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Title* The Balkans A #istory +f Bulgaria((,erbia((Greece((-u%ania((Turkey Author* Nevill Forbes, Arnold J Toynbee, ! "itrany, ! G #ogarth -elease !ate* "arch ./, .001 2EBook 34454/6 )anguage* English 7haracter set encoding* 8,+(99:;(4 <<< ,TA-T +F T#8, P-+JE7T G=TENBE-G EB++> T#E BA)>AN, <<<

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THE BALKANS
A HISTORY OF BULGARIA--SERBIA--GREECE--RUMANIA--TURKEY
B& NE?8)) F+-BE,, A-N+)! J T+&NBEE, ! "8T-AN&, ! G #+GA-T#

PREFACE

The authors of this volu%e have not $orked in conjunction @idely se'arated, engaged on other duties, and 'ressed for ti%e, $e have had no o''ortunity for interchange of vie$s Each %ust be held res'onsible, therefore, for his o$n section alone 8f there be any discre'ancies in our $ritings Ait is not unlikely in so dis'uted a field of historyB $e can only regret an unfortunate result of the circu%stances +$ing to ra'id change in the relations of our country to the several Balkan 'eo'les, the tone of a section $ritten earlier %ay differ fro% that of another $ritten later 8t %ay be $ell to state that the sections on ,erbia and Bulgaria $ere finished before the decisive Balkan develo'%ents of the 'ast t$o %onths Those on Greece and -u%ania re'resent only a little later stage of the evolution That on Turkey, co%'iled bet$een one %ission abroad and another, $as the latest to be finished 8f our sy%'athies are not all the sa%e, or given eCually to friends and foes, none of us $ould find it 'ossible to indite a #y%n of #ate about any Balkan 'eo'le Every one of these 'eo'les, on $hatever side he be fighting

to(day, has a 'ast $orthy of %ore than our res'ect and inter$oven in so%e inti%ate $ay $ith our history That any one of the% is arrayed against us to(day is not to be laid entirely or chiefly at its o$n door They are all fine 'eo'les $ho have not obtained their 'ro'er 'laces in the sun The best of the +s%anli nation, the Anatolian 'easantry, has yet to %ake its 'hysical and %oral Cualities felt under civiliDed conditions As for the rest((the ,erbs and the Bulgars, $ho have enjoyed brief %o%ents of barbaric glory in their 'ast, have still to find the%selves in that future $hich shall be to the ,lav The Greeks, $ho $ere old $hen $e $ere not as yet, are younger no$ than $e They are as incalculable a factor in a 'olitical forecast as another 7hosen -ace, the Je$s Their 'ast is the $orldEs glory* the 'resent in the Near East is theirs %ore than any 'eo'leEs* the future((des'ite the la$s of cor'orate being and decline, dare $e say they $ill have no 'art in itF +f -u%ania $hat are $e to thinkF #er %iGed 'eo'le has had the start of the Balkan ,lavs in %odern civiliDation, and evidently her boundaries %ust gro$ $ider yet But the li%its of her 'ossible eG'ansion are easier to set than those of the rest @e ho'e $e have dealt fairly $ith all these 'eo'les "ediaeval history, $hether of the East or the @est, is %ostly a record of bloodshedding and crueltyH and the "iddle Age has been 'rolonged to our o$n ti%e in %ost 'arts of the Balkans, and is not yet over in so%e 'arts There are certain things salutary to bear in %ind $hen $e think or s'eak of any 'art of that country to(day First, that less than t$o hundred years ago, England had its high$ay%en on all roads, and its s%uggler dens and caravans, ,cotland its caterans, and 8reland its %oonlighters ,econd, that religious fervour has rarely %itigated and generally increased our o$n savagery Thirdly, that our o$n 'olicy in Balkan %atters has been none too $ise, es'ecially of late 8n 'er%itting the Treaty of Bucarest three years ago, $e $ere 'arties to %aking %uch of the trouble that has ensued, and $ill ensue again 8f $e have not been able to $rite about the Near East under eGisting circu%stances altogether Isine ira et studioI, $e have tried to re%e%ber that each of its 'eo'les has a case

! G #+GA-T# INove%berI, 4;4:

CONTENTS

BULGARIA AND SERBIA. By NEVILL FORBES.

1. Introductory 2. The Bal an !en"n#ula "n $la##"cal T"%e# &'' B.$. ( A.D. )'' *. The Arr"+al o, the Sla+# "n the Bal an !en"n#ula- A.D. )''(.)'

BULGARIA.

&. The Arr"+al o, the Bul/ar# "n the Bal an !en"n#ula.''(0'' ). The Early 1ear# o, Bul/ar"a and the Introduct"on o, $hr"#t"an"ty- 0''(23* .. The R"#e and Fall o, the F"r#t Bul/ar"an E%4"re- 23*(302 0. The R"#e and Fall o, 56e#tern Bul/ar"a5 and the Gree Su4re%acy- 3.*(112. 2. The R"#e and Fall o, the Second Bul/ar"an E%4"re- 112.(12)2 3. The Ser7"an Su4re%acy and the F"nal $olla4#e- 12)2(1*3* 1'. The Tur "#h Do%"n"on and the E%anc"4at"on- 1*3*(1202 11. The A,ter%ath- and !r"nce Ale8ander o, Batten7er/- 1202(2.

12. The Re/enerat"on under !r"nce Ferd"nand o, Sa8e($o7ur/- 122.(13'2 1*. The 9"n/do%- 13'2(1*

SERBIA.

1&. The Ser7# under Fore"/n Su4re%acy- .)'(11.2 1). The R"#e and Fall o, the Ser7"an E%4"re and the E8t"nct"on o, Ser7"an Inde4endence- 11.2(1&3. 1.. The Tur "#h Do%"n"on- 1&3.(103. 10. The L"7erat"on o, Ser7"a under 9ara(Geor/e :12'&(1*; and <"lo=;#> O7reno+"=5c> :121)(*';? 103.(12*' 12. The Throe# o, Re/enerat"on? Inde4endent Ser7"a- 12*'(13'* 13. Ser7"a- <ontene/ro- and the Ser7o($roat# "n Au#tr"a(@un/ary13'*(2 2'. Ser7"a and <ontene/ro- and the tAo Bal an 6ar#- 13'2(1*

GREE$E. By ARNOLD B. TO1NBEE.

1. Fro% Anc"ent to <odern Greece 2. The AAa en"n/ o, the Nat"on *. The $on#ol"dat"on o, the State

RU<ANIA? @ER @ISTOR1 AND !OLITI$S. By D. <ITRAN1

1. Introduct"on 2. For%at"on o, the Ru%an"an Nat"on *. The Foundat"on and De+elo4%ent o, the Ru%an"an !r"nc"4al"t"e# &. The !hanar"ote Rule ). <odern !er"od to 12.. .. $onte%4orary !er"od? Internal De+elo4%ent 0. $onte%4orary !er"od? Fore"/n A,,a"r# 2. Ru%an"a and the !re#ent 6ar

TUR9E1. By D. G. @OGART@

1. Or"/"n o, the O#%anl"#

2. E84an#"on o, the O#%anl" 9"n/do% *. @er"ta/e and E84an#"on o, the ByCant"ne E%4"re &. Shr"n a/e and Retreat ). Re+"+al .. Rela4#e 0. Re+olut"on 2. The Bal an 6ar 3. The Future

INDED

<A!S

The Bal an !en"n#ula? Ethnolo/"cal The Bal an !en"n#ula The Otto%an E%4"re

B=)GA-8A AN! ,E-B8A

4 I8ntroductoryI

The $hole of $hat %ay be called the trunk or I%assifI of the Balkan 'eninsula, bounded on the north by the rivers ,ave and !anube, on the $est by the Adriatic, on the east by the Black ,ea, and on the south by a very irregular line running fro% Antivari Aon the coast of the AdriaticB and the lake of ,cutari in the $est, through lakes +khrida and Pres'a Ain "acedoniaB to the outskirts of ,alonika and thence to "idia on the shores of the Black ,ea, follo$ing the coast of the Aegean ,ea so%e %iles inland, is 're'onderatingly inhabited by ,lavs These ,lavs are the Bulgarians in the east and centre, the ,erbs and 7roats Aor ,erbians and 7roatians or ,erbo(7roatsB in the $est, and the ,lovenes in the eGtre%e north($est, bet$een Trieste and the ,aveH these nationalities co%'ose the southern branch of the ,lavonic race The other inhabitants of the Balkan 'eninsula are, to the south of the ,lavs, the Albanians in the $est, the Greeks in the centre and south, and the Turks in the south(east, and, to the north, the -u%anians All four of these nationalities are to be found in varying Cuantities $ithin the li%its of the ,lav territory roughly outlined above, but greater nu%bers of the% are outside itH on the other hand, there are a considerable nu%ber of ,erbs living north of the rivers ,ave and !anube, in southern #ungary !etails of the ethnic distribution and boundaries $ill of course be gone into %ore fully laterH %ean$hile attention %ay be called to the significant fact that the na%e of "acedonia, the heart of the Balkan 'eninsula, has been long used by the French gastrono%ers to denote a dish, the 'rinci'al characteristic of $hich is that its co%'onent 'arts are %iGed u' into Cuite ineGtricable confusion

+f the three ,lavonic nationalities already %entioned, the t$o first, the Bulgarians and the ,erbo(7roats, occu'y a %uch greater s'ace, geogra'hically and historically, than the third The ,lovenes, barely one and a half %illion in nu%ber, inhabiting the Austrian 'rovinces of 7arinthia and 7arniola, have never been able to for% a 'olitical state, though, $ith the gro$th of Trieste as a great 'ort and the 'ersistent efforts of Ger%any to %ake her influence if not her flag su're%e on the shores of the Adriatic, this s%all 'eo'le has fro% its geogra'hical 'osition and fro% its anti(Ger%an Aand anti(8talianB attitude achieved considerable notoriety and so%e i%'ortance +f the Bulgars and ,erbs it %ay be said that at the 'resent %o%ent the for%er control the eastern, and the latter, in alliance $ith the Greeks, the $estern half of the 'eninsula 8t has al$ays been the a%bition of each of these three nationalities to do%inate the $hole, an a%bition $hich has caused endless $aste of blood and %oney and untold %isery 8f the Cuestion $ere to be settled 'urely on ethnical considerations, Bulgaria $ould acCuire the greater 'art of the interior of "acedonia, the %ost nu%erous of the doDen nationalities of $hich is Bulgarian in senti%ent if not in origin, and $ould thus undoubtedly attain the hege%ony of the 'eninsula, $hile the centre of gravity of the ,erbian nation $ould, as is ethnically just, %ove north($est$ards Political considerations, ho$ever, have until no$ al$ays been against this solution of the difficulty, and, even if it solved in this sense, there $ould still re%ain the 'roble% of the Greek nationality, $hose distribution along all the coasts of the Aegean, both Euro'ean and Asiatic, %akes a deli%itation of the Greek state on 'urely ethnical lines virtually i%'ossible 8t is curious that the ,lavs, though %asters of the interior of the 'eninsula and of 'arts of its eastern and $estern coasts, have never %ade the shores of the Aegean Athe @hite ,ea, as they call itB or the cities on the% their o$n The Adriatic is the only sea on the shore of $hich any ,lavonic race has ever %ade its ho%e 8n vie$ of this difficulty, na%ely, the interior of the 'eninsula being ,lavonic $hile the coastal fringe is Greek, and of the a''roGi%ately eCual

nu%erical strength of all three nations, it is al%ost inevitable that the ulti%ate solution of the 'roble% and deli%itation of 'olitical boundaries $ill have to be effected by %eans of territorial co%'ro%ise 8t can only be ho'ed that this ulti%ate co%'ro%ise $ill be agreed u'on by the three countries concerned, and $ill be %ore eCuitable than that $hich $as forced on the% by -u%ania in 4;4J and laid do$n in the Treaty of Bucarest of that year 8f no arrange%ent on a 'rinci'le of give and take is %ade bet$een the%, the road to the East, $hich fro% the 'oint of vie$ of the Ger%anic 'o$ers lies through ,erbia, $ill sooner or later inevitably be forced o'en, and the inde'endence, first of ,erbia, "ontenegro, and Albania, and later of Bulgaria and Greece, $ill disa''ear, Ide factoI if not in a''earance, and both %aterially and %orally they $ill beco%e the slaves of the central e%'ires 8f the Balkan )eague could be reconstituted, Ger%any and Austria $ould never reach ,alonika or 7onstantino'le

. IThe Balkan Peninsula in 7lassical Ti%esI 100 B 7 ( A ! :00

8n the earlier historical ti%es the $hole of the eastern 'art of the Balkan 'eninsula bet$een the !anube and the Aegean $as kno$n as Thracia, $hile the $estern 'art Anorth of the forty(first degree of latitudeB $as ter%ed 8llyricu%H the lo$er basin of the river ?ardar Athe classical AGiusB $as called "acedonia A nu%ber of the tribal and 'ersonal na%es of the early 8llyrians and Thracians have been 'reserved Phili' of "acedonia subdued Thrace in the fourth century B 7 and in J1. founded the city of Phili''o'olis AleGanderEs first ca%'aign $as devoted to securing control

of the 'eninsula, but during the Third century B 7 Thrace $as invaded fro% the north and laid $aste by the 7elts, $ho had already visited 8llyria The 7elts vanished by the end of that century, leaving a fe$ 'lace(na%es to %ark their 'assage The city of Belgrade $as kno$n until the seventh century A ! by its 7eltic na%e of ,ingidunu% Naissus, the %odern Nish, is also 'ossibly of 7eltic origin 8t $as to$ards .J0 B 7 that -o%e ca%e into contact $ith 8llyricu%, o$ing to the 'iratical 'roclivities of its inhabitants, but for a long ti%e it only controlled the !al%atian coast, so called after the !el%ati or !al%ati, an 8llyrian tribe The reason for this $as the for%idable character of the %ountains of 8llyria, $hich run in several 'arallel and al%ost unbroken lines the $hole length of the shore of the Adriatic and have al$ays for%ed an effective barrier to invasion fro% the $est The interior $as only very gradually subdued by the -o%ans after "acedonia had been occu'ied by the% in 41/ B 7 Throughout the first century B 7 conflicts raged $ith varying fortune bet$een the invaders and all the native races living bet$een the Adriatic and the !anube They $ere attacked both fro% ACuileia in the north and fro% "acedonia in the south, but it $as not till the early years of our era that the !anube beca%e the frontier of the -o%an E%'ire 8n the year A ! / "oesia, $hich included a large 'art of the %odern kingdo% of ,erbia and the northern half of that of Bulgaria bet$een the !anube and the Balkan range Athe classical #ae%usB, beca%e an i%'erial 'rovince, and t$enty years later Thrace, the country bet$een the Balkan range and the Aegean, $as incor'orated in the e%'ire, and $as %ade a 'rovince by the E%'eror 7laudius in A ! 1/ The 'rovince of 8llyricu% or !al%atia stretched bet$een the ,ave and the Adriatic, and Pannonia lay bet$een the !anube and the ,ave 8n 405 A ! the E%'eror Trajan conCuered the !acians beyond the lo$er !anube, and organiDed a 'rovince of !acia out of territory roughly eCuivalent to the %odern @allachia and Transylvania, This trans(!anubian territory did not re%ain attached to the e%'ire for %ore than a hundred and fifty yearsH but $ithin the river line a vast belt of country, stretching fro% the head of the Adriatic to the %ouths of the !anube on the Black ,ea, $as -o%aniDed through and through The E%'eror

Trajan has been called the 7harle%agne of the Balkan 'eninsulaH all re%ains are attributed to hi% Ahe $as nickna%ed the @allflo$er by 7onstantine the GreatB, and his reign %arked the Denith of -o%an 'o$er in this 'art of the $orld The Balkan 'eninsula enjoyed the benefits of -o%an civiliDation for three centuries, fro% the first to the fourth, but fro% the second century on$ards the attitude of the -o%ans $as defensive rather than offensive The $ar against the "arco%anni under the E%'eror "arcus Aurelius, in the second half of this century, $as the turning('oint -o%e $as still victorious, but no territory $as added to the e%'ire The third century sa$ the south$ard %ove%ent of the Ger%anic 'eo'les, $ho took the 'lace of the 7elts The Goths invaded the 'eninsula, and in .:4 the E%'eror !ecius $as killed in battle against the% near +dessus on the Black ,ea Athe %odern ?arnaB The Goths reached the outskirts of Thessalonica A,alonikaB, but $ere defeated by the E%'eror 7laudius at Naissus ANishB in ./;H shortly after$ards, ho$ever, the E%'eror Aurelian had definitively to relinCuish !acia to the% The E%'eror !iocletian, a native of !al%atia, $ho reigned fro% .91 to J0:, carried out a redistribution of the i%'erial 'rovinces Pannonia and $estern 8llyria, or !al%atia, $ere assigned to the 'refecture of 8taly, Thrace to that of the +rient, $hile the $hole centre of the 'eninsula, fro% the !anube to the Pelo'onnese, constituted the 'refecture of 8llyria, $ith Thessalonica as ca'ital The territory to the north of the !anube having been lost, $hat is no$ $estern Bulgaria $as rena%ed !acia, $hile "oesia, the %odern kingdo% of ,erbia, $as %ade very %uch s%aller Praevalis, or the southern 'art of !al%atia, a''roGi%ately the %odern "ontenegro and Albania, $as detached fro% that 'rovince and added to the 'refecture of 8llyria 8n this $ay the boundary bet$een the 'rovince of !al%atia and the Balkan 'eninsula 'ro'er ran fro% near the lake of ,cutari in the south to the river !rinus Athe %odern !rinaB, $hose course it follo$ed till the ,ave $as reached in the north An event of far(reaching i%'ortance in the follo$ing century $as the elevation by 7onstantine the Great of the Greek colony of ByDantiu% into the i%'erial city of 7onstantino'le in J.: This century also $itnessed the arrival of the #uns in Euro'e fro% Asia They over$hel%ed the

+strogoths, bet$een the !nie'er and the !niester, in J5:, and the ?isigoths, settled in Transylvania and the %odern -u%ania, %oved south$ards in sy%'athy $ith this event The E%'eror ?alens lost his life fighting against these Goths in J59 at the great battle of Adriano'le Aa city established in Thrace by the E%'eror #adrian in the second centuryB #is successor, the E%'eror Theodosius, 'lacated the% $ith gifts and %ade the% guardians of the northern frontier, but at his death, in J;:, they overran and devastated the entire 'eninsula, after $hich they 'roceeded to 8taly After the death of the E%'eror Theodosius the e%'ire $as divided, never to be joined into one $hole again The dividing line follo$ed that, already %entioned, $hich se'arated the 'refecture of 8taly fro% those of 8llyria and the +rient, that is to say, it began in the south, on the shore of the Adriatic near the Bocche di 7attaro, and $ent due north along the valley of the !rina till the confluence of that river $ith the ,ave 8t $ill be seen that this division had conseCuences $hich have lasted to the 'resent day Generally s'eaking, the @estern E%'ire $as )atin in language and character, $hile the Eastern $as Greek, though o$ing to the i%'ortance of the !anubian 'rovinces to -o%e fro% the %ilitary 'oint of vie$, and the lively intercourse %aintained bet$een the%, )atin influence in the% $as for a long ti%e stronger than Greek 8ts eGtent is 'roved by the fact that the 'eo'le of %odern -u%ania are 'artly, and their language very largely, defended fro% those of the legions and colonies of the E%'eror Trajan )atin influence, shi''ing, coloniDation, and art $ere al$ays su're%e on the eastern shores of the Adriatic, just as $ere those of Greece on the shores of the Black ,ea The Albanians even, descendants of the ancient 8llyrians, $ere affected by the su're%acy of the )atin language, fro% $hich no less than a Cuarter of their o$n %eagre vocabulary is derivedH though driven south$ards by the -o%ans and north$ards by the Greeks, they have re%ained in their %ountain fastnesses to this day, i%'ervious to any of the civiliDations to $hich they have been eG'osed 7hristianity s'read to the shores of the 'eninsula very earlyH "acedonia

and !al%atia $ere the 'arts $here it $as first established, and it took so%e ti%e to 'enetrate into the interior !uring the reign of !iocletian nu%erous %artyrs suffered for the faith in the !anubian 'rovinces, but $ith the accession of 7onstantine the Great 'ersecution ca%e to an end As soon, ho$ever, as the 7hristians $ere left alone, they started 'ersecuting each other, and during the fourth century the Arian controversy re(echoed throughout the 'eninsula 8n the fifth century the #uns %oved fro% the shores of the Black ,ea to the 'lains of the !anube and the TheissH they devastated the Balkan 'eninsula, in s'ite of the tribute $hich they had levied on 7onstantino'le in return for their 'ro%ise of 'eace After the death of Attila, in 1:J, they again retreated to Asia, and during the second half of the century the Goths $ere once %ore su're%e in the 'eninsula Theodoric occu'ied ,ingidunu% ABelgradeB in 154 and, after 'lundering "acedonia and Greece, settled in Novae Athe %odern ,vishtovB, on the lo$er !anube, in 19J, $here he re%ained till he transferred the s'here of his activities to 8taly ten years later To$ards the end of the fifth century #uns of various kinds returned to the lo$er !anube and devastated the 'eninsula several ti%es, 'enetrating as far as E'irus and Thessaly

J IThe Arrival of the ,lavs in the Balkan PeninsulaI, A ! :00(/:0

The Balkan 'eninsula, $hich had been raised to a high level of security and 'ros'erity during the -o%an do%inion, gradually rela'sed into barbaris% as a result of these endless invasionsH the $alled to$ns, such as ,alonika and 7onstantino'le, $ere the only safe 'laces, and the country beca%e $aste and desolate The 'rocess continued unabated throughout the three follo$ing centuries, and one is driven to one of t$o conclusions,

either that these lands %ust have 'ossessed very eGtraordinary 'o$ers of recu'eration to %ake it $orth $hile for invaders to 'illage the% so freCuently, or, $hat is %ore 'robable, there can have been after so%e ti%e little left to 'lunder, and conseCuently the ByDantine historiansE accounts of enor%ous drives of 'risoners and booty are %uch eGaggerated 8t is i%'ossible to count the nu%ber of ti%es the tide of invasion and devastation s$e't south$ards over the unfortunate 'eninsula The e%'erors and their generals did $hat they could by %eans of defensive $orks on the frontiers, of 'unitive eG'editions, and of trying to set the various hordes of barbarians at loggerheads $ith each other, but, as they had at the sa%e ti%e to defend an e%'ire $hich stretched fro% Ar%enia to ,'ain, it is not sur'rising that they $ere not %ore successful The gro$ing riches of 7onstantino'le and ,alonika had an irresistible attraction for the $ild %en fro% the east and north, and unfortunately the Greek citiDens $ere %ore inclined to s'end their energy in theological dis'utes and their leisure in the circus than to devote either the one or the other to the defence of their country 8t $as only by dint of 'aying the% huge su%s of %oney that the invaders $ere ke't a$ay fro% the coast The de'arture of the #uns and the Goths had %ade the $ay for fresh series of un$elco%e visitors 8n the siGth century the ,lavs a''ear for the first ti%e Fro% their original ho%es $hich $ere i%%ediately north of the 7ar'athians, in Galicia and Poland, but %ay also have included 'arts of the %odern #ungary, they %oved south$ards and south(east$ards They $ere 'resu%ably in !acia, north of the !anube, in the 'revious century, but they are first %entioned as having crossed that river during the reign of the E%'eror Justin 8 A:49(.5B They $ere a loosely(knit congeries of tribes $ithout any single leader or central authorityH so%e say they %erely 'ossessed the instinct of anarchy, others that they $ere 'er%eated $ith the ideals of de%ocracy @hat is certain is that a%ongst the% neither leadershi' nor initiative $as develo'ed, and that they lacked both cohesion and organisation The Eastern ,lavs, the ancestors of the -ussians, $ere only $elded into anything a''roaching unity by the co%'aratively %uch s%aller nu%ber of ,candinavian A?arangianB adventurers $ho ca%e and took charge of their affairs at >iev ,i%ilarly the ,outhern ,lavs $ere never of

the%selves able to for% a united co%%unity, conscious of its ai% and ca'able of 'ersevering in its attain%ent The ,lavs did not invade the Balkan 'eninsula alone but in the co%'any of the Avars, a terrible and justly dreaded nation, $ho, like the #uns, $ere of Asiatic ATurkish or "ongolB origin These invasions beca%e %ore freCuent during the reign of the E%'eror Justinian 8 A:.5(/:B, and cul%inated in ::; in a great co%bined attack of all the invaders on 7onstantino'le under a certain Kabergan, $hich $as brilliantly defeated by the veteran ByDantine general Belisarius The Avars $ere a no%ad tribe, and the horse $as their natural %eans of loco%otion The ,lavs, on the other hand, %oved about on foot, and see% to have been used as infantry by the %ore %asterful Asiatics in their $arlike eG'editions Generally s'eaking, the Avars, $ho %ust have been infinitely less nu%erous than the ,lavs, $ere settled in #ungary, $here Attila and the #uns had been settled a little %ore than a century 'reviouslyH that is to say, they $ere north of the !anube, though they $ere al$ays overrunning into =''er "oesia, the %odern ,erbia The ,lavs, $hose nu%bers $ere $ithout doubt very large, gradually settled all over the country south of the !anube, the rural 'arts of $hich, as a result of incessant invasion and retreat, had beco%e $aste and e%'ty !uring the second half of the siGth century all the %ilitary energies of 7onstantino'le $ere diverted to Persia, so that the invaders of the Balkan 'eninsula had the field very %uch to the%selves 8t $as during this ti%e that the 'o$er of the Avars reached its height They $ere %asters of all the country u' to the $alls of Adriano'le and ,alonika, though they did not settle there The 'eninsula see%s to have been coloniDed by ,lavs, $ho 'enetrated right do$n into GreeceH but the Avars $ere throughout this ti%e, both in 'olitics and in $ar, the directing and do%inating force !uring another Persian $ar, $hich broke out in /.. and entailed the 'rolonged absence of the e%'eror fro% 7onstantino'le, the Avars, not satisfied $ith the tribute eGtorted fro% the Greeks, %ade an alliance against the% $ith the Persians, and in /./ collected a large ar%y of ,lavs and Asiatics and attacked 7onstantino'le both by land and sea fro% the Euro'ean side, $hile the Persians threatened

it fro% Asia But the $alls of the city and the shi's of the Greeks 'roved invincible, and, Cuarrels breaking out bet$een the ,lavs and the Avars, both had to save the%selves in igno%inious and 'reci'itate retreat After this nothing %ore $as heard of the Avars in the Balkan 'eninsula, though their 'o$er $as only finally crushed by 7harle%agne in 5;; 8n -ussia their do$nfall beca%e 'roverbial, being crystalliDed in the saying, Ethey 'erished like AvarsE The ,lavs, on the other hand, re%ained Throughout these stor%y ti%es their 'enetration of the Balkan 'eninsula had been 'eacefully if unostentatiously 'roceedingH by the %iddle of the seventh century it $as co%'lete The %ain strea%s of ,lavonic i%%igration %oved south$ards and $est$ards The first covered the $hole of the country bet$een the !anube and the Balkan range, overflo$ed into "acedonia, and filtered do$n into Greece ,outhern Thrace in the east and Albania in the $est $ere co%'aratively little affected, and in these districts the indigenous 'o'ulation %aintained itself The coasts of the Aegean and the great cities on or near the% $ere too strongly held by the Greeks to be affected, and those ,lavs $ho 'enetrated into Greece itself $ere soon absorbed by the local 'o'ulations The still stronger ,lavonic strea%, $hich %oved $est$ards and turned u' north($est$ards, overran the $hole country do$n to the shores of the Adriatic and as far as the sources of the ,ave and !rave in the Al's Fro% that 'oint in the $est to the shores of the Black ,ea in the east beca%e one solid %ass of ,lavs, and has re%ained so ever since The fe$ ,lavs $ho $ere left north of the !anube in !acia $ere gradually assi%ilated by the inhabitants of that 'rovince, $ho $ere the descendants of the -o%an soldiers and colonists, and the ancestors of the %odern -u%anians, but the fact that ,lavonic influence there $as strong is sho$n by the large nu%ber of $ords of ,lavonic origin contained in the -u%anian language 28llustration* T#E BA)>AN PEN8N,=)A ET#N+)+G87A)6 Place(na%es are a good indeG of the eGtent and strength of the tide of ,lav i%%igration All along the coast, fro% the %outh of the !anube to the

head of the Adriatic, the Greek and -o%an na%es have been retained though 'laces have often been given alternative na%es by the ,lavonic settlers Thrace, es'ecially the south(eastern 'art, and Albania have the fe$est ,lavonic 'lace(na%es 8n "acedonia and )o$er "oesia ABulgariaB very fe$ classical na%es have survived, $hile in =''er "oesia A,erbiaB and the interior of !al%atia ABosnia, #ercegovina, and "ontenegroB they have entirely disa''eared The ,lavs the%selves, though their tribal na%es $ere kno$n, $ere until the ninth century usually called collectively ,AkBlavini A2Greek* ,klabaenoi6B by the Greeks, and all the inland 'arts of the 'eninsula $ere for long ter%ed by the% Ethe ,AkBlavoniasE A2Greek* ,klabiniai6B !uring the seventh century, dating fro% the defeat of the ,lavs and Avars before the $alls of 7onstantino'le in /./ and the final triu%'h of the e%'eror over the Persians in /.9, the influence and 'o$er of the Greeks began to reassert itself throughout the 'eninsula as far north as the !anubeH this 'rocess $as coincident $ith the decline of the %ight of the Avars 8t $as the custo% of the astute ByDantine di'lo%acy to look on and s'eak of lands $hich had been occu'ied by the various barbarian invaders as grants %ade to the% through the generosity of the e%'erorH by this %eans, by dint also of lavishing titles and substantial inco%es to the invadersE chiefs, by %aking the %ost of their %utual jealousies, and also by enlisting regi%ents of ,lavonic %ercenaries in the i%'erial ar%ies, the su're%acy of 7onstantino'le $as regained far %ore effectively than it could have been by the continual and eGhausting use of force

B=)GA-8A

IThe Arrival of the Bulgars in the Balkan Peninsula,I /00(500

The 'rogress of the Bulgars to$ards the Balkan 'eninsula, and indeed all their %ove%ents until their final establish%ent there in the seventh century, are involved in obscurity They are first %entioned by na%e in classical and Ar%enian sources in 19. as living in the ste''es to the north of the Black ,ea a%ongst other Asiatic tribes, and it has been assu%ed by so%e that at the end of the fifth and throughout the siGth century they $ere associated first $ith the #uns and later $ith the Avars and ,lavs in the various incursions into and invasions of the eastern e%'ire $hich have already been enu%erated 8t is the tendency of Bulgarian historians, $ho scornfully 'oint to the fact that the history of -ussia only dates fro% the ninth century, to eGaggerate the antiCuity of their o$n and to clai% as early a date as 'ossible for the authentic a''earance of their ancestors on the kaleidosco'ic stage of the Balkan theatre They are also un$illing to ad%it that they $ere antici'ated by the ,lavsH they 'refer to think that the ,lavs only insinuated the%selves there thanks to the energy of the BulgarsE offensive against the Greeks, and that as soon as the Bulgars had leisure to look about the% they found all the best 'laces already occu'ied by the anarchic ,lavs +f course it is very difficult to say 'ositively $hether Bulgars $ere or $ere not 'resent in the $elter of Asiatic nations $hich s$e't $est$ards into Euro'e $ith little inter%ission throughout the fifth and siGth centuries, but even if they $ere, they do not see% to have settled do$n as early as that any$here south of the !anubeH it see%s certain that they did not do so until the seventh century, and therefore that the ,lavs $ere definitely installed in the Balkan 'eninsula a $hole century before the Bulgars crossed the !anube for good The Bulgars, like the #uns and the Avars $ho 'receded the%, and like the "agyars and the Turks $ho follo$ed the%, $ere a tribe fro% eastern Asia,

of the stock kno$n as "ongol or Tartar The tendency of all these 'eo'les $as to %ove $est$ards fro% Asia into Euro'e, and this they did at considerable and irregular intervals, though in alar%ing and a''arently ineGhaustible nu%bers, roughly fro% the fourth till the fourteenth centuries The distance $as great, but the journey, thanks to the flat, grassy, treeless, and $ell($atered character of the ste''es of southern -ussia $hich they had to cross, $as easy They often halted for considerable 'eriods by the $ay, and so%e never %oved further $est$ards than -ussia Thus at one ti%e the Bulgars settled in large nu%bers on the ?olga, near its confluence $ith the >a%a, and it is 'resu%ed that they $ere $ell established there in the fifth century They for%ed a co%%unity of considerable strength and i%'ortance, kno$n as Great or @hite Bulgaria These Bulgars fused $ith later Tartar i%%igrants fro% Asia and eventually $ere consolidated into the 'o$erful kingdo% of >aDan, $hich $as only crushed by the Tsar 8van 8? in 4::. According to Bulgarian historians, the basins of the rivers ?olga and !on and the ste''es of eastern -ussia 'roved too confined a s'ace for the legiti%ate develo'%ent of Bulgarian energy, and eG'ansion to the $est $as decided on A large nu%ber of Bulgars therefore detached the%selves and began to %ove south($est$ards !uring the siGth century they see% to have been settled in the country to the north of the Black ,ea, for%ing a colony kno$n as Black Bulgaria 8t is very doubtful $hether the Bulgars did take 'art, as they are su''osed to have done, in the a%bitious but unsuccessful attack on 7onstantino'le in ::; under Kabergan, chief of another Tartar tribeH but it is fairly certain that they did in the eCually for%idable but eCually unsuccessful attacks by the ,lavs and Avars against ,alonika in /0; and 7onstantino'le in /./ !uring the last Cuarter of the siGth and the first of the seventh century the various branches of the Bulgar nation, stretching fro% the ?olga to the !anube, $ere consolidated and ke't in control by their 'rince >ubrat, $ho eventually fought on behalf of the Greeks against the Avars, and $as actually ba'tiDed in 7onstantino'le The 'o$er of the Bulgars gre$ as that of the Avars declined, but at the death of >ubrat, in /J9, his real% $as

divided a%ongst his sons +ne of these established hi%self in Pannonia, $here he joined forces $ith $hat $as left of the Avars, and there the Bulgars %aintained the%selves till they $ere obliterated by the irru'tion of the "agyars in 9;J Another son, As'arukh, or 8s'erikh, settled in Bessarabia, bet$een the rivers Prut and !niester, in /10, and so%e years later 'assed south$ards After desultory $arfare $ith 7onstantino'le, fro% //0 on$ards, his successor finally overca%e the Greeks, $ho $ere at that ti%e at $ar $ith the Arabs, ca'tured ?arna, and definitely established hi%self bet$een the !anube and the Balkan range in the year /5; Fro% that year the !anube ceased to be the frontier of the eastern e%'ire The nu%bers of the Bulgars $ho settled south of the !anube are not kno$n, but $hat ha''ened to the% is notorious The $ell(kno$n 'rocess, by $hich the Franks in Gaul $ere absorbed by the far %ore nu%erous indigenous 'o'ulation $hich they had conCuered, $as re'eated, and the Bulgars beca%e fused $ith the ,lavs ,o co%'lete $as the fusion, and so 're'onderating the influence of the subject nationality, that beyond a fe$ 'ersonal na%es no traces of the language of the Bulgars have survived "odern Bulgarian, eGce't for the Turkish $ords introduced into it later during the +tto%an rule, is 'urely ,lavonic Not so the Bulgarian nationalityH as is so often the case $ith %ongrel 'roducts, this race, co%'ared $ith the ,erbs, $ho are 'urely ,lav, has sho$n considerably greater virility, cohesion, and driving('o$er, though it %ust be conceded that its 'roble%s have been infinitely si%'ler

: IThe Early &ears of Bulgaria and the 8ntroduction of 7hristianityI, 500(9;J

Fro% the ti%e of their establish%ent in the country to $hich they have

given their na%e the Bulgars beca%e a thorn in the side of the Greeks, and ever since both 'eo'les have looked on one another as natural and hereditary ene%ies The Bulgars, like all the barbarians $ho had 'receded the%, $ere fascinated by the honey('ot of 7onstantino'le, and, though they never succeeded in taking it, they never gre$ tired of %aking the atte%'t For t$o hundred years after the death of As'arukh, in //4, the Bulgars $ere 'er'etually fighting either against the Greeks or else a%ongst the%selves At ti%es a diversion $as caused by the Bulgars taking the 'art of the Greeks, as in 549, $hen they EdeliveredE 7onstantino'le, at the invocation of the E%'eror )eo, fro% the Arabs, $ho $ere besieging it Fro% about this ti%e the Bulgarian %onarchy, $hich had been hereditary, beca%e elective, and the anarchy of the %any, $hich the Bulgars found $hen they arrived, and $hich their first fe$ autocratic rulers had been able to control, $as re'laced by an anarchy of the fe$ Prince succeeded 'rince, $ar follo$ed $ar, at the $ill of the feudal nobles This internal strife $as naturally 'rofitable to the Greeks, $ho lavishly subsidiDed the rival factions At the end of the eighth century the Bulgars south of the !anube joined forces $ith those to the north in the efforts of the latter against the Avars, $ho, beaten by 7harle%agne, $ere again 'ressing south(east$ards to$ards the !anube 8n this the Bulgars $ere co%'letely successful under the leadershi' of one >ru%, $ho%, in the elation of victory, they 'ro%'tly elected to the throne >ru% $as a far %ore ca'able ruler than they had bargained for, and he not only united all the Bulgars north and south of the !anube into one do%inion, but also forcibly re'ressed the $hi%s of the nobles and re(established the autocracy and the hereditary %onarchy #aving finished $ith his ene%ies in the north, he turned his attention to the Greeks, $ith no less success 8n 90; he ca'tured fro% the% the i%'ortant city of ,ofia Athe -o%an ,ardica, kno$n to the ,lavs as ,redetsB, $hich is to(day the ca'ital of Bulgaria The loss of this city $as a blo$ to the Greeks, because it $as a great centre of co%%erce and also the 'oint at $hich the co%%ercial and strategic high$ays of the

'eninsula %et and crossed The E%'eror Niki'hLros, $ho $ished to take his revenge and recover his lost 'ro'erty, $as totally defeated by the Bulgars and lost his life in the Balkan 'asses in 944 After further victories, at "ese%bria Athe %odern "isivriaB in 94. and Adriano'le in 94J, >ru% a''eared before the ca'ital, $here he nearly lost his life in an a%bush $hile negotiating for 'eace !uring 're'arations for a final assault on 7onstantino'le he died suddenly in 94: Though >ru% cannot be said to have introduced civilisation into Bulgaria, he at any rate increased its 'o$er and gave it so%e of the %ore essential organs of govern%ent #e fra%ed a code of la$s re%arkable for their rigour, $hich $as undoubtedly necessary in such a co%%unity and beneficial in its effect #e re'ressed civil strife, and by this %eans %ade 'ossible the rea$akening of co%%erce and agriculture #is successor, of uncertain identity, founded in 9.. the city of Preslav Akno$n to the -ussians as PereyaslavB, situated in eastern Bulgaria, bet$een ?arna and ,ilistria, $hich $as the ca'ital until ;5. The reign of Prince Boris A9:.(99B is re%arkable because it $itnessed the definitive conversion to 7hristianity of Bulgaria and her ruler 8t is $ithin this 'eriod also that fell the activities of the t$o great E,lavonicE %issionaries and a'ostles, the brothers 7yril and "ethodius, $ho are looked u'on by all ,lavs of the orthodoG faith as the founders of their civilisation 7hristianity had of course 'enetrated into Bulgaria Aor "oesia, as it $as thenB long before the arrival of the ,lavs and Bulgars, but the influG of one horde of barbarians after another $as naturally not 'ro'itious to its gro$th The conversion of Boris in 9/:, $hich $as brought about largely by the influence of his sister, $ho had s'ent %any years in 7onstantino'le as a ca'tive, $as a triu%'h for Greek influence and for ByDantiu% Though the 7hurch $as at this ti%e still no%inally one, yet the rivalry bet$een -o%e and 7onstantino'le had already beco%e acute, and the struggle for s'heres of s'iritual influence had begun 8t $as in the year 9/J that the Prince of "oravia, anGious to introduce 7hristianity into his country in a for% intelligible to his subjects, addressed hi%self to the E%'eror "ichael 888 for hel' -o%e could not 'rovide any suitable %issionaries $ith kno$ledge of ,lavonic

languages, and the Ger%an, or %ore eGactly the Bavarian, hierarchy $ith $hich -o%e entrusted the s'iritual $elfare of the ,lavs of "oravia and Pannonia used its greater local kno$ledge for 'olitical and not religious ends The Ger%ans eG'loited their ecclesiastical influence in order co%'letely to do%inate the ,lavs 'olitically, and as a result the latter $ere only allo$ed to see the 7hurch through Teutonic glasses 8n ans$er to this a''eal the e%'eror sent the t$o brothers 7yril and "ethodius, $ho $ere Greeks of ,alonika and had considerable kno$ledge of ,lavonic languages They co%'osed the ,lavonic al'habet $hich is to(day used throughout -ussia, Bulgaria, ,erbia, and "ontenegro, and in %any 'arts of Austria(#ungary and translated the gos'els into ,lavonicH it is for this reason that they are regarded $ith such veneration by all %e%bers of the Eastern 7hurch Their %ission 'roved the greatest success Ait %ust be re%e%bered that at this ti%e the various ,lavonic tongues $ere 'robably less dissi%ilar than they are no$B, and the t$o brothers $ere $ar%ly $elco%ed in -o%e by Po'e Adrian 88, $ho for%ally consented to the use, for the benefit of the ,lavs, of the ,lavonic liturgy Aa re%arkable concession, confir%ed by Po'e John ?888B This triu%'h, ho$ever, $as short(livedH ,t 7yril died in 9/; and ,t "ethodius in 99:H subseCuent Po'es, notably ,te'hen ?, $ere not so benevolent to the ,lavonic causeH the %achinations of the Ger%an hierarchy A$hich included, even in those days, the falsification of docu%entsB $ere irresistible, and finally the invasion of the "agyars, in 9;J, destroyed $hat $as left of the ,lavonic 7hurch in "oravia The %issionary brothers had 'robably 'assed through Bulgaria on their $ay north in 9/J, but $ithout halting "any of their disci'les, driven fro% the "oravian kingdo% by the Ger%ans, ca%e south and took refuge in Bulgaria in 99/, and there carried on in %ore favourable circu%stances the teachings of their %asters Prince Boris had found it easier to ado't 7hristianity hi%self than to induce all his subjects to do the sa%e Even $hen he had enforced his $ill on the% at the 'rice of nu%erous eGecutions of recalcitrant nobles, he found hi%self only at the beginning of his difficulties The Greeks had been glad enough to $elco%e Bulgaria into the fold, but they had no $ish to set u' an inde'endent

7hurch and hierarchy to rival their o$n Boris, on the other hand, though no doubt full of genuine s'iritual ardour, $as above all i%'ressed $ith the authority and 'restige $hich the basileus derived fro% the 7hurch of 7onstantino'leH he also ad%ired the 'o%' of ecclesiastical cere%ony, and $ished to have a 'atriarch of his o$n to cro$n hi% and a hierarchy of his o$n to serve hi% Finding the Greeks unres'onsive, he turned to -o%e, and Po'e Nicholas 8 sent hi% t$o bisho's to su'erintend the ecclesiastical affairs of Bulgaria till the investiture of Boris at the hands of the #oly ,ee could be arranged These bisho's set to $ork $ith a $ill, substituted the )atin for the Greek rite, and brought Bulgaria co%'letely under -o%an influence But $hen it $as discovered that Boris $as ai%ing at the erection of an inde'endent 7hurch their enthusias% abated and they $ere recalled to -o%e in 9/5 Adrian 88 'roved no %ore sy%'athetic, and in 950, during the reign of the E%'eror Basil 8, it $as decided $ithout %ore ado that the Bulgarian 7hurch should be directly under the Bisho' of 7onstantino'le, on the ground that the kingdo% of Boris $as a vassal(state of the basileus, and that fro% the ByDantine 'oint of vie$, as o''osed to that of -o%e, the ,tate ca%e first and the 7hurch neGt The "oravian GoraDd, a disci'le of "ethodius, $as a''ointed "etro'olitan, and at his death he $as succeeded by his fello$ country%an and co(disci'le 7le%ent, $ho by %eans of the construction of nu%erous churches and %onasteries did a great deal for the 'ro'agation of light and learning in Bulgaria The definite subjection of the Bulgarian 7hurch to that of ByDantiu% $as an i%'ortant and far(reaching event Boris has been re'roached $ith sub%itting hi%self and his country to Greek influence, but in those days it $as either 7onstantino'le or -o%e Athere $as no third $ayBH and in vie$ of the 'roGi%ity of 7onstantino'le and the gla%our $hich its civiliDation cast all over the Balkans, it is not sur'rising that the Greeks carried the day

IThe -ise and Fall of the First Bulgarian E%'ireI, 9;J(;5.

