water and Resources and Development and ZINWA prior to joining the Civil Engineering Department in 2003. He specialises in integrated water management, hydrology, water allocation, water governance and climate change. He teaches water engineering courses at BSc and postgraduate level. In the process, he has supervised more than 30 BSc projects and at least 20 Masters Dissertations in the water engineering field. Dr Makurira is a Corporate Member of the Zimbabwe Institution of Engineers and participates in various capacity building programmes including lecturing and examining at various universities in the region. Dr Makurira holds a PhD in Water Management from UNESCO-IHE/TU Delft and he is involved in several research initiatives locally and on international river basins. He has published several articles in international journals and has presented scientific research at various conferences and workshops. He is a reviewer for several international scientific journals. Prof. Innocent Nhapi is an expert in sanitary and environmental engineering. He has previously worked for Redcliff Municipality in Zimbabwe for nearly 10 years before joining the University of Zimbabwe in January 1999. At the University of Zimbabwe he was involved in water quality and wastewater management projects in the cities of Harare, Kwekwe, Gweru, and Masvingo towns. He was also involved in the running of two masters programmes in water at the University of Zimbabwe and was attached to the WaterNet Project (regional capacity building project in Southern Africa) at various times in 2004 to 2005. Prof. Nhapi was appointed as the SADC-WaterNet Professorial Chair in Integrated Water Resources Management in the Department of Civil Engineering, University of Zimbabwe in 2009. He has supervised more than 25 MSc students and involved in the start up of 6 PhD students in Rwanda. Innocent has written many journal articles and has also reviewed several papers and research reports and is an editor/co-editor of a regular special issue of the Elsevier Physics and Chemistry of the Earth journal and an editorial board member of the Reviews in Environmental Science and Bio/Technology journal. Mr. Gumindoga is currently employed in the Department of Civil Engineering, University of Zimbabwe where he teaches water related courses including GIS and remote sensing at both BSc and MSc level. Mr. Gumindogas research interests are in the areas of: Multicriteria GIS Analysis for Environmental Impact Assessments, Spatial and quantitative hydrology, Parameterization of hydrological, vegetation and climate models using hyper-temporal remote sensing data for improved Water Resources Management, Feedbacks between climate, vegetation and landuses, water cycles and other societal influences, Data assimilation of ground data and Earth Observation data in hydrological models to create improved variable or model estimates and Quantification of Water Cycle Components.

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