!uring the reign of ,i%eon, second son of Boris, $hich lasted fro% 9;J to ;.5, Bulgaria reached a very high level of 'o$er and 'ros'erity ,i%eon, called the Great, is looked on by Bulgarians as their %ost ca'able %onarch and his reign as the %ost brilliant 'eriod of their history #e had s'ent his childhood at 7onstantino'le and been educated there, and he beca%e such an ad%irer of Greek civiliDation that he $as nickna%ed I#M%iargosI #is instructors had done their $ork so $ell that ,i%eon re%ained s'ellbound by the gla%our of 7onstantino'le throughout his life, and, although he %ight have laid the foundations of a solid e%'ire in the Balkans, his one a%bition $as to conCuer ByDantiu% and to be recogniDed as basileus((an a%bition $hich $as not to be fulfilled #is first ca%'aign against the Greeks $as not very fruitful, because the latter su%%oned the "agyars, already settled in #ungary, to their aid and they attacked ,i%eon fro% the north ,i%eon in return called the Pechenegs, another fierce Tartar tribe, to his aid, but this %erely resulted in their definite establish%ent in -u%ania !uring the t$enty years of 'eace, $hich strange to say filled the %iddle of his reign A9;1(;4JB, the internal develo'%ent of Bulgaria %ade great strides The ad%inistration $as 'ro'erly organiDed, co%%erce $as encouraged, and agriculture flourished 8n the $ars against the Greeks $hich occu'ied his last years he $as %ore successful, and inflicted a severe defeat on the% at Anchialo Athe %odern AhioluB in ;45H but he $as still unable to get fro% the% $hat he $anted, and at last, in ;.4, he $as obliged to 'roclai% hi%self IbasileusI and Iautocrat2No6rI of all Bulgars and Greeks, a title $hich nobody else recogniDed #e rea''eared before 7onstantino'le the sa%e year, but effected nothing %ore than the custo%ary devastation of the suburbs The year ;.J $itnessed a sole%n reconciliation bet$een -o%e and 7onstantino'leH the Greeks $ere clever enough to 'revent the -o%an legates visiting Bulgaria on their return journey, and thereby ad%inistered a rebuff to ,i%eon, $ho $as anGious to see the% and enter into direct relations $ith -o%e 8n the sa%e

year ,i%eon tried to %ake an alliance $ith the Arabs, but the a%bassadors of the latter $ere interce'ted by the Greeks, $ho %ade it $orth their $hile not to continue the journey to Bulgaria 8n ;.1 ,i%eon deter%ined on a su're%e effort against 7onstantino'le and as a 'reli%inary he ravaged "acedonia and Thrace @hen, ho$ever, he arrived before the city the $alls and the cata'ults %ade hi% hesitate, and he entered into negotiations, $hich, as usual, 'etered out and brought hi% no adeCuate re$ard for all his ho'es and 're'arations 8n the $est his ar%s $ere %ore successful, and he subjected %ost of the eastern 'art of ,erbia to his rule Fro% all this it can be seen that he $as no di'lo%at, though not lacking in enter'rise and a%bition The fact $as that $hile he %ade his kingdo% too 'o$erful for the Greeks to subdue Aindeed they $ere co%'elled to 'ay hi% tributeB, yet 7onstantino'le $ith its i%'regnable $alls, $ell(organiDed ar%y, 'o$erful fleet, and cunning and eG'erienced states%en, $as too hard a nut for hi% to crack ,i%eon eGtended the boundaries of his country considerably, and his do%inion included %ost of the interior of the Balkan 'eninsula south of the !anube and east of the rivers "orava and 8bar in ,erbia and of the !rin in Albania The ByDantine 7hurch greatly increased its influence in Bulgaria during his reign, and $orks of theology gre$ like %ushroo%s This $as the only kind of literature that $as ever 'o'ular in Bulgaria, and although it is usual to thro$ conte%'t on the literary achieve%ents of 7onstantino'le, $e should kno$ but little of Bulgaria $ere it not for the Greek historians ,i%eon died in ;.5, and his son Peter, $ho succeeded hi%, $as a lover of 'eace and co%fortH he %arried a ByDantine 'rincess, and during his reign A;.5(/;B Greek influence gre$ ever stronger, in s'ite of several revolts on the 'art of the Bulgar nobles, $hile the ca'ital Preslav beca%e a %iniature 7onstantino'le 8n ;.5 -o%e recogniDed the kingdo% and 'atriarchate of Bulgaria, and Peter $as duly cro$ned by the Pa'al legate This $as vie$ed $ith disfavour by the Greeks, and they still called Peter

only Iarch2No6nI or 'rince AIknyaDI in BulgarianB, $hich $as the ut%ost title allo$ed to any foreign sovereign 8t $as not until ;1: that they recogniDed Peter as IbasileusI, the uniCue title 'ossessed by their o$n e%'erors and till then never granted to any one else PeterEs reign $as one of %isfortune for his country both at ho%e and abroad 8n ;J4 the ,erbs broke loose under their leader 2B76aslav, $ho% ,i%eon had ca'tured but $ho effected his esca'e, and asserted their inde'endence 8n ;/J a for%idable revolt under one ,hish%an under%ined the $hole state fabric #e %anaged to subtract "acedonia and all $estern Bulgaria, including ,ofia and ?idin, fro% PeterEs rule, and 'roclai%ed hi%self inde'endent Itsar AtsarI or IcaesarI $as a title often accorded by ByDantiu% to relatives of the e%'eror or to distinguished %en of Greek or other nationality, and though it $as originally the eCuivalent of the highest title, it had long since ceased to be so* the e%'erorEs designations $ere IbasileusI and Iautocrat2No6rIB Fro% this ti%e there $ere t$o Bulgarias((eastern and $estern The eastern half $as no$ little %ore than a ByDantine 'rovince, and the $estern beca%e the centre of national life and the focus of national as'irations Another factor $hich %ilitated against the internal 'rogress of Bulgaria $as the s'read of the Bogo%il heresy in the tenth century This re%arkable doctrine, founded on the dualis% of the Paulicians, $ho had beco%e an i%'ortant 'olitical force in the eastern e%'ire, $as 'reached in the Balkan 'eninsula by one Jere%iah Bogo%il, for the rest a %an of uncertain identity, $ho %ade Phili''o'olis the centre of his activity 8ts 'rinci'al features $ere of a negative character, and conseCuently it $as very difficult successfully to a''ly force against the% The Bogo%ils recogniDed the authority neither of 7hurch nor of ,tateH the validity neither of oaths nor of hu%an la$s They refused to 'ay taGes, to fight, or to obeyH they sanctioned theft, but looked u'on any kind of 'unish%ent as unjustifiableH they discountenanced %arriage and $ere strict vegetarians Naturally a heresy so alar%ing in its individualis% shook to its foundations the not very fir%ly established Bulgarian society Nevertheless it s'read $ith ra'idity in s'ite of all 'ersecutions, and its

'o'ularity a%ongst the Bulgarians, and indeed a%ongst all the ,lavs of the 'eninsula, is $ithout doubt 'artly eG'lained by 'olitical reasons The hierarchy of the Greek 7hurch, $hich su''orted the ruling classes of the country and lent the% authority at the sa%e ti%e that it increased its o$n, $as anti'athetic to the ,lavs, and the Bogo%il heresy dre$ %uch strength fro% its nationalistic colouring and fro% the a''eal $hich it %ade to the character of the Balkan ,lavs, $ho have al$ays been intolerant of govern%ent by the 7hurch But neither the civil nor the ecclesiastical authorities $ere able to co'e $ith the 'roble%H indeed they $ere a't to %ini%iDe its i%'ortance, and the heresy $as never eradicated till the arrival on the scene of 8sla%, $hich 'roved as attractive to the schis%atics as the $ell(regulated +rthodoG 7hurch had been the reverse The third Cuarter of the tenth century $itnessed a great recrudescence of the 'o$er of 7onstantino'le under the E%'eror Niki'hLros Phokas, $ho $rested 7y'rus and 7rete fro% the Arabs and inaugurated an era of 'ros'erity for the eastern e%'ire, giving it a ne$ lease of vigorous and co%bative life @ishing to reassert the Greek su're%acy in the Balkan 'eninsula his first act $as to refuse any further 'ay%ent of tribute to the Bulgarians as fro% ;//H his neGt $as to initiate a ca%'aign against the%, but in order to %ake his o$n success in this enter'rise less costly and %ore assured he secured the co(o'eration of the -ussians under ,vyatoslav, Prince of >ievH this 'otentateEs %other +lga had visited 7onstantino'le in ;:5 and been ba'tiDed Athough her son and the bulk of the 'o'ulation $ere still ardent heathensB, and co%%ercial intercourse bet$een -ussia and 7onstantino'le by %eans of the !nie'er and the Black ,ea $as at that ti%e lively ,vyatoslav did not $ant 'ressing, and arriving $ith an ar%y of 40,000 %en in boats, overca%e northern Bulgaria in a fe$ days A;/5BH they $ere hel'ed by ,hish%an and the $estern Bulgars, $ho did not %ind at $hat 'rice Peter and the eastern Bulgars $ere crushed ,vyatoslav $as recalled to -ussia in ;/9 to defend his ho%e fro% attacks by the Tartar Pechenegs, but that done, he %ade u' his %ind to return to Bulgaria, lured by its riches and by the ho'e of the eventual 'ossession of 7onstantino'le

The E%'eror Niki'hLros $as by no$ a$are of the danger he had i%'rudently conjured u', and %ade a futile alliance $ith eastern BulgariaH but in January ;/; Peter of Bulgaria died, and in !ece%ber of the sa%e year Niki'hLros $as %urdered by the a%bitious Ar%enian John TDi%isces,246 $ho thereu'on beca%e e%'eror ,vyatoslav, seeing the field clear of his ene%ies, returned in ;50, and in "arch of that year sacked and occu'ied Phili''o'olis The E%'eror John TDi%isces, $ho $as even abler both as general and as di'lo%at than his 'redecessor, Cuietly 'ushed for$ard his $arlike 're'arations, and did not %eet the -ussians till the autu%n, $hen he co%'letely defeated the% at Arcadio'olis Athe %odern )ule(BurgasB The -ussians retired north of the Balkan range, but the Greeks follo$ed the% John TDi%isces besieged the% in the ca'ital Preslav, $hich he stor%ed, %assacring %any of the garrison, in A'ril ;5. ,vyatoslav and his re%aining troo's esca'ed to ,ilistria Athe !urostoru% of TrajanB on the !anube, $here again, ho$ever, they $ere besieged and defeated by the indefatigable e%'eror At last 'eace $as %ade in July ;5., the -ussians being allo$ed to go free on condition of the co%'lete evacuation of Bulgaria and a gift of cornH the adventurous ,vyatoslav lost his life at the hands of the Pechenegs $hile %aking his $ay back to >iev The triu%'h of the Greeks $as co%'lete, and it can be i%agined that there $as not %uch left of the earthen$are Bulgaria after the violent collision of these t$o %ighty iron vessels on the to' of it Eastern Bulgaria Ai e "oesia and ThraceB ceased to eGist, beco%ing a 'urely Greek 'rovinceH John TDi%isces %ade his triu%'hal entry into 7onstantino'le, follo$ed by the t$o sons of Peter of Bulgaria on footH the elder $as de'rived of his regal attributes and created I%agistrosI, the younger $as %ade a eunuch 2Footnote 4* John the )ittle 6

IThe -ise and Fall of E@estern BulgariaE and the Greek ,u're%acyI, ;/J(449/

"ean$hile $estern Bulgaria had not been touched, and it $as thither that the Bulgarian 'atriarch !a%ian re%oved fro% ,ilistria after the victory of the Greeks, settling first in ,ofia and then in +khrida in "acedonia, $here the a'ostate ,hish%an had eventually %ade his ca'ital @estern Bulgaria included "acedonia and 'arts of Thessaly, Albania, southern and eastern ,erbia, and the $estern%ost 'arts of %odern Bulgaria 8t $as fro% this district that nu%erous anti(#ellenic revolts $ere directed after the death of the E%'eror John TDi%isces in ;5/ These cul%inated during the reign of ,a%uel A;55(4041B, one of the sons of ,hish%an #e $as as ca'able and energetic, as unscru'ulous and inhu%an, as the situation he $as called u'on to fill de%anded #e began by assassinating all his relations and nobles $ho resented his desire to re(establish the absolute %onarchy, $as recogniDed as ItsarI by the #oly ,ee of -o%e in ;94, and then began to fight the Greeks, the only 'ossible occu'ation for any self(res'ecting Bulgarian ruler The e%'eror at that ti%e $as Basil 88 A;5/(40.:B, $ho $as brave and 'atriotic but young and ineG'erienced 8n his early ca%'aigns ,a%uel carried all before hi%H he reconCuered northern Bulgaria in ;9:, Thessaly in ;9/, and defeated Basil 88 near ,ofia the sa%e year )ater he conCuered Albania and the southern 'arts of ,erbia and $hat is no$ "ontenegro and #ercegovina 8n ;;/ he threatened ,alonika, but first of all e%barked on an eG'edition against the Pelo'onneseH here he $as follo$ed by the Greek general, $ho %anaged to sur'rise and co%'letely over$hel% hi%, he and his son barely esca'ing $ith their lives Fro% that year A;;/B his fortune changedH the Greeks reoccu'ied northern Bulgaria, in ;;;, and also recovered Thessaly and 'arts of "acedonia The Bulgars $ere subjected to al%ost annual attacks on the 'art of Basil 88H the country $as ruined and could not long hold out The final disaster occurred in 4041, $hen Basil 88 utterly defeated his inveterate foe in a 'ass near ,eres in "acedonia ,a%uel esca'ed to Prili', but $hen he beheld

the return of 4:,000 of his troo's $ho had been ca'tured and blinded by the Greeks he died of synco'e Basil 88, kno$n as Bulgaroctonus, or Bulgar(killer, $ent fro% victory to victory, and finally occu'ied the Bulgarian ca'ital of +khrida in 404/ @estern Bulgaria ca%e to an end, as had eastern Bulgaria in ;5., the re%aining %e%bers of the royal fa%ily follo$ed the e%'eror to the Bos'horus to enjoy co%fortable ca'tivity, and the triu%'h of 7onstantino'le $as co%'lete Fro% 4049 to 449/ Bulgaria had no eGistence as an inde'endent stateH Basil 88, although cruel, $as far fro% tyrannical in his general treat%ent of the Bulgars, and treated the conCuered territory %ore as a 'rotectorate than as a 'ossession But after his death Greek rule beca%e %uch %ore o''ressive The Bulgarian 'atriarchate Asince ;5. established at +khridaB $as reduced to an archbisho'ric, and in 40.: the see $as given to a Greek, $ho lost no ti%e in eli%inating the Bulgarian ele%ent fro% 'ositions of i%'ortance throughout his diocese "any of the nobles $ere trans'lanted to 7onstantino'le, $here their o''osition $as nu%bed by the besto$al of honours !uring the eleventh century the 'eninsula $as invaded freCuently by the Tartar Pechenegs and >u%ans, $hose aid $as invoked both by Greeks and BulgarsH the result of these incursions $as not al$ays favourable to those $ho had 'ro%oted the%H the barbarians invariably stayed longer and did %ore da%age than had been bargained for, and usually left so%e of their nu%ber behind as un$elco%e settlers 8n this $ay the ethnological %a' of the Balkan 'eninsula beca%e ever %ore variegated To the Tartar settlers $ere added colonies of Ar%enians and ?lakhs by various e%'erors The last touch $as given by the arrival of the Nor%ans in 4094 and the 'assage of the crusaders in 40;/ The $holesale de'redations of the latter naturally %ade the inhabitants of the Balkan 'eninsula anything but sy%'athetically dis'osed to$ards their cause +ne of the results of all this tur%oil and of the heavy hand of the Greeks $as a great increase in the vitality of the Bogo%il heresy already referred toH it beca%e a refuge for 'atriotis% and an outlet for its eG'ression The E%'eror AleGis 7o%nenus instituted a bitter 'ersecution of it, $hich only

led to its gro$th and ra'id 'ro'agation $est$ards into ,erbia fro% its centre Phili''o'olis The reason of the co%'lete overthro$ of the Bulgarian %onarchy by the Greeks $as of course that the nation itself $as totally lacking in cohesion and organiDation, and could only achieve any lasting success $hen an eGce'tionally gifted ruler %anaged to discount the centrifugal tendencies of the feudal nobles, as ,i%eon and ,a%uel had done +ther discouraging factors $ore the 'er%eation of the 7hurch and ,tate by ByDantine influence, the lack of a large standing ar%y, the s'read of the anarchic Bogo%il heresy, and the fact that the bulk of the ,lav 'o'ulation had no desire for foreign adventure or national aggrandiDe%ent

9 IThe -ise and Fall of the ,econd Bulgarian E%'ire,I 449/(4.:9

Fro% 449/ to 4.:9 Bulgaria eG'erienced te%'orary resuscitation, the brevity of $hich $as %ore than co%'ensated for by the stirring nature of the events that cro$ded it The eGactions and o''ressions of the Greeks cul%inated in a revolt on the 'art of the Bulgars, $hich had its centre in Tirnovo on the river &antra in northern Bulgaria((a 'osition of great natural strength and strategic i%'ortance, co%%anding the outlets of several of the %ost i%'ortant 'asses over the Balkan range This revolt coincided $ith the gro$ing $eakness of the eastern e%'ire, $hich, surrounded on all sides by aggressive ene%ies((>u%ans, ,aracens, Turks, and Nor%ans(($as sickening for one of the severe illnesses $hich 'receded its dissolution The revolt $as headed by t$o brothers $ho $ere ?lakh or -u%anian she'herds, and $as blessed by the archbisho' Basil, $ho cro$ned one of the%, called John Asen, as ItsarI in Tirnovo in 449/ Their first efforts against the Greeks $ere not successful, but securing the su''ort

of the ,erbs under ,te'hen Ne%anja in 4499 and of the 7rusaders in 449; they beca%e %ore soH but there $as life in the Greeks yet, and victory alternated $ith defeat John Asen 8 $as assassinated in 44;/ and $as succeeded after %any internal discords and %urders by his relative >aloian or Pretty John This cruel and unscru'ulous though deter%ined ruler soon %ade an end of all his ene%ies at ho%e, and in eight years achieved such success abroad that Bulgaria al%ost regained its for%er 'ro'ortions "oreover, he re(established relations $ith -o%e, to the great disco%fiture of the Greeks, and after so%e negotiations Po'e 8nnocent 888 recogniDed >aloian as ItsarI of the Bulgars and ?lakhs Aroi de BlaCuie et de Bougrie, in the $ords of ?illehardouinB, $ith Basil as 'ri%ate, and they $ere both duly consecrated and cro$ned by the 'a'al legate at Tirnovo in 4.01 The French, $ho had just established the%selves in 7onstantino'le during the fourth crusade, i%'rudently %ade an ene%y of >aloian instead of a friend, and $ith the aid of the Tartar >u%ans he defeated the% several ti%es, ca'turing and brutally %urdering Bald$in 8 But in 4.05 his career $as cut shortH he $as %urdered $hile besieging ,alonika by one of his generals $ho $as a friend of his $ife After eleven years of further anarchy he $as succeeded by John Asen 88 !uring the reign of this %onarch, $hich lasted fro% 4.49 till 4.14, Bulgaria reached the Denith of its 'o$er #e $as the %ost enlightened ruler the country had had, and he not only $aged $ar successfully abroad but also 'ut an end to the internal confusion, restored the 'ossibility of carrying on agriculture and co%%erce, and encouraged the foundation of nu%erous schools and %onasteries #e %aintained the tradition of his fa%ily by %aking his ca'ital at Tirnovo, $hich city he considerably e%bellished and enlarged 7onstantino'le at this ti%e boasted three Greek e%'erors and one French The first act of John Asen 88 $as to get rid of one of the%, na%ed Theodore, $ho had 'roclai%ed hi%self IbasileusI at +khrida in 4..J Thereu'on he anneGed the $hole of Thrace, "acedonia, Thessaly, and E'irus to his do%inions, and %ade TheodoreEs brother "anuel, $ho had %arried one of his daughters, viceroy, established at ,alonika Another of his daughters had %arried ,te'hen ?ladislav, $ho $as >ing of ,erbia fro%

4.JJ(1J, and a third %arried Theodore, son of the E%'eror John 888, $ho reigned at Nicaea, in 4.J: This daughter, after being sought in %arriage by the French barons at 7onstantino'le as a $ife for the E%'eror Bald$in 88, a %inor, $as then su%%arily rejected in favour of the daughter of the >ing of Jerusale%H this affront rankled in the %ind of John Asen 88 and thre$ hi% into the ar%s of the Greeks, $ith $ho% he concluded an alliance in 4.J1 John Asen 88 and his ally, the E%'eror John 888, $ere, ho$ever, utterly defeated by the French under the $alls of 7onstantino'le in 4.J/, and the Bulgarian ruler, $ho had no $ish to see the Greeks re(established there, began to doubt the $isdo% of his alliance +ther Bulgarian tsars had been unscru'ulous, but the $hole foreign 'olicy of this one 'ivoted on treachery #e deserted the Greeks and %ade an alliance $ith the French in 4.J5, the Po'e Gregory 8O, a great #elleno'hobe, having threatened hi% $ith eGco%%unicationH he $ent so far as to force his daughter to relinCuish her Greek husband The follo$ing year, ho$ever, he again changed over to the GreeksH then again fear of the Po'e and of his brother(in(la$ the >ing of #ungary brought hi% back to the side of Bald$in 88, to $hose hel' against the Greeks he $ent $ith a large ar%y into Thrace in 4.J; @hile besieging the Greeks $ith indifferent success, he learned of the death of his $ife and his eldest son fro% 'lague, and incontinently returned to Tirnovo, giving u' the $ar and restoring his daughter to her lonely husband This ada'table %onarch died a natural death in 4.14, and the three rulers of his fa%ily $ho succeeded hi%, $hose reigns filled the 'eriod 4.14(:9, %anaged to undo all the constructive $ork of their i%%ediate 'redecessors Province after 'rovince $as lost and internal anarchy increased This re%arkable dynasty ca%e to an inglorious end in 4.:9, $hen its last re'resentative $as %urdered by his o$n nobles, and fro% this ti%e on$ards Bulgaria $as only a shado$ of its for%er self

; IThe ,erbian ,u're%acy and the Final 7olla'se,I 4.:9(4J;J

Fro% 4.:9 on$ards Bulgaria %ay be said to have continued flickering until its final eGtinction as a state in 4J;J, but during this 'eriod it never had any voice in controlling the destinies of the Balkan 'eninsula +$ing to the fact that no ruler e%erged ca'able of kee'ing the distracted country in order, there $as a regular IchassP(croisPI of rival 'rincelets, an unceasing tale of 'olitical %arriages and %urders, cons'iracies and revolts of feudal nobles all over the country, and 'er'etual ebb and flo$ of the boundaries of the $arring 'rinci'alities $hich tore the fabric of Bulgaria to 'ieces a%ongst the% Fro% the 'oint of vie$ of foreign 'olitics this 'eriod is characteriDed generally by the virtual disa''earance of Bulgarian inde'endence to the 'rofit of the surrounding states, $ho enjoyed a sort of rotativist su're%acy 8t is es'ecially re%arkable for the co%'lete ascendancy $hich ,erbia gained in the Balkan 'eninsula A ,erb, 7onstantine, grandson of ,te'hen Ne%anja, occu'ied the Bulgarian throne fro% 4.:9 to 4.55, and %arried the granddaughter of John Asen 88 After the fall of the )atin E%'ire of 7onstantino'le in 4./4, the #ungarians, already %asters of Transylvania, co%bined $ith the Greeks against 7onstantineH the latter called the Tartars of southern -ussia, at this ti%e at the height of their 'o$er, to his hel' and $as victorious, but as a result of his di'lo%acy the Tartars hencefor$ard 'layed an i%'ortant 'art in the Bulgarian $elter Then 7onstantine %arried, as his second $ife, the daughter of the Greek e%'eror, and thus again gave 7onstantino'le a voice in his countryEs affairs 7onstantine $as follo$ed by a series of u'start rulers, $hose activities $ere cut short by the victories of >ing =ro2Bs6 88 of ,erbia A4.9.(4J.4B, $ho conCuered all "acedonia and $rested it fro% the Bulgars 8n 4.9: the Tartars of the Golden #orde s$e't over #ungary and Bulgaria, but it $as fro% the south that the clouds $ere rolling u' $hich not %uch later $ere to burst over the 'eninsula 8n 4J09 the Turks a''eared on the ,ea of "ar%ora, and in 4J./ established the%selves at Brussa Fro% 4.;: to 4J.. Bulgaria $as

'resided over by a noble%an of ?idin, ,vetoslav, $ho, un%olested by the Greeks, gro$n thoughtful in vie$ of the a''roach of the Turks, $as able to %aintain rather %ore order than his subjects $ere accusto%ed to After his death in 4J.. chaos again su'ervened +ne of his successors had %arried the daughter of =ro2Bs6 88 of ,erbia, but suddenly %ade an alliance $ith the Greeks against his brother(in(la$ ,te'hen =ro2Bs6 888 and dis'atched his $ife to her ho%e !uring the $ar $hich ensued the un$onted allies $ere utterly routed by the ,erbs at >ustendil in "acedonia in 4JJ0 Fro% 4JJ4 to 4J/: Bulgaria $as under one John AleGander, a noble of Tartar origin, $hose sister beca%e the $ife of ,erbiaEs greatest ruler, ,te'hen !u2Bs6anH John AleGander, %oreover, recogniDed ,te'hen as his suDerain, and fro% thencefor$ard Bulgaria $as a vassal(state of ,erbia "ean$hile the Turkish stor% $as gathering fastH ,ulei%an crossed the #elles'ont in 4J:/, and "urad 8 %ade Adriano'le his ca'ital in 4J// After the death of John AleGander in 4J/: the #ungarians invaded northern Bulgaria, and his successor invoked the hel' of the Turks against the% and also against the Greeks This $as the beginning of the end The ,erbs, during an absence of the ,ultan in Asia, undertook an offensive, but $ere defeated by the Turks near Adriano'le in 4J54, $ho ca'tured ,ofia in 4J9. After this the ,erbs for%ed a huge southern ,lav alliance, in $hich the Bulgarians refused to join, but, after a te%'orary success against the Turks in 4J95, they $ere vanCuished by the% as the result of treachery at the fa%ous battle of >osovo in 4J9; "ean$hile the Turks occu'ied Niko'olis on the !anube in 4J99 and destroyed the Bulgarian ca'ital Tirnovo in 4J;J, eGiling the Patriarch Euthy%us to "acedonia Thus the state of Bulgaria 'assed into the hands of the Turks, and its church into those of the Greeks "any Bulgars ado'ted 8sla%, and their descendants are the Po%aks or Bulgarian "oha%%edans of the 'resent day @ith the subjection of -u%ania in 4J;1 and the defeat of an i%'rovised anti(Turkish crusade fro% $estern Euro'e under ,igis%und, >ing of #ungary, at Niko'olis in 4J;/ the Turkish conCuest $as co%'lete, though the battle of ?arna $as not fought till 4111, nor 7onstantino'le entered till 41:J

40 IThe Turkish !o%inion and the E%anci'ation,I 4J;J(4959

Fro% 4J;J until 4955 Bulgaria %ay truthfully be said to have had no history, but nevertheless it could scarcely have been called ha''y National life $as co%'letely 'aralysed, and $hat stood in those days for national consciousness $as obliterated 8t is co%%on kno$ledge, and %ost 'eo'le are no$ reasonable enough to ad%it, that the Turks have %any eGcellent Cualities, religious fervour and %ilitary ardour a%ongst othersH it is also undeniable that fro% an aesthetic 'oint of vie$ too %uch cannot be said in 'raise of "oha%%edan civiliDation @ho does not 'refer the %inarets of ,ta%bul and Edirne246 to the architecture of Buda'est, notoriously the ideal of 7hristian south(eastern Euro'eF +n the other hand, it cannot be contended that the PaG +tto%ana brought 'ros'erity or ha''iness to those on $ho% it $as i%'osed Aunless indeed they sub%erged their identity in the religion of their conCuerorsB, or that its 8nfluence $as either vivifying or generally 'o'ular 2Footnote 4* The Turkish na%es for 7onstantino'le and Adriano'le 6 To the races they conCuered the Turks offered t$o alternatives((serfdo% or Turkdo%H those $ho could not bring the%selves to acce't either of these had either to e%igrate or take to brigandage and outla$ry in the %ountains The Turks literally overlaid the Euro'ean nationalities of the Balkan 'eninsula for five hundred years, and fro% their o$n 'oint of vie$ and fro% that of %ilitary history this $as undoubtedly a very s'lendid achieve%entH it $as %ore than the Greeks or -o%ans had ever done Fro% the 'oint of vie$ of hu%anitarianis% also it is beyond a doubt that %uch less hu%an blood $as s'ilt in the Balkan 'eninsula during the five hundred years of Turkish rule than during the five hundred years of 7hristian rule

$hich 'receded the%H indeed it $ould have been difficult to s'ill %ore 8t is also a 'ure illusion to think of the Turks as eGce'tionally brutal or cruelH they are just as good(natured and good(hu%oured as anybody elseH it is only $hen their %ilitary or religious 'assions are aroused that they beco%e %ore reckless and ferocious than other 'eo'le 8t $as not the Turks $ho taught cruelty to the 7hristians of the Balkan 'eninsulaH the latter had nothing to learn in this res'ect 8n s'ite of all this, ho$ever, fro% the 'oint of vie$ of the ,lavs of Bulgaria and ,erbia, Turkish rule $as synony%ous $ith suffocation 8f the Turks $ere all that their greatest ad%irers think the% the history of the Balkan 'eninsula in the nineteenth century $ould have been very different fro% $hat it has been, na%ely, one 'er'etual series of anti(Turkish revolts +f all the Balkan 'eo'les the Bulgarians $ere the %ost co%'letely crushed and effaced The Greeks by their ubiCuity, their brains, and their %oney $ere soon able to %ake the Turkish stor% drive their o$n $ind%illH the -u%anians $ere so%e$hat sheltered by the !anube and also by their distance fro% 7onstantino'leH the ,erbs also $ere not so eG'osed to the full blast of the Turkish $rath, and the inaccessibility of %uch of their country afforded the% so%e 'rotection Bulgaria $as si%'ly annihilated, and its 'o'ulation, already far fro% ho%ogeneous, $as still further varied by nu%erous Turkish and other Tartar colonies For the sa%e reasons already %entioned Bulgaria $as the last Balkan state to e%anci'ate itselfH for these reasons also it is the least tra%%elled by 'rejudices and by $hat are considered national 'redilections and racial affinities, $hile its heterogeneous co%'osition %akes it vigorous and enter'rising The treat%ent of the 7hristians by the Turks $as by no %eans al$ays the sa%eH generally s'eaking, it gre$ $orse as the 'o$er of the ,ultan gre$ less !uring the fifteenth century they $ere allo$ed to 'ractise their religion and all their vocations in co%'arative liberty and 'eace But fro% the siGteenth century on$ards the control of the ,ultan

declined, 'o$er beca%e decentraliDed, the +tto%an E%'ire gre$ ever %ore anarchic and the rule of the 'rovincial governors %ore des'otic But the "oha%%edan conCuerors $ere not the only ene%ies and o''ressors of the Bulgars The rQle 'layed by the Greeks in Bulgaria during the Turkish do%inion $as al%ost as i%'ortant as that of the Turks the%selves The conte%'t of the Turks for the 7hristians, and es'ecially for their religion, $as so great that they 'rudently left the %anage%ent of it to the%, kno$ing that it $ould kee' the% occu'ied in %utual altercation Fro% 4J;J till 45/5 the Bulgarians $ere under the Greco(Bulgarian Patriarchate of +khrida, an organiDation in $hich all 'osts, fro% the highest to the lo$est, had to be bought fro% the Turkish ad%inistration at eGorbitant and ever(rising 'ricesH the Phanariote Greeks Aso called because they originated in the Phanar Cuarter at 7onstantino'leB $ere the only ones $ho could afford those of the higher 'osts, $ith the result that the 7hurch $as controlled fro% 7onstantino'le 8n 45/5 the inde'endent 'atriarchates $ere abolished, and fro% that date the religious control of the Greeks $as as co%'lete as the 'olitical control of the Turks The Greeks did all they could to obliterate the last traces of Bulgarian nationality $hich had survived in the 7hurch, and this eG'lains a fact $hich %ust never be forgotten, $hich had its origin in the re%ote 'ast, but gre$ %ore 'ronounced at this 'eriod, that the individual hatred of Greeks and Bulgars of each other has al$ays been far %ore intense than their collective hatred of the Turks Ever since the %arriage of the Tsar 8van 888 $ith the niece of the last Greek E%'eror, in 415., -ussia had considered itself the trustee of the eastern 7hristians, the defender of the +rthodoG 7hurch, and the direct heir of the glory and 'restige of 7onstantino'leH it $as not until the eighteenth century, ho$ever, after the consolidation of the -ussian state, that the Balkan 7hristians $ere cha%'ioned and the eventual 'ossession of 7onstantino'le $as seriously considered -ussian influence $as first asserted in -u%ania after the Treaty of >uchuk(>ainardji, in 4551 8t $as only the Na'oleonic $ar in 494. that 'revented the -ussians fro% eGtending

their territory south of the !anube, $hither it already stretched ,erbia $as 'artially free by 49./, and Greece achieved co%'lete inde'endence in 49J0, $hen the -ussian troo's, in order to coerce the Turks, occu'ied 'art of Bulgaria and advanced as far as Adriano'le Bulgaria, being nearer to and %ore easily re'ressed by 7onstantino'le, had to $ait, and tentative revolts %ade about this ti%e $ere 'ut do$n $ith %uch bloodshed and $ere follo$ed by $holesale e%igrations of Bulgars into Bessarabia and i%'ortations of Tartars and >urds into the vacated districts The 7ri%ean @ar and the short(sighted cha%'ionshi' of Turkey by the $estern Euro'ean 'o$ers checked considerably the develo'%ent at $hich -ussia ai%ed "oldavia and @allachia $ere in 49:/ $ithdra$n fro% the se%i('rotectorate $hich -ussia had long eGercised over the%, and in 49/4 for%ed the%selves into the united state of -u%ania 8n 49// a Ger%an 'rince, 7harles of #ohenDollern, ca%e to rule over the country, the first sign of Ger%an influence in the Near EastH at this ti%e -u%ania still ackno$ledged the su're%acy of the ,ultan !uring the first half of the nineteenth century there took 'lace a considerable intellectual renascence in Bulgaria, a %ove%ent fostered by $ealthy Bulgarian %erchants of Bucarest and +dessa 8n 49.; a history of Bulgaria $as 'ublished by a native of that country in "osco$H in 49J: the first school $as established in Bulgaria, and %any others soon follo$ed 8t %ust be re%e%bered that not only $as nothing kno$n at that ti%e about Bulgaria and its inhabitants in other countries, but the Bulgars had the%selves to be taught $ho they $ere The Bulgarian 'eo'le in Bulgaria consisted entirely of 'easantsH there $as no Bulgarian u''er or %iddle or EintelligentE or 'rofessional classH those enlightened Bulgars $ho eGisted $ere do%iciled in other countriesH the 7hurch $as in the hands of the Greeks, $ho vied $ith the Turks in su''ressing Bulgarian nationality The t$o co%%ittees of +dessa and Bucarest $hich 'ro%oted the enlighten%ent and e%anci'ation of Bulgaria $ere dissi%ilar in co%'osition and in ai%H the %e%bers of the for%er $ere %ore intent on educational and religious refor%, and ai%ed at the gradual and 'eaceful regeneration of their

country by these %eansH the latter $ished to effect the i%%ediate 'olitical e%anci'ation of Bulgaria by violent and, if necessary, $arlike %eans 8t $as the ecclesiastical Cuestion $hich $as solved first 8n 49:/ the Porte had 'ro%ised religious refor%s tending to the a''oint%ent of Bulgarian bisho's and the recognition of the Bulgarian language in 7hurch and school But these not being carried through, the Bulgarians took the %atter into their o$n hands, and in 49/0 refused any longer to recogniDe the Patriarch of 7onstantino'le The sa%e year an atte%'t $as %ade to bring the 7hurch of Bulgaria under that of -o%e, but, o$ing to -ussian o''osition, 'roved abortive 8n 4950, the gro$ing agitation having at last alar%ed the Turks, the Bulgarian EGarchate $as established The Bulgarian 7hurch $as %ade free and national and $as to be under an EGarch $ho should reside at 7onstantino'le ABulgaria being still a Turkish 'rovinceB The Greeks, conscious $hat a blo$ this $ould be to their su're%acy, %anaged for a short $hile to stave off the evil day, but in 495. the EGarch $as triu%'hantly installed in 7onstantino'le, $here he resided till 4;09 "ean$hile revolutionary outbreaks began to increase, but $ere al$ays 'ut do$n $ith great rigour The %ost notable $as that of 495:, instigated by ,ta%bulLv, the future dictator, in sy%'athy $ith the outbreak in "ontenegro, #ercegovina, and Bosnia of that yearH the result of this and of si%ilar %ove%ents in 495/ $as the series of notorious Bulgarian %assacres in that year The indignation of Euro'e $as aroused and concerted re'resentations $ere urgently %ade at 7onstantino'le "idhat Pasha disar%ed his o''onents by su%%arily introducing the British constitution into Turkey, but, needless to say, BulgariaEs lot $as not i%'roved by this s'ecious device -ussia had, ho$ever, steadily been %aking her 're'arations, and, Turkey having refused to discontinue hostilities against "ontenegro, on A'ril .1, 4955, $ar $as declared by the E%'eror AleGander 88, $hose 'atience had beco%e eGhaustedH he $as joined by Prince 7harles of -u%ania, $ho sa$ that by doing so he $ould be re$arded by the co%'lete e%anci'ation of his country, then still a

vassal(state of Turkey, and its erection into a kingdo% At the beginning of the $ar all $ent $ell for the -ussians and -u%anians, $ho $ere soon joined by large nu%bers of Bulgarian insurgentsH the Turkish forces $ere scattered all over the 'eninsula The co%%ittee of Bucarest transfor%ed itself into a 'rovisional govern%ent, but the -ussians, $ho had undertaken to liberate the country, naturally had to kee' its ad%inistration te%'orarily in their o$n hands, and refused their recognition The Turks, alar%ed at the early victories of the -ussians, brought u' better generals and troo's, and defeated the -ussians at Plevna in July They failed, ho$ever, to dislodge the% fro% the i%'ortant and fa%ous ,hi'ka Pass in August, and after this they beca%e de%oraliDed and their resistance ra'idly $eakened The -ussians, hel'ed by the Bulgarians and -u%anians, fought throughout the su%%er $ith the greatest gallantryH they took Plevna, after a three %onthsE siege, in !ece%ber, occu'ied ,ofia and Phili''o'olis in January 4959, and 'ushed for$ard to the $alls of 7onstantino'le The Turks $ere at their last gas', and at Adriano'le, in "arch 4959, 8gnatiyev dictated the ter%s of the Treaty of ,an ,tefano, by $hich a 'rinci'ality of Bulgaria, under the no%inal suDerainty of the ,ultan, $as created, stretching fro% the !anube to the Aegean, and fro% the Black ,ea to Albania, including all "acedonia and leaving to the Turks only the district bet$een 7onstantino'le and Adriano'le, 7halcidice, and the to$n of ,alonikaH Bulgaria $ould thus have regained the di%ensions it 'ossessed under Tsar ,i%eon nine hundred and fifty years 'reviously This treaty, $hich on ethnological grounds $as tolerably just, alar%ed the other 'o$ers, es'ecially Great Britain and Ger%any, $ho thought they 'erceived in it the foundations of -ussian hege%ony in the Balkans, $hile it $ould, if 'ut into eGecution, have blighted the as'irations of Greece and ,erbia The Treaty of Berlin, ins'ired by Bis%arck and )ord ,alisbury, anGious to defend, the for%er, the interests of AostensiblyB Austria(#ungary, the latter AshortsightedlyB those of Turkey, re'laced it in July 4959 By its ter%s Bulgaria $as cut into three 'artsH northern

Bulgaria, bet$een the !anube and the Balkans, $as %ade an autono%ous 'rovince, tributary to TurkeyH southern Bulgaria, fancifully ter%ed Eastern -u%elia A-u%ili $as the na%e al$ays given by the Turks to the $hole Balkan 'eninsulaB, $as to have autono%ous ad%inistration under a 7hristian governor a''ointed by the PorteH "acedonia $as left to TurkeyH and the !obrudja, bet$een the !anube and the Black ,ea, $as adjudged to -u%ania

44 IThe After%ath, and Prince AleGander of Battenberg, 4959(9/I

The relations bet$een the -ussians and the Bulgarians $ere better before the liberation of the latter by the for%er than afterH this %ay see% unjust, because Bulgaria could never have freed herself so decisively and ra'idly alone, and -ussia $as the only 'o$er in $hose interest it $as to free her fro% the Turks, and $ho could translate that interest so 'ro%'tly into actionH nevertheless, the la$s controlling the relationshi's of states and nationalities being %uch the sa%e as those $hich control the relationshi's of individuals, it $as only to be eG'ected @hat so often ha''ens in the relationshi's of individuals ha''ened in those bet$een -ussia and Bulgaria -ussia naturally enough eG'ected Bulgaria to be grateful for the really large a%ount of blood and treasure $hich its liberation had cost -ussia, and, %oreover, eG'ected its gratitude to take the for% of docility and a general acCuiescence in all the suggestions and $ishes eG'ressed by its liberator Bulgaria $as no doubt dee'ly grateful, but never had the slightest intention of eG'ressing its gratitude in the desired $ayH on the contrary, like %ost 'eo'le $ho have regained a long(lost and unaccusto%ed freedo% of action or been 'ut under an obligation, it a''eared touchy and jealous of its right to an

inde'endent judge%ent 8t is often assu%ed by -usso'hobe $riters that -ussia $ished and intended to %ake a -ussian 'rovince of Bulgaria, but this is very unlikelyH the geogra'hical configuration of the Balkan 'eninsula $ould not lend itself to its incor'oration in the -ussian E%'ire, the eGistence bet$een the t$o of the co%'act and vigorous national block of -u%ania, a )atin race and then already an inde'endent state, $as an insur%ountable obstacle, and, finally, it is Cuite 'ossible for -ussia to obtain 'ossession or control of 7onstantino'le $ithout o$ning all the intervening littoral That -ussia should $ish to have a controlling voice in the destinies of Bulgaria and in those of the $hole 'eninsula $as natural, and it $as just as natural that Bulgaria should resent its 'retensions The eventual result of this, ho$ever, $as that Bulgaria inevitably entered the s'here of Austrian and ulti%ately of Ger%an influence or rather calculation, a contingency 'robably not foreseen by its states%en at the ti%e, and $hose full %eaning, even if it had, $ould not have been gras'ed by the% The Bulgarians, $hatever the origin and the ingredients of their nationality, are by language a 'urely ,lavonic 'eo'leH their ancestors $ere the 'ioneers of ,lavonic civiliDation as eG'ressed in its %onu%ents of theological literature Nevertheless, they have never been enthusiastic Pan(,lavists, any %ore than the !utch have ever been ardent Pan(Ger%ansH it is as unreasonable to eG'ect such a thing of the one 'eo'le as it is of the other The Bulgarians indeed think the%selves su'erior to the ,lavs by reason of the $arlike and glorious traditions of the Tartar tribe that gave the% their na%e and infused the Asiatic ele%ent into their race, thus endo$ing the% $ith greater stability, energy, and consistency than is 'ossessed by 'urely ,lav 'eo'les These latter, on the other hand, and notably the ,erbians, for the sa%e reason affect conte%'t for the %iGture of blood and for $hat they consider the "ongol characteristics of the Bulgarians @hat is certain is that bet$een Bulgarians and Ger%ans Aincluding Ger%an Austrians and "agyarsB there has never eGisted that ele%ental, ineradicable, and insur%ountable anti'athy $hich eGists bet$een

Ger%an Aand "agyarB and ,lav $herever the t$o races are contiguous, fro% the Baltic to the AdriaticH nothing is %ore re%arkable than the $ay in $hich the Bulgarian 'eo'le has been flattered, studied, and courted in Austria(#ungary and Ger%any, during the last decade, to the detri%ent of the 'urely ,lav ,erb race $ith $ho% it is al$ays co%'ared The reason is that $ith the gro$th of the ,erb national %ove%ent, fro% 4;0J on$ards, Austria(#ungary and Ger%any felt an instinctive and 'erfectly $ell(justified fear of the ,erb race, and sought to neutraliDe the 'ossible effect of its gro$ing 'o$er by any 'ossible %eans 8t is not too %uch to say, in su%%ing u', that -ussian influence, $hich had been gro$ing stronger in Bulgaria u' till 4955(9, has since been steadily on the declineH Ger%any and Austria(#ungary, $ho reduced Bulgaria to half the siDe that 7ount 8gnatiyev had %ade it by the Treaty of ,an ,tefano, rea'ed the benefit, es'ecially the co%%ercial benefit, of the $ar $hich -ussia had $aged 8ntellectually, and es'ecially as regards the re'lenish%ent and renovation of the Bulgarian language, $hich, in s'ite of nu%erous Turkish $ords introduced during the +tto%an rule, is essentially ,lavonic both in substance and for%, -ussian influence $as es'ecially 'o$erful, and has to a certain eGtent %aintained itself Econo%ically, o$ing 'artly to geogra'hical conditions, both the !anube and the %ain oriental rail$ay linking Bulgaria directly $ith Buda'est and ?ienna, 'artly to the fact that BulgariaEs best custo%ers for its cereals are in central and $estern Euro'e, the conneGion bet$een Bulgaria and -ussia is infinitesi%al Politically, both -ussia and Bulgaria ai%ing at the sa%e thing, the 'ossession of 7onstantino'le and the hege%ony of the Balkan 'eninsula, their relations $ere bound to be difficult The first Bulgarian Parlia%ent %et in 495; under trying conditions Both -ussian and Bulgarian ho'es had been dashed by the Treaty of Berlin -ussian influence $as still 'ara%ount, ho$ever, and the viceroy controlled the organiDation of the ad%inistration An ultra(de%ocratic constitution $as arranged for, a fact obviously not conducive to the successful govern%ent of their country by the Cuite ineG'erienced Bulgarians For a

ruler recourse had inevitably to be had to the rabbit($arren of Ger%anic 'rinces, $ho $ere still ingenuously considered neutral both in religion and in 'olitics The choice fell on Prince AleGander of Battenberg, ne'he$ of the E%'ress of -ussia, $ho had taken 'art in the ca%'aign of the -ussian ar%y Prince AleGander $as conscientious, energetic, and enthusiastic, but he $as no di'lo%at, and fro% the outset his honesty 'recluded his success Fro% the very first he failed to kee' on good ter%s $ith -ussia or its re'resentatives, $ho at that ti%e $ere still nu%erous in Bulgaria, $hile he $as hel'less to ste% the ravages of 'arlia%entary govern%ent The E%'eror AleGander 888, $ho succeeded his father AleGander 88 in 4994, reco%%ended hi% to insist on being %ade dictator, $hich he successfully did But $hen he found that this only %eant an increase of -ussian influence he reverted to 'arlia%entary govern%ent Ain ,e'te%ber 499JBH this 'rocedure disco%fited the re'resentatives of -ussia, discredited hi% $ith the E%'eror, and thre$ hi% back into the vorteG of 'arty $arfare, fro% $hich he never eGtricated hi%self "ean$hile the Cuestion of eastern -u%elia, or rather southern Bulgaria, still a Turkish 'rovince, began to loo% A vigorous agitation for the reunion of the t$o 'arts of the country had been going on for so%e ti%e, and on ,e'te%ber 49, 499:, the inhabitants of Phili''o'olis suddenly 'roclai%ed the union under Prince AleGander, $ho sole%nly announced his a''roval at Tirnovo and triu%'hantly entered their city on ,e'te%ber .4 -ussia fro$ned on this inde'endence of s'irit ,erbia, under >ing "ilan, and instigated by Austria, inaugurated the 'olicy $hich has so often been follo$ed since, and clai%ed territorial co%'ensation for BulgariaEs aggrandise%entH it %ust be re%e%bered that it $as Bis%arck $ho, by the Treaty of Berlin, had arbitrarily confined ,erbia to its inadeCuate li%its of those day +n Nove%ber 4J >ing "ilan declared $ar, and began to %arch on ,ofia, $hich is not far fro% the ,erbo(Bulgarian frontier Prince AleGander, the bulk of $hose ar%y $as on the Turkish frontier, boldly took u' the challenge +n Nove%ber 49 took 'lace the battle of ,livnitsa, a s%all to$n about

t$enty %iles north($est of ,ofia, in $hich the Bulgarians $ere co%'letely victorious Prince AleGander, after hard fighting, took Pirot in ,erbia on Nove%ber .5, having refused >ing "ilanEs reCuest for an ar%istice, and $as %arching on Nish, $hen Austria intervened, and threatened to send troo's into ,erbia unless fighting ceased Bulgaria had to obey, and on "arch J, 499/, a barren treaty of 'eace $as i%'osed on the belligerents at Bucarest Prince AleGanderEs 'osition did not i%'rove after this, indeed it $ould have needed a %uch %ore skilful navigator to steer through the %any currents $hich eddied round hi% A strong -usso'hile 'arty for%ed itself in the ar%yH on the night of August .4, 499/, so%e officers of this 'arty, $ho $ere the %ost ca'able in the Bulgarian ar%y, a''eared at ,ofia, forced AleGander to resign, and abducted hi%H they 'ut hi% on board his yacht on the !anube and escorted hi% to the -ussian to$n of -eni, in BessarabiaH telegra'hic orders ca%e fro% ,t Petersburg, in ans$er to inCuiries, that he could 'roceed $ith haste to $estern Euro'e, and on August ./ he found hi%self at )e%berg But those $ho had carried out this Icou' dEPtatI found that it $as not at all 'o'ular in the country A counter(revolution, headed by the states%an ,ta%bulLv, $as i%%ediately initiated, and on ,e'te%ber J Prince AleGander rea''eared in ,ofia a%idst tu%ultuous a''lause Nevertheless his 'osition $as ho'elessH the E%'eror AleGander 888 forced hi% to abdicate, and on ,e'te%ber 5, 499/, he left Bulgaria for good, to the regret of the %ajority of the 'eo'le #e died in Austria, in 49;J, in his thirty(seventh year At his de'arture a regency $as constituted, at the head of $hich $as ,ta%bulLv

4. IThe -egeneration under Prince Ferdinand of ,aGe(7oburg,I 499/(4;09

,ta%bulLv $as born at Tirnovo in 49:1 and $as of hu%ble origin #e took 'art in the insurrection of 495/ and in the $ar of liberation, and in 4991

beca%e 'resident of the ,Lbraniye AParlia%entB Fro% 499/ till 49;1 he $as virtually dictator of Bulgaria #e $as intensely 'atriotic and also 'ersonally a%bitious, deter%ined, energetic, ruthlessly cruel and unscru'ulous, but inca'able of deceitH these Cualities $ere a''arent in his 'o$erful and gri% eG'ression of face, $hile his %anner ins'ired the $eak $ith terror and the strongest $ith res'ect #is 'olicy in general $as directed against -ussia At the general election held in +ctober 499/ he had all his i%'ortant o''onents i%'risoned beforehand, $hile ar%ed sentries discouraged ill(dis'osed voters fro% a''roaching the ballot(boGes +ut of :.. elected de'uties, there $ere 150 su''orters of ,ta%bulLv This i%'lied the co%'lete su''ression of the -usso'hile 'arty and led to a ru'ture $ith ,t Petersburg @hatever $ere ,ta%bulLvEs %ethods, and fe$ $ould deny that they $ere harsh, there is no doubt that so%ething of the sort $as necessary to restore order in the country But once having started on this 'ath he found it difficult to sto', and his tyrannical bearing, co%bined $ith the delay in finding a 'rince, soon %ade hi% un'o'ular There $ere several revolutionary outbreaks directed against hi%, but these $ere all crushed At length the, at that ti%e not 'articularly alluring, throne of Bulgaria $as filled by Prince Ferdinand of ,aGe(7oburg, $ho $as born in 49/4 and $as the son of the gifted Princess 7lP%entine of Bourbon(+rleans, daughter of )ouis(Phili''e This young %an co%bined great a%bition and tenacity of 'ur'ose $ith eGtre%e 'rudence, astuteness, and 'atienceH he $as a consu%%ate di'lo%at The election of this 'rince $as vie$ed $ith great disfavour by -ussia, and for fear of offending the E%'eror AleGander 888 none of the Euro'ean 'o$ers recogniDed hi% Ferdinand, unabashed, cheerfully installed hi%self in ,ofia $ith his %other in July 499/, and took care to %ake the 'eace $ith his suDerain, the ,ultan Abdul #a%id #e $isely left all 'o$er in the hands of the unattractive and to hi%, unsy%'athetic 'ri%e %inister, ,ta%bulLv, till he hi%self felt secure in his 'osition, and till the dictator should have %ade hi%self thoroughly hated FerdinandEs clever and $ealthy %other cast

a beneficent and civiliDing glo$ around hi%, s%oothing a$ay %any difficulties by her $o%anly tact and 'hilanthro'ic activity, and, thanks to his influential conneGions in the courts of Euro'e and his attitude of cal% eG'ectancy, his 'restige in his o$n country ra'idly increased 8n 49;J he %arried Princess "arie()ouise of Bourbon(Par%a 8n "ay 49;1, as a result of a social %isadventure in $hich he beca%e involved, ,ta%bulLv sent in his resignation, confidently eG'ecting a refusal To his %ortification it $as acce'tedH thereu'on he initiated a violent 'ress ca%'aign, but his halo had faded, and on July 4: he $as savagely attacked in the street by unkno$n %en, $ho after$ards esca'ed, and he died three days later ,o intense $ere the e%otions of the 'eo'le that his grave had to be guarded by the %ilitary for t$o %onths 8n Nove%ber 49;1 follo$ed the death of the E%'eror AleGander 888, and as a result of this double event the road to a reconciliation $ith -ussia $as o'ened "ean$hile the Ger%an E%'eror, $ho $as on good ter%s $ith Princess 7lP%entine, had 'aved the $ay for Ferdinand at ?ienna, and $hen, in "arch 49;/, the ,ultan recogniDed hi% as Prince of Bulgaria and Governor(General of eastern -u%elia, his international 'osition $as assured -elations $ith -ussia $ere still further i%'roved by the reba'tis% of the infant 7ro$n Prince Boris according to the rites of the eastern 7hurch, in February 49;/, and a cou'le of years later Ferdinand and his $ife and child 'aid a highly successful state visit to Peterhof 8n ,e'te%ber 4;0. a %e%orial church $as erected by the E%'eror Nicholas 88 at the ,hi'ka Pass, and later an eCuestrian statue of the Tsar()iberator AleGander 88 $as 'laced o''osite the #ouse of Parlia%ent in ,ofia Bulgaria %ean$hile had been %aking ra'id and astonishing %aterial 'rogress -ail$ays $ere built, eG'orts increased, and the general condition of the country greatly i%'roved 8t is the fashion to co%'are the $onderful advance %ade by Bulgaria during the thirty(five years of its ne$ eGistence $ith the very %uch slo$er 'rogress %ade by ,erbia during a %uch longer 'eriod This is insisted on es'ecially by 'ublicists in Austria(#ungary and Ger%any, but it is forgotten that even before the last Balkan $ar the geogra'hical 'osition of Bulgaria $ith its seaboard $as

%uch %ore favourable to its econo%ic develo'%ent than that of ,erbia, $hich the Treaty of Berlin had he%%ed in by Turkish and Austro(#ungarian territoryH %oreover, Bulgaria being double the siDe of the ,erbia of those days, had far greater resources u'on $hich to dra$ Fro% 49;1 on$ards FerdinandEs 'o$er in his o$n country and his influence abroad had been steadily gro$ing #e al$ays a''reciated the value of rail$ays, and beca%e al%ost as great a traveller as the Ger%an E%'eror #is estates in the south of #ungary constantly reCuired his attention, and he $as a freCuent visitor in ?ienna The Ger%an E%'eror, though he could not hel' ad%iring FerdinandEs success, $as al$ays a little afraid of hi%H he felt that FerdinandEs gifts $ere so si%ilar to his o$n that he $ould be unable to count on hi% in an e%ergency "oreover, it $as difficult to reconcile FerdinandEs a%bitions in eGtre%e south(eastern Euro'e $ith his o$n FerdinandEs relations $ith ?ienna, on the other hand, and es'ecially $ith the late Archduke Francis Ferdinand, $ere both cordial and inti%ate The gradual aggravation of the condition of the Turkish E%'ire, notably in "acedonia, the unredee%ed Bulgaria, $here since the insurrection of 4;0.(J anarchy, al$ays ende%ic, had deteriorated into a reign of terror, and, also the un%istakably gro$ing 'o$er and s'irit of ,erbia since the accession of the >arageorgevich dynasty in 4;0J, caused uneasiness in ,ofia, no less than in ?ienna and Buda'est The &oung Turkish revolution of July 4;09, and the triu%'h of the 7o%%ittee of =nion and Progress, disar%ed the critics of Turkey $ho $ished to %ake the forcible introduction of refor%s a 'reteGt for their interferenceH but the 'otential rejuvenation of the +tto%an E%'ire $hich it foreshado$ed indicated the desirability of ra'id and decisive action 8n ,e'te%ber, after fo%enting a strike on the +riental -ail$ay in eastern -ou%elia A$hich rail$ay $as Turkish 'ro'ertyB, the ,ofia 7abinet seiDed the line $ith a %ilitary force on the 'lea of 'olitical necessity At the sa%e ti%e Ferdinand, $ith his second $ife, the Protestant Princess Eleonora of -euss, $ho% he had %arried in "arch of that year, $as received $ith regal honours by the E%'eror of Austria at Buda'est +n +ctober :, 4;09, at

Tirnovo, the ancient ca'ital, Ferdinand 'roclai%ed the co%'lete inde'endence of Bulgaria and eastern -u%elia under hi%self as >ing AITsarI in BulgarianB, and on +ctober 5 Austria(#ungary announced the anneGation of Bosnia and #ercegovina, the t$o Turkish 'rovinces ad%inistered by it since 495;, no%inally under Turkish suDerainty

4J IThe >ingdo%I, 4;09(4J Acf 7ha's 41, .0B

The events $hich have taken 'lace in Bulgaria since 4;09 hinge on the "acedonian Cuestion, $hich has not till no$ been %entioned The "acedonian Cuestion $as eGtre%ely co%'licatedH it started on the assu%'tion that the disintegration of Turkey, $hich had been 'roceeding throughout the nineteenth century, $ould eventually be co%'leted, and the Cuestion $as ho$ in this eventuality to satisfy the territorial clai%s of the three neighbouring countries, Bulgaria, ,erbia, and Greece, clai%s both historical and ethnological, based on the nu%bers and distribution of their Eunredee%edE co%'atriots in "acedonia, and at the sa%e ti%e avoid causing the ar%ed interference of Euro'e The beginnings of the "acedonian Cuestion in its %odern for% do not go farther back than 499:, $hen the ease $ith $hich eastern -u%elia Ai e southern BulgariaB thre$ off the Turkish yoke and $as s'ontaneously united $ith the se%i(inde'endent 'rinci'ality of northern Bulgaria affected the i%agination of the Balkan states%en Fro% that ti%e ,ofia began to cast longing eyes on "acedonia, the $hole of $hich $as clai%ed as Eunredee%ed BulgariaE, and ,ta%bulLvEs last success in 49;1 $as to obtain fro% Turkey the consent to the establish%ent of t$o bisho's of the Bulgarian

AEGarchistB 7hurch in "acedonia, $hich $as a heavy blo$ for the Greek Patriarchate at 7onstantino'le "acedonia had been envisaged by the Treaty of Berlin, article .J of $hich sti'ulated for refor%s in that 'rovinceH but in those days the Balkan ,tates $ere too young and $eak to $orry the%selves or the Euro'ean 'o$ers over the troubles of their co(religionists in TurkeyH their hands $ere %ore than full setting their o$n houses in so%e sort of order, and it $as in nobodyEs interest to refor% "acedonia, so article .J re%ained the eG'ression of a 'hilanthro'ic senti%ent This indifference on the 'art of Euro'e left the door o'en for the Balkan ,tates, as soon as they had energy to s'are, to initiate their ca%'aign for eGtending their s'heres of influence in "acedonia Fro% 49;1 on$ards Bulgarian 'ro'aganda in "acedonia increased, and the Bulgarians $ere soon follo$ed by Greeks and ,erbians The reason for this 'assionate 'egging out of clai%s and the bitter rivalry of the three nations $hich it engendered $as the follo$ing* The 'o'ulation of "acedonia $as no$here, eGce't in the i%%ediate vicinity of the borders of these three countries, either 'urely Bulgar or 'urely Greek or 'urely ,erbH %ost of the to$ns contained a 'ercentage of at least t$o of these nationalities, not to %ention the Turks A$ho after all $ere still the o$ners of the country by right of conCuestB, Albanians, Tartars, -u%anians A?lakhsB, and othersH the city of ,alonika $as and is al%ost 'urely Je$ish, $hile in the country districts Turkish, Albanian, Greek, Bulgar, and ,erb villages $ere ineGtricably confused Generally s'eaking, the coastal stri' $as %ainly Greek Athe coast itself 'urely soB, the interior %ainly ,lav The 'roble% $as for each country to 'eg out as large a clai% as 'ossible, and so effectively, by any %eans in their 'o$er, to %ake the %ajority of the 'o'ulation contained in that clai% ackno$ledge itself to be Bulgar, or ,erb, or Greek, that $hen the agony of the +tto%an E%'ire $as over, each 'art of "acedonia $ould auto%atically fall into the ar%s of its res'ective deliverers The ga%e $as 'layed through the a''ro'riate %edia of churches and schools, for the unfortunate "acedonian 'easants had

first of all to be enlightened as to $ho they $ere, or rather as to $ho they $ere told they had got to consider the%selves, $hile the 7hurch, as al$ays, conveniently covered a %ultitude of 'olitical ai%sH $hen those %ethods flagged, a bo%b $ould be thro$n at, let us say, a Turkish official by an Iagent 'rovocateurI of one of the three 'layers, inevitably resulting in the necessary %assacre of innocent 7hristians by the ostensibly brutal but really eCually innocent Turks, and an outcry in the Euro'ean 'ress Bulgaria $as first in the field and had a considerable start of the other t$o rivals The Bulgars clai%ed the $hole of "acedonia, including ,alonika and all the Aegean coast AeGce't 7halcidiceB, +khrida, and "onastirH Greece clai%ed all southern "acedonia, and ,erbia 'arts of northern and central "acedonia kno$n as +ld ,erbia The cruG of the $hole 'roble% $as, and is, that the clai%s of ,erbia and Greece do not clash, $hile that of Bulgaria, driving a thick $edge bet$een Greece and ,erbia, and thus giving Bulgaria the undoubted hege%ony of the 'eninsula, ca%e into irreconcilable conflict $ith those of its rivals The i%'ortance of this 'oint $as greatly e%'hasiDed by the eGistence of the Nish(,alonika rail$ay, $hich is ,erbiaEs only direct outlet to the sea, and runs through "acedonia fro% north to south, follo$ing the right or $estern bank of the river ?ardar ,hould Bulgaria straddle that, ,erbia $ould be econo%ically at its %ercy, just as in the north it $as already, to its bitter cost, at the %ercy of Austria(#ungary Nevertheless, Bulgarian 'ro'aganda had been so effectual that ,erbia and Greece never eG'ected they $ould eventually be able to join hands so easily and successfully as they after$ards did The then unkno$n Cuantity of Albania $as also a factor This 'eo'le, though s%all in nu%bers, $as for%idable in character, and had never been effectually subdued by the Turks They $ould have been glad to have a boundary contiguous $ith that of Bulgaria A$ith $ho% they had no CuarrelB as a su''ort against their hereditary ene%ies, ,erbs in the north and Greeks in the south, $ho $ere %ore than inclined to encroach on their territory The 'o'ulation of "acedonia, being still under Turkish rule,

$as uneducated and ignorantH needless to say it had no national consciousness, though this $as less true of the Greeks than of the ,lavs 8t is the ,lav 'o'ulation of "acedonia that has engendered so %uch heat and caused so %uch blood to be s'ilt The dis'ute as to $hether it is rather ,erb or Bulgar has caused inter%inable and %ost bitter controversy The truth is that it I$asI neither the one nor the other, but that, the ethnological and linguistic %issionaries of Bulgaria having been first in the field, a %ajority of the "acedonian ,lavs had been so long and so 'ersistently told that they $ere Bulgars, that after a fe$ years Bulgaria could, $ith so%e truth, clai% that this fact $as so "acedonia had been successively under Greek, Bulgar, and ,erb, before Turkish, rule, but the "acedonian ,lavs had, under the last, been so cut off both fro% Bulgars and ,erbs, that ethnologically and linguistically they did not develo' the characteristics of either of these t$o races, $hich originally belonged to the sa%e southern ,lav stock, but re%ained a 'ri%itive neutral ,lav ty'e 8f the ,erbs had been first in the field instead of the Bulgars, the "acedonian ,lavs could just as easily have been %ade into ,erbs, sufficiently 'lausibly to convince the %ost kno$ing eG'ert The $ell(kno$n reci'e for %aking a "acedonian ,lav village Bulgar is to add I(ovI or I(evI A'ronounced I(off, (yeffIB on to the na%es of all the %ale inhabitants, and to %ake it ,erb it is only necessary to add further the syllable I(ich, (ovI and I(ovichI being res'ectively the eCuivalent in Bulgarian and ,erbian of our ter%ination I(son,I e g I8vanovI in Bulgarian, and IJovanovitI in ,erbian N IJohnsonI 8n addition to these three nations -u%ania also entered the lists, suddenly horrified at discovering the sad 'light of the ?lakh she'herds, $ho had 'robably $andered $ith unconcern about "acedonia $ith their herds since -o%an ti%es As their vague 'astures could not 'ossibly ever be anneGed to -u%ania, their case $as %erely used in order to justify -u%ania in clai%ing eventual territorial co%'ensation else$here at the final day of reckoning "ean$hile, their eGistence as a se'arate and authentic nationality in Turkey $as officially recogniDed by the Porte in 4;0/

The stages of the "acedonian Cuestion u' to 4;09 %ust at this 'oint be Cuite briefly enu%erated -ussia and Austria(#ungary, the t$o E%ost interested 'o$ersE, $ho as far back as the eighteenth century had divided the Balkans into their res'ective s'heres of interest, east and $est, ca%e to an agree%ent in 49;5 regarding the final settle%ent of affairs in TurkeyH but it never reached a conclusive stage and conseCuently $as never a''lied The "acedonian chaos %ean$hile gre$ steadily $orse, and the serious insurrections of 4;0.(J, follo$ed by the custo%ary re'risals, thoroughly alar%ed the 'o$ers #il%i Pasha had been a''ointed 8ns'ector(General of "acedonia in !ece%ber 4;0., but $as not successful in restoring order 8n +ctober 4;0J the E%'eror Nicholas 88 and the E%'eror of Austria, $ith their foreign %inisters, %et at "RrDsteg, in ,tyria, and elaborated a %ore definite 'lan of refor% kno$n as the "RrDsteg 'rogra%%e, the drastic ter%s of $hich had been largely ins'ired by )ord )ansdo$ne, then British ,ecretary of ,tate for Foreign AffairsH the 'rinci'al feature $as the institution of an international gendar%erie, the $hole of "acedonia being divided u' into five districts to be a''ortioned a%ong the several great 'o$ers +$ing to the 'rocrastination of the Porte and to the eGtre%e co%'leGity of the financial %easures $hich had to be elaborated in conneGion $ith this sche%e of refor%s, the last of the negotiations $as not co%'leted, nor the $hole series ratified, until A'ril 4;05, though the gendar%erie officers had arrived in "acedonia in February 4;01 At this 'oint again it is necessary to recall the 'osition in regard to this Cuestion of the various nations concerned Great Britain and France had no territorial stake in Turkey 'ro'er, and did their ut%ost to secure refor% not only in the IvilayetsI of "acedonia, but also in the real% of +tto%an finance 8talyEs interest centred in Albania, $hose eventual fate, for geogra'hical and strategic reasons, could not leave it indifferent Austria(#ungaryEs only care $as by any %eans to 'revent the aggrandiDe%ent of the ,erb nationality and of ,erbia and "ontenegro, so as to secure the control, if not the 'ossession, of the routes to ,alonika, if necessary over the 'rostrate bodies of those t$o countries $hich defiantly barred

Ger%anic 'rogress to$ards the East -ussia $as already fatally absorbed in the Far Eastern adventure, and, %oreover, had, ever since the $ar of 4959, been losing influence at 7onstantino'le, $here before its $ord had been la$H the Treaty of Berlin had dealt a blo$ at -ussian 'restige, and -ussia had ever since that date been singularly badly served by its a%bassadors to the Porte, $ho $ere al$ays either too old or too easy(going Ger%any, on the other hand, had been eGce'tionally fortunate or 'rudent in the choice of its re'resentatives The general trend of Ger%an di'lo%acy in Turkey $as not gras'ed until very %uch later, a fact $hich redounds to the credit of the Ger%an a%bassadors at 7onstantino'le Ever since the triu%'hal journey of @illia% 88 to the Bos'horus in 499;, Ger%an influence, under the able guidance of Baron von -ado$itD, steadily increased This cul%inated in the rPgi%e of the late Baron "arschall von Bieberstein, $ho $as a%bassador fro% 49;5 to 4;4. 8t $as Ger%an 'olicy to flatter, su''ort, and encourage Turkey in every 'ossible $ay, to refrain fro% taking 'art $ith the other 'o$ers in the invidious and 'erennial occu'ation of 'ressing refor%s on Abdul #a%id, and, above all, to give as %uch 'ocket(%oney to Turkey and its eGtravagant ruler as they asked for Ger%any, for instance, refused to send officers or to have a district assigned it in "acedonia in 4;01, and declined to take 'art in the naval de%onstration off "itylene in 4;0: This attitude of Ger%any naturally encouraged the Porte in its 'olicy of delay and subterfuge, and Turkey soon ca%e to look on Ger%any as its only strong, sincere, and disinterested friend in Euro'e For the indefinite continuance of chaos and bloodshed in "acedonia, after the other 'o$ers had really braced the%selves to the thankless task of 'utting the refor%s into 'ractice, Ger%any alone $as res'onsible The blo$ $hich >ing Ferdinand had inflicted on the 'restige of the &oung Turks in +ctober 4;09, by 'roclai%ing his inde'endence, naturally lent lustre to the Bulgarian cause in "acedonia ,erbia, baffled by the si%ultaneous Austrian anneGation of Bosnia and #ercegovina, and %addened by the elevation of Bulgaria to the rank of a kingdo% Aits %aterial 'rogress had hitherto been discounted in ,erbian eyes by the fact that it

$as a %ere vassal 'rinci'alityB, see%ed about to be crushed by the t$o iron 'ots jostling it on either side 8ts international 'osition $as at that ti%e such that it could eG'ect no hel' or encourage%ent fro% $estern Euro'e, $hile the events of 4;0; Acf ' 411B sho$ed that -ussia $as not then in a 'osition to render active assistance Greece, also screa%ing aloud for co%'ensation, $as told by its friends a%ongst the great 'o$ers that if it %ade a noise it $ould get nothing, but that if it behaved like a good child it %ight so%e day be given >rete "ean$hile -ussia, rudely a$akened by the events of 4;09 to the real state of affairs in the Near East, beginning to realiDe the gro$th of Ger%an influence at 7onstantino'le, and seeing the un%istakable resuscitation of Austria(#ungary as a great 'o$er, %ade %anifest by the anneGation of Bosnia and #ercegovina, te%'orarily reasserted its influence in Bulgaria Fro% the %o%ent $hen Baron Aehrenthal announced his chi%erical sche%e of an Austrian rail$ay through the I,andjakI of Novi PaDar in January 4;09(( everybody kno$s that the rail$ay already built through ,erbia along the "orava valley is the only co%%ercially re%unerative and strategically 'racticable road fro% Berlin, ?ienna, and Buda'est to ,alonika and 7onstantino'le((-ussia realiDed that the days of the "RrDsteg 'rogra%%e $ere over, that hencefor$ard it $as to be a struggle bet$een ,lav and Teuton for the o$nershi' of 7onstantino'le and the do%inion of the Near East, and that so%ething %ust be done to retrieve the 'osition in the Balkans $hich it $as losing After Baron Aehrenthal, in January 4;0;, had %ollified the &oung Turks by an inde%nity, and thus 'ut an end to the boycott, -ussia in February of the sa%e year liCuidated the re%ains of the old Turkish $ar inde%nity of 4959 still due to itself by skilfully arranging that Bulgaria should 'ay off its ca'italiDed tribute, o$ed to its eG(suDerain the ,ultan, by very easy instal%ents to -ussia instead The i%%ediate effects of the &oung Turk revolution a%ongst the Balkan ,tates, and the events, $atched benevolently by -ussia, $hich led to the for%ation of the Balkan )eague, $hen it $as joyfully realiDed that neither the setting(u' of 'arlia%entary govern%ent, nor even the overthro$ of Abdul #a%id, i%'lied the co%%ence%ent of the %illenniu% in "acedonia and

Thrace, have been described else$here A'' 414, 419B >ing Ferdinand and " ?eneDelos are generally credited $ith the ince'tion and realisation of the )eague, though it $as so secretly and skilfully concerted that it is not yet 'ossible correctly to a''ortion 'raise for the re%arkable achieve%ent Bulgaria is a very de%ocratic country, but >ing Ferdinand, o$ing to his sagacity, 'atience, and eG'erience, and also thanks to his influential dynastic conneGions and 'ro'ensity for travel, has al$ays been virtually his o$n foreign %inisterH in s'ite of the fact that he is a large feudal #ungarian landlord, and has te%'era%ental leanings to$ards the 7entral Euro'ean E%'ires, it is Cuite credible that >ing Ferdinand devoted all his undeniable talents and great energy to the for%ation of the )eague $hen he sa$ that the %o%ent had co%e for Bulgaria to realiDe its destiny at TurkeyEs eG'ense, and that, if the other three Balkan ,tates could be induced to co%e to the sa%e $ise decision, it $ould be so %uch the better for all of the% That -ussia could do anything else than $hole(heartedly $elco%e the for%ation of the Balkan )eague $as absolutely i%'ossible Pan(,lavis% had long since ceased to be the force it $as, and nobody in -ussia drea%ed of or desired the incor'oration of any Balkan territory in the -ussian E%'ire 8t is 'ossible to control 7onstantino'le $ithout 'ossessing the Balkans, and -ussia could only rejoice if a Greco(,lavonic league should destroy the 'o$er of the Turks and thereby %ake i%'ossible the further advance of the Ger%anic 'o$ers east$ard That -ussia $as ever in the least jealous of the %ilitary successes of the league, $hich caused such gnashing of teeth in Berlin, ?ienna, and Buda'est, is a %ischievous fiction, the e%'tiness of $hich $as evident to any one $ho ha''ened to be in -ussia during the $inter of 4;4.(4J The years 4;09 to 4;4. $ere out$ardly uneventful in Bulgaria, though a great deal of Cuiet $ork $as done in increasing the efficiency of the ar%y, and the %aterial 'ros'erity of the country sho$ed no falling off -elations $ith the other Balkan ,tates, es'ecially $ith ,erbia and "ontenegro, i%'roved considerably, and there $as a%'le roo% for such i%'rove%ent This $as out$ardly %arked by freCuent visits 'aid to each

other by %e%bers of the several royal fa%ilies of the three ,lavonic kingdo%s of the Balkans 8n "ay 4;4. agree%ents for the eventual deli%itation of the 'rovinces to be conCuered fro% Turkey in the event of $ar $ere signed bet$een Bulgaria and ,erbia, and Bulgaria and Greece The %ost controversial district $as, of course, "acedonia Bulgaria clai%ed central "acedonia, $ith "onastir and +khrida, $hich $as the lionEs share, on ethnical grounds $hich have been already discussed, and it $as eG'ected that Greece and ,erbia, by obtaining other acCuisitions else$here, $ould consent to have their territories se'arated by the large Bulgarian $edge $hich $as to be driven bet$een the% The eGact future line of de%arcation bet$een ,erbian and Bulgarian territory $as to be left to arbitration The 'ossible creation of an inde'endent Albania $as not conte%'lated 8n August 4;4. the t$enty(fifth anniversary of >ing FerdinandEs arrival in Bulgaria $as celebrated $ith %uch rejoicing at the ancient ca'ital of Tirnovo, and $as %arred only by the ne$s of the terrible %assacre of Bulgars by Turks at >ochana in "acedoniaH this event, ho$ever, o''ortune though %ournful, tended considerably to increase the volu%e of the $ave of 'atriotis% $hich s$e't through the country )ater in the sa%e %onth 7ount Berchtold startled Euro'e $ith his E'rogressive decentraliDationE sche%e of refor% for "acedonia The %anner in $hich this event led to the final arrange%ents for the declaration of $ar on Turkey by the four Balkan ,tates is given in full else$here Acf ' 4:4B The Bulgarian ar%y $as fully 're'ared for the fray, and the autu%n %anoeuvres had 'er%itted the concentration unobserved of a considerable 'ortion of it, ready to strike $hen the ti%e ca%e "obilisation $as ordered on ,e'te%ber J0, 4;4. +n +ctober 9 "ontenegro declared $ar on Turkey +n +ctober 4J Bulgaria, $ith the other Balkan ,tates, re'lied to the re%onstrances of -ussia and Austria by declaring that its 'atience $as at length eGhausted, and that the s$ord alone $as able to enforce 'ro'er treat%ent of the 7hristian 'o'ulations in Euro'ean Turkey +n +ctober 45 Turkey, encouraged by the sudden and uneG'ected conclusion of 'eace $ith 8taly after the )ibyan $ar, declared $ar on Bulgaria and ,erbia, and on

+ctober 49 >ing Ferdinand addressed a senti%ental eGhortation to his 'eo'le to liberate their fello$(country%en, $ho $ere still groaning under the 7rescent The nu%ber of Turkish troo's o''osing the Bulgarians in Thrace $as about 490,000, and they had al%ost eGactly the sa%e nu%ber $here$ith to o''ose the ,erbians in "acedoniaH for, although "acedonia $as considered by the Turks to be the %ost i%'ortant theatre of $ar, yet the 'roGi%ity of the Bulgarian frontier to 7onstantino'le %ade it necessary to retain a large nu%ber of troo's in Thrace +n +ctober 4; the Bulgarians took the frontier to$n of "ustafa Pasha +n +ctober .1 they defeated the Turks at >irk(>ilissP Aor )oDengradB, further east Fro% +ctober .9 to Nove%ber . raged the terrific battle of )ule(Burgas, $hich resulted in a co%'lete and brilliant victory of the Bulgarians over the Turks The defeat and hu%iliation of the Turks $as as ra'id and thorough in Thrace as it had been in "acedonia, and by the %iddle of Nove%ber the re%ains of the Turkish ar%y $ere entrenched behind the i%'regnable lines of 7hataldja, $hile a large garrison $as shut u' in Adriano'le, $hich had been invested by the end of +ctober The Bulgarian ar%y, so%e$hat eGhausted by this brilliant and lightning ca%'aign, refrained fro% stor%ing the lines of 7hataldja, an o'eration $hich could not fail to involve losses such as the Bulgarian nation $as scarcely in a 'osition to bear, and on !ece%ber J the ar%istice $as signed The negotiations conducted in )ondon for t$o %onths led, ho$ever, to no result, and on February J, 4;4J, hostilities $ere resu%ed These, for the Bulgarians, resolved the%selves into the %ore energetic 'rosecution of the siege of Adriano'le, $hich had not been raised during the ar%istice To their assistance ,erbia, being able to s'are troo's fro% "acedonia, sent :0,000 %en and a Cuantity of heavy siege artillery, an ar% $hich the Bulgarians lacked +n "arch ./, 4;4J, the fortress surrendered to the allied ar%ies The 7onference of )ondon, $hich took 'lace during the s'ring of that year, fiGed the ne$ Turco(Bulgarian boundary by dra$ing the fa%ous Enos("idia line, running bet$een these t$o 'laces situated on the shores res'ectively

of the Aegean and the Black ,ea This deli%itation $ould have given Bulgaria 'ossession of Adriano'le But %ean$hile Greece and es'ecially ,erbia, $hich latter country had been co%'elled to $ithdra$ fro% the Adriatic coast by Austria, and $as further 'recluded fro% ever returning there by the creation of the inde'endent state of Albania, deter%ined to retain 'ossession of all that 'art of "acedonia, including the $hole valley of the ?ardar $ith its i%'ortant rail$ay, $hich they had conCuered, and thus secure their co%%on frontier 8n "ay 4;4J a %ilitary convention $as concluded bet$een the%, and the Balkan )eague, the relations bet$een the %e%bers of $hich had been beco%ing %ore strained ever since January, finally dissolved Bulgaria, outraged by this callous disregard of the agree%ents as to the 'artition of "acedonia signed a year 'reviously by itself and its eG(allies, did not $ait for the result of the arbitration $hich $as actually 'roceeding in -ussia, but in an access of indignation rushed to ar%s This second Balkan $ar, begun by Bulgaria during the night of June J0, 4;4J, by a sudden attack on the ,erbian ar%y in "acedonia, resulted in its undoing 8n order to defeat the ,erbs and Greeks the south(eastern and northern frontiers $ere denuded of troo's But the totally unforeseen ha''ened The ,erbs $ere victorious, defeating the Bulgars in "acedonia, the Turks, seeing Thrace e%'ty of Bulgarian troo's, re(occu'ied Adriano'le, and the -u%anian ar%y, deter%ined to see fair 'lay before it $as too late, invaded Bulgaria fro% the north and %arched on ,ofia By the end of July the ca%'aign $as over and Bulgaria had to sub%it to fate By the ter%s of the Treaty of Bucarest, $hich $as concluded on August 40, 4;4J, Bulgaria obtained a considerable 'art of Thrace and eastern "acedonia, including a 'ortion of the Aegean coast $ith the sea'ort of !edeagach, but it $as forced to Eco%'ensateE -u%ania $ith a slice of its richest 'rovince Athe districts of !obrich and ,ilistria in north(eastern BulgariaB, and it lost central "acedonia, a great 'art of $hich it $ould certainly have been a$arded by -ussiaEs arbitration +n ,e'te%ber .., 4;4J, the Treaty of 7onstantino'le $as signed by Bulgaria and TurkeyH by

its ter%s Turkey retained 'ossession of Adriano'le and of a far larger 'art of Thrace than its series of igno%inious defeats in the autu%n of 4;4. entitled it to 8n the fatal Cuarrel bet$een Bulgaria and ,erbia $hich caused the disru'tion of the Balkan )eague, led to the tragic second Balkan $ar of July 4;4J, and naturally left behind the bitterest feelings, it is difficult to a''ortion the bla%e Both ,erbia and Bulgaria $ere undoubtedly at fault in the choice of the %ethods by $hich they sought to adjust their difference, but the real guilt is to be found neither in ,ofia nor in Belgrade, but in ?icuna and Buda'est The Balkan )eague barred the $ay of the Ger%anic Po$ers to the EastH its disru'tion $eakened Bulgaria and again 'laced ,erbia at the %ercy of the !ual "onarchy After these trying and unre%unerative eG'eriences it is not astonishing that the Bulgarian 'eo'le and its a%bitious ruler should have retired to the re%ote interior of their shell < < < < <

IEG'lanation of ,erbian orthogra'hyI c N ts 2Bc6 N ch Aas in IchurchIB 2Ec6 N S S S but softer 2Bs6 N sh 2BD6 N Dh Aas D in IaDureIB gj N g Aas in IGeorgeIB jNy 28llustration* T#E BA)>AN PEN8N,=)A6

,E-B8A

41 IThe ,erbs under Foreign ,u're%acyI, /:0(44/9

The %anner of the arrival of the ,lavs in the Balkan 'eninsula, of that of the Bulgars, and of the for%ation of the Bulgarian nationality has already been described Acf ' ./B The installation of the ,lavs in the lands bet$een the !anube, the Aegean, and the Adriatic $as co%'leted by about A ! /:0 8n the second half of the seventh century the Bulgars settled the%selves in the eastern half of the 'eninsula and beca%e absorbed by the ,lavs there, and fro% that ti%e the nationality of the ,lavs in the $estern half began to be %ore clearly defined These latter, s'lit u' into a nu%ber of tribes, gradually grou'ed the%selves into three %ain divisions* ,erbs Aor ,erbiansB, 7roats Aor 7roatiansB, and ,lovenes The ,erbs, %uch the %ost nu%erous of the three, occu'ied roughly the %odern kingdo% of ,erbia Aincluding +ld ,erbia and northern "acedoniaB, "ontenegro, and %ost of Bosnia, #ercegovina, and !al%atiaH the 7roats occu'ied the %ore $estern 'arts of these last three territories and 7roatiaH the ,lovenes occu'ied the %odern 7arniola and southern 7arinthia Needless to say, none of these geogra'hical designations eGisted in those days eGce't !al%atia, on the coast of $hich the )atin influence and no%enclature %aintained itself The ,lovenes, $hose language is closely akin to but not identical $ith ,erbian Aor 7roatianB, even to(day only nu%ber one and a half %illion, and do not enter into this narrative, as they have never 'layed any 'olitical rQle in the Balkan 'eninsula The ,erbs and the 7roats $ere, as regards race and language, originally one 'eo'le, the t$o na%es having %erely geogra'hical signification 8n course of ti%e, for various reasons connected $ith religion and 'olitics,

the distinction $as e%'hasiDed, and fro% a historical 'oint of vie$ the ,erbo(7roatian race has al$ays been divided into t$o 8t is only $ithin the last fe$ years that a %ove%ent has taken 'lace, the object of $hich is to reunite ,erbs and 7roats into one nation and eventually into one state The %ove%ent originated in ,erbia, the ,erbs %aintaining that they and the 7roats are one 'eo'le because they s'eak the sa%e language, and that racial and linguistic unity out$eighs religious divergence A very large nu%ber of 7roats agree $ith the ,erbs in this and su''ort their vie$s, but a %inority for long obstinately insisted that there $as a racial as $ell as a religious difference, and that fusion $as i%'ossible The for%er based their argu%ent on facts, the latter theirs on 'rejudice, $hich is notoriously difficult to overco%e )atterly the %ove%ent in favour of fusion gre$ very %uch stronger a%ong the 7roats, and together $ith that in ,erbia resulted in the Pan(,erb agitation $hich, gave the 'reteGt for the o'ening of hostilities in July 4;41 The designation ,outhern ,lav Aor Jugo(,lav, IjugI, 'ronounced yug, N IsouthI in ,erbianB covers ,erbs and 7roats, and also includes ,lovenesH it is only used $ith reference to the Bulgarians fro% the 'oint of vie$ of 'hilology Athe grou' of ,outh ,lavonic languages including Bulgarian, ,erbo(7roatian and ,loveneH the East ,lavonic, -ussianH and the @est ,lavonic, Polish and Bohe%ianB 8n the history of the ,erbs and 7roats, or of the ,erbo(7roatian race, several factors of a general nature have first to be considered, $hich have influenced its $hole develo'%ent +f these, the 'hysical nature of the country in $hich they settled, bet$een the !anube and ,ave and the Adriatic, is one of the %ost i%'ortant 8t is al%ost every$here %ountainous, and though the %ountains the%selves never attain as %uch as 40,000 feet in height, yet they cover the $hole country $ith an intricate net$ork and have al$ays for%ed an obstacle to easy co%%unication bet$een the various 'arts of it The result of this has been t$ofold 8n the first 'lace it has, generally s'eaking, been a 'rotection against foreign 'enetration and conCuest, and in so far $as beneficial Bulgaria, further

east, is, on the $hole, less %ountainous, in s'ite of the Balkan range $hich stretches the $hole length of itH for this reason, and also on account of its geogra'hical 'osition, any invaders co%ing fro% the north or north(east, es'ecially if ai%ing at 7onstantino'le or ,alonika, $ere bound to s$ee' over it The great i%%e%orial high$ay fro% the north($est to the Balkan 'eninsula crosses the !anube at Belgrade and follo$s the valley of the "orava to NishH thence it branches off east$ards, going through ,ofia and again crossing all Bulgaria to reach 7onstantino'le, $hile the route to ,alonika follo$s the "orava south$ards fro% Nish and crosses the $atershed into the valley of the ?ardar, $hich flo$s into the Aegean But even this road, follo$ing the course of the rivers "orava and ?ardar, only $ent through the fringe of ,erb territory, and left untouched the vast %ountain region bet$een the "orava and the Adriatic, $hich is really the ho%e of the ,erb race 8n the second 'lace, $hile it has undoubtedly been a 'rotection to the ,erb race, it has also been a source of $eakness 8t has 'revented a $elding together of the 'eo'le into one $hole, has facilitated the rise of nu%erous 'olitical units at various ti%es, and generally favoured the dissi'ation of the national strength, and %ilitated against national organiDation and cohesion 8n the course of history this 'rocess has been e%'hasiDed rather than di%inished, and to(day the ,erb race is s'lit u' into siG 'olitical divisions, $hile Bulgaria, eGce't for those Bulgars clai%ed as Eunredee%edE beyond the frontier, 'resents a united $hole 8t is only $ithin the last thirty years, $ith the gradual i%'rove%ent of co%%unications Aobstructed to an incredible eGtent by the Austro(#ungarian govern%entB and the s'read of education, that the ,erbs in the different countries $hich they inhabit have beco%e fully conscious of their essential identity and racial unity No less i%'ortant than the 'hysical as'ect of their country on the develo'%ent of the ,erbs has been the fact that right through the %iddle of it fro% south to north there had been dra$n a line of division %ore than t$o centuries before their arrival Artificial boundaries are

'roverbially e'he%eral, but this one has lasted throughout the centuries, and it has been baneful to the ,erbs This dividing line, dra$n first by the E%'eror !iocletian, has been described on ' 41H at the division of the -o%an E%'ire into East and @est it $as again follo$ed, and it for%ed the boundary bet$een the dioceses of 8taly and !aciaH the line is roughly the sa%e as the 'resent 'olitical boundary bet$een "ontenegro and #ercegovina, bet$een the kingdo% of ,erbia and BosniaH it stretched fro% the Adriatic to the river ,ave right across the ,erb territory The ,erbo(7roatian race un$ittingly occu'ied a country that $as cut in t$o by the line that divides East fro% @est, and se'arates 7onstantino'le and the Eastern 7hurch fro% -o%e and the @estern This curious accident has had conseCuences fatal to the unity of the race, since it has 'layed into the hands of a%bitious and unscru'ulous neighbours As to the eGtent of the country occu'ied by the ,erbs at the beginning of their history it is difficult to be accurate The boundary bet$een the ,erbs in the $est of the 'eninsula and the Bulgars in the east has al$ays been a %atter of dis'ute The 'resent 'olitical frontier bet$een ,erbia and Bulgaria, starting in the north fro% the %outh of the river Ti%ok on the southern bank of the !anube and going south$ards slightly east of Pirot, is ethnogra'hically a''roGi%ately correct till it reaches the ne$ly acCuired and %uch(dis'uted territories in "acedonia, and re'resents fairly accurately the line that has divided the t$o nationalities ever since they $ere first differentiated in the seventh century 8n the confused state of Balkan 'olitics in the "iddle Ages the 'olitical influence of Bulgaria often eGtended $est of this line and included Nish and the "orava valley, $hile at other ti%es that of ,erbia eGtended east of it The dialects s'oken in these frontier districts re'resent a transitional stage bet$een the t$o languagesH each of the t$o 'eo'les naturally considers the% %ore akin to its o$n, and resents the fact that any of the% should be included in the territory of the other Further south, in "acedonia, conditions are si%ilar Before the Turkish conCuest "acedonia had been so%eti%es under Bulgarian rule, as in the ti%es of ,i%eon, ,a%uel, and John Asen 88, so%eti%es under ,erbian,

es'ecially during the height of ,erbian 'o$er in the fourteenth century, $hile inter%ittently it had been a 'rovince of the Greek E%'ire, $hich al$ays clai%ed it as its o$n +n historical grounds, therefore, each of the three nations can clai% 'ossession of "acedonia Fro% an ethnogra'hic 'oint of vie$ the ,lav 'o'ulation of "acedonia Athere $ere al$ays and are still %any non(,lav ele%entsB $as originally the sa%e as that in the other 'arts of the 'eninsula, and 'robably %ore akin to the ,erbs, $ho are 'ure ,lavs, than to the ,lavs of Bulgaria, $ho coalesced $ith their Asiatic conCuerors 8n course of ti%e, ho$ever, Bulgarian influences, o$ing to the several 'eriods $hen the Bulgars ruled the country, began to %ake head$ay The Albanians also Aan 8ndo(Euro'ean or Aryan race, but not of the Greek, )atin, or ,lav fa%iliesB, $ho, as a result of all the invasions of the Balkan 'eninsula, had been driven south$ards into the inaccessible %ountainous country no$ kno$n as Albania, began to s'read north$ards and east$ards again during the Turkish do%inion, 'ushing back the ,erbs fro% the territory $here they had long been settled !uring the Turkish do%inion neither ,erb nor Bulgar had any influence in "acedonia, and the "acedonian ,lavs, $ho had first of all been 'ure ,lavs, like the ,erbs, then been several ti%es under Bulgar, and finally, under ,erb influence, $ere left to the%selves, and the 'rocess of differentiation bet$een ,erb and Bulgar in "acedonia, by $hich in ti%e the "acedonian ,lavs $ould have beco%e either ,erbs or Bulgars, ceased The further develo'%ent of the "acedonian Cuestion is treated else$here Acf cha' 4JB The ,erbs, $ho had no 'er%anent or $ell(defined frontier in the east, $here their neighbours $ere the Bulgars, or in the south, $here they $ere the Greeks and Albanians, $ere 'rotected on the north by the river ,ave and on the $est by the Adriatic They $ere s'lit u' into a nu%ber of tribes, each of $hich $as headed by a chief called in ,erbian I2BD6u'anI and in Greek Iarch2No6nI @henever any one of these %anaged, either by skill or by good fortune, to eGtend his 'o$er over a fe$ of the neighbouring districts he $as ter%ed IvelikiI ANgreatB I2BD6u'anI Fro% the beginning of their history, $hich is roughly 'ut at A ! /:0, until A ! 44;/, the ,erbs $ere under foreign do%ination Their suDerains $ere

no%inally al$ays the Greek e%'erors, $ho had EgrantedE the% the land they had taken, and $henever the e%'eror ha''ened to be energetic and 'o$erful, as $ere Basil 8 Athe "acedonian, 9/5(9/B, John TDi%isces A;/;(5/B, Basil 88 A;5/(40.:B, and "anuel 7o%nenus A441J(90B, the Greek su're%acy $as very real At those ti%es again $hen Bulgaria $as very 'o$erful, under ,i%eon A9;J(;.5B, ,a%uel A;55(4041B, and John Asen 88 A4.49(14B, %any of the %ore easterly and southerly ,erbs ca%e under Bulgarian rule, though it is instructive to notice that the ,erbs the%selves do not recogniDe the @est Bulgarian or "acedonian kingdo% of ,a%uel to have been a Bulgarian state The Bulgars, ho$ever, at no ti%e brought all the ,erb lands under their s$ay 8nter%ittently, $henever the 'o$er of ByDantiu% or of Bulgaria $aned, so%e ,erb 'rinceling $ould try to for% a 'olitical state on a %ore a%bitious scale, but the fabric al$ays colla'sed at his death, and the ,erbs reverted to their favourite occu'ation of Cuarrelling a%ongst the%selves ,uch $ore the atte%'ts of 2B76aslav, $ho had been %ade ca'tive by ,i%eon of Bulgaria, esca'ed after his death, and ruled over a large 'art of central ,erbia till ;/0, and later of Bodin, $hose father, "ichael, $as even recogniDed as king by Po'e Gregory ?88H Bodin for%ed a state near the coast, in the Keta river district Ano$ "ontenegroB, and ruled there fro% 4094 to 4404 But as a rule the $hole of the country 'eo'led by the ,erbs $as s'lit into a nu%ber of tiny 'rinci'alities al$ays at $ar $ith one another Generally s'eaking, this country gradually beca%e divided into t$o %ain geogra'hical divisions* A4B the IPo%orjeI, or country Iby the seaI, $hich included %ost of the %odern "ontenegro and the southern halves of #ercegovina and !al%atia, and A.B the IKagorjeI, or country Ibehind the hillsI, $hich included %ost of the %odern Bosnia, the $estern half of the %odern kingdo% of ,erbia, and the northern 'ortions of "ontenegro and #ercegovina, covering all the country bet$een the IPo%orjeI and the ,aveH to the north of the IPo%orjeI and IKagorjeI lay 7roatia Besides their neighbours in the east and south, those in the north and $est 'layed an i%'ortant 'art in ,erbian history even in those early days

To$ards the end of the eighth century, after the decline of the 'o$er of the Avars, 7harle%agne eGtended his conCuests east$ards Ahe %ade a great i%'ression on the %inds of the ,lavs, $hose $ord for king, IkralI or IkorolI, is derived directly fro% his na%eB, and his son )ouis conCuered the ,erbs settled in the country bet$een the rivers ,ave and !rave This is co%%e%orated in the na%e of the %ass of hill $hich lies bet$een the !anube and the ,ave, in eastern ,lavonia, and is to this day kno$n as IFru2Bs6ka GoraI, or French #ill The ,erbs and Bulgars fought against the Franks, and $hile the Bulgars held their o$n, the ,erbs $ere beaten, and those $ho did not like the rule of the ne$(co%ers had to %igrate south$ards across the ,aveH at the sa%e ti%e the ,erbs bet$een the rivers "orava and Ti%ok Aeastern ,erbiaB $ere subjected by the Bulgars @ith the arrival of the "agyars, in the ninth century, a $all $as raised bet$een the ,erbs and central and $estern Euro'e on land 7roatia and ,lavonia Abet$een the ,ave and the !raveB $ere gradually dra$n into the orbit of the #ungarian state, and in 440., on the death of its o$n ruler, 7roatia $as absorbed by #ungary and has for%ed 'art of that country ever since #ungary, ai%ing at an outlet on the Adriatic, at the sa%e ti%e subjected %ost of !al%atia and 'arts of Bosnia 8n the $est ?enice had been steadily gro$ing in 'o$er throughout the tenth century, and by the end of it had secured control of all the islands off !al%atia and of a considerable 'art of the coast All the cities on the %ainland ackno$ledged the su're%acy of ?enice and she $as %istress of the Adriatic 8n the interior of the ,erb territory, during the eleventh and t$elfth centuries, three 'olitical centres ca%e into 'ro%inence and sha'ed the%selves into larger territorial units These $ere* A4B -aska, $hich had been 7aslavEs centre and is considered the birth('lace of the ,erbian state Athis district, $ith the to$n of -as as its centre, included the south($estern 'art of the %odern kingdo% of ,erbia and $hat $as the Turkish IsandjakI or 'rovince of Novi(PaDarBH A.B Keta, on the coast Athe %odern "ontenegroBH and AJB Bosnia, so called after the river Bosna, $hich runs through it Bosnia, $hich roughly corres'onded to the %odern 'rovince of that na%e, beca%e inde'endent in the second half of the tenth century,

and $as never after that incor'orated in the ,erbian state At ti%es it fell under #ungarian influenceH in the t$elfth century, during the reign of "anuel 7o%nenus, $ho $as victorious over the "agyars, Bosnia, like all other ,erb territories, had to ackno$ledge the su're%acy of 7onstantino'le 8t has already been indicated that the ,erbs and 7roats occu'ied territory $hich, $hile the 7hurch $as still one, $as divided bet$een t$o dioceses, 8taly and !acia, and $hen the 7hurch itself $as divided, in the eleventh century, $as torn a'art bet$een the t$o beliefs The dividing line bet$een the jurisdictions of -o%e and 7onstantino'le ran fro% north to south through Bosnia, but naturally there has al$ays been a certain vagueness about the eGtent of their res'ective jurisdictions 8n later years the ter%s 7roat and -o%an 7atholic on the one hand, and ,erb and +rthodoG on the other, beca%e interchangeable #ercegovina and eastern Bosnia have al$ays been 'redo%inantly +rthodoG, !al%atia and $estern Bosnia 'redo%inantly -o%an 7atholic The loyalty of the 7roatians to Austria(#ungary has been largely o$ing to the influence of -o%an 7atholicis% !uring the first centuries of ,erbian history 7hristianity %ade slo$ 'rogress in the $estern half of the Balkan 'eninsula The !al%atian coast $as al$ays under the influence of -o%e, but the interior $as long 'agan 8t is doubtful $hether the brothers 7yril and "ethodius Acf cha' :B actually 'assed through ,erb territory, but in the tenth century their teachings and $ritings $ere certainly current there At the ti%e of the division of the 7hurches all the ,erb lands eGce't the !al%atian coast, 7roatia, and $estern Bosnia, $ere faithful to 7onstantino'le, and the Greek hierarchy obtained co%'lete control of the ecclesiastical ad%inistration The elaborate organisation and o'ulent character of the Eastern 7hurch $as, ho$ever, es'ecially in the hands of the Greeks, not congenial to the ,erbs, and during the eleventh and t$elfth centuries the Bogo%il heresy Acf cha', /B, a %uch %ore 'ri%itive and de%ocratic for% of 7hristianity, already fa%iliar in the East as the "anichaean heresy, took

hold of the ,erbsE i%agination and %ade as ra'id and disCuieting 'rogress in their country as it had already done in the neighbouring BulgariaH inas%uch as the Greek hierarchy considered this teaching to be socialistic, subversive, and highly dangerous to the ecclesiastical su're%acy of 7onstantino'le, all of $hich indeed it $as, adherence to it beca%e a%ongst the ,erbs a direct eG'ression of 'atriotis%

4: IThe -ise and Fall of the ,erbian E%'ire and the EGtinction of ,erbian 8nde'endenceI, 44/9(41;/

Fro% 44/9 the 'o$er of the ,erbs, or rather of the central ,erb state of -aska, and the eGtent of its territory gradually but steadily increased This $as out$ardly eG'ressed in the fir% establish%ent on the throne of the national Ne%anja dynasty, $hich can clai% the credit of having by its energy, skill, and good fortune fashioned the %ost i%'osing and for%idable state the ,erb race has ever kno$n This dynasty ruled the country uninterru'tedly, but not $ithout %any Cuarrels, feuds, and rivalries a%ongst its various %e%bers, fro% 44/9 until 4J54, $hen it beca%e eGtinct There $ere several eGternal factors $hich at this ti%e favoured the rise of the ,erbian state ByDantiu% and the Greek E%'ire, to $hich the E%'eror "anuel 7o%nenus had by 44/9 restored so%e %easure of its for%er greatness and s'lendour, regaining te%'orary control, after a long $ar $ith #ungary, even over !al%atia, 7roatia, and Bosnia, after this date began definitively to decline, and after the troublous ti%es of the fourth crusade A4.01B, $hen for siGty years a )atin e%'ire $as established on the Bos'horus, never again recovered as a 7hristian state the 'osition in the Balkan 'eninsula $hich it had so long enjoyed Bulgaria, too, after the %eteoric glory of its second e%'ire under the Asen dynasty A449/(4.:9B,

Cuite $ent to 'ieces, the eastern and northern 'arts falling under Tartar, the southern under Greek influence, $hile the $estern districts fell to ,erbia 8n the north, on the other hand, #ungary $as beco%ing a dangerous and a%bitious neighbour !uring the thirteenth century, it is true, the attention of the "agyars $as diverted by the irru'tion into and devastation of their country by their un$elco%e kins%en fro% Asia, the Tartars, $ho $rought great havoc and even 'enetrated as far as the Adriatic coast Nevertheless #ungary $as al$ays a %enace to ,erbiaH 7roatia, ,lavonia, and the interior of !al%atia, all 'urely ,erb territories, belonged to the #ungarian cro$n, and Bosnia $as under the su're%acy of the "agyars, though no%inally inde'endent The objects of the "agyars $ere t$ofold((to attain the hege%ony of the Balkan 'eninsula by conCuering all the still inde'endent ,erb territories, and to bring the 'eninsula $ithin the 'ale of -o%e They $ere not successful in either of these objects, 'artly because their $ars $ith the ,erbian rulers al$ays failed to reach a decision, 'artly because their 'lans conflicted $ith those of the 'o$erful ?enetian re'ublic The relations bet$een ?enice and ,erbia $ere al$ays %ost cordial, as their a%bitions did not clashH those of ?enice $ere not continental, $hile those of ,erbia $ere never %ariti%e The se%i(inde'endent ,lavonic city(re'ublic of -agusa Acalled !ubrovnik in ,erbianB 'layed a very i%'ortant 'art throughout this 'eriod 8t $as under ?enetian su're%acy, but $as self(governing and had a large fleet of its o$n 8t $as the great 'lace of eGchange bet$een ,erbia and $estern Euro'e, and $as really the %eeting('lace of East and @est 8ts relations $ith ,erbia $ere by no %eans al$ays 'eacefulH it $as a NabothEs vineyard for the rulers and 'eo'le of the inland kingdo%, and it $as never incor'orated $ithin their do%inions -agusa and the other cities of the !al%atian coast $ere the ho%e during the "iddle Ages of a flourishing school of ,erbian literature, $hich $as ins'ired by that of 8taly The influence of 8talian civiliDation and of the 8talian 7hurch $as naturally strong in the ,erb 'rovince, %uch of $hich $as under ?enetian ruleH the reason for this $as that co%%unication by sea $ith 8taly $as easier and safer than that by land $ith ,erbia The

long, for%idable ranges of li%estone %ountains $hich divide the ,erbian interior fro% the Adriatic in al%ost unbroken and 'arallel lines have al$ays been a barrier to the eGtension of ,erb 'o$er to the coast, and an obstacle to free co%%ercial intercourse Nevertheless -agusa $as a great trade centre, and one of the factors $hich %ost contributed to the econo%ic strength of the ,erbian E%'ire The first of the Ne%anja dynasty $as ,te'hen, $hose title $as still only I?eliki 2EK6u'anIH he eGtended ,erb territory south$ards at the eG'ense of the Greeks, es'ecially after the death of "anuel 7o%nenus in 4490 #e also 'ersecuted the Bogo%ils, $ho took refuge in large nu%bers in the adjacent ,erb state of Bosnia )ike %any other ,erbian rulers, he abdicated in later life in favour of his younger son, ,te'hen, called Ne%anjiP AN Ne%anyaEs sonB, and hi%self beca%e a %onk A44;/B, travelling for this 'ur'ose to "ount Athos, the great %onastic centre and ho%e of theological learning of the Eastern 7hurch There he sa$ his youngest son, $ho so%e years 'reviously had also journeyed thither and entered a %onastery, taking the na%e of ,ava 8t $as the custo% for every ,erbian ruler to found a sort of %e%orial church, for the $elfare of his o$n soul, before his death, and to decorate and endo$ it lavishly ,te'hen and his son together su'erintended the erection in this sense of the church and %onastery of #ilandar on "ount Athos, $hich beca%e a fa%ous centre of ,erbian church life ,te'hen died shortly after the co%'letion of the building in 44;;, and $as buried in it, but in 4.05 he $as reinterred in the %onastery of ,tudenica, in ,erbia, also founded by hi% The reign of ,te'hen Nernanji2Ec6 A44;/(4..JB o'ened $ith a Cuarrel bet$een hi% and his elder brother, $ho not unnaturally felt he ought to have succeeded his fatherH the Bulgarians 'rofited by this and seiDed a large 'art of eastern ,erbia, including Belgrade, Nish, PriDren, and ,ko'lje This, together $ith the fall of 7onstantino'le and the establish%ent of the )atin E%'ire in 4.01, alar%ed the ,erbs and brought

about a reconciliation bet$een the brothers, and in 4.05 ,ava returned to ,erbia to organise the 7hurch on national lines 8n 4.4; he journeyed to Nicaea and eGtracted fro% the E%'eror Theodore )ascaris, $ho had fallen on evil days, the concession for the establish%ent of an autono%ous national ,erbian 7hurch, inde'endent of the Patriarch of 7onstantino'le ,ava hi%self $as at the head of the ne$ institution 8n 4..0 he sole%nly cro$ned his brother >ing IA>raljBI of ,erbia, the natural conseCuence of his activities in the 'revious year For this reason ,te'hen Ne%anji2Ec6 is called EThe First(7ro$nedE #e $as succeeded in 4..J by his son ,te'hen -adoslav, and he in turn $as de'osed by his brother ,te'hen ?ladislav in 4.JJ Both these $ere cro$ned by ,ava, and ?ladislav %arried the daughter of Tsar John Asen 88, under $ho% Bulgaria $as then at the height of her 'o$er ,ava journeyed to Palestine, and on his return 'aid a visit to the Bulgarian court at Tirnovo, $here he died in 4.J/ #is body $as brought to ,erbia and buried in the %onastery of "ile2Bs6evo, built by ?ladislav This eGtre%ely able church%an and 'olitician, $ho did a great deal for the 'eaceful develo'%ent of his country, $as canoniDed and is regarded as the 'atron saint of ,erbia The reign of ?ladislavEs son and successor, ,te'hen =ro2Bs6 8 A4.1.(5/B, $as characteriDed by econo%ic develo'%ent and the strengthening of the internal ad%inistration 8n eGternal affairs he %ade no conCuests, but defeated a co%bination of the Bulgarians $ith -agusa against hi%, and after the $ar the Bulgarian ruler %arried his daughter 8n his $ars against #ungary he $as unsuccessful, and the "agyars re%ained in 'ossession of a large 'art of northern ,erbia 8n 4.5/ he $as de'osed by his son, ,te'hen !ragutin, $ho in his turn, after an unsuccessful $ar against the Greeks, again %asters of 7onstantino'le since 4./4, $as de'osed and succeeded by his brother, ,te'hen =ro2Bs6 88, na%ed "ilutin, in 4.9. This king ruled fro% 4.9. till 4J.4, and during his reign the country %ade very great %aterial 'rogressH its %ineral $ealth es'ecially, $hich included gold and silver %ines, began to be eG'loited #e eGtended the boundaries of his kingdo% in the north, %aking the !anube and the ,ave the frontier The usual revolt against 'aternal authority $as %ade by his

son ,te'hen, but $as unsuccessful, and the rebel $as banished to 7onstantino'le 8t $as the custo% of the ,erbian kings to give a''anages to their sons, and the inevitable conseCuence of this syste% $as the series of 'rovincial rebellions $hich occurred in al%ost every reign @hen the revolt succeeded, the father Aor brotherB $as granted in his turn a s%all a''anage 8n this case it $as the son $ho $as eGiled, but he $as recalled in 4J4; and a reconciliation took 'lace "ilutin died in 4J.4 and $as succeeded by his son, ,te'hen =ro2Bs6 888, $ho reigned till 4JJ4 #e is kno$n as ,te'hen !e2Bc6anski, after the %e%orial church $hich he built at !e2Bc6ani in $estern ,erbia #is reign $as signaliDed by a great defeat of the co%bined Bulgarians and Greeks at >ustendil in "acedonia in 4JJ0 The follo$ing year his son, ,te'hen !u2Bs6an, rebelled against hi% and de'osed hi% ,te'hen !u2Bs6an, $ho reigned fro% 4JJ4 till 4J::, $as ,erbiaEs greatest ruler, and under hi% the country reached its ut%ost li%its Provincial and fa%ily revolts and 'etty local dis'utes $ith such 'laces as -agusa beca%e a thing of the 'ast, and he undertook conCuest on a grand scale Bet$een 4JJ4 and 4J11 he subjected all "acedonia, Albania, Thessaly, and E'irus #e $as careful to kee' on good ter%s $ith -agusa and $ith #ungary, then under 7harles -obert #e %arried the sister of the Bulgarian ruler, and during his reign Bulgaria $as co%'letely under ,erbian su're%acy The anarchy and civil $ar $hich had beco%e 'erennial at 7onstantino'le, and the $eakening of the Greek E%'ire in face of the gro$ing 'o$er of the Turks, no doubt to so%e eGtent eG'lain the facility and ra'idity of his conCuestsH nevertheless his 'o$er $as very for%idable, and his success ins'ired considerable alar% in $estern Euro'e This $as increased $hen, in 4J1:, he 'roclai%ed his country an e%'ire #e first called together a s'ecial 7hurch council, at $hich the ,erbian 7hurch, an archbisho'ric, $hose centre $as then at Pe2Ec6 Ain "ontenegro, 8'ek in TurkishB, $as 'roclai%ed a Patriarchate, $ith Archbisho' Joannice as PatriarchH then this 'relate, together $ith the Bulgarian Patriarch, ,i%eon, and Nicholas, Archbisho' of +khrida, cro$ned ,te'hen Tsar of the ,erbs, Bulgars, and Greeks ='on this the Patriarch of 7onstantino'le gave

hi%self the vain satisfaction of anathe%atiDing the $hole of ,erbia, as a 'unish%ent for this insubordination 8n 4J:J the Po'e, 8nnocent ?8, 'ersuaded >ing )ouis of #ungary to undertake a crusade against ,erbia in the na%e of 7atholicis%, but ,te'hen defeated hi% and re(established his frontier along the ,ave and !anube )ater he conCuered the southern half of !al%atia, and eGtended his e%'ire as far north as the river 7etina 8n 4J:1 ,te'hen !u2Bs6an hi%self a''roached the Po'e, offering to ackno$ledge his s'iritual su're%acy, if he $ould su''ort hi% against the #ungarians and the Turks The Po'e sent hi% an e%bassy, but eventually ,te'hen could not agree to the 'a'al conditions, and concluded an alliance, of greater 'ractical utility, $ith the ?enetians 8n 4J::, ho$ever, he suddenly died, at the age of forty(siG, and thus the further develo'%ent and aggrandise%ent of his country $as 're%aturely arrested ,te'hen !u2Bs6an %ade a great i%'ression on his conte%'oraries, both by his i%'osing 'ersonal a''earance and by his undoubted $isdo% and ability #e $as es'ecially a great legislator, and his re%arkable code of la$s, co%'iled in 4J1; and enlarged in 4J:1, is, outside his o$n country, his greatest title to fa%e !uring ,te'hen !u2Bs6anEs reign the 'olitical centre of ,erbia, $hich had for %any years gradually tended to shift south$ards to$ards "acedonia, $as at ,ko'lje ATskRb in TurkishB, $hich he %ade his ca'ital ,te'hen !u2Bs6anEs e%'ire eGtended fro% the Adriatic in the $est to the river "aritsa in the east, fro% the ,ave and !anube in the north to the AegeanH it included all the %odern kingdo%s of ,erbia, "ontenegro, Albania, and %ost of Greece, !al%atia as far north as the river 7etina, as $ell as the fertile "orava valley, $ith Nish and Belgrade((the $hole eastern 'art of ,erbia, $hich had for long been under either Bulgar or "agyar control 8t did not include the cities of ,alonika or -agusa, nor any considerable 'art of the %odern kingdo% of Bulgaria, nor Bosnia, 7roatia, North !al%atia, nor ,lavonia Abet$een the ,ave and !raveB, ethnologically all 'urely ,erb lands Fro% the 'oint of vie$ of nationality, therefore, its boundaries $ere far fro% ideal

,te'hen !u2Bs6an $as succeeded by his son, kno$n as Tsar =ro2Bs6, but he $as as $eak as his father had been strong Al%ost as soon as he succeeded to the throne, disorders, rebellions, and dissensions broke out and the e%'ire ra'idly fell to 'ieces @ith ,erbia, as $ith Bulgaria, the e%'ire entirely hinged on the 'ersonality of one %an, and $hen he $as gone chaos returned ,uch an event for ,erbia at this juncture $as fatal, as a far %ore for%idable foe than the rulerEs rebellious relations $as advancing against it The Turkish conCuests $ere 'roceeding a'aceH they had taken Galli'oli in 4J:1 and !e%otika and Adriano'le in 4J/4 The ,erbs, $ho had already had an unsuccessful brush $ith the advance guard of the ne$ invaders near !e%otika in 4J:4, %et the% again on the "aritsa river in 4J54, and $ere co%'letely defeated ,everal of the u'start 'rinces $ho had been 'ulling ,te'hen !u2Bs6anEs e%'ire to 'ieces 'erished, and Tsar =ro2Bs6 only survived the battle of the "aritsa t$o %onthsH he $as un%arried, and $ith hi% died the Ne%anja dynasty and the ,erbian E%'ire After this disaster the unity of the ,erbian state $as co%'letely destroyed, and it has never since been restored in the sa%e %easure That 'art of the country to the south of ,ko'lje fell co%'letely under Turkish controlH it $as here that the fa%ous national hero, "arko >raljevi2Ec6 Aor >ingEs sonB, reno$ned for his 'ro$ess, ruled as a vassal 'rince and %ercenary soldier of the TurksH his father $as one of the rebel 'rinces $ho fell at the battle of the river "aritsa in 4J54 North of ,ko'lje, ,erbia, $ith >ru2Bs6evac as a ne$ 'olitical centre, continued to lead an inde'endent but 'recarious eGistence, %uch reduced in siDe and glory, under a native ruler, Prince )aDarH all the conCuests of ,te'hen !u2Bs6an $ere lost, and the i%'ortant coastal 'rovince of Keta, $hich later develo'ed into "ontenegro, had broken a$ay and 'roclai%ed its autono%y directly after the death of Tsar =ro2Bs6 8n 4J5: a for%al reconciliation $as effected $ith the Patriarch of 7onstantino'leH the ban 'laced on the ,erbian 7hurch in 4J:. $as re%oved

and the inde'endence of the ,erbian Patriarchate of Pe2Ec6 A8'ekB recognised "ean$hile neither Greeks, Bulgars, nor ,erbs $ere allo$ed any 'eace by the Turks 8n 4J9; $as fought the great battle of >osovo Polje, or the Field of Blackbirds, a large 'lain in +ld ,erbia, at the southern end of $hich is ,ko'lje At this battle ,erbian ar%ies fro% all the ,erb lands, including Bosnia, joined together in defence of their country for the last ti%e The issue of the battle $as for so%e ti%e in doubt, but $as decided by the treachery and flight at the critical %o%ent of one of the ,erb leaders, ?uk Brankovi2Ec6, son(in(la$ of Prince )aDar, $ith a large nu%ber of troo's Another dra%atic incident $as the %urder of ,ultan "urad in his tent by another ,erbian leader, "ilo2Bs6 +bili2Ec6, $ho, accused of treachery by his o$n country%en, vo$ed he $ould 'rove his good faith, $ent over to the Turks and, 'retending to be a traitor, gained ad%ission to the ,ultanEs 'resence and 'roved his 'atriotis% by killing hi% The %o%entary dis%ay $as 'ut an end to by the energetic conduct of BayeDid, son of "urad, $ho rallied the Turkish troo's and ulti%ately inflicted total defeat on the ,erbians Fro% the effects of this battle ,erbia never recoveredH Prince )aDar $as ca'tured and eGecutedH his $ife, Princess "ilica, had to give her daughter to BayeDid in %arriage, $hose son thus ulti%ately clai%ed 'ossession of ,erbia by right of inheritance Princess "ilica and her son ,te'hen continued to live at >ru2Bs6evac, but ,erbia $as already a tributary of Turkey 8n the north, #ungary 'rofited by the course of events and occu'ied Belgrade and all northern ,erbia, but in 4J;/ the Turks defeated the "agyars severely at the battle of Niko'olis, on the !anube, %aking the ,erbs under ,te'hen fight on the Turkish side ,te'hen also had to hel' ,ultan BajaDet against the Tartars, and fought at the battle of Angora, in 410., $hen Ta%erlane ca'tured BayeDid After ,te'hen returned to ,erbia he %ade an alliance $ith #ungary, $hich gave hi% back Belgrade and northern ,erbiaH it $as at this ti%e A410JB that Belgrade first beca%e the ca'ital, the 'olitical centre having in the course of fifty years %oved fro% the ?ardar to the !anube The disorders

$hich follo$ed the defeat of BayeDid gave so%e res'ite to the ,erbs, but ,ultan "urad 88 A41.4(:4B again took u' ar%s against hi%, and invaded ,erbia as far as >ru2Bs6evac At the death of ,te'hen A)aDarevi2Ec6B, in 41.5, he $as succeeded as I!es'otI by his ne'he$, George Brankovi2Ec6H but the ,ultan, clai%ing ,erbia as his o$n, i%%ediately declared $ar on hi% The ,erbian ruler had to abandon Belgrade to the "agyars, and Nish and >ru2Bs6evac to the Turks #e then built and fortified the to$n of ,%ederevo Aor ,e%endriaB lo$er do$n on the !anube, in 41.9, and %ade this his ca'ital #e gave his daughter in %arriage to the ,ultan, but in s'ite of this $ar soon broke out again, and in 4114 the Turks $ere %asters of nearly the $hole of ,erbia )ater George Brankovi2Ec6 %ade another alliance $ith #ungary, and in 4111, $ith the hel' of John #unyadi, defeated the Turks and liberated the $hole of ,erbia as far as the Adriatic, though he re%ained a tributary of the ,ultan The sa%e year, ho$ever, the "agyars broke the treaty of 'eace just concluded $ith the Turks, and %arched against the% under their Polish king, )adislasH this ended in the disastrous battle of ?arna, on the Black ,ea, $here the king lost his life 8n 41:4 ,ultan "urad 88 died and $as succeeded by the ,ultan "oha%%ed 8n 41:J this sultan ca'tured 7onstantino'le AAdriano'le had until then been the Turkish ca'italBH in 41:/ his ar%ies $ere besieging Belgrade, but $ere defeated by John #unyadi, $ho, unfortunately for the ,erbs, died of the 'lague shortly after$ards George Brankovi2Ec6 died the sa%e year, and at his death general disorder s'read over the country The Turks 'rofited by this, overran the $hole of ,erbia, and in 41:; ca'tured ,%ederevo, the last ,erbian stronghold "ean$hile Bosnia had been for nearly a hundred years enjoying a false security as an inde'endent ,erb kingdo% 8ts rulers had hitherto been kno$n by the title of IBanI, and $ere all vassals of the >ing of #ungaryH but in 4J55 Ban Tvrtko 'rofited by the e%barrass%ents of his suDerain in Poland and 'roclai%ed hi%self king, the neighbouring kingdo% of ,erbia having, after 4J54, ceased to eGist, and $as duly cro$ned in ,aint ,avaEs

%onastery of "ile2Bs6evo The internal history of the kingdo% $as even %ore turbulent than had been that of ,erbia To the ende%ic troubles of succession and alternating alliances and $ars $ith foreign 'o$ers $ere added those of confession Bosnia $as al$ays a no %anEs land as regards religionH it $as $here the Eastern and @estern 7hurches %et, and conseCuently the rivalry bet$een the% there $as al$ays, as it is no$, intense and bitter The Bogo%il heresy, too, early took root in Bosnia and beca%e eGtre%ely 'o'ularH it $as the obvious refuge for those $ho did not care to beco%e involved in the strife of the 7hurches +ne of the kings of Bosnia, ,te'hen Tho%as, $ho reigned fro% 4111 till 41/4, $as hi%self a Bogo%il, and $hen at the insistence of the Po'e and of the >ing of #ungary, $hose friendshi' he $as anGious to retain, he renounced his heresy, beca%e ostensibly a -o%an 7atholic, and began to 'ersecute the Bogo%ils, he brought about a revolution The rebels fled to the south of Bosnia, to the lands of one ,te'hen, $ho sheltered the%, 'roclai%ed his inde'endence of Bosnia, and on the strength of the fact that ,aint ,avaEs %onastery of "ile2Bs6evo $as in his territory, announced hi%self #erDog, or !uke Ain ,erbian #erceg, though the real ,erb eCuivalent is I?ojvodaIB of ,aint ,ava, ever since $hen A4119B that territory has been called #ercegovina 8n s'ite of %any 'ro%ises, neither the Po'e nor the >ing of #ungary did anything to hel' Bosnia $hen the Turks began to invade the country after their final subjection of ,erbia in 41:; 8n 41/J they invaded Bosnia and 'ursued, ca'tured, and sle$ the last kingH their conCuest of the country $as co%'lete and ra'id A great eGodus of the ,erb 'o'ulation took 'lace to the south, $est, and northH but large nu%bers, es'ecially of the lando$ning class, e%braced the faith of their conCuerors in order to retain 'ossession of their 'ro'erty 8n 419. a si%ilar fate befell #ercegovina Albania had already been conCuered after stubborn resistance in 4159 There re%ained only the %ountainous coastal 'rovince of Keta, $hich had been an inde'endent 'rinci'ality ever since 4J54 Just as inland ,erbia had 'erished bet$een the Turkish ha%%er and the #ungarian anvil, so %ariti%e ,erbia $as crushed bet$een Turkey and ?enice, only its insignificance and inaccessibility giving it a longer lease of inde'endent life 8van 7rnojevi2Ec6, one of the last inde'endent rulers of Keta, $ho

had to fly to 8taly in 4190, abandoning his ca'ital, 2BK6abljak, to the Turks, returned in 4194, $hen the death of ,ultan "oha%%ed te%'orarily raised the ho'es of the %ountaineers, and founded 7etinje and %ade it his ca'ital #is son George, $ho succeeded hi% and ruled fro% 41;0 till 41;/, is fa%ous as having set u' the first ,erbian 'rinting('ress there 8ts activities $ere naturally not encouraged by the Turkish conCuest, but it $as of great i%'ortance to the national ,erbian 7hurch, for $hich books $ere 'rinted $ith it 8n 41;/, ?enice having $isely %ade 'eace $ith the ,ultan so%e years 'reviously, this last inde'endent scra' of ,erb territory $as finally incor'orated in the Turkish do%inions At the end of the fifteenth century the Turks $ere %asters of all the ,erb lands eGce't 7roatia, ,lavonia, and 'arts of !al%atia, $hich belonged to #ungary, and the !al%atian coast and islands, $hich $ere ?enetian The Turkish conCuest of ,erbia, $hich began in 4J54 at the battle of the "aritsa, and $as rendered inevitable by the battle of >osovo Polje, in 4J9;, thus took a hundred and t$enty(five years to co%'lete

4/ IThe Turkish !o%inionI, 41;/(45;/ The lot of the ,erbs under Turkish rule $as different fro% that of their neighbours the BulgarsH and though it $as certainly not enviable, it $as undoubtedly better The Turks for various reasons never succeeded in subduing ,erbia and the various ,erb lands as co%'letely as they had subdued, or rather annihilated, Bulgaria The ,erbs $ere s'read over a far larger eGtent of territory than $ere the Bulgars, they $ere further re%oved fro% the Turkish centre, and the $ooded and %ountainous nature of their country facilitated even %ore than in the case of Bulgaria the for%ation of bands of brigands and rebels and %ilitated against its

syste%atic 'olicing by the Turks The nu%ber of centres of national life, ,erbia 'ro'er, Bosnia, #ercogovina, and "ontenegro, to take the% in the chronological order of their conCuest by the Turks, had been notoriously a source of $eakness to the ,erbian state, as is still the case to(day, but at the sa%e ti%e %ade it %ore difficult for the Turks to sta%' out the national consciousness @hat still further contributed to this difficulty $as the fact that %any ,erbs esca'ed the o''ression of Turkish rule by e%igrating to the neighbouring 'rovinces, $here they found 'eo'le of their o$n race and language, even though of a different faith The tide of e%igration flo$ed in t$o directions, $est$ards into !al%atia and north$ards into ,lavonia and #ungary 8t had begun already after the final subjection of ,erbia 'ro'er and Bosnia by the Turks in 41:; and 41/J, but after the fall of Belgrade, $hich $as the out'ost of #ungary against the Turks, in 4:.4, and the battle of "ohacs, in 4:./, $hen the Turks co%'letely defeated the "agyars, it assu%ed great 'ro'ortions As the Turks 'ushed their conCuests further north, the ,erbs %igrated before the%H later on, as the Turks receded, large ,erb colonies s'rang u' all over southern #ungary, in the Banat Athe country north of the !anube and east of the TheissB, in ,yr%ia Aor ,re%, in ,erbian, the eGtre%e eastern 'art of ,lavonia, bet$een the ,ave and the !anubeB, in Ba2Bc6ka Athe country bet$een the Theiss and !anubeB, and in Baranya Abet$een the !anube and the !raveB All this 'art of southern #ungary and 7roatia $as for%ed by the Austrians into a %ilitary borderland against Turkey, and the 7roats and i%%igrant ,erbs $ere organiDed as %ilitary colonists $ith s'ecial 'rivileges, on the analogy of the 7ossacks in southern -ussia and Poland 8n !al%atia the ,erbs 'layed a si%ilar rQle in the service of ?enice, $hich, like Austria(#ungary, $as freCuently at $ar $ith the Turks !uring the siGteenth century -agusa enjoyed its greatest 'ros'erityH it 'aid tribute to the ,ultan, $as under his 'rotection, and never rebelled 8t had a Cuasi %ono'oly of the trade of the entire Balkan 'eninsula 8t $as a sanctuary both for -o%an 7atholic 7roats and for +rthodoG ,erbs, and so%eti%es acted as inter%ediary on behalf of its co(religionists $ith the Turkish authorities, $ith $ho% it $ielded great influence 8ntellectually also it $as a sort of ,erb oasis, and the only 'lace during the "iddle

Ages $here ,erbian literature $as able to flourish "ontenegro during the siGteenth century for%ed 'art of the Turkish 'rovince of ,cutari #ere, as $ell as in ,erbia 'ro'er, northern "acedonia Akno$n after the re%oval north$ards of the 'olitical centre, in the fourteenth century, as +ld ,erbiaB, Bosnia, and #ercegovina, the Turkish rule $as fir%est, but not harshest, during the first half of the siGteenth century, $hen the 'o$er of the +tto%an E%'ire $as at its height ,oon after the fall of ,%ederevo, in 41:;, the Patriarchate of Pe2Ec6 A8'ekB $as abolished, the ,erbian 7hurch lost its inde'endence, $as %erged in the Greco(Bulgar Archbisho'ric of +khrida Ain southern "acedoniaB, and fell co%'letely under the control of the Greeks 8n 4::5, ho$ever, through the influence of a Grand ?iDier of ,erb nationality, the Patriarchate of Pe2Ec6 $as revived The revival of this centre of national life $as %o%entousH through its agency the ,erbian %onasteries $ere restored, ecclesiastical books 'rinted, and 'riests educated, and %ore fortunate than the Bulgarian national 7hurch, $hich re%ained under Greek %anage%ent, it $as able to focus the national enthusias%s and as'irations and kee' alive $ith ho'e the fla%e of nationality a%ongst those ,erbs $ho had not e%igrated Already, in the second half of the siGteenth century, 'eo'le began to think that TurkeyEs days in Euro'e $ere nu%bered, and they $ere encouraged in this illusion by the battle of )e'anto A4:54B But the seventeenth century sa$ a revival of Turkish 'o$erH >rete $as added to their e%'ire, and in 4/9J they very nearly ca'tured ?ienna 8n the $ar $hich follo$ed their re'ulse, and in $hich the victorious Austrians 'enetrated as far south as ,ko'lje, the ,erbs took 'art against the TurksH but $hen later the Austrians $ere obliged to retire, the ,erbs, $ho had risen against the Turks at the bidding of their Patriarch Arsen 888, had to suffer terrible re'risals at their hands, $ith the result that another $holesale e%igration, $ith the Patriarch at its head, took 'lace into the Austro(#ungarian %ilitary borderland This ti%e it $as the very heart of ,erbia $hich $as abandoned, na%ely, +ld ,erbia and northern "acedonia,

including Pe2Ec6 and PriDren The vacant Patriarchate $as for a ti%e filled by a Greek, and the Albanians, %any of $ho% $ere "oha%%edans and therefore Turco'hil, s'read north$ards and east$ards into lands that had been ,erb since the seventh century Fro% the end of the seventeenth century, ho$ever, the Turkish 'o$er began un%istakably to $ane The Treaty of 7arlo$itD A4/;;B left the Turks still in 'ossession of ,yr%ia Abet$een the !anube and ,aveB and the Banat Anorth of the !anubeB, but during the reign of the E%'eror 7harles ?8 their retreat $as accelerated 8n 4545 Prince Eugen of ,avoy ca'tured Belgrade, then, as no$, a bul$ark of the Balkan 'eninsula against invasion fro% the north, and by the Treaty of Passaro$itD APo2BD6arevac, on the !anubeB, in 4549, Turkey not only retreated definitively south of the !anube and the ,ave, but left a large 'art of northern ,erbia in Austrian hands By the sa%e treaty ?enice secured 'ossession of the $hole of !al%atia, $here it had already gained territory by the Treaty of 7urlo$itD in 4/;; But the ,erbs soon found out that alien 'o'ulations fare little better under 7hristian rule, $hen they are not of the sa%e confession as their rulers, than under "oha%%edan The +rthodoG ,erbs in !al%atia suffered thencefor$ard fro% relentless 'ersecution at the hands of the -o%an 7atholics 8n Austria(#ungary too, and in that 'art of ,erbia occu'ied by the Austrians after 4549, the ,erbs discovered that the Austrians, $hen they had beaten the Turks largely by the hel' of ,erbian levies, $ere very different fro% the Austrians $ho had encouraged the ,erbs to settle in their country and for% %ilitary colonies on their frontiers to 'rotect the% fro% Turkish invasion The 'rivileges 'ro%ised the% $hen their hel' had been necessary $ere disregarded as soon as their services could be dis'ensed $ith Austrian rule soon beca%e %ore o''ressive than Turkish, and to the ,erbsE other $oes $as no$ added religious 'ersecution The result of all this $as that a counter(e%igration set in and the ,erbs actually began to return to their old ho%es in Turkey Another $ar bet$een Austria(#ungary and Turkey broke out in 45J5, in $hich the Austrians $ere unsuccessful Prince Eugen no longer led the%, and though the ,erbs $ere again 'ersuaded by their Patriarch, Arsen 8?, to rise against the Turks,

they only did so half(heartedly By the Treaty of Belgrade, in 45J;, Austria had to $ithdra$ north of the ,ave and !anube, evacuating all northern ,erbia in favour of the Turks Fro% this ti%e on$ards the lot of the ,erbs, both in Austria(#ungary and in Turkey, $ent ra'idly fro% bad to $orse The Turks, as the 'o$er of their e%'ire declined, and in return for the nu%erous ,erb revolts, had recourse to %easures of severe re'ressionH a%ongst others $as that of the final abolition of the Patriarchate of PeP in 45//, $hereu'on the control of the ,erbian 7hurch in Turkey 'assed entirely into the hands of the Greek Patriarchate of 7onstantino'le The Austrian Govern%ent si%ilarly, 'erceiving no$ for the first ti%e the ele%ents of danger $hich the resuscitation of the ,erbian nationality $ould contain for the rule of the #a'sburgs, e%barked on a syste%atic 'ersecution of the +rthodoG ,erbs in southern #ungary and ,lavonia !uring the reign of "aria Theresa A4510(90B, $hose 'olicy $as to conciliate the "agyars, the %ilitary frontier Done $as abolished, a series of re'ressive %easures $as 'assed against those ,erbs $ho refused to beco%e -o%an 7atholics, and the ,erbian nationality $as refused official recognition The conseCuence of this 'ersecution $as a series of revolts $hich $ere all Cuelled $ith due severity, and finally the e%igration of a hundred thousand ,erbs to southern -ussia, $here they founded Ne$ ,erbia in 45:.(J !uring the reigns of Jose'h 88 A4590(;0B and )eo'old 88 A45;0(.B their treat%ent at the hands of the "agyars so%e$hat i%'roved Fro% the beginning of the eighteenth century "ontenegro began to assu%e greater i%'ortance in the eGtre%ely gradual revival of the national s'irit of the ,erbs !uring the siGteenth and seventeenth centuries it had for%ed 'art of the Turkish do%inions, though, thanks to the inaccessible nature of its %ountain fastnesses, Turkish authority $as never very forcibly asserted 8t $as ruled by a 'rince(bisho', and its religious inde'endence thus connoted a certain secular freedo% of thought if not of action 8n the seventeenth century $arlike encounters bet$een the Turks and the "ontenegrins increased in freCuency, and the latter tried to enlist the

hel' of ?enice on their side but $ith indifferent success The fighting in "ontenegro $as often rather civil in character, being caused by the ill(feeling $hich eGisted bet$een the nu%erous "ontenegrins $ho had beco%e "oha%%edans and those $ho re%ained faithful to their national 7hurch 8n the course of the eighteenth century the rQle $hich fell to "ontenegro beca%e %ore i%'ortant 8n all the other ,erb countries the fa%ilies $hich naturally took a leading 'art in affairs $ere either eGtinct or in eGile, as in ,erbia, or had beco%e "oha%%edan, and therefore to all intents and 'ur'oses Turkish, as in Bosnia and #ercegovina -agusa, since the great earthCuake in 4//5, had greatly declined in 'o$er and $as no longer of international i%'ortance 8n "ontenegro, on the other hand, there had survived both a greater inde'endence of s'irit A"ontenegro $as, after all, the ancient Keta, and had al$ays been a centre of national lifeB and a nu%ber of at any rate eugenic if not eGactly aristocratic ,erb fa%iliesH these fa%ilies naturally looked on the%selves and on their bisho' as destined to 'lay an i%'ortant 'art in the resistance to and the eventual overthro$ of the Turkish do%inion The 'rince(bisho' had to be consecrated by the Patriarch of Pe2Ec6, and in 4500 Patriarch Arsen 888 consecrated one !aniel, of the house A$hich has been ever since then and is no$ still the reigning dynasty of "ontenegroB of Petrovi2Ec6(Njego2Bs6, to this office, after he had been elected to it by the council of notables at 7etinje "ontenegro, isolated fro% the ,erbs in the north, and 'recluded fro% 'artici'ating $ith the% in the $ars bet$een Austria and Turkey by the intervening block of Bosnia, $hich though ,erb by nationality $as solidly "oha%%edan and therefore 'ro(Turkish, carried on its feuds $ith the Turks inde'endently of the other ,erbs But $hen Peter the Great initiated his anti(Turkish 'olicy, and, in co%bination $ith the eG'ansion of -ussia to the south and $est, began to cha%'ion the cause of the Balkan 7hristians, he develo'ed intercourse $ith "ontenegro and laid the foundation of that friendshi' bet$een the vast -ussian E%'ire and the tiny ,erb 'rinci'ality on the Adriatic $hich has been a Cuaint and 'ersistent feature of eastern Euro'ean 'olitics ever since This inti%acy did not 'revent the Turks giving "ontenegro %any hard blo$s $henever they had the ti%e or energy to do so, and did not ensure any s'ecial 'rotective clauses in favour of the

%ountain state $henever the various treaties bet$een -ussia and Turkey $ere concluded 8ts effect $as rather 'sychological and financial Fro% the ti%e $hen the I?ladikaI AN Bisho'B !aniel first visited Peter the Great, in 4541, the rulers of "ontenegro often %ade 'ilgri%ages to the -ussian ca'ital, and $ere al$ays sure of finding sy%'athy as $ell as 'ecuniary if not ar%ed su''ort Bisho's in the +rthodoG 7hurch are co%'ulsorily celibate, and the succession in "ontenegro al$ays descended fro% uncle to ne'he$ @hen Peter 8 Petrovi2Ec6(Njego2Bs6 succeeded, in 459., the Patriarchate of Pe2Ec6 $as no %ore, so he had to get 'er%ission fro% the Austrian E%'eror Jose'h 88 to be consecrated by the "etro'olitan of >arlovci A7arlo$itDB, $ho $as then head of the ,erbian national 7hurch About the sa%e ti%e A4595B an alliance $as %ade bet$een -ussia and Austria(#ungary to %ake $ar together on Turkey and divide the s'oils bet$een the% Although a great rising against Turkey $as organised at the sa%e ti%e A4599B in the district of 2B,6u%adija, in ,erbia, by a nu%ber of ,erb 'atriots, of $ho% >ara(George $as one and a certain 7a'tain >o2Bc6a, after $ho% the $hole $ar is called >o2Bc6ina >rajina AN>o2Bc6aEs countryB, another, yet the Austrians $ere on the $hole unsuccessful, and on the death of Jose'h 88, in 45;0, a 'eace $as concluded bet$een Austria and Turkey at ,vishtov, in Bulgaria, by $hich Turkey retained the $hole of Bosnia and ,erbia, and the ,ave and !anube re%ained the frontier bet$een the t$o countries "ean$hile the ,erbs of "ontenegro had joined in the fray and had fared better, inflicting so%e un'leasant defeats on the Turks under their bisho', Peter 8 These cul%inated in t$o battles in 45;/ Athe "ontenegrins, not being %entioned in the treaty of 'eace, had continued fightingB, in $hich the Turks $ere driven back to ,cutari @ith this triu%'h, $hich the E%'eror Paul of -ussia signaliDed by decorating the Prince(Bisho' Peter, the inde'endence of the %odern state of "ontenegro, the first ,erb 'eo'le to recover its liberty, $as Ide factoI established

45

IThe )iberation of ,erbia under >ara(GeorgeI A4901(4JB Iand "ilo2Bs6 +brenovi2Ec6I A494:(J0B* 45;/(49J0

The liberation of ,erbia fro% the Turkish do%inion and its establish%ent as an inde'endent state $ere %atters of %uch slo$er and %ore arduous acco%'lish%ent than $ere the sa%e 'rocesses in the other Balkan countries +ne reason for this $as that ,erbia by its 'eculiar geogra'hical 'osition $as cut off fro% outside hel' 8t $as easy for the $estern 'o$ers to hel' Greece $ith their fleets, and for -ussia to hel' -u%ania and, later, Bulgaria directly $ith its ar%y, because co%%unication bet$een the% $as easy But ,erbia on the one hand $as se'arated fro% the sea, first by !al%atia, $hich $as al$ays in foreign 'ossession, and then by Bosnia, #ercegovina, and the IsandjakI Aor 'rovinceB of Novi(PaDar, all of $hich territories, though ethnically ,erb, $ere strongholds of Turkish influence o$ing to their large "oha%%edan 'o'ulation The energies of "ontenegro, also cut off fro% the sea by !al%atia and Turkey, $ere absorbed in self(defence, though it gave ,erbia all the su''ort $hich its siDe 'er%itted 7o%%unication, on the other hand, bet$een -ussia and ,erbia $as too difficult to 'er%it of %ilitary hel' being ra'idly and effectively brought to bear u'on the Turks fro% that Cuarter Bessarabia, @allachia, and "oldavia $ere then still under Turkish control, and either they had to be traversed or the !anube had to be navigated fro% its %outh u'$ards through Turkish territory The only country $hich could have hel'ed ,erbia $as Austria, but as it $as against their best interests to do so, the Austrians naturally did all they could not to advance, but to retard the ,erbian cause As a result of all this ,erbia, in her long struggle against the Turks, had to rely 'rinci'ally on its o$n resources, though -ussian di'lo%acy several ti%es saved the renascent country fro% disaster Another reason for the slo$ness of the e%anci'ation and develo'%ent of %odern ,erbia has been the 'roneness of its 'eo'le to internal dissension There $as no national dynasty on $ho% the leadershi' of the country $ould

naturally devolve after the first successful revolution against Turkish rule, there $as not even any aristocracy left, and no foreign ruler $as ever asked for by the ,erbs or $as ever i%'osed on the% by the other nations as in the case of Greece, -u%ania, and Bulgaria +n the other hand the rising against Turkey $as a rising of the $hole 'eo'le, and it $as al%ost inevitable that as soon as so%e %easure of inde'endence $as gained the unity the ,erbs had sho$n $hen fighting against their o''ressors should dissolve and be re'laced by bitter rivalries and dis'utes a%ongst the various local leaders $ho had beco%e 'ro%inent during the rebellion These rivalries early in the nineteenth century resolved the%selves into a blood(feud bet$een t$o fa%ilies, the >aragjorgjevi2Ec6 and the +brenovi2Ec6, a Cuarrel that filled ,erbian history and %ilitated against the 'rogress of the ,erb 'eo'le throughout the nineteenth century The sa%e reasons $hich restricted the gro$th of the 'olitical inde'endence of ,erbia have also i%'eded, or rather %ade i%'ossible, its econo%ic develo'%ent and %aterial 'ros'erity =ntil recent years Austria(#ungary and Turkey bet$een the% held ,erbia territorially in such a 'osition that $henever ,erbia either de%urred at its neighboursE tariffs or $ished to retaliate by %eans of its o$n, the scre$ $as i%%ediately a''lied and econo%ic strangulation threatened -u%ania and Bulgaria econo%ically could never be of hel' to ,erbia, because the 'roducts and the reCuire%ents of all three are identical, and -u%ania and Bulgaria cannot be eG'ected to facilitate the sale of their neighboursE live stock and cereals, $hen their first business is to sell their o$n, $hile the cost of transit of i%'orts fro% $estern Euro'e through those countries is 'rohibitive After the unsuccessful rebellion of 4599, already %entioned, ,erbia re%ained in a state of 'seudo(Cuiescence for so%e years "ean$hile the authority of the ,ultan in ,erbia $as gro$ing ever $eaker and the real 'o$er $as $ielded by local Turkish officials, $ho eG'loited the country, looked on it as their o$n 'ro'erty, and enjoyed se%i(inde'endence Their eGactions and cruelties $ere $orse than had been those of the Turks in the

old days, and it $as against the% and their troo's, not against those of the ,ultan, that the first battles in the ,erbian $ar of inde'endence $ere fought 8t $as during the year 490J that the ,erbian leaders first %ade definite 'lans for the rising $hich eventually took 'lace in the follo$ing year The ringleader $as George Petrovi2Ec6, kno$n as Black George, or >ara(George, and a%ongst his confederates $as "ilo2Bs6 +brenovi2Ec6 The centre of the cons'iracy $as at To'ola, in the district of 2B,6u%adija in central ,erbia Abet$een the "orava and the !rina riversB, the native 'lace of >ara(George The first t$o years of fighting bet$een the ,erbians and, first, the 'rovincial janissaries, and, later, the ,ultanEs forces, fully re$arded the bravery and energy of the insurgents By the beginning of 4905 they had virtually freed all northern ,erbia by their o$n unaided efforts and ca'tured the to$ns of Po2BD6arevac, ,%ederevo, Belgrade, and 2B,6abac The year 4901 is also notable as the date of the for%al o'ening of di'lo%atic relations directly bet$een ,erbia and -ussia At this ti%e the E%'eror AleGander 8 $as too 'reoccu'ied $ith Na'oleon to be able to threaten the ,ultan AAusterlitD took 'lace in Nove%ber 490:B, but he gave the ,erbs financial assistance and co%%ended their cause to the es'ecial care of his a%bassador at 7onstantino'le 8n 4905 $ar again broke out bet$een -ussia and Turkey, but after the Peace of Tilsit AJune 4905B fighting ceased also bet$een the Turks and the -ussians and the ,erbs, not before the -ussians had $on several successes against the Turks on the )o$er !anube 8t $as during the t$o follo$ing years of 'eace that dissensions first broke out a%ongst the ,erbian leadersH fighting the Turks $as the sole condition of eGistence $hich 'revented the% fighting each other 8n 490;(40 -ussia and the ,erbs again fought the Turks, at first $ithout success, but later $ith better fortune 8n 4944 >ara(George $as elected IGos'odarI, or sovereign, by a 'o'ular asse%bly, but ,erbia still re%ained a Turkish 'rovince At the end of that year the -ussians co%'letely defeated the Turks at -ustchuk in Bulgaria, and, if all had gone $ell, ,erbia %ight there and then have achieved co%'lete inde'endence

But Na'oleon $as already 're'aring his invasion and -ussia had to conclude 'eace $ith Turkey in a hurry, $hich necessarily i%'lied that the ,ultan obtained unduly favourable ter%s 8n the Treaty of Bucarest bet$een the t$o countries signed in "ay 494., the ,erbs $ere indeed %entioned, and 'ro%ised vague internal autono%y and a general a%nesty, but all the fortified to$ns they had ca'tured $ere to be returned to the Turks, and the fe$ -ussian troo's $ho had been hel'ing the ,erbs in ,erbia had to $ithdra$ Negotiations bet$een the Turks and the ,erbs for the regulation of their 'osition $ere continued throughout 494., but finally the Turks refused all their clai%s and conditions and, seeing the Euro'ean 'o$ers 'reoccu'ied $ith their o$n affairs, invaded the country fro% Bosnia in the $est, and also fro% the east and south, in August 494J The ,erbs, left entirely to their o$n resources, succu%bed before the su'erior forces of the Turks, and by the beginning of +ctober the latter $ere again %asters of the $hole country and in 'ossession of Belgrade "ean$hile >ara(George, broken in health and unable to co'e $ith the difficulties of the situation, $hich de%anded successful strategy both against the over$hel%ing forces of the Turks in the field and against the intrigues of his ene%ies at ho%e, so%e$hat igno%iniously fled across the river to ,e%lin in #ungary, and $as duly incarcerated by the Austrian authorities The ne$s of Na'oleonEs defeat at )ei'sic A+ctober 494JB arrived just after that of the re(occu'ation of Belgrade by the Turks, da%'ed Ifeu(de(joieI $hich they $ere firing at 7onstantino'le, and %ade the% rather %ore conciliatory and lenient to the ,erbian rebels But this attitude did not last long, and the ,erbs soon had reason to %ake fresh efforts to regain their short(lived liberty The 7ongress of ?ienna %et in the autu%n of 4941, and during its $hole course ,erbian e%issaries gave the -ussian envoys no 'eace But $ith the return of Na'oleon to France in the s'ring of 494: and the break(u' of the 7ongress, all that -ussia could do $as, through its a%bassador at 7onstantino'le, to threaten invasion unless the Turks left the ,erbs alone Nevertheless, conditions in ,erbia beca%e so intolerable that another rebellion soon took sha'e, this ti%e under "ilo2Bs6 +brenovi2Ec6 This leader $as no less 'atriotic than his rival,

>ara(George, but he $as far %ore able and a consu%%ate di'lo%at >ara(George had 'ossessed indo%itable courage, energy, and $ill('o$er, but he could not te%'oriDe, and his arbitrary %ethods of enforcing disci'line and his ungovernable te%'er had %ade hi% %any ene%ies @hile the credit for the first ,erbian revolt A4901(4JB undoubtedly belongs chiefly to hi%, the second revolt o$ed its %ore lasting success to the skill of "ilo2Bs6 +brenovi2Ec6 The fighting started at Takovo, the ho%e of the +brenovi2Ec6 fa%ily, in A'ril 494:, and after %any astonishing successes against the Turks, including the ca'ture of the to$ns of -udnik, 2B76a2Bc6ak, Po2BD6arevac, and >raljevo, $as all over by July of the sa%e year The Turks $ere ready $ith large ar%ies in the $est in Bosnia, and also south of the "orava river, to continue the ca%'aign and crush the rebellion, but the ne$s of the final defeat of Na'oleon, and the kno$ledge that -ussia $ould soon have ti%e again to devote attention to the Balkans, $ithheld their a''etites for revenge, and negotiations $ith the successful rebels $ere initiated !uring the $hole of this 'eriod, fro% 494J on$ards, "ilo2Bs6 +brenovi2Ec6, as head of a district, $as an official of the ,ultan in ,erbia, and it $as one of his 'rinci'les never to break irre'arably $ith the Turks, $ho $ere still suDerains of the country At the sa%e ti%e, o$ing to his skill and initiative he $as recogniDed as the only real leader of the %ove%ent for inde'endence Fro% the cessation of the rebellion in 494: on$ards he hi%self 'ersonally conducted negotiations in the na%e of his 'eo'le $ith the various 'ashas $ho $ere de'uted to deal $ith hi% @hile these negotiations $ent on and the ar%istice $as in force, he $as confronted, or rather harassed fro% behind, by a series of revolts against his gro$ing authority on the 'art of his jealous co%'atriots 8n June 4945 >ara(George, $ho had been in -ussia after being released by the Austrians in 4941, returned surre'titiously to ,erbia, encouraged by the brighter as'ect $hich affairs in his country see%ed to be assu%ing But the return of his %ost dangerous rival $as as un$elco%e to "ilo2Bs6 as it $as to the Turkish authorities at Belgrade, and, %easures having been concerted bet$een the%, >ara(George $as %urdered on July ./,4945, and the first act in the blood(feud bet$een the t$o fa%ilies thus co%%itted 8n

Nove%ber of the sa%e year a Isku'2Bs6tinaI, or national asse%bly, $as held at Belgrade, and "ilo2Bs6 +brenovi2Ec6, $hose 'osition $as already thoroughly assured, $as elected hereditary 'rince AIkneDIB of the country "ean$hile events of considerable i%'ortance for the future of the ,erb race had been ha''ening else$here !al%atia, the $hole of $hich had been in the 'ossession of ?enice since the Treaty of 7arlo$itD in 4/;;, 'assed into the hands of Austria by the Treaty of 7a%'o For%io in 45;5, $hen the ?enetian re'ublic $as eGtinguished by Na'oleon The Bocche di 7uttaro, a harbour both strategically and co%%ercially of i%%ense value, $hich had in the old days belonged to the ,erb 'rinci'ality of Keta or "ontenegro, and is its only natural outlet on the Adriatic, like$ise beca%e ?enetian in 4/;; and Austrian in 45;5, one year after the successful rebellion of the "ontenegrins against the Turks By the Treaty of Pressburg bet$een France and Austria !al%atia beca%e French in 490: But the "ontenegrins, su''orted by the -ussians, resisted the ne$ o$ners and occu'ied the BoccheH at the Peace of Tilsit in 4905, ho$ever, this i%'ortant 'lace $as assigned to France by -ussia, and "ontenegro had to sub%it to its loss 8n 490/ the French occu'ied -agusa, and in 4909 abolished the inde'endence of the ancient ,erb city(re'ublic 8n 494. the "ontenegrins, hel'ed by the -ussians and British, again eG'elled the French and reoccu'ied 7attaroH but Austria $as by no$ fully alive to the %eaning this harbour $ould have once it $as in the 'ossession of "ontenegro, and after the 7ongress of ?ienna in 494: took definitive 'ossession of it as $ell as of all the rest of !al%atia, thus effecting the co%'lete eGclusion of the ,erb race for all 'olitical and co%%ercial 'ur'oses fro% the Adriatic, its %ost natural and obvious %eans of co%%unication $ith $estern Euro'e Though "ilo2Bs6 had been elected 'rince by his o$n 'eo'le, it $as long before he $as recogniDed as such by the Porte #is efforts for the regulariDation of his 'osition entailed endless negotiations in 7onstantino'leH these $ere enlivened by freCuent anti(+brenovi2Ec6 revolts

in ,erbia, all of $hich "ilo2Bs6 successfully Cuelled The revolution in Greece in 49.4 thre$ the ,erbian Cuestion fro% the international 'oint of vie$ into the shade, but the E%'eror Nicholas 8, $ho succeeded his brother AleGander 8 on the -ussian throne in 49.:, soon sho$ed that he took a lively and active interest in Balkan affairs Pan(,lavis% had scarcely beco%e fashionable in those days, and it $as still rather as the 'rotector of its co(religionists under the 7rescent that -ussia intervened 8n 49./ -ussian and Turkish delegates %et at Aker%an in Bessarabia, and in ,e'te%ber of that year signed a convention by $hich the -ussian 'rotectorate over the ,erbs $as recogniDed, the ,erbs $ere granted internal autono%y, the right to trade and erect churches, schools, and 'rinting('resses, and the Turks $ere forbidden to live in ,erbia eGce't in eight garrison to$nsH the garrisons $ere to be Turkish, and tribute $as still to be 'aid to the ,ultan as suDerain These concessions, announced by Prince "ilo2Bs6 to his 'eo'le at a s'ecial Isku'2Bs6tinaI held at >ragujevac in 49.5, evoked great enthusias%, but the urgency of the Greek Cuestion again delayed their fulfil%ent After the battle of Navarino on +ctober .0, 49.5, in $hich the British, French, and -ussian fleets defeated the Turkish, the Turks beca%e obstinate and refused to carry out the sti'ulations of the 7onvention of Aker%an in favour of ,erbia Thereu'on -ussia declared $ar on Turkey in A'ril 49.9, and the -ussian ar%ies crossed the !anube and the Balkans and %arched on 7onstantino'le Peace $as concluded at Adriano'le in 49.;, and Turkey agreed to carry out i%%ediately all the sti'ulations of the Treaty of Bucarest A494.B and the 7onvention of Aker%an A49./B The details took so%e ti%e to settle, but in Nove%ber 49J0 the Ihatti(sherifI of the ,ultan, ackno$ledging "ilo2Bs6 as hereditary 'rince of ,erbia, $as 'ublicly read in Belgrade All the concessions already 'ro%ised $ere duly granted, and ,erbia beca%e virtually inde'endent, but still tributary to the ,ultan 8ts territory included %ost of the northern 'art of the %odern kingdo% of ,erbia, bet$een the rivers !rina, ,ave, !anube, and Ti%ok, but not the districts of Nish, ?ranja, and Pirot Turkey still retained Bosnia and #ercegovina, "acedonia, the IsandjakI of Novi(PaDar, $hich se'arated ,erbia fro%

"ontenegro, and +ld ,erbia Anorthern "acedoniaB

49 IThe Throes of -egeneration* 8nde'endent ,erbia,I 49J0(4;0J

!uring his rule of ,erbia, $hich lasted virtually fro% 4945 till 49J;, Prince "ilo2Bs6 did a very great deal for the $elfare of his country #e e%anci'ated the ,erbian 7hurch fro% the tra%%els of the Greek Patriarchate of 7onstantino'le in 49J4, fro% $hich date on$ards it $as ruled by a "etro'olitan of ,erb nationality, resident at Belgrade #e encouraged the trade of the country, a great deal of $hich he held in his o$n handsH he $as in fact a sort of 'rototy'e of those %odern Balkan business(kings of $ho% >ing George of Greece and >ing 7arol of -u%ania $ere the %ost notable eGa%'les #e raised an ar%y and 'ut it on a 'er%anent footing, and organiDed the construction of roads, schools, and churches #e $as, ho$ever, an autocratic ruler of the old school, and he had no inclination to share the 'o$er for the attain%ent of $hich he had laboured so %any years and gone through so %uch Fro% his definite installation as hereditary 'rince discontent at his arbitrary %ethods of govern%ent a%ongst his eG(eCuals increased, and after several revolts he $as forced eventually to grant a constitution in 49J: This, ho$ever, re%ained a dead letter, and things $ent on as before )ater in the sa%e year he 'aid a 'rolonged visit to his suDerain at 7onstantino'le, and $hile he $as there the situation in ,erbia beca%e still %ore serious After his return he $as, after several years of delay and of gro$ing un'o'ularity, co%'elled to agree to another constitution $hich $as forced on hi%, 'aradoGically enough, by the joint efforts of the Tsar and of the ,ultan, $ho see%ed to take an unnatural 'leasure in su''orting the de%ocratic ,erbians against their successful colleague in autocracy, $ho had done so %uch for his turbulent subjects ,erbia even in those days $as essentially and

unco%'ro%isingly de%ocratic, but even so "ilo2Bs6 obstinately refused to carry out the 'rovisions of the constitution or in any $ay to sub%it to a curtail%ent of his 'o$er, and in 49J; he left his ungrateful 'rinci'ality and took refuge in -u%ania, $here he 'ossessed an estate, abdicating in favour of his elder son "ilan This Prince "ilan, kno$n as +brenovi2Ec6 88, $as seriously ill at the ti%e of his accession, and died $ithin a %onth of it #e $as succeeded by his younger brother "ichael, kno$n as +brenovi2Ec6 888, $ho $as then only siGteen years of age This 'rince, though young, had a good head on his shoulders, and eventually 'roved the %ost gifted ruler %odern ,erbia has ever had #is first reign A4910(.B, ho$ever, did not o'en $ell #e inaugurated it by 'aying a state visit to 7onstantino'le, but the ,ultan only recogniDed hi% as elective 'rince and insisted on his having t$o advisers a''roved and a''ointed by the Porte "ichael on his return sho$ed his deter%ination to have nothing to do $ith the%, but this led to a rebellion headed by one of the%, ?u2Bc6i2Ec6, and, though "ichaelEs rule $as not as arbitrary as his fatherEs, he had to bo$ to the 'o'ular $ill $hich su''orted ?u2Bc6i2Ec6 and cross the river to ,e%lin After a stor%y interval, during $hich the E%'eror Nicholas 8 tried to intervene in favour of "ichael, AleGander >aragjorgjevi2Ec6, son of >ara(George, $as elected 'rince A491JB No sooner $as this re'resentative of the rival dynasty installed, ho$ever, than rebellions in favour of "ichael occurred These $ere thro$n into the shade by the events of 4919, 8n that %e%orable year of revolutions the "agyars rose against Austria and the ,erbs in southern #ungary rose against the "agyars Prince AleGander resolved to send %ilitary hel' to his o''ressed country%en north of the ,ave and !anube, and, though the insurgents $ere unsuccessful, Prince AleGander gained in 'o'ularity a%ongst the ,erbs by the line of action he had taken !uring the 7ri%ean @ar, on the other hand, ,erbia re%ained strictly neutral, to the annoyance of the TsarH at the 7ongress of Paris A49:/B the eGclusive 'rotectorate of -ussia $as re'laced by one of all the 'o$ers, and -ussian influence in the $estern Balkans $as thereby $eakened Prince AleGanderEs 'rudence, %oreover, cost hi% his 'o'ularity, and in 49:9 he in his turn had to bid fare$ell to his difficult country%en

8n !ece%ber of the sa%e year the veteran Prince "ilo2Es6 +brenovi2Ec6 8 $as recalled to 'o$er as hereditary 'rince #is activities during his second reign $ere directed against Turkish influence, $hich $as still strong, and he %ade efforts to have the Turkish 'o'ulations re%oved fro% the eight garrison to$ns, including Belgrade, $here they still lived in s'ite of the fact that their e%igration had been sti'ulated for in 49J0 =nfortunately he did not live long enough to carry out his 'lans, for he fell ill at To'chider, the su%%er 'alace near Belgrade, in the autu%n of 49/0, and died a fe$ days after$ards #e $as again succeeded by his son "ichael +brenovi2Ec6 888, $ho $as already thirty(siG years of age This able 'rinceEs second reign $as brilliantly successful, and it $as a disaster for $hich his foolish country%en had to 'ay dearly, $hen, by their fault, it $as 're%aturely cut short in 49/9 #is first act $as $ith the consent of a s'ecially su%%oned Isku'2Bs6tinaI to abolish the la$ by $hich he could only a''oint and re%ove his counsellers $ith the a''roval of the Porte NeGt he set about the organiDation and establish%ent of a regular ar%y of J0,000 %en 8n 49/. an anti(Turkish rebellion broke out a%ongst the ,erbs in #ercegovina Astill, $ith Bosnia, a Turkish 'rovinceB, and the Porte, accusing Prince "ichael of co%'licity, %ade $arlike 're'arations against hi% Events, ho$ever, $ere 'reci'itated in such a $ay that, $ithout $aiting for the o'ening of hostilities, the Turkish general in co%%and of the fortress of Belgrade turned his guns on the cityH this 'rovoked the intervention of the 'o$ers at 7onstantino'le, and the entire civilian Turkish 'o'ulation had to Cuit the country Ain accordance $ith the sti'ulations of 49J0B, only Turkish garrisons re%aining in the fortresses of 2B,6abac, Belgrade, ,%ederevo, and >ladovo, along the northern river frontier, still theoretically the boundary of the ,ultanEs do%inions After this success Prince "ichael continued his %ilitary 're'arations in order to obtain final 'ossession of the fortresses $hen a suitable occasion should arise This occurred in 49//, $hen Austria $as engaged in the struggle $ith Prussia, and the 'olicy of Great Britain beca%e less Turco'hil than it had hitherto been +n A'ril /, 49/5, the four fortresses, $hich had been in

,erbian 'ossession fro% 4901 to 494J, but had since then been garrisoned by the Turks, $ere delivered over to ,erbia and the last Turkish soldier left ,erbian soil $ithout a shot having been fired Though ,erbia after this $as still a vassal state, being tributary to the ,ultan, these further ste's on the road to co%'lete inde'endence $ere a great triu%'h, es'ecially for Prince "ichael 'ersonally But this very triu%'h actuated his 'olitical o''onents a%ongst his o$n country%en, a%ongst $ho% $ere undoubtedly adherents of the rival dynasty, to revenge, and blind to the interests of their 'eo'le they foolishly and %ost brutally %urdered this eGtre%ely ca'able and conscientious 'rince in the deer 'ark near To'chider on June 40, 49/9 The o''onents of the +brenovi2Ec6 dynasty $ere, ho$ever, baulked in their 'lans, and a cousin of the late 'rince $as elected to the vacant and difficult 'osition This ruler, kno$n as "ilan +brenovi2Ec6 8?, $ho $as only fourteen years of age at the ti%e of his accession A49/9B, $as of a very different character fro% his 'redecessor The first thing that ha''ened during his %inority $as the substitution of the constitution of 49J9 by another one $hich $as %eant to give the 'rince and the national asse%bly %uch %ore 'o$er, but $hich, eventually, %ade the %inisters su're%e The 'rince ca%e of age in 495. $hen he $as eighteen, and he soon sho$ed that the 'otential 'leasures to be derived fro% his 'osition $ere far %ore attractive to hi% than the fulfil%ent of its obvious duties #e found %uch to occu'y hi% in ?ienna and Paris and but little in Belgrade At the sa%e ti%e the ,erb 'eo'le had lost, largely by its o$n faults, %uch of the res'ect and sy%'athy $hich it had acCuired in Euro'e during Prince "ichaelEs reign 8n 495: a for%idable anti(Turkish insurrection Athe last of %anyB broke out a%ongst the ,erbs of Bosnia and #ercegovina, and all the efforts of the Turks to Cuell it $ere unavailing 8n June 495/ Prince "ilan $as forced by the 'ressure of 'ublic o'inion to declare $ar on Turkey in su''ort of the Eunredee%edE ,erbs of Bosnia, and ,erbia $as joined by "ontenegro The country $as, ho$ever, not %aterially 're'ared for $ar, the eG'ected sy%'athetic risings in other 'arts of Turkey either did not take 'lace or failed, and the Turks turned their $hole ar%y on to

,erbia, $ith the result that in +ctober the ,erbs had to a''eal to the Tsar for hel' and an ar%istice $as arranged, $hich lasted till February 4955 !uring the $inter a conference $as held in 7onstantino'le to devise %eans for alleviating the lot of the 7hristians in Turkey, and a 'eace $as arranged bet$een Turkey and ,erbia $hereby the Istatus Cuo anteI $as restored But after the conference the heart of Turkey $as again hardened and the sti'ulations in favour of the 7hristians $ere not carried out 8n 4955 -ussia declared $ar on Turkey Acf cha' 40B, and in the autu%n of the sa%e year ,erbia joined in This ti%e the ar%ies of Prince "ilan $ere %ore successful, and conCuered and occu'ied the $hole of southern ,erbia including the to$ns and districts of Nish, Pirot, ?ranja, and )eskovac, "ontenegro, $hich had not been included in the 'eace of the 'revious $inter, but had been fighting des'erately and continuously against the Turks ever since it had begun actively to hel' the ,erb rebels of #ercegovina in 495:, had a series of successes, as a result of $hich it obtained 'ossession of the i%'ortant localities of Nik2Es6i2Ec6, Podgorica, Budua, Antivari, and !ulcigno, the last three on the shore of the Adriatic By the Treaty of ,an ,tefano the future interests of both ,erbia and "ontenegro $ere jeo'ardised by the creation of a Great Bulgaria, but that $ould not have %attered if in return they had been given control of the 'urely ,erb 'rovinces of Bosnia and #ercegovina, $hich ethnically they can clai% just as legiti%ately as Bulgaria clai%s %ost of "acedonia The Treaty of ,an ,tefano $as, ho$ever, soon re'laced by that of Berlin By its ter%s both ,erbia and "ontenegro achieved co%'lete inde'endence and the for%er ceased to be a tributary state of Turkey The ,erbs $ere given the districts of southern ,erbia $hich they had occu'ied, and $hich are all ethnically ,erb eGce't Pirot, the 'o'ulation of $hich is a sort of cross bet$een ,erb and Bulgar The ,erbs also undertook to build a rail$ay through their country to the Turkish and Bulgarian frontiers "ontenegro $as nearly doubled in siDe, receiving the districts of Nik2Es6i2Ec6, Podgorica, and othersH certain 'laces in the interior the Turks and Albanians absolutely refused to surrender, and to co%'ensate for these "ontenegro $as given a stri' of coast $ith the

to$nlets of Antivari and !ulcigno The %e%ory of Gladstone, $ho s'ecially es'oused "ontenegroEs cause in this %atter, is held in the greatest reverence in the brave little %ountain country, but unfortunately the 'orts the%selves are econo%ically absolutely useless Budua, higher u' the !al%atian coast, $hich $ould have been of so%e use, $as handed over to Austria, to $hich country, already 'ossessed of 7attaro and all the rest of !al%atia, it $as Cuite su'erfluous Greatest tragedy of all for the future of the ,erb race, the ad%inistration of Bosnia and #ercegovina $as handed over Ete%'orarilyE to Austria(#ungary, and Austrian garrisons $ere Cuartered throughout those t$o 'rovinces, $hich they $ere able to occu'y only after the %ost bitter ar%ed o''osition on the 'art of the inhabitants, and also in the Turkish IsandjakI or 'rovince of Novi(PaDar, the ancient -aska and cradle of the ,erb stateH this stri' of %ountainous territory under Turkish ad%inistrative and Austrian %ilitary control $as thus converted into a fortified $edge $hich effectually ke't the t$o inde'endent ,erb states of ,erbia and "ontenegro a'art After all these events the ,erbs had to set to $ork to 'ut their enlarged house in order But the building of rail$ays and schools and the organiDation of the services cost a lot of %oney, and as 'ublic econo%y is not a ,erbian virtue the debt gre$ ra'idly 8n 499. ,erbia 'roclai%ed itself a kingdo% and $as duly recogniDed by the other nations But >ing "ilan did not learn to %anage the affairs of his country any better as ti%e $ent on #e $as too $eak to stand alone, and having freed hi%self fro% Turkey he thre$ hi%self into the ar%s of Austria, $ith $hich country he concluded a secret %ilitary convention 8n 499:, $hen Bulgaria and EEastern -u%eliaE successfully coalesced and Bulgaria thereby received a considerable increase of territory and 'o$er, the ,erbs, 'ro%'ted by jealousy, began to gro$ restless, and >ing "ilan, at the instigation of Austria, foolishly declared $ar on Prince AleGander of Battenberg This s'eedily ended in the disastrous battle of ,livnitsa Acf cha' 88BH Austria had to intervene to save its victi%, and ,erbia got nothing for its trouble but a large increase of debt and a considerable decrease of %ilitary re'utation 8n addition to all this >ing "ilan $as unfortunate in his conjugal relationsH his $ife, the beautiful Uueen Natalie, $as a -ussian, and as he hi%self

had Austrian sy%'athies, they could scarcely be eG'ected to agree on 'olitics But the strife bet$een the% eGtended fro% the s'here of international to that of 'ersonal sy%'athies and anti'athies >ing "ilan $as 'ro%iscuous in affairs of the heart and Uueen Natalie $as jealous ,cenes of do%estic discord $ere freCuent and violent, and the effect of this at%os'here on the character of their only child AleGander, $ho $as born in 495/, $as naturally bad The king, $ho had for so%e years been very 'o'ular $ith, his subjects $ith all his failings, lost his hold on the country after the unfortunate $ar of 499:, and the 'artisans of the rival dynasty began to be ho'eful once %ore 8n 4999 >ing "ilan gave ,erbia a very %uch %ore liberal constitution, by $hich the %inisters $ere for the first ti%e %ade really res'onsible to the Isku'2Bs6tinaI or national asse%bly, re'lacing that of 49/;, and the follo$ing year, $orried by his 'olitical and do%estic failures, discredited and un'o'ular both at ho%e and abroad, he resigned in favour of his son AleGander, then aged thirteen This boy, $ho had been brought u' in $hat %ay be called a 'er%anent stor%(centre, both do%estic and 'olitical, $as 'laced under a regency, $hich included " -isti2Ec6, $ith a radical %inistry under " Pa2Bs6i2Ec6, an eGtre%ely able and 'atriotic states%an of 'ro(-ussian sy%'athies, $ho ever since he first beca%e 'ro%inent in 4955 had been gro$ing in 'o$er and influence But trouble did not cease $ith the abdication of >ing "ilan #e and his $ife 'layed BoG and 7oG at Belgrade for the neGt four years, Cuarrelling and being reconciled, intriguing and fighting round the throne and 'erson of their son At last both 'arents agreed to leave the country and give the unfortunate youth a chance >ing "ilan settled in ?ienna, Uueen Natalie in BiarritD 8n 49;J >ing AleGander suddenly declared hi%self of age and arrested all his %inisters and regents one evening $hile they $ere dining $ith hi% The neGt year he abrogated the constitution of 4999, under $hich 'arty $arfare in the ,erbian 'arlia%ent had been bitter and uninterru'ted, obstructing any real 'rogress, and restored that of 49/; Ever since 499; Athe date of the accession of the Ger%an E%'erorB Berlin had taken %ore interest in ,erbian affairs, and it has been alleged that it $as @illia%

88 $ho, through the $ife of the -u%anian %inister at his court, $ho $as sister of Uueen Natalie, influenced >ing AleGander in his abru't and ill(judged decisions 8t $as certainly Ger%an 'olicy to $eaken and discredit ,erbia and to further Austrian influence at Belgrade at the eG'ense of that of -ussia >ing "ilan returned for a ti%e to Belgrade in 49;5, and the reaction, favourable to Austria, $hich had begun in 49;1, increased during his 'resence and under the %inistry of !r ?ladan Gjorgjevi2Ec6, $hich lasted fro% 49;5 till 4;00 This state of re'ression caused unrest throughout the country All its energies $ere absorbed in fruitless 'olitical 'arty strife, and no %aterial or %oral 'rogress $as 'ossible >ing AleGander, distracted, solitary, and hel'less in the %idst of this unending $elter of 'olitical intrigue, co%%itted an eGtre%ely i%'rudent act in the su%%er of 4;00 #aving gone for %uch(needed relaGation to see his %other at BiarritD, he fell violently in love $ith her lady in $aiting, "ada%e !raga "a2Bs6in, the divorced $ife of a ,erbian officer #er so%e$hat eCuivocal 'ast $as in >ing AleGanderEs eyes Cuite ecli'sed by her great beauty and her $it, $hich had not been i%'aired by conjugal infelicity Although she $as thirty(t$o, and he only t$enty(four, he deter%ined to %arry her, and the des'erate o''osition of his 'arents, his ar%y, his %inisters, and his 'eo'le, based 'rinci'ally on the fact that the $o%an $as kno$n to be inca'able of child(birth, only 'reci'itated the acco%'lish%ent of his intention This unfortunate and headstrong action on the 'art of the young king, $ho, though deficient in tact and intuition, had 'lenty of energy and $as by no %eans stu'id, %ight have been forgiven hi% by his 'eo'le if, as $as at first thought 'ossible, it had restored internal 'eace and 'ros'erity in the country and thereby enabled it to 're'are itself to take a 'art in the solution oV those foreign Cuestions $hich vitally affected ,erb interests and $ere already loo%ing on the horiDon But it did not 8n 4;04 >ing AleGander granted another constitution and for a ti%e atte%'ted to $ork $ith a coalition %inistryH but this failed, and a ter% of reaction $ith 'ro(Austrian tendencies, $hich $ere favoured by the king and Cueen, set in This reaction, co%bined $ith the gro$ing disorganiDation of the finances and the general sense of the discredit and failure $hich the follies of its

rulers had during the last thirty years brought on the countryH co%'letely under%ined the 'osition of the dynasty and %ade a catastro'he inevitable This occurred, as is $ell kno$n, on June 40, 4;0J, $hen, as the result of a %ilitary cons'iracy, >ing AleGander, the last of the +brenovi2Ec6 dynasty, his $ife, and her %ale relatives $ere %urdered This cri%e $as 'urely 'olitical, and it is absurd to gloss it over or to eG'lain it %erely as the result of the fa%ily feud bet$een the t$o dynasties That ca%e to an end in 49/9, $hen the %urder of >ara(George in 4945 by the agency of "ilo2Bs6 +brenovi2Ec6 $as avenged by the lunatic assassination of the brilliant Prince "ichael +brenovi2Ec6 888 8t is no eGaggeration to say that, fro% the 'oint of vie$ of the ,erbian 'atriot, the only salvation of his country in 4;0J lay in getting rid of the +brenovi2Ec6 dynasty, $hich had beco%e 'ro(Austrian, had no longer the great gifts 'ossessed by its earlier %e%bers, and undoubtedly by its vagaries hindered the 'rogress of ,erbia both in internal and eGternal 'olitics The assassination $as unfortunately carried out $ith unnecessary cruelty, and it is this fact that %ade such a bad i%'ression and for so long %ilitated against ,erbia in $estern Euro'eH but it %ust be re%e%bered that civiliDation in the Balkans, $here 'olitical %urder, far fro% being a 'roduct of the five hundred years of Turkish do%inion, has al$ays been ende%ic, is not on the sa%e level in %any res'ects as it is in the rest of Euro'e )ife is one of the co%%odities $hich are still chea' in back$ard countries Although >ing AleGander and his $ife can in no sense be said to have deserved the a$ful fate that befell the%, it is eCually true that had any other course been ado'ted, such as de'osition and eGile, the $ire('ulling and intriguing fro% outside, $hich had already done the country so %uch har%, $ould have beco%e infinitely $orse Even so, it $as long before things in any sense settled do$n As for the alleged co%'licity of the rival dynasty in the cri%e, it is $ell established that that did not eGist 8t $as no secret to anybody interested in ,erbian affairs that so%ething catastro'hic $as about to ha''en, and $hen the tragedy occurred it $as natural to a''eal to the alternative native dynasty to ste' into

the breach But the head of that dynasty $as in no $ay res'onsible for the 'lot, still less for the %anner in $hich it $as carried out, and it $as only after %uch natural hesitation and in the face of his strong disinclination that Prince Peter >aragjorgjevi2Ec6 $as induced to acce't the by no %eans enviable, easy, or 'rofitable task of guiding ,erbiaEs destiny The ,erbian throne in 4;0J $as a source neither of glory nor of riches, and it $as notoriously no sinecure After the tragedy, the de%ocratic constitution of 4999 $as first of all restored, and then Prince Peter >aragjorgjevi2Ec6, grandson of >ara(George, the leader of the first ,erbian insurrection of 4901(4J, $ho $as at that ti%e fifty(nine years of age, $as unani%ously elected king #e had %arried in 499J a daughter of Prince Nicholas of "ontenegro and sister of the future Uueen of 8taly, but she had been dead already so%e years at the ti%e of his accession, leaving hi% $ith a fa%ily of t$o sons and a daughter

4; I,erbia, "ontenegro, and the ,erbo(7roats in Austria(#ungary,I 4;0J(9

8t $as inevitable that, after the sensation $hich such an event could not fail to cause in t$entieth(century Euro'e, it should take the country $here it occurred so%e ti%e to live do$n the results +ther 'o$ers, es'ecially those of $estern Euro'e, looked coldly on ,erbia and $ere in no hurry to resu%e di'lo%atic intercourse, still less to offer di'lo%atic su''ort The Cuestion of the 'unish%ent and eGile of the cons'irators $as al%ost i%'ossible of solution, and only ti%e $as able to obliterate the resent%ent caused by the $hole affair 8n ,erbia itself a great change took 'lace The ne$ sovereign, though he laboured under the greatest 'ossible disadvantages, by his irre'roachable behaviour, %odesty, tact,

and strictly constitutional rule, $as able to $ithdra$ the court of Belgrade fro% the trying li%elight to $hich it had beco%e used The 'ublic finances began to be reorganiDed, co%%erce began to i%'rove in s'ite of endless tariff $ars $ith Austria(#ungary, and attention $as again diverted fro% ho%e to foreign 'olitics @ith the gradual s'read of education and increase of co%%unication, and the gro$th of national self(consciousness a%ongst the ,erbs and 7roats of Austria(#ungary and the t$o inde'endent ,erb states, a ne$ %ove%ent for the closer intercourse a%ongst the various branches of the ,erb race for south ,lav unity, as it $as called, gradually began to take sha'e At the sa%e ti%e a %ore definitely 'olitical agitation started in ,erbia, largely ins'ired by the hu%iliating 'osition of econo%ic bondage in $hich the country $as held by Austria(#ungary, and $as roughly justified by the indis'utable argu%ent* E,erbia %ust eG'and or die E EG'ansion at the cost of Turkey see%ed ho'eless, because even the acCuisition of "acedonia $ould give ,erbia a large alien 'o'ulation and no %ariti%e outlet 8t $as to$ards the Adriatic that the gaDe of the ,erbs $as directed, to the coast $hich $as ethnically ,erbian and could legiti%ately be considered a heritage of the ,erb race "acedonia $as also taken into account, schools and ar%ed bands began their educative activity a%ongst those inhabitants of the unha''y 'rovince $ho $ere ,erb, or $ho lived in 'laces $here ,erbs had lived, or $ho $ith sufficient 'ersuasion could be induced to call the%selves ,erbH but the 'rinci'al strea% of 'ro'aganda $as directed $est$ards into Bosnia and #ercegovina The antagonis% bet$een 7hristian and "oha%%edan, ,erb and Turk, $as never so bitter as bet$een 7hristian and 7hristian, ,erb and Ger%an or "agyar, and the ,erbs $ere clever enough to see that Bosnia and #ercegovina, fro% every 'oint of vie$, $as to the% $orth ten "acedonias, though it $ould he ten ti%es %ore difficult to obtain Bosnia and #ercegovina, though containing three confessions, $ere ethnically ho%ogeneous, and it $as realised that these t$o 'rovinces $ere as i%'ortant to ,erbia and "ontenegro as the rest of 8taly had been to Pied%ont

8t %ust at this ti%e be recalled in $hat an eGtraordinary $ay the ,erb race had fortuitously been broken u' into a nu%ber of Cuite arbitrary 'olitical divisions !al%atia Athree 'er cent of the 'o'ulation of $hich is 8talian and all the rest ,erb or 7roat, 're'onderatingly ,erb and +rthodoG in the south and 're'onderating 7roat or -o%an 7atholic in the northB $as a 'rovince of Austria and sent de'uties to the -eichsrath at ?iennaH at the sa%e ti%e it $as territorially isolated fro% Austria and had no direct rail$ay conneGion $ith any country eGce't a narro$(gauge line into Bosnia 7roatia and ,lavonia, 're'onderatingly -o%an 7atholic, $ere lands of the #ungarian cro$n, and though they had a 'rovincial 'seudo(autono%ous diet at Agra%, the ca'ital of 7roatia, they sent de'uties to the #ungarian 'arlia%ent at Buda'est Thus $hat had in the "iddle Ages been kno$n as the triune kingdo% of 7roatia, ,lavonia, and !al%atia, $ith a total ,erbo(7roat 'o'ulation of three %illions, $as divided bet$een Austria and #ungary Further, there $ere about 500,000 ,erbs and 7roats in the south of #ungary 'ro'er, cast and north of the !anube, kno$n as the Banat and Ba2Bc6ka, a district $hich during the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries $as the hearth and ho%e of ,erb literature and education, but $hich later $aned in i%'ortance in that res'ect as inde'endent ,erbia gre$ These ,erbs $ere directly de'endent on Buda'est, the only autono%y they 'ossessed being ecclesiastical Bosnia and #ercegovina, still no%inally Turkish 'rovinces, $ith a ,lav 'o'ulation of nearly t$o %illion A9:0,000 +rthodoG ,erbs, /:0,000 "oha%%edan ,erbs, and the rest -o%an 7atholicsB, $ere to all intents and 'ur'oses already i%'erial lands of Austria(#ungary, $ith a 'urely %ilitary and 'olice ad%inistrationH the shado$ of Turkish sovereignty 'rovided sufficient eGcuse to the Ide factoI o$ners of these 'rovinces not to grant the inhabitants 'arlia%entary govern%ent or even genuine 'rovincial autono%y The ,erbs in ,erbia nu%bered nearly three %illions, those in "ontenegro about a Cuarter of a %illionH $hile in Turkey, in $hat $as kno$n as +ld ,erbia Athe IsandjakI of Novi(Pasar bet$een ,erbia and "ontenegro and the vilayet of >orovoB, and in 'arts of northern and central "acedonia, there $ere scattered

another half %illion These last, of course, had no voice at all in the %anage%ent of their o$n affairs Those in "ontenegro lived under the 'atriarchal autocracy of Prince Nicholas, $ho had succeeded his uncle, Prince !anilo, in 49/0, at the age of nineteen Though no other for% of govern%ent could have turned the barren rocks of "ontenegro into fertile 'astures, %any of the 'eo'le gre$ restless $ith the restricted 'ossibilities of a career $hich the %ountain 'rinci'ality offered the%, and in latter years %igrated in large nu%bers to North and ,outh A%erica, $hither e%igration fro% !al%atia and 7roatia too had already readied serious 'ro'ortions The ,erbs in ,erbia $ere the only ones $ho could clai% to be free, but even this $as a freedo% entirely de'endent on the econo%ic %alevolence of Austria(#ungary and Turkey 7ut u' in this $ay by the hand of fate into such a nu%ber of hel'less frag%ents, it $as inevitable that the ,erb race, if it 'ossessed any vitality, should atte%'t, at any cost, to 'iece so%e if not all of the% together and for% an ethnical $hole $hich, econo%ically and 'olitically, should be %aster of its o$n destinies 8t $as eCually inevitable that the 'olicy of Austria(#ungary should be to antici'ate or definitively render any such atte%'t i%'ossible, because obviously the for%ation of a large south ,lav state, by cutting off Austria fro% the Adriatic and eli%inating fro% the dual %onarchy all the valuable territory bet$een the !al%atian coast and the river !rave, $ould seriously jeo'ardiDe its 'osition as a great 'o$erH it %ust be re%e%bered, also, that Austria(#ungary, far fro% deco%'osing, as it $as co%%only assu%ed $as ha''ening, had been enor%ously increasing in vitality ever since 4959 The %eans ado'ted by the govern%ents of ?ienna and Buda'est to nullify the 'lans of ,erbian eG'ansion $ere generally to %aintain the 'olitical IP%iette%entI of the ,erb race, the isolation of one grou' fro% another, the virtually enforced e%igration of ,lavs on a large scale and their substitution by Ger%an colonists, and the encourage%ent of rivalry and discord bet$een -o%an 7atholic 7roat and +rthodoG ,erb No rail$ays $ere allo$ed to be built in !al%atia, co%%unication bet$een Agra% and any other 'arts of the %onarchy eGce't Fiu%e or Buda'est $as rendered al%ost

i%'ossibleH Bosnia and #ercegovina $ere shut off into a $atertight co%'art%ent and endo$ed $ith a national flag co%'osed of the ins'iring colours of bro$n and buffH it $as %ade i%'ossible for ,erbs to visit "ontenegro or for "ontenegrins to visit ,erbia eGce't via Fiu%e, entailing the besto$al of several 'ounds on the #ungarian state stea%ers and rail$ays As for the IsandjakI of Novi(PaDar, it $as turned into a veritable Tibet, and a legend $as s'read abroad that if any foreigner ventured there he $ould be surely %urdered by Turkish brigandsH %ean$hile it $as full of ?iennese ladies giving 'icnics and dances and tennis 'arties to the $as'($aisted officers of the Austrian garrison Bosnia and #ercegovina, on the other hand, beca%e the %odel touring 'rovinces of Austria(#ungary, and no one can deny that their great natural beauties $ere %ade %ore enjoyable by the construction of rail$ays, roads, and hotels At the sa%e ti%e this $as not a $ork of 'ure 'hilanthro'y, and the e%igration statistics are a good indication of the joy $ith $hich the Bosnian 'easants 'aid for an annual influG of ad%iring tourists 8n s'ite of all these disadvantages, ho$ever, the ,erbo(7roat 'rovinces of Austria(#ungary could not be de'rived of all the benefits of living $ithin a large and 'ros'erous custo%s union, $hile being %ade to 'ay for all the eG'enses of the elaborate i%'erial ad%inistration and servicesH and the s'read of education, even under the #a'sburg rPgi%e, began to tell in ti%e ,i%ultaneously $ith the agitation $hich e%anated fro% ,erbia and $as directed to$ards the advance%ent, by %eans of schools and religious and literary 'ro'aganda, of ,erbian influence in Bosnia and #ercegovina, a %ove%ent started in !al%atia and 7roatia for the closer union of those t$o 'rovinces About 4;0/ the t$o %ove%ents found eG'ression in the for%ation of the ,erbo(7roat or 7roato(,erb coalition 'arty, co%'osed of those ele%ents in !al%atia, 7roatia, and ,lavonia $hich favoured closer union bet$een the various grou's of the ,erb race scattered throughout those 'rovinces, as $ell as in ,erbia, "ontenegro, Bosnia, #ercegovina, and Turkey +$ing to the circu%stances already described, it $as i%'ossible for the re'resentatives of the ,erb race to voice their as'irations unani%ously in any one 'arlia%ent, and the $ork of the coalition, eGce't in the 'rovincial diet at Agra%, consisted %ostly of conducting 'ress

ca%'aigns and s'reading 'ro'aganda throughout those 'rovinces The %ost i%'ortant thing about the coalition $as that it buried religious antagonis% and 'ut unity of race above difference of belief 8n this $ay it ca%e into conflict $ith the ultra%ontane 7roat 'arty at Agra%, $hich $ished to incor'orate Bosnia, #ercegovina, and !al%atia $ith 7roatia and create a third 'urely -o%an 7atholic ,lav state in the e%'ire, on a level $ith Austria and #ungaryH also to a lesser eGtent $ith the intransigent ,erbs of Belgrade, $ho affected to ignore 7roatia and -o%an 7atholicis%, and only drea%ed of bringing Bosnia, #ercegovina, and as %uch of !al%atia as they could under their o$n ruleH and finally it had to overco%e the hostility of the "oha%%edan ,erbs of Bosnia, $ho disliked all 7hristians eCually, could only $ith the greatest difficulty be 'ersuaded that they $ere really ,erbs and not Turks, and honestly cared for nothing but 8sla% and Turkish coffee, thus considerably facilitating the ger%aniDation of the t$o 'rovinces The coalition $as $isely inclined to 'ost'one the 'rogra%%e of final 'olitical settle%ent, and ai%ed i%%ediately at the re%oval of the %aterial and %oral barriers 'laced bet$een the ,erbs of the various 'rovinces of Austria(#ungary, including Bosnia and #ercegovina 8f they had been sure of adeCuate guarantees they $ould 'robably have agreed to the inclusion of IallI ,erbs and 7roats $ithin the %onarchy, because the constitution of all ,erbs and 7roats in an inde'endent state Anot necessarily a kingdo%B $ithout it i%'lied the then 'roble%atic contingencies of a Euro'ean $ar and the disru'tion of Austria(#ungary 7onsidering the %anifold handica's under $hich ,erbia and its cause suffered, the considerable success $hich its 'ro'aganda %et $ith in Bosnia and #ercegovina and other 'arts of Austria(#ungary, fro% 4;0J till 4;09, is a 'roof, not only of the energy and earnestness of its 'ro%oters and of the vitality of the ,erbian 'eo'le, but also, if any $ere needed, of the eGtre%e un'o'ularity of the #a'sburg rPgi%e in the southern ,lav 'rovinces of the dual %onarchy ,erbia had no hel' fro% outside -ussia $as entangled in the Far East and then in the revolution, and though the ne$ dynasty $as a''roved in ,t Petersburg -ussian sy%'athy $ith ,erbia $as at that ti%e only luke$ar% -elations $ith Austria(#ungary $ere of course al$ays strainedH only one single line of rail$ay connected the t$o

countries, and as Austria(#ungary $as the only 'rofitable %arket, for geogra'hical reasons, for ,erbian 'roducts, ,erbia could be brought to its knees at any %o%ent by the co%%ercial closing of the frontier 8t $as a sy%bol of the econo%ic vassalage of ,erbia and "ontenegro that the 'ostage bet$een both of these countries and any 'art of Austria(#ungary $as ten centi%es, that for letters bet$een ,erbia and "ontenegro, $hich had to %ake the long dPtour through Austrian territory, $as t$enty(five But though this o'ened the ,erbian %arkets to Austria, it also incidentally o'ened Bosnia, $hen the censor could be circu%vented to 'ro'aganda by 'a%'hlet and corres'ondence 8ntercourse $ith $estern Euro'e $as restricted by distance, and, o$ing to dynastic reasons, di'lo%atic relations $ere altogether sus'ended for several years bet$een this country and ,erbia The Balkan ,tates EGhibition held in )ondon during the su%%er of 4;05, to encourage trade bet$een Great Britain and the Balkans, $as hardly a success 8taly and ,erbia had nothing in co%%on @ith "ontenegro even, des'ite the fact that >ing Peter $as Prince NicholasEs son(in(la$, relations $ere bad 8t $as felt in ,erbia that Prince NicholasEs autocratic rule acted as a brake on the legiti%ate develo'%ent of the national consciousness, and "ontenegrin students $ho visited Belgrade returned to their ho%es full of $ild and unsuitable ideas #o$ever, the revolutionary tendencies, $hich so%e of the% undoubtedly develo'ed, had no fatal results to the reigning dynasty, $hich continued as before to enjoy the s'ecial favour as $ell as the financial su''ort of the -ussian court, and $hich, looked on throughout Euro'e as a 'icturesCue and har%less institution, it $ould have been dangerous, as it $as Cuite unnecessary, to touch ,erbia $as thus left entirely to its o$n resources in the great 'ro'agandist activity $hich filled the years 4;0J to 4;09 The financial %eans at its dis'osal $ere eGiguous in the eGtre%e, es'ecially $hen co%'ared $ith the enor%ous su%s lavished annually by the Austrian and Ger%an govern%ents on their secret 'olitical services, so that the efforts of its agents cannot be ascribed to cu'idity Also it %ust be ad%itted that the kingdo% of ,erbia, $ith its ca'ital Belgrade, thanks to the

internal chaos and dynastic scandals of the 'revious forty years, resulting in su'erficial dila'idation, intellectual stagnation, and general 'overty, lacked the %aterial as $ell as the %oral gla%our $hich a successful Pied%ont should 'ossess Nobody could deny, for instance, that, $ith all its natural advantages, Belgrade $as at first sight not nearly such an attractive centre as Agra% or ,arajevo, or that the Cualities $hich the ,erbs of ,erbia had dis'layed since their e%anci'ation $ere hardly such as to co%%and the unstinted confidence and ad%iration of their as yet unredee%ed co%'atriots Nevertheless the ,erbian 'ro'aganda in favour of $hat $as really a Pan(,erb %ove%ent %et $ith great success, es'ecially in Bosnia, #ercegovina, and +ld ,erbia Anorthern "acedoniaB ,i%ultaneously the $ork of the ,erbo(7roat coalition in !al%atia, 7roatia, and ,lavonia %ade considerable 'rogress in s'ite of clerical o''osition and des'erate conflicts $ith the govern%ent at Buda'est Both the one %ove%ent and the other naturally evoked great alar% and e%otion in the Austrian and #ungarian ca'itals, as they $ere seen to be genuinely 'o'ular and also 'otentially, if not actually, se'aratist in character 8n +ctober 4;0/ Baron Achrenthal succeeded 7ount Golucho$ski as "inister for Foreign Affairs at ?ienna, and very soon initiated a %ore vigorous and incidentally anti(,lav foreign 'olicy than his 'redecessor @hat $as no$ looked on as the ,erbian danger had in the eyes of ?ienna assu%ed such 'ro'ortions that the ti%e for decisive action $as considered to have arrived 8n January 4;09 Baron Achrenthal announced his sche%e for a continuation of the Bosnian rail$ay syste% through the IsandjakI of Novi(PaDar to link u' $ith the Turkish rail$ays in "acedonia This 'lan $as 'articularly foolish in conce'tion, because, the Bosnian rail$ays being narro$ and the Turkish nor%al gauge, the line $ould have been useless for international co%%erce, $hile the engineering difficulties $ere such that the cost of construction $ould have been 'rohibitive But the 'ossibilities $hich this %ove indicated, the 'al'able evidence it contained of the notorious I!rang nach +stenI of the Ger%anic 'o$ers to$ards ,alonika and 7onstantino'le, $ere Cuite sufficient to fill the %inistries of Euro'e, and es'ecially those of -ussia, $ith eGtre%e

uneasiness The i%%ediate result of this $as that concerted action bet$een -ussia and Austria(#ungary in the Balkans $as thencefor$ard i%'ossible, and the "RrDsteg 'rogra%%e, after a short and 'recarious eGistence, ca%e to an unti%ely end Acf cha' 4.B ,erbia and "ontenegro, face to face $ith this ne$ danger $hich threatened 'er%anently to se'arate their territories, $ere beside the%selves, and i%%ediately 'arried $ith the 'roject, hardly %ore 'racticable in vie$ of their international credit, of a !anube(Adriatic rail$ay 8n July 4;09 the nerves of Euro'e $ere still further tried by the &oung Turk revolution in 7onstantino'le The i%%inence of this %ove%ent $as kno$n to Austro(Ger%an di'lo%acy, and doubtless this kno$ledge, as $ell as the fear of the Pan(,erb %ove%ent, 'ro%'ted the Austrian foreign %inister to take ste's to$ards the definitive regulariDation of his countryEs 'osition in Bosnia and #ercegovina(('rovinces $hose suDerain $as still the ,ultan of Turkey The effect of the &oung Turk cou' in the Balkan ,tates $as as any one $ho visited the% at that ti%e can testify, both 'athetic and intensely hu%orous The 'er%anent chaos of the Turkish e%'ire, and the 'rocess of $atching for years its gradual but inevitable deco%'osition, had created a%ongst the neighbouring states an at%os'here of eGcited antici'ation, $hich $as really the breath of their nostrilsH it had sti%ulated the% during the endless "acedonian insurrections to co%%it the %ost a$ful outrages against each otherEs nationals and then lay the bla%e at the door of the unfortunate TurkH and if the Turk should really regenerate hi%self, not only $ould their occu'ation be gone, but the heavily(discounted legacies $ould assuredly elude their gras' At the sa%e ti%e, since the $hole 'olicy of eGhibiting and eG'loiting the horrors of "acedonia, and of organiDing guerilla bands and 'rovoking intervention, $as based on the refusal of the Turks to grant refor%s, as soon as the ultra(liberal constitution of "idhat Pasha, $hich, had been $ithdra$n after a brief and unsuccessful run in 495/, $as restored by the &oung Turks, there $as nothing left for the Balkan ,tates to do but to a''laud $ith as %uch enthusias% as they could si%ulate The e%otions eG'erienced by the Balkan 'eo'les during that su%%er, beneath the s%iles $hich they had to assu%e, $ere eGhausting even for southern te%'era%ents Bulgaria, $ith its

characteristic %atter(of(factness, $as the first to adjust itself to the ne$ and trying situation in $hich the only certainty $as that so%ething decisive had got to be done $ith all 'ossible celerity +n +ctober :, 4;09, Prince Ferdinand s'rang on an astonished continent the ne$s that he renounced the Turkish suDerainty Aever since 4959 the Bulgarian 'rinci'ality had been a tributary and vassal state of the +tto%an E%'ire, and therefore, $ith all its astonishingly ra'id 'rogress and %aterial 'ros'erity, a subject for co%%iseration in the kingdo%s of ,erbia and GreeceB and 'roclai%ed the inde'endence of Bulgaria, $ith hi%self, as Tsar of the Bulgars, at its head Euro'e had not recovered fro% this shock, still less Belgrade and Athens, $hen, t$o days later Baron Aehrenthal announced the for%al anneGation of Bosnia and #ercegovina by the E%'eror Francis Jose'h @hereas %ost 'eo'le had virtually forgotten the Treaty of Berlin and had co%e to look on Austria as just as 'er%anently settled in these t$o 'rovinces as $as Great Britain in Egy't and 7y'rus, yet the for%al breach of the sti'ulations of that treaty on AustriaEs 'art, by anneGing the 'rovinces $ithout notice to or consultation $ith the other 'arties concerned, gave the eGcuse for a so%e$hat ridiculous hue and cry on the 'art of the other 'o$ers, and es'ecially on that of -ussia The effect of these blo$s fro% right and left on ,erbia $as literally 'aralysing @hen Belgrade recovered the use of its organs, it started to screa% for $ar and revenue, and initiated an international crisis fro% $hich Euro'e did not recover till the follo$ing year "ean$hile, al%ost unobserved by the 'eo'les of ,erbia and "ontenegro, Austria had, in order to reconcile the Turks $ith the loss of their 'rovinces, good(naturedly, but fro% the Austrian 'oint of vie$ short(sightedly, $ithdra$n its garrisons fro% the IsandjakI of Novi(PaDar, thus evacuating the long(coveted corridor $hich $as the one thing above all else necessary to ,erbia and "ontenegro for the realiDation of their 'lans

.0

I,erbia and "ontenegro, and the t$o Balkan @ars,I 4;09(4J Acf 7ha', 4JB

The $inter of 4;09(; %arked the lo$est ebb of ,erbiaEs fortunes The successive Icou'sI and Ifaits acco%'lisI carried out by Austria, Turkey, and Bulgaria during 4;09 see%ed destined to destroy for good the ,erbian 'lans for eG'ansion in any direction $hatever, and if these could not be realiDed then ,erbia %ust die of suffocation 8t $as also $ell understood that for all the %artial ardour dis'layed in Belgrade the ar%y $as in no condition to take the field any %ore than $as the treasury to bear the cost of a ca%'aignH -ussia had not yet recovered fro% the Ja'anese @ar follo$ed by the revolution, and indeed everything 'ointed to the certainty that if ,erbia indulged in hostilities against Austria(#ungary it $ould 'erish igno%iniously and alone The $orst of it $as that neither ,erbia nor "ontenegro had any legal clai% to Bosnia and #ercegovina* they had been deluding the%selves $ith the ho'e that their ethnical identity $ith the 'eo'le of these 'rovinces, su''orted by the effects of their 'ro'aganda, $ould induce a co%'assionate and generous Euro'e at least to insist on their being given a 'art of the coveted territory, and thus give ,erbia access to the coast, $hen the a%biguous 'osition of these t$o valuable 'rovinces, still no%inally Turkish but already virtually Austrian, ca%e to be finally regulariDed As a %atter of fact, ever since Bis%arck, GorchakLv, and Beaconsfield had 'ut Austria(#ungary in their 'ossession in 4959, no one had seriously thought that the !ual "onarchy $ould ever voluntarily retire fro% one inch of the territory $hich had been conCuered and occu'ied at such cost, and those $ho noticed it $ere astonished at the evacuation by it of the IsandjakI of Novi(PaDar At the sa%e ti%e Baron Achrenthal little foresa$ $hat a hornetEs nest he $ould bring about his ears by the tactless %ethod in $hich the anneGation $as carried out The first effect $as to 'rovoke a co%'lete boycott of Austro(#ungarian goods and trading vessels throughout the +tto%an E%'ire, $hich $as so har%ful to the Austrian eG'ort trade that in January 4;0; 7ount Achrenthal had to inde%nify Turkey $ith the su% of V.,:00,000 for his technically stolen 'ro'erty Further, the attitude of -ussia and

,erbia throughout the $hole $inter re%ained so 'rovocative and threatening that, although $ar $as generally considered i%'robable, the Austrian ar%y had to be ke't on a $ar footing, $hich involved great eG'ense and %uch 'o'ular discontent The grave eGternal crisis $as only solved at the end of "arch 4;0;H Ger%any had had to deliver a veiled ulti%atu% at ,t Petersburg, the result of $hich $as the rescue of Austria(#ungary fro% an a$k$ard situation by the %uch(advertised a''earance of its faithful ally in shining ar%our ,i%ultaneously ,erbia had to eat hu%ble 'ie and declare, $ith co%'lete absence of truth, that the anneGation of Bosnia and #ercegovina had not affected its interests "ean$hile the internal co%'lications in the southern ,lav 'rovinces of Austria(#ungary $ere gro$ing for%idable Ever since the su%%er of 4;09 arrests had been going on a%ong the %e%bers of the 7roato(,erb coalition, $ho $ere accused of favouring the subversive Pan(,erb %ove%ent The 'ress of Austria(#ungary %agnified the i%'ortance of this agitation in order to justify abroad the 'ressing need for the for%al anneGation of Bosnia and #ercegovina The fact $as that, though i%%ediate danger to the %onarchy as a result of the Pan(,erb agitation $as kno$n not to eGist, yet in the interests of Austrian foreign 'olicy, the ,erbs had to be co%'ro%ised in the eyes of Euro'e, the 7roato(,erb coalition $ithin the !ual "onarchy had to be destroyed to gratify Buda'est in 'articular, and the religious and 'olitical discord bet$een 7roat and ,erb, on $hich the foundation of the 'o$er of Austria(#ungary, and es'ecially that of #ungary, in the south rested, and $hich $as in a fair $ay of being eli%inated through the efforts of the coalition, had to be revived by so%e %eans or other 8t is not 'ossible here to go into the details of the notorious Agra% high treason trial, $hich $as the outco%e of all this 8t suffices to say that it $as a %onstrous travesty of justice $hich lasted fro% "arch till +ctober 4;0;, and though it resulted in the ostensible destruction of the coalition and the i%'rison%ent of %any of its %e%bers, it defeated its o$n ends, as it %erely fanned the fla%e of nationalistic feeling against ?ienna and Buda'est, and 7roatia has ever since had to be governed virtually by %artial la$ This $as follo$ed in !ece%ber 4;0; by the even

%ore fa%ous Friedjung trial 8n "arch 4;0; 7ount Achrenthal had begun in ?ienna a violent 'ress ca%'aign against ,erbia, accusing the ,erbian Govern%ent and dynasty of co%'licity in the concoction of nefarious designs and cons'iracies against the integrity of Austria(#ungary This ca%'aign $as thought to be the %eans of foreshado$ing and justifying the i%%ediate %ilitary occu'ation of ,erbia =nfortunately its instigator had not been sufficiently 'articular as to the choice of his tools and his %ethods of using the% A%ong the contributors of the highly tendencious articles $as the $ell(kno$n historian !r Friedjung, $ho %ade eGtensive use of docu%ents su''lied hi% by the ?ienna Foreign +ffice #is accusations i%%ediately 'rovoked an action for libel on the 'art of three leaders of the 7roato(,erb coalition $ho $ere i%'licated, in !ece%ber 4;0; The trial, $hich $as highly sensational, resulted in the co%'lete vindication and rehabilitation both of those three Austrian subjects in the eyes of the $hole of Austria(#ungary and of the Belgrade Foreign +ffice in those of Euro'eH the docu%ents on $hich the charges $ere based $ere 'roven to be 'artly forgeries, 'artly falsified, and 'artly stolen by various disre'utable secret 'olitical agents of the Austrian Foreign +ffice, and one of the 'rinci'al ,erbian Econs'iratorsE, a 'rofessor of Belgrade =niversity, 'roved that he $as in Berlin at the ti%e $hen he had been accused of 'residing over a revolutionary %eeting at Belgrade But it also resulted in the latter discrediting of 7ount Achrenthal as a di'lo%at and of the %ethods by $hich he conducted the business of the Austrian Foreign +ffice, and involved his country in the eG'enditure of countless %illions $hich it could ill afford There never $as any doubt that a subversive agitation had been going on, and that it e%anated in 'art fro% ,erbia, but the ,erbian Foreign +ffice, under the able %anage%ent of !r "ilovanovi2Ec6 and !r ,'alajkovi2Ec6 Aone of the 'rinci'al $itnesses at the Friedjung trialB, $as far too clever to allo$ any of its %e%bers, or indeed any res'onsible 'erson in ,erbia, to be concerned in it, and the brilliant $ay in $hich the clu%sy and foolish charges $ere refuted redounded greatly to the credit of the ,erbian Govern%ent 7ount Achrenthal had overreached hi%self, and %oreover

the $ind had already been taken out of his sails by the 'ublic recantation on ,erbiaEs 'art of its 'retensions to Bosnia, $hich, as already %entioned, took 'lace at the end of "arch 4;0;, and by the si%ultaneous ter%ination of the international crisis %arked by -ussiaEs acCuiescence in the Ifait acco%'liI of the anneGation At the sa%e ti%e the ,erbian 7ro$n Prince George, >ing PeterEs elder son, $ho had been the leader of the chauvinist $ar('arty in ,erbia, and $as so%e$hat theatrical in de%eanour and irres'onsible in character, renounced his rights of succession in favour of his younger brother Prince AleGander, a %uch steadier and %ore talented young %an 8t is certain that $hen he realiDed ho$ things $ere going to develo' 7ount Achrenthal tried to hush u' the $hole incident, but it $as too late, and !r Friedjung insisted on doing $hat he could to save his re'utation as a historian 8n the end he $as %ade the 'rinci'al sca'egoat, though the 'ress of ?ienna voiced its o'inion of the Austrian Foreign +ffice in no %easured tones, saying, a%ongst other things, that if the conductors of its di'lo%acy %ust use forgeries, they %ight at any rate secure good ones Eventually a co%'ro%ise $as arranged, after the defendant had clearly lost his case, o$ing to 'ressure being brought to bear fro% outside, and the ,erbian Govern%ent refrained fro% carrying out its threat of having the $hole Cuestion threshed out before the #ague Tribunal The cu%ulative effect of all these eGciting and trying eG'eriences $as the gro$th of a distinctly %ore sy%'athetic feeling to$ards ,erbia in Euro'e at large, and es'ecially a rallying of all the ele%ents throughout the ,erb and 7roat 'rovinces of Austria(#ungary, eGce't the eGtre%e clericals of Agra%, to the ,erbian causeH briefly, the effect $as the eGact o''osite of that desired by ?ienna and Buda'est "ean$hile events had been ha''ening else$here $hich revived the droo'ing interest and flagging ho'es of ,erbia in the develo'%ent of foreign affairs The attain%ent of 'o$er by the &oung Turks and the introduction of 'arlia%entary govern%ent had brought no i%'rove%ent to the internal condition of the +tto%an E%'ire, and the Balkan 'eo'les %ade no effort to conceal their satisfaction at the failure of the revolution to bring about refor% by %agic The

counter(revolution of A'ril 4;0; and the accession of the ,ultan "oha%%ed ? %ade things no better 8n "acedonia, and es'ecially in Albania, they had been going fro% bad to $orse The introduction of universal %ilitary service and obligatory 'ay%ent of taGes caused a revolution in Albania, $here such innovations $ere not at all a''reciated Fro% 4;0; till 4;44 there $as a state of 'er'etual $arfare in Albania, $ith $hich the &oung Turks, in s'ite of cruel re'risals, $ere unable to co'e, until, in the su%%er of that year, Austria threatened to intervene unless order $ere restoredH so%e sort of settle%ent $as 'atched u', and an a%nesty $as granted to the rebels by the ne$ ,ultan This unfortunate %an, after being rendered al%ost half($itted by having been for the greater 'art of his life ke't a 'risoner by his brother the tyrant Abdul #a%id, $as no$ the ca'tive of the &oung Turks, and had been co%'elled by the% to %ake as triu%'hal a 'rogress as fears for his 'ersonal safety $ould allo$ through the 'rovinces of Euro'ean Turkey But it $as obvious to Balkan states%en that Turkey $as only changed in na%e, and that, if its threatened regeneration had slightly 'ost'oned their 'lans for its 'artition a%ongst the%selves, the ulti%ate consu%%ation of these 'lans %ust be 'ursued $ith, if 'ossible, even greater energy and eG'edition than before 8t $as also seen by the %ore 'ers'icacious of the% that the %ethods hitherto ado'ted %ust in future be radically altered A rejuvenated though unrefor%ed Turkey, bent on self('reservation, could not be des'ised, and it $as understood that if the revolutionary bands of the three 7hristian nations AGreece, ,erbia, and BulgariaB $ere to continue indefinitely to cut each othersE throats in "acedonia the tables %ight conceivably be turned on the% Fro% 4;0; on$ards a series of 'heno%ena occurred in the Balkans $hich ought to have given $arning to the Turks, $hose survival in Euro'e had been due solely to the fact that the Balkan ,tates had never been able to unite 8n the autu%n of 4;0; >ing Ferdinand of Bulgaria %et 7ro$n Prince AleGander of ,erbia and %ade an eG'edition in his co%'any to "ount >o'aonik in ,erbia, reno$ned for the beauty of its flora This %ust have struck those $ho re%e%bered the bitter feelings $hich had eGisted bet$een

the t$o countries for years and had been intensified by the events of 4;09 Bulgaria had looked on ,erbiaEs failures $ith 'ersistent conte%'t, $hile ,erbia had $atched BulgariaEs successful 'rogress $ith s'eechless jealousy, and the %e%ory of ,livnitsa $as not yet obliterated 8n the su%%er of 4;40 Prince Nicholas of "ontenegro celebrated the fiftieth anniversary of his reign and his golden $edding The festivities $ere attended by >ing Ferdinand of Bulgaria and the 7ro$n Prince Boris, by the 7ro$n Prince AleGander of ,erbia and his sister, grandchildren of Prince Nicholas, by his t$o daughters the Uueen of 8taly and the Grand !uchess Anastasia of -ussia, and by their husbands, >ing ?ictor E%%anuel and the Grand !uke Nicholas The ha''iness of the venerable ruler, $ho $as as res'ected throughout Euro'e as he $as feared throughout his 'rinci'ality, $as at the sa%e ti%e co%'leted by his recognition as king by all the govern%ents and sovereigns of the continent The ho'es that he $ould si%ultaneously introduce a %ore liberal for% of govern%ent a%ongst his o$n 'eo'le $ere unfortunately disa''ointed The year 4;44, it need scarcely be recalled, $as eGtre%ely fateful for the $hole of Euro'e The gro$ing restlessness and irritability %anifested by the Ger%an E%'ire began to %ake all the other govern%ents feel eGceedingly uneasy The French eG'edition to FeD in A'ril $as follo$ed by the Anglo(Franco(Ger%an crisis of JulyH $ar $as avoided, and France $as recogniDed as virtually %aster of "orocco, but the soreness of the di'lo%atic defeat rendered Ger%any a still %ore trying neighbour than it had been before The first re'ercussion $as the $ar $hich broke out in ,e'te%ber 4;44 bet$een 8taly and Turkey for the 'ossession of Tri'oli and 7yrenaica, $hich 8taly, $ith its usual insight, sa$ $as vital to its 'osition as a "editerranean 'o$er and therefore deter%ined to acCuire before any other 'o$er had ti%e or courage to do so 8n the Balkans this $as a year of observation and 're'aration ,erbia, taught by the bitter lesson of 4;09 not to be caught again un're'ared, had s'ent %uch %oney and care on its ar%y during the last fe$ years and had brought it to a %uch higher state of efficiency 8n Austria(#ungary careful observers $ore a$are that so%ething $as afoot and that the gaDe of ,erbia, $hich fro%

4;0J till 4;09 had been directed $est$ards to Bosnia and the Adriatic, had since 4;09 been fiGed on "acedonia and the Aegean The actual for%ation of the Balkan )eague by >ing Ferdinand and " ?eneDelos %ay not have been kno$n, but it $as realiDed that action of so%e sort on the 'art of the Balkan ,tates $as i%%inent, and that so%ething %ust be done to forestall it 8n February 4;4. 7ount Aehrenthal died, and $as succeeded by 7ount Berchtold as Austro(#ungarian "inister for Foreign Affairs 8n August of the sa%e year this %inister uneG'ectedly announced his ne$ and startling 'ro'osals for the introduction of refor%s in "acedonia, $hich nobody in the Balkans $ho had any %aterial interest in the fate of that 'rovince genuinely desired at that %o%entH the %otto of the ne$ sche%e $as E'rogressive decentraliDationE, blessed $ords $hich soothed the great 'o$ers as %uch as they alar%ed the Balkan Govern%ents But already in "ay 4;4. agree%ents bet$een Bulgaria and Greece and bet$een Bulgaria and ,erbia had been concluded, li%iting their res'ective Dones of influence in the territory $hich they ho'ed to conCuer 8t $as, to any one $ho has any kno$ledge of Balkan history, incredible that the various Govern%ents had been able to co%e to any agree%ent at all That arrived at by Bulgaria and ,erbia divided "acedonia bet$een the% in such a $ay that Bulgaria should obtain central "acedonia $ith "onastir and +khrida, and ,erbia northern "acedonia or +ld ,erbiaH there $as an indeter%inate Done bet$een the t$o s'heres, including ,ko'lje ATskRb, in TurkishB, the eGact division of $hich it $as agreed to leave to arbitration at a subseCuent date The "acedonian theatre of $ar $as by co%%on consent regarded as the %ost i%'ortant, and Bulgaria here 'ro%ised ,erbia the assistance of 400,000 %en The Turks %ean$hile $ere a$are that all $as not $hat it see%ed beyond the frontiers, and in August 4;4. began collecting troo's in Thrace, ostensibly for %anoeuvres !uring the %onth of ,e'te%ber the 'atience of the four Govern%ents of Greece, Bulgaria, ,erbia, and "ontenegro, $hich had for years $ith the ut%ost self(control been 'assively $atching the a$ful sufferings of their co%'atriots under Turkish %isrule, gradually beca%e eGhausted +n ,e'te%ber .9 the four Balkan Govern%ents infor%ed -ussia that the Balkan )eague $as an acco%'lished fact, and on the J0th

the re'resentatives of all four signed the alliance, and %obiliDation $as ordered in Greece, Bulgaria, and ,erbia The 'o'ulation of "ontenegro $as habitually on a $ar footing, and it $as left to the %ountain kingdo% fro% its geogra'hically favourable 'osition to o'en hostilities +n +ctober 9 "ontenegro declared $ar on Turkey, and after a series of brilliant successes along the frontier its forces settled do$n to the $eariso%e and arduous siege of ,cutari $ith its i%'regnable sentinel, "ount Tarabo2Bs6, converted into a %odern fortressH the unaccusto%ed nature of these tasks, to $hich the "ontenegrin troo's, used to the adventures of irregular $arfare, $ere little suited, tried the valour and 'atience of the intre'id %ountaineers to the ut%ost By that ti%e Euro'e $as in a fer%ent, and both -ussia and Austria, a%aDed at having the initiative in the regulation of Balkan affairs $rested fro% the%, sho$ered on the Balkan ca'itals threats and 'rotests, $hich for once in a $ay $ere neglected +n +ctober 4J Greece, Bulgaria, and ,erbia re'lied that the offer of outside assistance and advice had co%e too late, and that they had decided the%selves to redress the intolerable and secular $rongs of their long(suffering co%'atriots in "acedonia by force of ar%s To their dis%ay a treaty of 'eace $as signed at )ausanne about the sa%e ti%e bet$een Turkey and 8taly, $hich 'o$er, it had been ho'ed, $ould have distracted TurkeyEs attention by a continuance of hostilities in northern Africa, and at any rate i%%obiliDed the Turkish fleet Encouraged by this success Turkey boldly declared $ar on Bulgaria and ,erbia on +ctober 45, ho'ing to frighten Greece and detach it fro% the leagueH but on the 49th the Greek Govern%ent re'lied by declaring $ar on Turkey, thus co%'leting the necessary for%alities The Turks $ere confident of an early and easy victory, and ho'ed to reach ,ofia, not fro% 7onstantino'le and Thrace, but 'ushing u' north(east$ards fro% "acedonia The ra'id offensive of the ,erbian ar%y, ho$ever, took the% by sur'rise, and they $ere co%'letely over$hel%ed at the battle of >u%anovo in northern "acedonia on +ctober .J(1, 4;4. +n the J4st >ing Peter %ade his triu%'hal entry into ,ko'lje AeG(TskRbB, the ancient ca'ital of ,erbia under Tsar ,te'hen !u2Bs6an in the fourteenth century Fro% there the ,erbian ar%y 'ursued the Turks

south$ard, and at the battles of Prile' ANove%ber :B and "onastir ANove%ber 4;B, after encountering the %ost stubborn o''osition, finally 'ut an end to their resistance in this 'art of the theatre of $ar +n Nove%ber ; the Greeks entered ,alonika "ean$hile other divisions of the ,erbian ar%y had joined hands $ith the "ontenegrins, and occu'ied al%ost $ithout o''osition the long(coveted IsandjakI of Novi(PaDar Athe ancient ,erb -a2Bs6kaB, to the ineG'ressible rage of Austria(#ungary, $hich had evacuated it in 4;09 in favour of its rightful o$ner, Turkey At the sa%e ti%e a ,erbian eG'editionary cor's %arched right through Albania, braving great hardshi's on the $ay, and on Nove%ber J0 occu'ied !uraDDo, thus securing at last a foothold on the Adriatic Besides all this, ,erbia, in fulfil%ent of its treaty obligations, dis'atched :0,000 s'lendidly eCui''ed %en, together $ith a Cuantity of heavy siege artillery, to hel' the Bulgarians at the siege of Adriano'le +n !ece%ber J an ar%istice $as signed bet$een the belligerents, $ith the condition that the three besieged Turkish fortresses of Adriano'le, ,cutari, and &anina %ust not be re(victualled, and on !ece%ber 4/, 4;4., 'eace negotiations $ere o'ened bet$een re'resentatives of the belligerent countries in )ondon "ean$hile the Ger%anic 'o$ers, dis%ayed by the uneG'ected victories of the Balkan ar%ies and hu%iliated by the crushing defeats in the field of the Ger%an(trained Turkish ar%y, had since the beginning of Nove%ber been doing everything in their 'o$er to su''ort their client Turkey and 'revent its final eGtinction and at the sa%e ti%e the blighting of their a%bitions eventually to acCuire the E%'ire of the Near East !uring the conference in )ondon bet$een the 'leni'otentiaries of the belligerents, 'arallel %eetings took 'lace bet$een the re'resentatives of the great 'o$ers, $hose relations $ith each other $ere strained and difficult in the eGtre%e The Turkish envoys 'rolonged the negotiations, as $as their custo%H they naturally $ere un$illing to concede their Euro'ean 'rovinces to the des'ised and hated Greek and ,lavonic conCuerors, but the delays i%'lied gro$ing hardshi's for their besieged and starving garrisons in Thrace, E'irus, and Albania +n January .J, 4;4J, a Cuasi(revolution occurred in

the Turkish ar%y, headed by Enver Bey and other &oung Turk 'artisans, and a''roved by the Austrian and Ger%an e%bassies, $ith the object of interru'ting the negotiations and staking all on the result of a final battle As a result of these events, and of the 'al'able disingenuousness of the Turks in continuing the negotiations in )ondon, the Balkan delegates on January .; broke the% off, and on February J, 4;4J, hostilities $ere resu%ed At length, after a siege of nearly five %onths, Adriano'le, su''lied $ith infinitely better artillery than the allies 'ossessed, $as taken by the co%bined ,erbian and Bulgarian forces on "arch ./, 4;4J The ,erbian troo's at Adriano'le ca'tured 45,040 Turkish 'risoners, 4;0 guns, and the Turkish co%%ander hi%self, ,hukri Pasha At the outbreak of the $ar in the autu%n of 4;4. the Balkan ,tates had observed all the conventions, disavo$ing designs of territorial aggrandiDe%ent and 'roclai%ing their resolve %erely to obtain guarantees for the better treat%ent of the 7hristian inhabitants of "acedoniaH the 'o$ers, for their 'art, duly ad%onished the naughty children of south(eastern Euro'e to the effect that no alteration of the territorial Istatus Cuo anteI $ould under any circu%stances be tolerated !uring the negotiations in )ondon, interru'ted in January, and resu%ed in the s'ring of 4;4J after the fall of Adriano'le, it $as soon %ade clear that in s'ite of all these %agniloCuent declarations nothing $ould be as it had been before Throughout the $inter Austria(#ungary had been %obiliDing troo's and %assing the% along the frontiers of ,erbia and "ontenegro, any increase in the siDe of $hich countries %eant a crushing blo$ to the designs of the Ger%anic 'o$ers and the end to all the drea%s e%bodied in the 'hrase E!rang nach +stenE AE'ushing east$ardsEB 8n the s'ring of 4;4J ,erbia and "ontenegro, instead of being defeated by the brave Turks, as had been confidently 'redicted in ?ienna and Berlin $ould be the case, found the%selves in 'ossession of the IsandjakI of Novi(PaDar, of northern and central "acedonia Aincluding +ld ,erbiaB, and of the northern half of Albania The 'resence of ,erbian troo's on the shore of the Adriatic $as %ore than Austria could stand, and at the

rene$ed conference of )ondon it $as decided that they %ust retire 8n the interests of nationality, in $hich the Balkan ,tates the%selves undertook the $ar, it $as desirable that at any rate an atte%'t should be %ade to create an inde'endent state of Albania, though no one $ho kne$ the local conditions felt confident as to its ulti%ate career 8ts creation assuaged the consciences of the )iberal Govern%ent in Great Britain and at the sa%e ti%e ad%irably suited the strategic 'lans of Austria(#ungary 8t left that country a loo'hole for future di'lo%atic efforts to disturb the 'eace of south(eastern Euro'e, and, $ith its o$n ar%y in Bosnia and its 'olitical agents and irregular troo's in Albania, ,erbia and "ontenegro, even though enlarged as it $as generally recogniDed they %ust be, $ould be held in a vice and could be threatened and bullied fro% the south no$ as $ell as fro% the north $henever it $as in the interests of ?ienna and Buda'est to a''ly the scre$ The inde'endence of Albania $as declared at the conference of )ondon on "ay J0, 4;4J ,cutari $as included in it as being a 'urely Albanian to$n, and >ing Nicholas and his ar%y, after enjoying its coveted flesh('ots for a fe$ halcyon $eeks, had, to their %ortification, to retire to the barren fastnesses of the Black "ountain ,erbia, frustrated by Austria in its atte%'ts, generally recogniDed as legiti%ate, to obtain even a co%%ercial outlet on the Adriatic, naturally again diverted its ai%s south$ards to ,alonika The Greeks $ere already in 'ossession of this i%'ortant city and sea'ort, as $ell as of the $hole of southern "acedonia The ,erbs $ere in 'ossession of central and northern "acedonia, including "onastir and +khrida, $hich they had at great sacrifices conCuered fro% the Turks 8t had been agreed that Bulgaria, as its share of the s'oils, should have all central "acedonia, $ith "onastir and +khrida, although on ethnical grounds the Bulgarians have only very slightly better clai% to the country and to$ns $est of the ?ardar than any of the other Balkan nationalities But at the ti%e that the agree%ent had been concluded it had been calculated in Greece and ,erbia that Albania, far fro% being %ade inde'endent, $ould be divided bet$een the%, and that ,erbia, assured of a stri' of coast on the Adriatic, $ould have no interest in the control of the river ?ardar and of the rail$ay $hich follo$s its course connecting the interior of ,erbia $ith the 'ort of

,alonika Greece and ,erbia had no ground $hatever for Cuarrel and no cause for %utual distrust, and they $ere deter%ined, for 'olitical and co%%ercial reasons, to have a considerable eGtent of frontier fro% $est to east in co%%on The creation of an inde'endent Albania co%'letely altered the situation 8f Bulgaria should obtain central "acedonia and thus secure a frontier fro% north to south in co%%on $ith the ne$ly(for%ed state of Albania, then Greece $ould be at the %ercy of its hereditary ene%ies the Bulgars and Arnauts AAlbaniansB as it had 'reviously been at the %ercy of the Turks, $hile ,erbia $ould have t$o frontiers bet$een itself and the sea instead of one, as before, and its co%'lete econo%ic strangulation $ould be rendered inevitable and ra'id Bulgaria for its o$n 'art naturally refused to $aive its clai% to central "acedonia, $ell kno$ing that the %aster of the ?ardar valley is %aster of the Balkan 'eninsula The first re'ercussion of the e'he%eral treaty of )ondon of "ay J0, 4;4J, $hich created Albania and shut out ,erbia fro% the Adriatic, $as, therefore, as the di'lo%acy of the Ger%anic 'o$ers had all along intended it should be, the beginning of a feud bet$een Greece and ,erbia on the one hand, and Bulgaria on the other, the disru'tion of the Balkan )eague and the salvation, for the ulti%ate benefit of Ger%any, of $hat $as left of Turkey in Euro'e The dis'ute as to the eGact division of the conCuered territory in "acedonia bet$een ,erbia and Bulgaria had, as arranged, been referred to arbitration, and, the Tsar of -ussia having been chosen as judge, the %atter $as being threshed out in ,t Petersburg during June 4;4J "ean$hile Bulgaria, deter%ined to %ake good its clai% to the chestnuts $hich Greece and ,erbia had 'ulled out of the Turkish fire, $as secretly collecting troo's along its te%'orary south($estern frontier246 $ith the object, in a''roved Ger%anic fashion, of suddenly invading and occu'ying all "acedonia, and, by the 'resentation of an irrevocable Ifait acco%'liI, of relieving the arbitrator of his invidious duties or at any rate assisting hi% in the task 2Footnote 4* This $as for%ed by the strea% Kletovska, a tributary of the

river Bregalnica, $hich in its turn falls into the ?ardar on its left or eastern bank about 10 %iles south of ,ko'lje ATskRbB 6 +n the other hand, the relations bet$een Bulgaria and its t$o allies had been noticeably gro$ing $orse ever since January 4;4JH Bulgaria felt aggrieved that, in s'ite of its great sacrifices, it had not been able to occu'y so %uch territory as Greece and ,erbia, and the fact that Adriano'le $as taken $ith ,erbian hel' did not i%'rove the feeling bet$een the t$o ,lav nations The gro$th of Bulgarian ani%osity 'ut Greece and ,erbia on their guard, and, $ell kno$ing the direction $hich an eventual attack $ould take, these t$o countries on June ., 4;4J, signed a %ilitary convention and %ade all the necessary dis'ositions for resisting any aggression on BulgariaEs 'art At one oEclock in the %orning of June J0 the Bulgarians, $ithout 'rovocation, $ithout declaration of $ar, and $ithout $arning, crossed the Bregalnica Aa tributary of the ?ardarB and attacked the ,erbs A %ost violent battle ensued $hich lasted for several daysH at so%e 'oints the Bulgarians, thanks to the suddenness of their offensive, $ere te%'orarily successful, but gradually the ,erbs regained the u''er hand and by July 4 the Bulgarians $ere beaten The losses $ere very heavy on both sides, but the final issue $as a co%'lete triu%'h for the ,erbian ar%y ,livnitsa $as avenged by the battle of the Bregalnica, just as >osovo $as by that of >u%anovo After a triu%'hant ca%'aign of one %onth, in $hich the ,erbs $ere joined by the Greeks, Bulgaria had to bo$ to the inevitable The -u%anian ar%y had invaded northern Bulgaria, bent on %aintaining the Balkan eCuilibriu% and on securing co%'ensation for having observed neutrality during the $ar of 4;4.(4J, and fa%ine reigned at ,ofia A conference $as arranged at Bucarest, and the treaty of that na%e $as signed there on August 40, 4;4J By the ter%s of this treaty ,erbia retained the $hole of northern and central "acedonia, including "onastir and +khrida, and the fa%ous IsandjakI of Novi(PaDar $as divided bet$een ,erbia and "ontenegro ,o%e districts of east(central "acedonia, $hich $ere genuinely Bulgarian, $ere included in ,erbian territory, as ,erbia naturally did not $ish, after the disCuieting and costly eG'erience of June and July 4;4J, to give the Bulgarians another chance of se'arating

Greek fro% ,erbian territory by a fresh sur'rise attack, and the further the Bulgarians could be ke't fro% the ?ardar river and rail$ay the less likelihood there $as of this The state of feeling in the Ger%anic ca'itals and in Buda'est after this igno%inious defeat of their 'rotPgP Bulgaria and after this fresh triu%'h of the des'ised and hated ,erbians can be i%agined Bitterly disa''ointed first at seeing the Turks vanCuished by the Balkan )eague((their greatest ad%irers could not even clai% that the Turks had had any E%oralE victories((their chagrin, $hen they sa$ the Bulgarians trounced by the ,erbians, kne$ no bounds That the secretly 're'ared attack on ,erbia by Bulgaria $as 'lanned in ?ienna and Buda'est there is no doubt That Bulgaria $as justified in feeling disa''oint%ent and resent%ent at the result of the first Balkan @ar no one denies, but the %ethod chosen to redress its $rongs could only have been suggested by the Ger%anic school of di'lo%acy 8n ,erbia and "ontenegro the result of the t$o successive Balkan @ars, though these had eGhausted the %aterial resources of the t$o countries, $as a justifiable return of national self(confidence and rejoicing such as the 'eo'le, hu%iliated and i%'overished as it had habitually been by its internal and eGternal troubles, had not kno$n for very %any years At last ,erbia and "ontenegro had joined hands At last +ld ,erbia $as restored to the free kingdo% At last ,ko'lje, the %ediaeval ca'ital of Tsar ,te'hen !u2Bs6an, $as again in ,erbian territory At last one of the %ost i%'ortant 'ortions of unredee%ed ,erbia had been reclai%ed A%ongst the ,erbs and 7roats of Bosnia, #ercegovina, !al%atia, 7roatia, ,lavonia, and southern #ungary the effect of the ,erbian victories $as electrifying "ilitary 'ro$ess had been the one Cuality $ith $hich they, and indeed everybody else, had refused to credit the ,erbians of the kingdo%, and the triu%'hs of the valiant ,erbian 'easant soldiers i%%ediately i%'arted a heroic glo$ to the country $hose very na%e, at any rate in central Euro'e, had beco%e a by$ord, and a synony% for failureH Belgrade beca%e the cynosure and the rallying(centre of the $hole ,erbo(7roatian race But ?ienna and Buda'est could only lose courage and 'resence of %ind for the %o%ent, and the undeniable success of the ,erbian ar%s %erely shar'ened

their a''etite for revenge 8n August 4;4J Austria(#ungary, as is no$ kno$n, secretly 're'ared an aggression on ,erbia, but $as restrained, 'artly by the refusal of 8taly to grant its a''roval of such action, 'artly because the 're'arations of Ger%any at that ti%e $ere not co%'lete The fortunate Albanian Cuestion 'rovided, for the ti%e being, a %ore convenient rod $ith $hich to beat ,erbia ,o%e ,erbian troo's had re%ained in 'ossession of certain frontier to$ns and districts $hich $ere included in the territory of the infant state of Albania 'ending the final settle%ent of the frontiers by a co%%ission +n +ctober 49, 4;4J, Austria addressed an ulti%atu% to ,erbia to evacuate these, as its continued occu'ation of the% caused offence and disCuiet to the !ual "onarchy ,erbia %eekly obeyed Thus 'assed a$ay the last ru%ble of the stor%s $hich had filled the years 4;4.(4J in south(eastern Euro'e The credulous believed that the Treaty of Bucarest had at last brought 'eace to that distracted 'art of the $orld Those $ho kne$ their central Euro'e realiDed that Berlin had only forced ?ienna to acCuiesce in the Treaty of Bucarest because the ti%e had not yet co%e But co%e $hat %ight, ,erbia and "ontenegro, by having linked u' their territory and by for%ing a %ountain barrier fro% the !anube to the Adriatic, %ade it far %ore difficult for the invader to 'ush his $ay through to the East than it $ould have been before the battles of >u%anovo and Bregalnica

G-EE7E

4 IFro% Ancient to "odern GreeceI

The na%e of Greece has t$o entirely different associations in our %inds ,o%eti%es it calls u' a $onderful literature enshrined in a Edead languageE, and eGCuisite $orks of a vanished art recovered by the s'adeH at other ti%es it is connected $ith the currant(trade returns Cuoted on the financial 'age of our ne$s'a'ers or $ith the EBalance of Po$erE discussed in their leading articles Ancient and "odern Greece both %ean %uch to us, but usually $e are content to acce't the% as inde'endent 'heno%ena, and $e seldo% 'ause to $onder $hether there is any dee'er conneGion bet$een the% than their na%e 8t is the 'ur'ose of these 'ages to ask and give so%e ans$er to this Cuestion The thought that his o$n Greece %ight 'erish, to be succeeded by another Greece after the la'se of %ore than t$o thousand years, $ould have caused an Ancient Greek sur'rise 8n the %iddle of the fifth century B 7 , Ancient Greek civiliDation see%ed triu%'hantly vigorous and secure A generation before, it had flung back the onset of a 'olitical 'o$er $hich co%bined all the %o%entu% of all the other conte%'orary civiliDations in the $orldH and the victory had 'roved not %erely the su'eriority of Greek ar%s((the ,'artan s'ear%an and the Athenian galley((but the su'erior vitality of Greek 'olitics((the self(governing, self(sufficing city(state 8n these cities a $onderful culture had burst into flo$er((an art eG'ressing itself $ith eCual %astery in architecture, scul'ture, and dra%a, a science $hich ranged fro% the %ost 'ractical %edicine to the %ost abstract %athe%atics, and a 'hiloso'hy $hich blended art, science, and religion into an ever(develo'ing and ever %ore har%onious vie$ of the universe A civiliDation so brilliant and so versatile as this see%ed to have an infinite future before it, yet even here death lurked in a%bush @hen the cities ranged the%selves in rival ca%'s, and sCuandered their strength on the struggle for 'redo%inance, the historian of the Pelo'onnesian $ar could already 'icture Athens and ,'arta in ruins,246 and the catastro'he began to $ar' the soul of Plato before he had carried Greek 'hiloso'hy to its Denith This internecine strife of free

co%%unities $as checked $ithin a century by the i%'osition of a single %ilitary autocracy over the% all, and AleGander the Great cro$ned his father Phili'Es $ork by $inning ne$ $orlds for #ellenis% fro% the !anube to the Ganges and fro% the +Gus to the Nile The city(state and its culture $ere to be 'ro'agated under his aegis, but this vision vanished $ith AleGanderEs death, and "acedonian %ilitaris% 'roved a disa''oint%ent The feuds of these cro$ned condottieri harassed the cities %ore sorely than their o$n Cuarrels, and their ar%s could not even 'reserve the #ellenic heritage against eGternal foes The +riental rallied and eG'elled #ellenis% again fro% the Asiatic hinterland, $hile the ne$ cloud of -o%e $as gathering in the $est 8n four generations2.6 of the %ost devastating $arfare the $orld had seen, -o%e conCuered all the coasts of the "editerranean Greek city and Greek dynast $ent do$n before her, and the 'olitical sce'tre 'assed irrevocably fro% the #ellenic nation 2Footnote 4* Thucydides, Book 8, cha' 40 6 2Footnote .* ./1(41/ B 7 6 &et this 'olitical abdication see%ed to o'en for #ellenic culture a future %ore brilliant and assured than ever -o%e could organiDe as $ell as conCuer ,he acce'ted the city(state as the %unici'al unit of the -o%an E%'ire, thrust back the +riental behind the Eu'hrates, and 'ro%oted the #elleniDation of all the lands bet$een this river(frontier and the Balkans $ith %uch greater intensity than the "acedonian i%'erialists #er 'olitical conCuests $ere still further counterbalanced by her s'iritual surrender, and #ellenis% $as the soul of the ne$ )atin culture $hich -o%e created, and $hich advanced $ith -o%an govern%ent over the vast untutored 'rovinces of the $est and north, bringing the%, too, $ithin the orbit of #ellenic civiliDation =nder the shado$ of the -o%an E%'ire, Plutarch, the %irror of #ellenis%, could d$ell in 'eace in his little city(state of 7haeronea, and reflect in his $ritings all the achieve%ents of the #ellenic s'irit as an ensa%'le to an a''arently endless 'osterity

&et the days of #ellenic culture $ere also nu%bered Even Plutarch lived246 to look do$n fro% the rocky citadel of 7haeronea u'on Teutonic raiders $asting the >e'hisos vale, and for %ore than three centuries successive hordes of Goths searched out and ravaged the furthest corners of Euro'ean Greece Then the current set $est$ard to s$ee' a$ay2.6 the -o%an ad%inistration in the )atin 'rovinces, and #ellenis% see%ed to have been granted a re'rieve The Greek city(state of ByDantiu% on the Black ,ea ,traits had been transfor%ed into the -o%an ad%inistrative centre of 7onstantino'le, and fro% this ca'ital the E%'eror Justinian in the siGth century A ! still governed and defended the $hole Greek(s'eaking $orld But this 'olitical gla%our only thre$ the sy%'to%s of in$ard dissolution into shar'er relief @ithin the fra%e$ork of the E%'ire the %unici'al liberty of the city(state had been stifled and eGtinguished by the $aGing jungle of bureaucracy, and the s'iritual culture $hich the city(state fostered, and $hich $as %ore essential to #ellenis% than any 'olitical institutions, had been 'art ejected, 'art eG'loited, and $holly co%'ro%ised by a ne$ gos'el fro% the east 2Footnote 4* About A ! 4006 2Footnote .* A ! 101(15/6 @hile the +riental had been co%'elled by -o%e to dra$ his 'olitical frontier at the Eu'hrates, and had failed so far to cross the river(line, he had %aintained his cultural inde'endence $ithin sight of the "editerranean 8n the hill country of Judah, overlooking the high road bet$een Antioch and AleGandria, the t$o chief foci of #ellenis% in the east $hich the "acedonians had founded, and $hich had gro$n to %aturity under the aegis of -o%e, there d$elt a little ,e%itic co%%unity $hich had defied all efforts of Greek or -o%an to assi%ilate it, and had finally given birth to a $orld religion about the ti%e that a -o%an 'unitive eG'edition raDed its holy city of Jerusale% to the ground 246 7hristianity $as charged $ith an incalculable force, $hich shot like an electric current fro% one end of the -o%an E%'ire to the other The

highly(organiDed society of its adherents %easured its strength in several shar' conflicts $ith the 8%'erial ad%inistration, fro% $hich it e%erged victorious, and it $as 'roclai%ed the official religious organiDation of the E%'ire by the very e%'eror that founded 7onstantino'le 2.6 2Footnote 4* A ! 50 6 2Footnote .* 7onstantine the Great recogniDed 7hristianity in A ! J4J and founded 7onstantino'le in A ! J.9 6 The established 7hristian 7hurch took the best energies of #ellenis% into its service The Greek intellectuals ceased to beco%e lecturers and 'rofessors, to find a %ore hu%an and 'ractical career in the bisho'Es office The Nicene 7reed, drafted by an Eoecu%enicalE conference of bisho's under the aus'ices of 7onstantine hi%self,246 $as the last notable for%ulation of Ancient Greek 'hiloso'hy The cathedral of Aya ,o'hia, $ith $hich Justinian adorned 7onstantino'le, $as the last original creation of Ancient Greek art 2.6 The sa%e Justinian closed the =niversity of Athens, $hich had educated the $orld for nine hundred years and %ore, since Plato founded his college in the Acade%y ,iG recalcitrant 'rofessors $ent into eGile for their s'iritual freedo%, but they found the devout Koroastrianis% of the Persian court as unsy%'athetic as the devout 7hristianity of the -o%an Their hu%iliating return and recantation broke the EGolden 7hainE of #ellenic thought for ever #ellenis% $as thus eG'iring fro% its o$n inanition, $hen the inevitable avalanche over$hel%ed it fro% $ithout 8n the seventh century A ! there $as another religious eru'tion in the ,e%itic $orld, this ti%e in the heart of Arabia, $here #ellenis% had hardly 'enetrated, and under the i%'etus of 8sla% the +riental burst his bounds again after a thousand years ,yria $as reft a$ay fro% the E%'ire, and Egy't, and North Africa as far as the Atlantic, and their 'olitical severance %eant their cultural loss to Greek civiliDation Bet$een the >oran and #ellenis% no fusion $as 'ossible 7hristianity had taken #ellenis% ca'tive, but 8sla% gave it no

Cuarter, and the 'riceless library of AleGandria is said to have been conde%ned by the cali'hEs order to feed the furnaces of the 'ublic baths 2Footnote 4* A ! J.: 6 2Footnote .* 7o%'leted A ! :J9 6 @hile #ellenis% $as thus cut short in the east, a %ortal blo$ $as struck at its heart fro% the north The Teuton had raided and 'assed on, but the lands he had de'o'ulated $ere no$ invaded by i%%igrants $ho had co%e to stay As soon as the last Goth and )o%bard had gone $est of the 8sonDo, the ,lavs 'oured in fro% the north(eastern 'lains of Euro'e through the "oravian ga', crossed the !anube so%e$here near the site of ?ienna, and drifted do$n along the eastern face of the Al's u'on the Adriatic littoral -ebuffed by the sea(board, the ,lavonic %igration $as neGt deflected east, and filtered through the Bosnian %ountains, scattering the )atin(s'eaking 'rovincials before it to left and right, until it debouched u'on the broad basin of the river "orava 8n this concentration(area it gathered %o%entu% during the earlier 'art of the seventh century A ! , and then burst out $ith irresistible force in all directions, east$ard across the "aritsa basin till it reached the Black ,ea, and south$ard do$n the ?ardar to the shores of the Aegean Beneath this ,lavonic flood the Greek race in Euro'e $as engulfed A fe$ fortified cities held out, Adriano'le on the "aritsa continued to cover 7onstantino'leH ,alonika at the %outh of the ?ardar survived a t$o hundred years siegeH $hile further south Athens, >orinth, and Patras esca'ed eGtinction But the tide of invasion surged around their $alls The ,lavs %astered all the o'en country, and, 'ressing across the >orinthian Gulf, established the%selves in s'ecial force throughout the Pelo'onnesos The thoroughness of their 'enetration is $itnessed to this day by the ,lavonic na%es $hich still cling to at least a third of the villages, rivers, and %ountains in Euro'ean Greece, and are found in the %ost re%ote as $ell as in the %ost accessible Cuarters of the land 246

2Footnote 4* For eGa%'le* Tsi%ova and Panitsa in the Tainaron 'eninsula A"ainaBH Tsou'ana and >hrysa'ha in )akoniaH !hi%itDana, >arytena, and Andhritsena in the centre of Pelo'onnesos, and ?ostitsa on its north coastH !obrena and >a'rena in BoiotiaH ?onitDa on the Gulf of ArtaH >ardhitsa in the Thessalian 'lain 6 @ith the co%ing of the ,lavs darkness descends like a curtain u'on Greek history @e catch gli%'ses of Arab hosts ranging across Anatolia at $ill and gaDing at ,lavonic hordes across the narro$ Bos'horus But al$ays the 8%'erial fleet 'atrols the $aters bet$een, and al$ays the tri'le defences of 7onstantino'le defy the assailant Then after about t$o centuries the floods subside, the gloo% dis'erses, and the Greek $orld e%erges into vie$ once %ore But the s'ectacle before us is unfa%iliar, and %ost of the old land%arks have been s$e't a$ay By the %iddle of the ninth century A ! , the 8%'erial Govern%ent had reduced the Pelo'onnesos to order again, and found itself in the 'resence of three 'eo'les The greater 'art of the land $as occu'ied by E-o%aioiE(( nor%al, loyal, 7hristian subjects of the e%'ire((but in the hilly country bet$een Eurotas, Taygetos, and the sea, t$o ,lavonic tribes still %aintained the%selves in defiant savagery and $orshi''ed their ,lavonic gods, $hile beyond the% the 'eninsula of Tainaron, no$ kno$n as "aina, sheltered co%%unities $hich still clung to the 'agan na%e of #ellene and kne$ no other gods but Keus, Athena, and A'ollo #ellene and ,lav need not concern us They $ere a vanishing %inority, and the 8%'erial Govern%ent $as %ore successful in obliterating their individuality than in %aking the% contribute to its eGcheCuer The future lay $ith the -o%aioi The s'eech of these -o%aioi $as not the s'eech of -o%e E-o%aikW,E as it is still called 'o'ularly in the country(side, is a develo'%ent of the EkoinME or EcurrentE dialect of Ancient Greek, in $hich the ,e'tuagint and the Ne$ Testa%ent are $ritten The vogue of these books after the triu%'h of 7hristianity and the onco%ing of the !ark Age, $hen they $ere the sole

intellectual sustenance of the 'eo'le, gave the idio% in $hich they $ere co%'osed an eGclusive 'revalence EGce't in TDakonia((the iron(bound coast bet$een 7a'e "alea and Nau'lia Bay((all other dialects of Ancient Greek beca%e eGtinct, and the varieties of the %odern language are all differentiations of the EkoinME, along geogra'hical lines $hich in no $ay corres'ond $ith those $hich divided !oric fro% 8onian &et though -o%aic is descended fro% the EkoinME, it is al%ost as far re%oved fro% it as %odern 8talian is fro% the language of ,t Augustine or 7icero Ancient Greek 'ossessed a 'itch(accent only, $hich allo$ed the Cuantitative values of syllables to be %easured against one another, and even to for% the basis of a %etrical syste% 8n -o%aic the 'itch(accent has transfor%ed itself into a stress(accent al%ost as violent as the English, $hich has destroyed all Cuantitative relation bet$een accented and unaccented syllables, often $earing a$ay the latter altogether at the ter%ination of $ords, and al$ays i%'overishing their vo$el sounds 8n the ninth century A ! this ne$ enunciation $as giving rise to a ne$ 'oetical techniCue founded u'on accent and rhy%e, $hich first essayed itself in folk(songs and ballads,246 and has since eG'eri%ented in the sa%e variety of for%s as English 'oetry 2Footnote 4* The earliest 'roducts of the %odern techniCue $ere called EcityE verses, because they originated in 7onstantino'le, $hich has re%ained Ethe cityE I'ar eGcellenceI for the -o%aic Greek ever since the !ark Age %ade it the asylu% of his civiliDation 6 These hu%ble beginnings of a ne$ literature $ere su''le%ented by the rudi%ents of a ne$ art Any visitor at Athens $ho looks at the three tiny churches 246 built in this 'eriod of first revival, and co%'ares the% $ith the rare 're(Nor%an churches of England, $ill find the sa%e 'ro%ise of vitality in the Greek architecture as in his o$n The %aterial(($orked blocks of %arble 'illaged fro% ancient %onu%ents, alternating $ith courses of conte%'orary brick(('roduces a co%'letely ne$ aesthetic effect u'on the eyeH and the structure((a grou'ing of lesser cu'olas round a central do%e(( is the very antithesis of the Eu'right(and(horiDontalE style $hich

confronts hi% in ruins u'on the Akro'olis 2Footnote 4* The +ld "etro'olitan, the >a'nikaria, and ,t Theodore 6 These first achieve%ents of -o%aic architecture s'eak by i%'lication of the characteristic difference bet$een the -o%aios and the #ellene The linguistic and the aesthetic change $ere as nothing co%'ared to the change in religion, for $hile the #ellene had been a 'agan, the -o%aios $as essentially a %e%ber of the 7hristian 7hurch &et this ne$ and deter%ining characteristic $as already fortified by tradition The 7hurch triu%'hant had s$iftly 'erfected its organisation on the %odel of the 8%'erial bureaucracy Every -o%aios o$ed ecclesiastical allegiance, through a hierarchy of bisho's and %etro'olitans, to a su're%e 'atriarch at 7onstantino'le, and in the ninth century this ad%inistrative segregation of the i%'erial fro% the $est(Euro'ean 7hurch had borne its inevitable fruit in a dog%atic divergence, and ri'ened into a schis% bet$een the +rthodoG 7hristianity of the east on the one hand and the 7atholicis% of the )atin $orld on the other The +rthodoG 7hurch eGercised an i%'ortant cultural influence over its -o%aic adherents The official language of its scri'tures, creeds, and ritual had never ceased to be the Ancient Greek EkoinME and by kee'ing the -o%aios fa%iliar $ith this other$ise obsolete tongue it ke't hi% in touch $ith the unsur'assable literature of his Ancient Greek 'redecessors The vast body of #ellenic literature had 'erished during the !ark Age, $hen all the energies of the race $ere absorbed by the %o%entary struggle for survivalH but about a third of the greatest authorsE greatest $orks had been 'reserved, and no$ that the stress $as relieved, the $reckage of the re%ainder $as sedulously garnered in anthologies, abridge%ents, and encyclo'aedias The rising %onasteries offered a safe harbourage both for these co%'ilations and for such originals as survived uni%'aired, and in their libraries they $ere henceforth studied, cherished, and above all reco'ied $ith %ore or less syste%atic care

The +rthodoG 7hurch $as thus a 'otent link bet$een 'ast and 'resent, but the %ost direct link of all $as the 'olitical survival of the E%'ire #ere, too, %any land%arks had been s$e't a$ay The %arvellous syste% of -o%an )a$ had 'roved too subtle and co%'leG for a $orld in the throes of dissolution @ithin a century of its final codification by JustinianEs co%%issionersB it had begun to fall into disuse, and $as no$ re'laced by %ore su%%ary legislation, $hich $as as dee'ly i%bued $ith "osaic 'rinci'les as the literary language $ith the #ebrais%s of the Ne$ Testa%ent, and bristled $ith barbarous a''lications of the I)eG TalionisI The ad%inistrative organiDation instituted by Augustus and elaborated by !iocletian had like$ise disa''eared, and the ar%y(cor's districts $ere the only territorial units that outlasted the !ark Age &et the tradition of order lived on The ar%y itself 'reserved -o%an disci'line and techniCue to a re%arkable degree, and the %ilitary districts $ere already beco%ing the basis for a reconstituted civil govern%ent The $ealth of )atin technicalities incor'orated in the Greek style of ninth(century officialdo% $itnesses to this continuity $ith the 'ast and to the conseCuent 'olitical su'eriority of the -o%aic E%'ire over conte%'orary $estern Euro'e @ithin the 8%'erial frontiers the -o%aic race $as offered an a''arently secure field for its future develo'%ent 8n the Balkan 'eninsula the ,lav had been eG'elled or assi%ilated to the south of a line stretching fro% Avlona to ,alonika East of ,alonika the e%'ire still controlled little %ore in Euro'e than the 'orts of the littoral, and a %ilitary high$ay linking the% $ith each other and $ith 7onstantino'le But beyond the Bos'horus the frontier included the $hole body of Anatolia as far as Taurus and Eu'hrates, and here $as the centre of gravity both of the -o%aic state and of the -o%aic nation A ne$ Greek nation had in fact co%e into being, and it found itself in touch $ith ne$ neighbours, $ho% the Ancient Greek had never kno$n East$ard lay the Ar%enians, reviving, like the Greeks, after the ebb of the Arab flood, and the Arabs the%selves, Cuiescent $ithin their natural

bounds and transfusing the $isdo% of Aristotle and #i''okrates into their native culture Both these 'eo'les $ere sundered fro% the +rthodoG Greek by religion246 as $ell as by language, but a nu%ber of nationalities established on his o''osite flank had been evangeliDed fro% 7onstantino'le and follo$ed the +rthodoG 'atriarch in his schis% $ith -o%e The %ost i%'ortant neighbour of the E%'ire in this Cuarter $as the Bulgarian kingdo%, $hich covered all the Balkan hinterland fro% the !anube and the Black ,ea to the barrier(fortresses of Adriano'le and ,alonika 8t had been founded by a conCuering caste of non(,lavonic no%ads fro% the trans(!anubian ste''es, but these $ere co%'letely absorbed in the ,lavonic 'o'ulation $hich they had endo$ed $ith their na%e and had 'reserved by 'olitical consolidation fro% the fate of their brethren further south This Bulgarian state included a large E?lachE ele%ent descended fro% those )atin(s'eaking 'rovincials $ho% the ,lavs had 'ushed before the% in their original %igrationH $hile the %ain body of the E-u%ansE, $ho% the sa%e thrust of invasion had driven left$ards across the !anube, had established itself in the %ountains of Transylvania, and $as just beginning to 'ush do$n into the @allachian and "oldavian 'lains )ike the Bulgars, this -o%ance 'o'ulation had chosen the +rthodoG creed, and so had the 'urely ,lavonic ,erbs, $ho had re'laced the -u%ans in the basin of the "orava and the Bosnian hills, as far $est$ard as the Adriatic coast Beyond, the heathen "agyars had 'ressed into the !anubian 'lains like a $edge, and cut off the +rthodoG $orld fro% the )atin(Teutonic 7hristendo% of the $estH but it looked as though the t$o divisions of Euro'e $ere e%barked u'on the sa%e course of develo'%ent Both $ere evolving a syste% of strongly(knit nationalities, neither $holly interde'endent nor $holly self(sufficient, but linked together in their individual gro$th by the ties of co%%on culture and religion 8n both the darkness $as 'assing The future of civiliDation see%ed once %ore assured, and in the +rthodoG $orld the ne$ Greek nation see%ed destined to 'lay the leading 'art 2Footnote 4* The Ar%enians s'lit off fro% the 7atholic 7hurch four centuries before the schis% bet$een the -o%an and +rthodoG sections of the latter 6

#is cultural and 'olitical heritage fro% his ancient 'redecessors gave the -o%aic Greek in this 'eriod of revival an inesti%able advantage over his cruder neighbours, and his su'eriority declared itself in an eG'ansion of the -o%aic E%'ire 8n the latter half of the tenth century A ! the nest of Arab 'irates fro% ,'ain, $hich had established itself in >rete and terroriDed the Aegean, $as eGter%inated by the E%'eror Niki'hLros Phokas, and on the eastern %arches Antioch $as gathered $ithin the frontier at the ArabsE eG'ense, and advanced 'osts 'ushed across Eu'hrates 8n the first half of the eleventh century Basil, E,layer of the BulgarsE, destroyed the Balkan kingdo% after a generation of bitter $arfare, and brought the $hole interior of the 'eninsula under the s$ay of 7onstantino'le #is successors turned their attention to the cast again, and attracted one Ar%enian 'rinci'ality after another $ithin the 8%'erial 'rotectorate Nor $as the revival confined to 'olitics The conversion of the -ussians about A ! 4000 o'ened a boundless hinterland to the +rthodoG 7hurch, and any one $ho glances at a series of Greek ivory carvings or studies Greek history fro% the original sources, $ill here encounter a literary and artistic renaissance re%arkable enough to eG'lain the fascination $hich the barbarous -ussian and the outlandish Ar%enian found in 7onstantino'le &et this renaissance had hardly set in before it $as 'aralysed by an uneG'ected blo$, $hich arrested the develo'%ent of "odern Greece for seven centuries "odern, like Ancient, Greece $as assailed in her infancy by a conCueror fro% the east, and, unlike Ancient Greece, she succu%bed Turkish no%ads fro% the central Asiatic ste''es had been drifting into the "osle% $orld as the vigour of the Arabs $aned First they ca%e as slaves, then as %ercenaries, until at last, in the eleventh century, the clan of ,eljuk gras'ed $ith a strong hand the 'olitical do%inion of 8sla% As cha%'ions of the cali'h the Turkish sultans dis'uted the infidels encroach%ent on the "osle% border They challenged the -o%aic E%'ireEs 'rogress in Ar%enia, and in A ! 4054((five years after the Nor%an founded at #astings the strong govern%ent $hich has been the %aking of England((the ,eljuk

Turk shattered at the battle of "elasgerd that heritage of strong govern%ent $hich had 'ro%ised so %uch to Greece "elasgerd o'ened the $ay to Anatolia The Arab could %ake no lodge%ent there, but in the central ste''e of the te%'erate 'lateau the Turk found a %iniature re'roduction of his original environ%ent Tribe after tribe crossed the +Gus, to %ake the long 'ilgri%age to these ne$ %arches $hich their race had $on for 8sla% on the $est, and the civiliDation develo'ed in the country by fifteen centuries of intensive and undisturbed #elleniDation $as co%'letely blotted out The cities $ore isolated fro% one another till their co%%erce fell into decay The elaborately cultivated lands around the% $ere left fallo$ till they $ere good for nothing but the 'asturage $hich $as all that the no%ad reCuired The only %onu%ents of architecture that have survived in Anatolia above ground are the i%'osing khans or fortified rest(houses built by the ,eljuk sultans the%selves after the consolidation of their rule, and they are the best $itnesses of the vigorous barbaris% by $hich -o%aic culture $as effaced The vitality of the Turk $as indeed unCuestionable #e i%'osed his language and religion u'on the native Anatolian 'easantry, as the Greek had i%'osed his before hi%, and in ti%e ado'ted their sedentary life, though too late to re'air the %ischief his o$n no%adis% had $rought Turk and Anatolian coalesced into one 'eo'leH every %ountain, river, lake, bridge, and village in the country took on a Turkish na%e, and a ne$ nation $as established for ever in the heart of the -o%aic $orld, $hich nourished itself on the life(blood of the E%'ire and $as to 'rove the su're%e ene%y, of the race This seCuel to "elasgerd sealed the E%'ireEs doo% -obbed of its Anatolian governing class and its Anatolian territorial ar%y, it ceased to be self(sufficient, and the defenders it attracted fro% the $est $ere at least as destructive as its eastern foes The brutal rPgi%e of the Turks in the 'ilgri%age 'laces of ,yria had roused a stor% of indignation in )atin Euro'e, and a cloud gathered in the $est once %ore 8t $as heralded by adventurers fro% Nor%andy, $ho had first served the -o%aic Govern%ent

as %ercenaries in southern 8taly and then eG'elled their e%'loyers, about the ti%e of "elasgerd, fro% their last foothold in the 'eninsula -aids across the straits of +tranto carried the Nor%ans u' to the $alls of ,alonika, their fleets eCui''ed in ,icily scoured the Aegean, and, before the eleventh century $as out, they had follo$ed u' these reconnoitring eG'editions by conducting )atin 7hristendo% on its first crusade The crusaders asse%bled at 7onstantino'le, and the 8%'erial Govern%ent $as relieved $hen the flood rolled on and s'ent itself further east But one $ave $as follo$ed by another, and the E%'ire itself succu%bed to the fourth 8n A ! 4.01, 7onstantino'le $as stor%ed by a ?enetian flotilla and the crusading host it conveyed on board, and %ore treasures of Ancient #ellenis% $ere destroyed in the sack of its hitherto inviolate citadel than had ever 'erished by the hand of Arab or ,lav @ith the fall of the ca'ital the E%'ire dissolved in chaos, ?enice and Genoa, the 8talian trading cities $hose fortune had been %ade by the crusades, no$ usur'ed the naval control of the "editerranean $hich the E%'ire had eGercised since Niki'hLros 'acified >rete They seiDed all strategical 'oints of vantage on the Aegean coasts, and founded an EeGtra(territorialE co%%unity at Pera across the Golden #orn, to %ono'oliDe the trade of 7onstantino'le $ith the Black ,ea The )atins failed to retain their hold on 7onstantino'le itself, for the 'u''et e%'erors of their o$n race $ho% they enthroned there $ere evicted $ithin a century by -o%aic dynasts, $ho clung to such frag%ents of Anatolia as had esca'ed the Turk But the )atin do%inion $as less e'he%eral in the southern%ost -o%aic 'rovinces of Euro'e The )atinsE castles, %ore cons'icuous than the relics of #ellas, still cro$n %any high hills in Greece, and their French tongue has added another strain, to the varied no%enclature of the country 246 &et there also 'ande%oniu% 'revailed Burgundian barons, 7atalan condottieri, and Florentine bankers snatched the !uchy of Athens fro% one another in be$ildering succession, $hile the French 'rinces of Achaia $ere at feud $ith their kindred vassals in the $est of the Pelo'onnesos $henever they $ere not resisting the encroach%ents of -o%aic des'ots in the south and east To co%'lete the

anarchy, the non(-o%aic 'eo'les in the interior of the Balkan 'eninsula had taken the fall of 7onstantino'le as a signal to thro$ off the 8%'erial yoke 8n the hinterland of the ca'ital the Bulgars had reconstituted their kingdo% The -o%ance(s'eaking ?lachs of Pindus %oved do$n into the Thessalian 'lains The aboriginal Albanians, $ho $ith their back to the Adriatic had ke't the ,lavs at bay, asserted their vitality and sent out %igratory s$ar%s to the south, $hich entered the service of the $arring 'rincelets and by their 'ro$ess $on broad lands in every 'art of continental Greece, $here Albanian 'lace(na%es are to this day only less co%%on than ,lavonic ,outh(eastern Euro'e $as again in the throes of social dissolution, and the convulsions continued till they $ere stilled i%'artially by the nu%bing hand of their ulti%ate author the Turk 2Footnote 4* e g >le%outsi, Glarentsa A7larenceB and Gastouni((villages of the currant district in Pelo'onnesos((and ,ant(+%eri, the %ountain that overlooks the% 6 The ,eljuk sultanate in Anatolia, shaken by the crusades, had gone the $ay of all oriental e%'ires to %ake roo% for one of its fractions, $hich sho$ed a %ost un(oriental faculty of organic gro$th This $as the eGtre%e %arch on the north($estern ri% of the Anatolian 'lateau, overlooking the Asiatic littoral of the ,ea of "ar%ora 8t had been founded by one of those Turkish chiefs $ho %igrated $ith their clans fro% beyond the +GusH and it $as consolidated by +th%an his son, $ho eGtended his kingdo% to the cities on the coast and invested his subjects $ith his o$n na%e 8n 4J:: the Narro$s of Galli'oli 'assed into +tto%an hands, and o'ened a bridge to uneG'ected conCuests in Euro'e ,erbia and Bulgaria colla'sed at the first attack, and the hosts $hich %arched to liberate the% fro% #ungary and fro% France only %inistered to +tto%an 'restige by their disastrous disco%fiture Before the close of the fourteenth century the +tto%an sultan had transferred his ca'ital to Adriano'le, and had beco%e i%%easurably the strongest 'o$er in the Balkan 'eninsula After that the end ca%e Cuickly At 7onstantino'le the -o%aic dynasty of

Palaiologos had u'held a se%blance of the E%'ire for %ore than a century after the )atin $as eG'elled But in 41:J the 8%'erial city fell before the assault of ,ultan "oha%%edH and before his death the conCueror eli%inated all the other -o%aic and )atin 'rinci'alities fro% Pelo'onnesos to TrebiDond, $hich had survived as enclaves to %ar the unifor%ity of the +tto%an do%ain =nder his successors the tide of +tto%an conCuest rolled on for half a century %ore over south(eastern Euro'e, till it $as stayed on land beneath the ra%'arts of ?ienna,246 and cul%inated on sea, after the syste%atic reduction of the ?enetian strongholds, in the ca'ture of -hodes fro% the >nights of ,t John 2.6 The -o%aic race, $hich had been s'lit into so %any frag%ents during the dissolution of the E%'ire, $as reunited again in the siGteenth century under the co%%on yoke of the Turk 2Footnote 4* 4:./ 6 2Footnote .* 4:.. 6 Even in the !ark Age, Greece had hardly been reduced to so des'erate a condition as no$ Through the !ark Age the Greek cities had %aintained a continuous life, but "oha%%ed 88 de'o'ulated 7onstantino'le to re'eo'le it $ith a Turkish %ajority fro% Anatolia Greek co%%erce $ould naturally have benefited by the ejection of the 8talians fro% the )evant, had not the +tto%an Govern%ent given asylu% si%ultaneously to the Je$s eG'elled fro% ,'ain These ,e'hardi% established the%selves at 7onstantino'le, ,alonika, and all the other co%%ercial centres of the +tto%an do%inion, and their su'eriority in nu%bers and industry %ade the% %ore for%idable urban rivals of the Greeks than the ?enetians and Genoese had ever been +usted fro% the to$ns, the Greek race de'ended for its 'reservation on the 'easantry, yet Greece had never suffered $orse rural o''ression than under the +tto%an rPgi%e The sultanEs fiscal de%ands $ere the least 'art of the burden The 'aralysing land(taG, collected in kind by irres'onsible %iddle%en, $as an inheritance fro% the -o%aic E%'ire, and though it $as no$ reinforced by the s'ecial ca'itation(taG levied by the sultan on his

7hristian subjects, the greater efficiency and security of his govern%ent 'robably co%'ensated for the additional charge The vitality of Greece $as chiefly sa''ed by the ruthless %ilitary organiDation of the +tto%an state The bulk of the +tto%an ar%y $as dra$n fro% a feudal cavalry, bound to service, as in the %ediaeval )atin $orld, in return for fiefs or Eti%ariaE assigned to the% by their sovereignH and %any beys and agas have beCueathed their na%es in 'er'etuity to the richest villages on the "essenian and Thessalian 'lains, to re%ind the %odern 'easant that his 7hristian ancestors once tilled the soil as serfs of a "osle% ti%ariot But the sultan, unlike his $estern conte%'oraries, $as not content $ith irregular troo's, and the serf(co%%unes of Greece had to deliver u' a fifth of their %ale children every fourth year to be trained at 7onstantino'le as 'rofessional soldiers and fanatical "osle%s This cor's of EJanissariesE246 $as founded in the third generation of the +tto%an dynasty, and $as the essential instru%ent of its %ilitary success +ne race has never a''ro'riated and eG'loited the vitality of another in so direct or so brutal a fashion, and the institution of Etribute(childrenE, so long as it lasted, effectually 'revented any recovery of the Greek nation fro% the unti%ely blo$s $hich had stricken it do$n 2Footnote 4* &eni Asker((Ne$ soldiery 6

. IThe A$akening of the NationI

!uring the t$o centuries that follo$ed the +tto%an conCuest of 7onstantino'le, the Greek race $as in serious danger of annihilation 8ts life(blood $as steadily absorbed into the conCuering co%%unity((Cuite regularly by the co%'ulsory tribute of children and s'as%odically by the voluntary conversion of individual households The rich a'ostasiDed,

because too heavy a %aterial sacrifice $as i%'osed u'on the% by loyalty to their national religionH the destitute, because they could not fail to i%'rove their 'ros'ects by adhering to the 'rivileged faith Even the surviving organiDation of the 7hurch had only been s'ared by the +tto%an Govern%ent in order to facilitate its o$n 'olitical syste%((by bringing the 'easant, through the hierarchy of 'riest, bisho', and 'atriarch, under the %oral control of the ne$ "osle% %aster $ho% the ecclesiastics henceforth served The scale on $hich $holesale a'ostasy $as 'ossible is sho$n by the case of >rete, $hich $as conCuered by the Turks fro% ?enice just after these t$o centuries had closed, and $as in fact the last 'er%anent addition to the Turkish E%'ire No urban or feudal settlers of Turkish blood $ere i%'orted into the island To this day the unifor% s'eech of all >retans is their native Greek And yet the 'rogressive conversion of $hole clans and villages had transferred at least .0 'er cent of the 'o'ulation to the "osle% ranks before the +tto%an conneGion $as severed again in 49;5 The survival of the Greek nationality did not de'end on any efforts of the Greeks the%selves They $ere indeed no longer ca'able of effort, but lay 'assive under the hand of the Turk, like the 'aralysed Cuarry of so%e beast of 'rey Their fate $as conditional u'on the develo'%ent of the +tto%an state, and, as the t$o centuries dre$ to a close, that state entered u'on a 'hase of transfor%ation and of conseCuent $eakness The +tto%an organis% has al$ays dis'layed Aand never %ore cons'icuously than at the 'resent %o%entB a %uch greater stability and vitality than any of its oriental 'redecessors There $as a vein of genius in its creators, and its youthful eG'ansion 'er%eated it $ith so %uch Euro'ean blood that it beca%e 'artly Euro'eaniDed in its inner tissues((sufficiently to 'artake, at any rate, in that faculty of indefinite organic gro$th $hich has so far revealed itself in Euro'ean life This acCuired force has carried it on since the ti%e $hen the i%'etus of its original institutions beca%e s'ent((a ti%e $hen 'urely oriental %onarchies fall to 'ieces, and

$hen Turkey herself hesitated bet$een reconstruction and dissolution That critical 'eriod began for her $ith the latter half of the seventeenth century, and incidentally o'ened ne$ o''ortunities of life to her subject Greeks ,ubstantial relief fro% their burdens((the 'ri%ary though negative condition of national revival((accrued to the Greek 'easantry fro% the decay of +tto%an %ilitaris% in all its branches The Turkish feudal aristocracy, $hich had re'laced the landed nobility of the -o%aic E%'ire in Anatolia and established itself on the choicest lands in conCuered Euro'e, $as beginning to decline in strength @e have seen that it failed to i%'lant itself in >rete, and its nu%bers $ere already stationary else$here The Greek 'easant slo$ly began to regain ground u'on his "osle% lord, and he 'rofited further by the degeneration of the janissary cor's at the heart of the e%'ire The janissaries had started as a %ilitant, al%ost %onastic body, conde%ned to celibacy, and recruited eGclusively fro% the 7hristian tribute(children But in 4:// they eGtorted the 'rivilege of legal %arriage for the%selves, and of ad%ittance into the cor's for the sons of their $edlock The neGt century co%'leted their transfor%ation fro% a standing ar%y into a hereditary urban %ilitia((an ar%ed and 'rivileged IbourgeoisieI, ra'idly increasing in nu%bers and corres'ondingly jealous of eGtraneous candidates for the coveted vacancies in their ranks They gradually succeeded in abolishing the enrol%ent of 7hristian recruits altogether, and the last regular levy of children for that 'ur'ose $as %ade in 4/5/ ?ested interests at 7onstantino'le had freed the hel'less 'easant fro% the %ost crushing burden of all At the sa%e %o%ent the conte%'orary tendency in $estern Euro'e to$ards bureaucratic centraliDation began to eGtend itself to the +tto%an E%'ire 8ts eG'onents $ere the brothers Ach%et and "usta'ha >X'rili, $ho held the grand(viDierate in succession They laid the foundations of a centraliDed ad%inistration, and, since the unada'table Turk offered no 'ro%ising

%aterial for their 'olicy, they sought their instru%ents in the subject race The continental Greeks $ere too effectively crushed to as'ire beyond the 'reservation of their o$n eGistenceH but the islands had been less sorely tried, and >hios, $hich had enjoyed over t$o centuries246 of 'ros'erity under the rule of a Genoese chartered co%'any, and eGchanged it for +tto%an sovereignty under 'eculiarly lenient conditions, could still su''ly Ach%et a century later $ith officials of the intelligence and education he reCuired, >hiots $ere the first to fill the ne$ offices of E!rago%an of the PorteE Asecretary of stateB and E!rago%an of the FleetE Acivil co%'le%ent of the Turkish ca'itan('ashaBH and they took care in their turn to staff the subordinate 'osts of their ad%inistration $ith a host of 'ushing friends and de'endants The !rago%an of the Fleet $ielded the fiscal, and thereby in effect the 'olitical, authority over the Greek islands in the AegeanH but this $as not the highest 'o$er to $hich the ne$ Greek bureaucracy attained To$ards the beginning of the eighteenth century "oldavia and @allachia((the t$o E!anubian ProvincesE no$ united in the kingdo% of -u%ania(($ere 'laced in charge of Greek officials $ith the rank of voivode or 'rince, and $ith 'ractically sovereign 'o$er $ithin their delegated do%inions A !anubian 'rinci'ality beca%e the re$ard of a successful drago%anEs career, and these high 'osts $ere ra'idly %ono'oliDed by a close ring of official fa%ilies, $ho eGercised their i%%ense 'atronage in favour of their race, and congregated round the Greek 'atriarch in the EPhanariE,2.6 the 7onstantino'olitan slu% assigned hi% for his residence by "oha%%ed the 7onCueror 2Footnote 4* 4J1/(4:// 6 2Footnote .* E)ighthouse(Cuarter E6 The alliance of this 'arvenu EPhanariotE aristocracy $ith the conservative +rthodoG 7hurch $as not unnatural, for the 7hurch itself had greatly eGtended its 'olitical 'o$er under +tto%an suDerainty The +tto%an Govern%ent hardly regarded its 7hristian subjects as integral %e%bers of the state, and $as content to leave their civil govern%ent in the hands of

their s'iritual 'astors to an eGtent the -o%aic e%'erors $ould never have tolerated 8t allo$ed the Patriarchate at 7onstantino'le to beco%e its official inter%ediary $ith the Greek race, and it further eGtended the Greek 'atriarchEs authority over the other conCuered 'o'ulations of +rthodoG faith((Bulgars, -u%ans, and ,erbs(($hich had never been incor'orated in the ecclesiastical or 'olitical organiDation of the -o%aic E%'ire, but $hich learnt under +tto%an rule to receive their 'riests and bisho's fro% the Greek ecclesiastics of the ca'ital, and even to call the%selves by the -o%aic na%e 8n 4/;4 "usta'ha >X'rili recogniDed and confir%ed the rights of all 7hristian subjects of the ,ultan by a general organic la$ "usta'haEs ENe$ +rdinanceE $as dictated by the reverses $hich 7hristians beyond the frontier $ere inflicting u'on the +tto%an ar%s, for 'ressure fro% $ithout had follo$ed hard u'on disintegration $ithin Ach%etEs 'yrrhic triu%'h over 7andia in 4//; $as follo$ed in 4/9J by his brother "usta'haEs disastrous disco%fiture before the $alls of ?ienna, and these t$o sieges %arked the turn of the +tto%an tide The ebb $as slo$, yet the ascendancy henceforth lay $ith TurkeyEs 7hristian neighbours, and they began to cut short her frontiers on every side The ?enetians had never lost hold u'on the E8onianE chain of islands(( 7orfY, 7efalonia, Kante, and 7erigo(($hich flank the $estern coast of Greece, and in 4/9: they e%barked on an offensive on the %ainland, $hich $on the% undis'uted 'ossession of Pelo'onnesos for t$enty years 246 ?enice $as far nearer than Turkey to her dissolution, and s'ent the last s'as% of her energy on this e'he%eral conCuest &et she had %aintained the contact of the Greek race $ith $estern Euro'e during the t$o centuries of des'air, and the interlude of her rule in Pelo'onnesos $as a fitting cul%ination to her $orkH for, brief though it $as, it effectively broke the +tto%an tradition, and left behind it a syste% of co%%unal self(govern%ent a%ong the Pelo'onnesian Greeks $hich the returning Turk $as too feeble to s$ee' a$ay The Turks gained nothing by the ra'id do$nfall of ?enice, for Austria as ra'idly ste''ed into her 'lace, and 'ressed $ith fresh vigour

the attack fro% the north($est North(east$ard, too, a ne$ ene%y had arisen in -ussia, $hich had been reorganiDed to$ards the turn of the century by Peter the Great $ith a radical energy undrea%ed of by any Turkish >X'rili, and $hich found its destiny in o''osition to the +tto%an E%'ire The ne$ +rthodoG 'o$er regarded itself as the heir of the -o%aic E%'ire fro% $hich it had received its first 7hristianity and culture 8t as'ired to re'ay the -o%aic race in adversity by cha%'ioning it against its "osle% o''ressors, and sought its o$n re$ard in a %ariti%e outlet on the Black ,ea Fro% the beginning of the eighteenth century -ussia re'eatedly %ade $ar on Turkey, either $ith or $ithout the co(o'eration of AustriaH but the decisive bout in the struggle $as the $ar of 45/;(51 A -ussian fleet a''eared in the "editerranean, raised an insurrection in Pelo'onnesos, and destroyed the Turkish sCuadron in battle The -ussian ar%ies $ere still %ore successful on the ste''es, and the Treaty of >utchuk >ainardji not only left the $hole north coast of the Black ,ea in -ussiaEs 'ossession, but contained an international sanction for the rights of the sultanEs +rthodoG subjects 8n 459J a su''le%entary co%%ercial treaty eGtorted for the +tto%an Greeks the right to trade under the -ussian flag The territorial sovereignty of Turkey in the Aegean re%ained intact, but the -ussian guarantee gave the Greek race a %ore substantial security than the shado$y ordinance of "usta'ha >X'rili The 'aralysing 'restige of the Porte $as broken, and Greek eyes $ere henceforth turned in ho'e to$ards Petersburg 2Footnote 4* 4/;;(4549 6 By the end of the eighteenth century the condition of the Greeks had in fact changed re%arkably for the better, and the French and English travellers $ho no$ began to visit the +tto%an E%'ire brought a$ay the i%'ression that a critical change in its internal eCuilibriu% $as at hand The Na'oleonic $ars had just eGtinguished the ?enetian -e'ublic and s$e't the 8onian 8slands into the struggle bet$een England and France for the %astery of the "editerranean England had fortified herself in 7efalonia and Kante, France in 7orfY, and interest centred on the o''osite %ainland,

$here Ali Pasha of &annina %aintained a for%idable neutrality to$ards either 'o$er The career of Ali %arked that 'hase in the decline of an +riental e%'ire $hen the task of strong govern%ent beco%es too difficult for the central authority and is carried on by inde'endent satra's $ith greater efficiency in their %ore li%ited s'here Ali governed the Adriatic hinterland $ith 'ractically sovereign 'o$er, and co%'elled the sultan for so%e years to invest his sons $ith the 'ashaliks of Thessaly and Pelo'onnesos The greater 'art of the Greek race thus ca%e in so%e degree under his control, and his 'olicy to$ards it clearly reflected the transition fro% the old to the ne$ #e $aged far %ore effective $ar than the distant sultan u'on local liberties, and, though the eli%ination of the feudal Turkish lando$ner $as 'ure gain to the Greeks, they suffered the%selves fro% the loss of traditional 'rivileges $hich the original +tto%an conCuest had left intact The Ar%atoli, a local 7hristian %ilitia $ho ke't order in the %ountainous %ainland north of Pelo'onnesos $here Turkish feudatories $ere rare, $ere either dis'ersed by Ali or enrolled in his regular ar%y And he $as ruthless in the eGter%ination of recalcitrant co%%unities, like Agra'ha on the As'ro'otarno, $hich had never been inscribed on the taGation(rolls of the -o%aic or the +tto%an treasury, or ,uli, a robber clan ensconced in the %ountains 8%%ediately $est of AliEs ca'ital +n the other hand, the ad%inistration of these 'acified and consolidated do%inions beca%e as essentially Greek in character as the Phanariot rPgi%e beyond the !anube Ali $as a "osle% and an Albanian, but the +rthodoG Greeks $ere in a %ajority a%ong his subjects, and he kne$ ho$ to take advantage of their abilities #is business $as conducted by Greek secretaries in the Greek tongue, and &annina, his ca'ital, $as a Greek city Euro'ean visitors to &annina Afor every one began the )evantine tour by 'aying his res'ects to AliB $ere struck by the enter'rise and intelligence of its citiDens The doctors $ere co%'etent, because they had taken their education in 8taly or FranceH the %erchants $ere 'ros'erous, because they had established %e%bers of their fa%ily at +dessa, Trieste, or even #a%burg, as 'er%anent agents of their fir% A ne$ Greek

IbourgeoisieI had arisen, in close contact $ith the 'rofessional life of $estern Euro'e, and eCually res'onsive to the ne$ 'hiloso'hical and 'olitical ideas that $ere being 'ro'agated by the French -evolution This intellectual fer%ent $as the %ost striking change of all ,ince the sack of 7onstantino'le in 4.01, Greek culture had retired into the %onasteries((inaccessible fastnesses $here the %onks lived %uch the sa%e life as the clans%en of ,uli or Agra'ha "egas'Plaion, the great cave Cuarried in the $all of a 'reci'itous Pelo'onnesian ravineH "etPora, sus'ended on half a doDen isolated 'innacles of rock in Thessaly, $here the only access $as by 'ulley or ro'e(ladderH EAyon +rosE, the confederation of %onasteries great and s%all u'on the %ountain('ro%ontory of Athos((these succeeded in 'reserving a shado$ of the old tradition, at the cost of isolation fro% all hu%ane influences that %ight have ke't their s'iritual inheritance alive Their s'irit $as %ediaeval, ecclesiastical, and as barren as their sheltering rocksH and the ne$ intellectual disci'les of Euro'e turned to the %onasteries in vain The biggest ruin on Athos is a boysE school 'lanned in the eighteenth century to %eet the educational needs of all the +rthodoG in the +tto%an E%'ire, and $recked on the reefs of %onastic obscurantis% But its founder, the 7orfiot scholar EvyPnios ?oulgZris, did not hesitate to break $ith the 'ast #e 'ut his o$n educational ideas into 'ractice at &annina and 7onstantino'le, and contributed to the great achieve%ent of his conte%'orary, the >hiot Adha%andios >orZis, $ho settled in Paris and there evolved a literary ada'tation of the -o%aic 'atois to su'ersede the lifeless travesty of Attic style traditionally affected by ecclesiastical 'en%en But the renaissance $as not confined to Greeks abroad The school on Athos failed, but others established the%selves before the close of the eighteenth century in the 'eo'leEs %idst, even in the s%aller to$ns and the re%oter villages The still flourishing secondary school of !hi%itDZna, in the heart of Pelo'onnesos, began its eGistence in this 'eriod, and the national revival found eG'ression in a ne$ na%e 8ts 'ro'hets re'udiated the E-o%aicE na%e, $ith its associations of ignorance and o''ression, and taught their 'u'ils to think of the%selves as

E#ellenesE and to clai% in their o$n right the intellectual and 'olitical liberty of the Ancient Greeks This s'iritual E#ellenis%E, ho$ever, $as only one %anifestation of returning vitality, and $as ulti%ately due to the concrete econo%ic develo'%ent $ith $hich it $ent hand in hand The Greeks, $ho had found culture in $estern Euro'e, had co%e there for trade, and their co%%ercial no less than their intellectual activity reacted in a 'enetrating $ay u'on their country%en at ho%e A %ountain village like A%belakia in Thessaly found a regular %arket for its dyed goods in Ger%any, and the co%%ercial treaty of 459J bet$een Turkey and -ussia encouraged co%%unities $hich could %ake nothing of the land to turn their attention to the sea GalaGhidi, a village on the northern shore of the >orinthian Gulf, $hose only asset $as its natural harbour, and #ydhra, ,'etDa, and PsarW, three barren little islands in the Aegean, had begun to lay the foundations of a %erchant %arine, $hen Na'oleonEs boycott and the British blockade, $hich left no neutral flag but the +tto%an in the "editerranean, 'resented the Greek shi'%en that sailed under it $ith an o''ortunity they eG'loited to the full The $hite$ashed houses of solid stone, rising tier above tier u' the naked li%estone %ountainside, still testify to the 'ros'erity $hich chance thus suddenly brought to the #ydhriots and their fello$ islanders, and did not $ithdra$ again till it had enabled the% to 'lay a decisive 'art in their nationEs history Their shi's $ere s%all, but they $ere ho%e(built, skilfully navigated, and 'rofitably e%'loyed in the carrying trade of the "editerranean 'orts Their econo%ic life $as based on co(o'eration, for the sailors, as $ell as the ca'tain and o$ner of the shi', $ho $ere generally the sa%e 'erson, took shares in the outlay and 'rofit of each voyageH but their 'olitical organiDation $as oligarchical((an eGecutive council elected by and fro% the o$ners of the shi''ing Feud and intrigue $ere rife bet$een fa%ily and fa%ily, class and class, and bet$een the native co%%unity and the resident aliens, $ithout seriously affecting the vigour and enter'rise of the co%%on$ealth as a $hole These seafaring islands on the eve of the %odern

Greek -evolution $ere an eGact re'roduction of the Aigina, >orinth, and Athens $hich re'elled the Persian fro% Ancient Greece The ger%s of a ne$ national life $ere thus s'ringing u' a%ong the Greeks in every direction(( in %ercantile colonies scattered over the $orld fro% +dessa to AleGandria and fro% ,%yrna to TriesteH a%ong Phanariot 'rinces in the !anubian Provinces and their ecclesiastical colleagues at 7onstantino'leH in the islands of the Aegean and the 8onian chain, and u'on the %ountains of ,uli and Agra'ha But the a%bitions this national revival aroused $ere even greater than the reality itself The leaders of the %ove%ent did not %erely as'ire to liberate the Greek nation fro% the Turkish yoke They $ere conscious of the assi%ilative 'o$er their nationality 'ossessed The ,uliots, for eGa%'le, $ere an i%%igrant Albanian tribe, $ho had learnt to s'eak Greek fro% the Greek 'easants over $ho% they tyranniDed The #ydhriot and ,'etDiot islanders $ere Albanians too, $ho had even clung to their 'ri%itive language during the t$o generations since they took u' their 'resent abode, but had beco%e none the less fir%ly linked to their Greek(s'eaking neighbours in Pelo'onnesos by their co%%on fello$shi' in the +rthodoG 7hurch The nu%erous Albanian colonies settled u' and do$n the Greek continent $ere at least as Greek in feeling as they And $hy should not the sa%e 'rove true of the Bulgarian 'o'ulation, in the Balkans, $ho had belonged fro% the beginning to the +rthodoG 7hurch, and had latterly been brought by i%'rovident +tto%an 'olicy $ithin the Greek 'atriarchEs foldF +r $hy should not the Greek ad%inistrators beyond the !anube i%bue their -u%an subjects $ith a sound #ellenic senti%entF 8n fact, the 'ro'hets of #ellenis% did not so %uch desire to eGtricate the Greek nation fro% the +tto%an E%'ire as to %ake it the ruling ele%ent in the e%'ire itself by ejecting the "osle% Turks fro% their 'rivileged 'osition and assi%ilating all 'o'ulations of +rthodoG faith These drea%s took sha'e in the foundation of a secret society((the EPhilik[ #etair\aE or E)eague of FriendsE(($hich established itself at +dessa in 4941 $ith the connivence of the -ussian 'olice, and o'ened a ca%'aign of 'ro'aganda in antici'ation of an o''ortunity to strike The initiative ca%e fro% the +tto%an Govern%ent itself At the $eakest

%o%ent in its history the e%'ire found in ,ultan "ah%ud a ruler of 'eculiar strength, $ho sa$ that the only ho'e of overco%ing his dangers lay in %eeting the% half($ay The national %ove%ent of #ellenis% $as gathering %o%entu% in the background, but it $as screened by the 'ersonal a%bitions of Ali of &annina, and "ah%ud reckoned to forestall both ene%ies by Cuickly striking Ali do$n 8n the $inter of 494;(.0 Ali $as outla$ed, and in the s'ring the invasion of his territories began Both the "osle% co%batants enlisted 7hristian Ar%atoli, and all continental Greece $as under ar%s By the end of the su%%er AliEs outlying strongholds had fallen, his ar%ies $ere driven in, and he hi%self $as closely invested in &anninaH but $ith autu%n a deadlock set in, and the sultanEs reckoning $as thro$n out 8n Nove%ber 49.0 the veteran soldier >hurshid $as a''ointed to the 'ashalik of Pelo'onnesos to hold the Greeks in check and close accounts $ith Ali 8n "arch 49.4, after five %onths s'ent in organiDing his 'rovince, >hurshid felt secure enough to leave it for the &annina lines But he $as %istakenH for $ithin a %onth of his de'arture Pelo'onnesos $as ablaDe The EPhilik[ #etair\aE had decided to act, and the Pelo'onnesians res'onded enthusiastically to the signal 8n the north Ger%an]s, %etro'olitan bisho' of Patras, rallied the insurgents at the %onastery of "egas'Plaion, and unfurled the %onastic altar(cloth as a national standard 8n the south the 'eninsula of "aina, $hich had been the latest refuge of ancient #ellenis%, $as no$ the first to $elco%e the ne$, and to thro$ off the shado$y allegiance it had 'aid for a thousand years to -o%aic archonts and +tto%an ca'itan('ashas )ed by Petros "avro%ichalis, the chief of the leading clan, the "ainates issued fro% their %ountains This $as in A'ril, and by the %iddle of "ay all the o'en country had been s$e't clear, and the hosts joined hands before Tri'olitDa, $hich $as the seat of +tto%an govern%ent at the central 'oint of the 'rovince The Turkish garrison attacked, but $as heavily defeated at ?altetDi by the tactical skill of Theodore >olokotrLnis the Ekle'htE, $ho had beco%e eG'erienced in guerrilla $arfare through his alternate 'rofessions of

brigand and gendar%e((a career that had increased its 'ossibilities as the +tto%an syste% decayed After >olokotrLnisEs victory, the Greeks ke't Tri'olitDa under a close blockade Early in +ctober it fell a%id frightful scenes of 'illage and %assacre, and +tto%an do%inion in the Pelo'onnesos fell $ith it +n January .., 49.., >orinth, the key to the isth%us, 'assed into the GreeksE hands, and only four fortresses((Nau'lia, Patras, >oron, and "odhon((still held out $ithin it against Greek invest%ent Not a Turk survived in the Pelo'onnesos beyond their $alls, for the slaughter at Tri'olitDa $as only the %ost terrible instance of $hat ha''ened $herever a "osle% colony $as found 8n Pelo'onnesos, at any rate, the revolution had been gri%ly successful There had also been successes at sea The %erchant %arine of the Greek islands had suffered grievously fro% the fall of Na'oleon and the settle%ent at ?ienna, $hich, by restoring nor%al conditions of trade, had destroyed their abnor%al %ono'oly The revolution offered ne$ o''ortunities for 'rofitable venture, and in A'ril 49.4 #ydhra, ,'etDa and PsarW hastened to send a 'rivateering fleet to sea As soon as the fleet crossed the Aegean, ,a%os rid itself of the Turks At the beginning of June the rickety +tto%an sCuadron issued fro% the !ardanelles, but it $as chased back by the islanders under the lee of "itylini "e%ories of -ussian naval tactics in 4550 led the Psariots to eG'eri%ent in fire(shi's, and one of the t$o Turkish shi's of the line fell a victi% to this attack @ithin a $eek of setting sail, the di%inished Turkish sCuadron $as back again in the !ardanelles, and the islanders $ere left $ith the co%%and of the sea The general 7hristian revolution thus see%ed fairly launched, and in the first 'anic the threatened "osle%s began re'risals of an eCually general kind 8n the larger Turkish cities there $ere %assacres of 7hristian %inorities, and the Govern%ent lent countenance to the% by %urdering its o$n 'rinci'al 7hristian official Gregorios, the Greek 'atriarch at 7onstantino'le, on A'ril .., 49.4 But ,ultan "ah%ud Cuickly recovered hi%self #e sa$ that his e%'ire could not survive a racial $ar, and

deter%ined to 'revent the 'resent revolt fro% assu%ing such a character #is 'lan $as to localiDe it by sta%'ing out the %ore distant s'arks $ith all his energy, before concentrating his force at leisure u'on the %ain conflagration This 'olicy $as justified by the event +n "arch / the EPhilik[ #etairiaE at +dessa had o'ened its o$n o'erations in grandiose style by sending a filibustering eG'edition across the -usso(Turkish frontier under co%%and of Prince AleGander #y'silantis, a Phanariot in the -ussian service #y'silantis 'layed for a general revolt of the -u%an 'o'ulation in the !anubian Princi'alities and a declaration of $ar against Turkey on the 'art of -ussia But the -u%ans had no desire to assist the Greek bureaucrats $ho o''ressed the%, and the Tsar AleGander had been converted by the eG'eriences of 494.(4J to a 'acifistic res'ect for the Istatus CuoI Prince #y'silantis $as driven igno%iniously to intern%ent across the Austrian frontier, little %ore than a hundred days after his eG'edition beganH and his fiasco assured the +tto%an Govern%ent of t$o encouraging facts((that the revolution $ould not carry a$ay the $hole +rthodoG 'o'ulation but $ould at any rate confine itself to the GreeksH and that the struggle against it $ould be fought out for the 'resent, at least, $ithout foreign intervention 8n the other direction, ho$ever, rebellion $as s'reading north$ard fro% Pelo'onnesos to continental Greece GalaG\dhi revolted in A'ril, and $as follo$ed in June by "esolonghi((a 'ros'erous to$n of fisher%en, i%'regnably situated in the %idst of the lagoons at the %outh of the As'ro'ota%o, beyond the narro$s of the >orinthian Gulf By the end of the %onth, north($estern Greece $as free as far as the out'osts of >hurshid Pasha beyond the Gulf of Arta Further east$ard, again, in the %ountains bet$een the Gulf of >orinth and the river EllZdha A,'erkhei]sB, the Ar%atoli of AliEs faction had held their ground, and gladly joined the revolution on the initiative of their ca'tains !hiakos and +dhyssMvs But the %ove%ent found its li%its The

Turkish garrison of Athens obstinately held out during the $inter of 49.4(., and the "osle%s of Negre'ont AEubo\aB %aintained their %astery in the island 8n Agra'ha they like$ise held their o$n, and, after one severely 'unished raid, the Agra'hiot Ar%atoli $ere induced to re(enter the sultanEs service on liberal ter%s The ?lachs in the gorges of the As'ro'ota%o $ere 'acified $ith eCual successH and !ra%ali, >hurshidEs lieutenant, $ho guarded the co%%unications bet$een the ar%y investing &annina and its base at 7onstantino'le, $as easily able to crush all sy%'to%s of revolt in Thessaly fro% his head(Cuarters at )Zrissa ,till further east, the autono%ous Greek villages on the %ountainous 'ro%ontories of >halkidhiki had revolted in "ay, in conjunction $ith the $ell(su''lied and %assively fortified %onasteries of the EAyon +rosEH but the Pasha of ,alonika called do$n the ,outh ,lavonic "osle% lando$ners fro% the interior, sacked the villages, and a%nestied the %onastic confederation on condition of establishing a Turkish garrison in their %idst and confiscating their ar%s The %onksE co%'liance $as assisted by the eGco%%unication under $hich the ne$ 'atriarch at 7onstantino'le had 'laced all the insurgents by the sultanEs co%%and The %ove%ent $as thus successfully localised on the Euro'ean continent, and further afield it $as still %ore easily cut short After the $ithdra$al of the Turkish sCuadron, the Greek fleet had to look on at the syste%atic destruction of >ydhonies,246 a flourishing Greek industrial to$n on the %ainland o''osite "itylini $hich had been founded under the sultanEs aus'ices only forty years before All that the islanders could do $as to take off the survivors in their boatsH and $hen they dis'ersed to their 'orts in autu%n, the +tto%an shi's ca%e out again fro% the !ardanelles, sailed round Pelo'onnesos into the >orinthian Gulf, and destroyed GalaG\dhi A still greater catastro'he follo$ed the reo'ening of naval o'erations neGt s'ring 8n "arch 49.. the ,a%ians landed a force on >hios and besieged the Turkish garrison, $hich $as relieved after three $eeks by the arrival of the +tto%an fleet A %onth later the Greek fleet like$ise a''eared on the scene, and on June 49 a Psariot ca'tain, 7onstantine >anaris, actually destroyed the +tto%an flag(shi' by a daring

fire(shi' attack ='on this the +tto%an fleet fled back as usual to the !ardanellesH yet the only conseCuence $as the co%'lete devastation, in revenge, of hel'less >hios The long(shielded 'ros'erity of the island $as re%orselessly destroyed, the 'eo'le $ere either enslaved or %assacred, and the victorious fleet had to stand by as 'assively this ti%e as at the destruction of >ydhonies the season before 8n the follo$ing su%%er, again, the sa%e fate befell TrikPri, a %ariti%e co%%unity on the Gulf of ?olo $hich had gained its freedo% $hen the rest of Thessaly stirred in vainH and so in 49.J the revolution found itself confined on sea, as $ell as on land, to the focus $here it had originated in A'ril 49.4 2Footnote 4* Turkish Aivali 6 This isolation $as a 'ractical triu%'h for ,ultan "ah%ud The %aintenance of the +tto%an E%'ire on the basis of "osle% ascendancy $as thereby assuredH but it re%ained to be seen $hether the isolated area could no$ be restored to the Istatus CuoI in $hich the rest of his do%inions had been retained !uring the $hole season of 49.4 the ar%y of >hurshid had been held before &annina But in February 49.. &annina fell, Ali $as slain, his treasure seiDed, and his troo's disbanded The +tto%an forces $ere liberated for a counterattack on Pelo'onnesos Already in A'ril >hurshid broke u' his ca%' at )Zrissa, and his lieutenant !ra%ali $as given co%%and of the ne$ eG'edition to$ards the south #e crossed the ,'erkhei]s at the beginning of July $ith an ar%y of t$enty thousand %en 246 Athens had ca'itulated to +dhyssMvs ten days beforeH but it had ke't o'en the road for !ra%ali, and north(eastern Greece fell $ithout resistance into his hands The citadel of >orinth surrendered as ta%ely as the o'en country, and he $as %aster of the isth%us before the end of the %onth Nau'lia %ean$hile had been treating $ith its besiegers for ter%s, and $ould have surrendered to the Greeks already if they had not driven their bargain so hard !ra%ali hurried on south$ard into the 'lain to the fortressEs relief, raised the siege, occu'ied the to$n of Argos, and scattered the Greek forces into the

hills But the citadel of Argos held out against hi%, and the 'ositions $ere ra'idly reversed =nder the eG'erienced direction of >olokotrLnis, the Greeks fro% their hill(fastnesses ringed round the 'lain of Argos and scaled u' every issue !ra%aliEs su''lies ran out An atte%'t of his vanguard to break through again to$ards the north $as bloodily re'ulsed, and he barely succeeded t$o days later in eGtricating the %ain body in a de%oraliDed condition, $ith the loss of all his baggage(train The Turkish ar%y %elted a$ay, !ra%ali $as ha''y to die at >orinth, and >hurshid $as eGecuted by the sultanEs co%%and The invasion of Pelo'onnesos had broken do$n, and nothing could avert the fall of Nau'lia The +tto%an fleet hovered for one ,e'te%ber $eek in the offing, but >anarisEs fire(shi's took another shi' of the line in toll at the roadsteads of Tenedos before it safely regained the !ardanelles The garrison of Nau'lia ca'itulated in !ece%ber, on condition of 'ersonal security and liberty, and the ca'tain of a British frigate, $hich arrived on the s'ot, took %easures that the co%'act should be observed instead of being broken by the custo%ary %assacre But the strongest fortress in Pelo'onnesos $as no$ in Greek hands 2Footnote 4* 8ncluding a strong contingent of "osle% ,lavs((Bulgarian Po%aks fro% the Aegean hinterland and ,erbian Bosniaks fro% the Adriatic 6 8n the north($est the season had not 'assed so $ell @hen the Turks invested Ali in &annina, they re'atriated the ,uliot eGiles in their native %ountains But a strong sultan $as just as for%idable to the ,uliots as a strong 'asha, so they s$elled their ranks by enfranchising their 'easant(serfs, and %ade co%%on cause $ith their old ene%y in his adversity No$ that Ali $as destroyed, the ,uliots found the%selves in a 'recarious 'osition, and turned to the Greeks for aid But on July 4/ the Greek advance $as checked by a severe defeat at Petta in the 'lain of Arta 8n ,e'te%ber the ,uliots evacuated their i%'regnable fortresses in return for a subsidy and a safe(conduct, and +%er ?rioni, the +tto%an co%%ander in the $est,246 $as free to advance in turn to$ards the south +n Nove%ber / he actually laid siege to "esolonghi, but here his

eG'eriences $ere as disco%fiting as !ra%aliEs #e could not kee' o'en his co%%unications, and after heavy losses retreated again to Arta in January 49.J 2Footnote 4* #e $as a renegade officer of AliEs 6 8n 49.J the struggle see%ed to be la'sing into stale%ate The liberated Pelo'onnesos had failed to 'ro'agate the revolution through the re%ainder of the +tto%an E%'ireH the +tto%an Govern%ent had eCually failed to reconCuer the Pelo'onnesos by %ilitary invasion This seasonEs o'erations only see%ed to e%'hasiDe the deadlock The +tto%an co%%ander in the $est raised an auGiliary force of "osle% and 7atholic clans%en fro% northern Albania, and atte%'ted to reach "esolonghi once %ore But he 'enetrated no further than Anatolik]n((the "esolonghiotsE out'ost village at the head of the lagoons((and the ca%'aign $as only %e%orable for the heroic death of "arko BotDaris the ,uliot in a night attack u'on the +tto%an ca%' At sea, the t$o fleets indulged in desultory cruises $ithout an encounter, for the Turks $ere still ti%id and inco%'etent, $hile the gro$ing insubordination and dissension on the Greek shi's %ade concerted action there, too, i%'ossible By the end of the season it $as clear that the struggle could only definitively be decided by the intervention of a third 'arty on one side or the other((unless the Greeks brought their o$n ruin u'on the%selves This indeed $as not unlikely to ha''enH for the ne$ house of #ellenis% had hardly arisen before it beca%e des'erately divided against itself The vitality of the national %ove%ent resided entirely in the local co%%unes 8t $as they that had found the fighting %en, ke't the% ar%ed and su''lied, and by s'ontaneous co(o'eration eG'elled the Turk fro% Pelo'onnesos But if the co(o'eration $as to be 'er%anent it %ust have a central organiDation, and $ith the erection of this su'erstructure the troubles began As early as June 49.4 a EPelo'onnesian ,enateE $as constituted and at once %ono'oliDed by the EPri%atesE, the 'ro'ertied class that had been res'onsible for the co%%unal taGes under the -o%aic and +tto%an rPgi%es

and $as allo$ed to control the co%%unal govern%ent in return About the sa%e ti%e t$o Phanariot 'rinces thre$ in their lot $ith the revolution(( AleGander "avrokordatos and !e%etrius, the %ore esti%able brother of the futile AleGander #y'silantis Both $ere saturated $ith the %ost recent Euro'ean 'olitical theory, and they co%%itted the 'easants and sea%en of the liberated districts to an a%bitious constitutionalis% 8n !ece%ber 49.4 a ENational Asse%blyE %et at E'idauros, 'assed an elaborate organic la$, and elected "avrokordatos first 'resident of the #ellenic -e'ublic The struggle for life and death in 49.. had staved off the internal crisis, but the Pelo'onnesian ,enate re%ained obstinately recalcitrant to$ards the National Govern%ent in defence of its o$n vested interestsH and the insubordination of the fleet in 49.J $as of one 'iece $ith the 'olitical faction $hich broke out as soon as the i%%ediate danger fro% $ithout $as re%oved To$ards the end of 49.J Euro'ean EPhilhellenesE began to arrive in Greece 8n those dark days of reaction that follo$ed @aterloo, self(liberated #ellas see%ed the one bright s'ot on the continentH but the idealists $ho ca%e to offer her their services $ere confronted $ith a sorry s'ectacle The 'eo'le $ere indifferent to their leaders, and the leaders at variance a%ong the%selves The gentle%anly Phanariots had fallen into the background "avrokordatos only retained influence in north($estern Greece 8n Pelo'onnesos the Pri%ates $ere all('o$erful, and >olokotrLnis the kle'ht $as %editating a 'o'ular dictatorshi' at their eG'ense 8n the north(east the adventurer +dhyssPvs had $on a virtual dictatorshi' already, and $as sus'ected of intrigue $ith the TurksH and all this factious dissension rankled into civil $ar as soon as the contraction of a loan in Great Britain had invested the 'olitical control of the #ellenic -e'ublic $ith a 'ros'ective value in cash The first civil $ar $as fought bet$een >olokotrLnis on the one side and the Pri%ates of #ydhra and Pelo'onnesos on the otherH but the issue $as decided against >olokotrLnis by the adhesion to the coalition of >olettis the ?lach, once 'hysician to "ukhtar Pasha, the son of Ali, and no$ 'olitical agent for all the

northern Ar%atoli in the national service The fighting lasted fro% Nove%ber 49.J to June 49.1, and $as follo$ed by another outbreak in Nove%ber of the latter year, $hen the victors Cuarrelled over the s'oils, and the Pri%ates $ere $orsted in turn by the islanders and the Ar%atoli The nonentity >ondouriottis of #ydhra finally e%erged as President of Greece, $ith the shar'($itted >olettis as his 'rinci'al $ire('uller, but the disturbances did not cease till the last instal%ent of the loan had been received and sCuandered and there $as no %ore s'oil to fight for "ean$hile, ,ultan "ah%ud had been better e%'loyed -esolved to avert stale%ate by the only 'ossible %eans, he had a''lied in the course of 49.J to "oha%%ed Ali Pasha of Egy't, a %ore for%idable, though %ore distant, satra' than Ali of &annina hi%self "oha%%ed Ali had a standing ar%y and navy organiDed on the Euro'ean %odel #e had also a son 8brahi%, $ho kne$ ho$ to %anoeuvre the%, and $as a%bitious of a kingdo% "ah%ud hired the fatherEs troo's and the sonEs generalshi' for the re(conCuest of Pelo'onnesos, under engage%ent to invest 8brahi% $ith the 'ashalik as soon as he should effectively %ake it his o$n By this stroke of di'lo%acy a 'otential rebel $as turned into a $illing ally, and the 're'arations for the Egy'tian eG'edition $ent for$ard busily through the $inter of 49.J(1 The 'lan of ca%'aign $as syste%atically carried out !uring the season of res'ite the Greek islanders had harried the coasts and co%%erce of Anatolia and ,yria at $ill The first task $as to de'rive the% of their out'osts in the Aegean, and an advanced sCuadron of the Egy'tian fleet accordingly destroyed the co%%unity of >asos in June 49.1, $hile the +tto%an sCuadron sallied out of the !ardanelles a %onth later and dealt out eCual %easure to PsarW The t$o %ain flotillas then effected a junction off -hodesH and, though the cri''led Greek fleet still ventured 'luckily to confront the%, it could not 'revent 8brahi% fro% casting anchor safely in ,oudha Bay and landing his ar%y to $inter in >rete 8n February 49.: he transferred these troo's $ith eCual i%'unity to the fortress of "odhon, $hich $as still held for the sultan by an +tto%an garrison The fire(shi's of #ydhra ca%e to harry his fleet too late, and

on land the Greek forces $ere i%'otent against his trained soldiers The Govern%ent in vain 'ro%oted >olokotrLnis fro% ca'tivity to co%%andershi'(in(chief The $hole south($estern half of Pelo'onnesos 'assed into 8brahi%Es hands, and in June 49.: he even 'enetrated as far as the %ills of )erna on the eastern coast, a fe$ %iles south of Argos itself At the sa%e ti%e the +tto%an ar%y of the $est %oved south again under a ne$ co%%ander, -ashid Pasha of &annina, and laid final siege on A'ril .5 to "esolonghi, just a year after Byron had died of fever $ithin its $alls The Greeks $ere %agnificent in their defence of these frail %ud(bastions, and they %ore than held their o$n in the a%'hibious $arfare of the lagoons The struggle $as cheCuered by the continual co%ing and going of the Greek and +tto%an fleets They $ere indeed the decisive factorH for $ithout the su''orting sCuadron -ashid $ould have found hi%self in the sa%e straits as his 'redecessors at the a''roach of autu%n, $hile the slackness of the islanders in kee'ing the sea allo$ed "esolonghi to be isolated in January 49./ The rest $as acco%'lished by the arrival of 8brahi% on the scene #is heavy batteries o'ened fire in FebruaryH his gunboats secured co%%and of the lagoons, and forced Anatolik]n to ca'itulate in "arch 8n A'ril 'rovisions in "esolonghi itself gave out, and, scorning surrender, the garrison((%en, $o%en, and children together(( %ade a general sortie on the night of A'ril .. Four thousand fell, three thousand $ere taken, and t$o thousand $on through 8t $as a glorious end for "esolonghi, but it left the ene%y in 'ossession of all north($estern Greece The situation $as going fro% bad to $orse 8brahi% returned to Pelo'onnesos, and steadily 'ushed for$ard his front, ravaging as steadily as he $ent -ashid, after 'acifying the north($est, %oved on to the north(eastern districts, $here the national cause had been shaken by the final treachery and s'eedy assassination of +dhyssMvs ,iege $as laid to Athens in June, and the Greek Govern%ent enlisted in vain the %ilitary eG'erience of its Philhellenes Fabvier held the Akro'olis, but

Generalissi%o ,ir -ichard 7hurch $as heavily defeated in the s'ring of 49.5 in an atte%'t to relieve hi% fro% the Attic coastH Grand Ad%iral 7ochrane sa$ his fleet sail ho%e for $ant of 'ay%ent in advance, $hen he su%%oned it for revie$ at PorosH and >araiskakis, the Greek ca'tain of Ar%atoli, $as killed in a skir%ish during his %ore successful efforts to harass -ashidEs co%%unications by land +n June :, 49.5, the Greek garrison of the Akro'olis %arched out on ter%s 8t looked as if the Greek effort after inde'endence $ould be co%'letely crushed, and as if ,ultan "ah%ud $ould succeed in getting his e%'ire under control 8n ,e'te%ber 49./ he had rid it at last of the %ischief at its centre by blo$ing u' the janissaries in their barracks at 7onstantino'le Turkey see%ed al%ost to have $eathered the stor% $hen she $as suddenly overborne by further intervention on the other side Tsar AleGander, the vaccillator, died in Nove%ber 49.:, and $as succeeded by his son Nicholas 8, as strong a character and as active a $ill as ,ultan "ah%ud hi%self Nicholas a''roached the Greek Cuestion $ithout any disinclination to$ards a Turkish $arH and both Great Britain and France found an i%%ediate interest in re%oving a ground of 'rovocation $hich %ight lead to such a rude disturbance of the Euro'ean EBalance of Po$erE +n July /, 49.5, a %onth after Athens surrendered, the three 'o$ers concluded a treaty for the 'acification of Greece, in $hich they bound over both belligerent 'arties to acce't an ar%istice under 'ain of %ilitary coercion An allied sCuadron a''eared off Navarino Bay to enforce this 'olicy u'on the +tto%an and Egy'tian fleet $hich lay united there, and the intrusion of the allied ad%irals into the bay itself 'reci'itated on +ctober .0 a violent naval battle in $hich the "osle% flotilla $as destroyed The die $as castH and in A'ril 49.9 the -ussian and +tto%an Govern%ents drifted into a for%al $ar, $hich brought -ussian ar%ies across the !anube as far as Adriano'le, and set the +tto%an E%'ire at bay for the defence of its ca'ital Thanks to "ah%udEs reorganiDation, the e%'ire did not succu%b to this assaultH but it had no %ore strength to s'are for the subjugation of Greece The Greeks had no longer to reckon $ith the sultan

as a %ilitary factorH and in August 49.9 they $ore relieved of 8brahi%Es 'resence as $ell, by the dise%barkation of 41,000 French troo's in Pelo'onnesos to su'erintend the $ithdra$al of the Egy'tian forces 8n "arch 49.; the three 'o$ers deli%ited the Greek frontier The line ran east and $est fro% the Gulf of ?olo to the Gulf of Arta, and assigned to the ne$ state no %ore and no less territory than the districts that had effectively asserted their inde'endence against the sultan in 49.4 This settle%ent $as the only one 'ossible under the circu%stancesH but it $as essentially transitory, for it neglected the natural line of nationality altogether, and left a nu%erical %ajority of the Greek race, as $ell as the %ost i%'ortant centres of its life, under the old rPgi%e of servitude Even the liberated area $as not at the end of its troubles 8n the s'ring of 49.5, $hen they co%%itted the%selves into the hands of their foreign 'atrons, the Greeks had found a ne$ 'resident for the re'ublic in John >a'odistrias, an inti%ate of AleGander the tsar >a'odistrias $as a 7orfiote count, $ith a ?enetian education and a career in the -ussian di'lo%atic service, and no one could have been %ore fantastically unsuitable for the task of reconstructing the country to $hich he $as called >a'odistriasE ideal $as the Ifin(de(siMcleI E'olice(stateEH but Eofficial circlesE did not eGist in Greece, and he had no acCuaintance $ith the 'easants and sailors $ho% he ho'ed to redee% by bureaucracy #e instituted a hierarchically centraliDed ad%inistration $hich %ade the abortive constitution of "avrokordatos see% sober by co%'arisonH he tra%'led on the liberty of the rising 'ress, $hich $as the %ost ho'eful educational influence in the countryH and he created su'erfluous %inisterial 'ortfolios for his untalented brothers 8n fact he regla%ented Greece fro% his 'alace at Aigina like a divinely a''ointed autocrat, fro% his arrival in January 49.9 till the su%%er of 49J4, $hen he 'rovoked the #ydhriots to o'en rebellion, and co%%issioned the -ussian sCuadron in attendance to Cuell the% by a naval action, $ith the result that Poros $as sacked by the PresidentEs regular ar%y and the national fleet $as co%'letely destroyed After that, he atte%'ted to rule as a %ilitary dictator, and fell foul of the "avro%ichalis of "aina The "ainates kne$

better ho$ to deal $ith the E'olice(stateE than the #ydhriotsH and on +ctober ;, 49J4, >a'odistrias $as assassinated in Nau'lia, at the church door, by t$o re'resentatives of the "avro%ichalis clan The country la'sed into utter anarchy Pelo'onnesians and Ar%atoli, >olokotronists and >olettists, alternately a''ointed and de'osed subservient national asse%blies and governing co%%issions by naked violence, $hich cul%inated in a gratuitous and disastrous attack u'on the French troo's stationed in Pelo'onnesos for their co%%on 'rotection The three 'o$ers realiDed that it $as idle to liberate Greece fro% +tto%an govern%ent unless they found her another in its 'lace They decided on %onarchy, and offered the cro$n, in February 49J., to Prince +tto, a younger son of the >ing of Bavaria The negotiations dragged on %any %onths longer than Greece could afford to $ait But in July 49J. the sultan recogniDed the sovereign inde'endence of the kingdo% of #ellas in consideration of a cash inde%nityH and in February 49JJ, just a year after the first overtures had been %ade, the a''ointed king arrived at Nau'lia $ith a decorative Bavarian staff and a substantial loan fro% the allies

J IThe 7onsolidation of the ,tateI

#alf the story of Greece is told @e have $atched the nation a$ake and 'ut forth its ne$ly(found strength in a great $ar of inde'endence, and $e have follo$ed the course of the struggle to its result((the foundation of the kingdo% of #ellas 8t is i%'ossible to close this cha'ter of Greek history $ithout a sense of disa''oint%ent The s'irit of Greece had travailed, and only a 'rinci'ality $as born, $hich gathered $ithin its frontiers scarcely

one(third of the race, and turned for its govern%ent to a foreign ad%inistration $hich had no bond of tradition or affinity $ith the 'o'ulation it $as to rule And yet so%ething had been achieved An oasis had been $rested fro% the Turkish $ilderness, in $hich #ellenis% could henceforth $ork out its o$n salvation untra%%elled, and eGtend its borders little by little, until it brought $ithin the% at last the $hole of its destined heritage The fleeting gla%our of da$n had 'assed, but it had brought the steady light of day, in $hich the $ork begun could be carried out soberly and indefatigably to its conclusion The ne$ kingdo%, in fact, if it fulfilled its %ission, %ight beco%e the 'olitical nucleus and the s'iritual ensa%'le of a 'er%anently a$akened nation((an Eeducation of #ellasE such as Pericles ho'ed to see Athens beco%e in the greatest days of Ancient Greece @hen, therefore, $e turn to the history of the kingdo%, our disa''oint%ent is all the %ore intense, for in the first fifty years of its eGistence there is little develo'%ent to record 8n 499. >ing +ttoEs 'rinci'ality 'resented %uch the sa%e %elancholy s'ectacle as it did in 49JJ, $hen he landed in Nau'lia Bay, eGce't that +tto hi%self had left the scene #is Bavarian staff belonged to that reactionary generation that follo$ed the overthro$ of Na'oleon in Euro'e, and atte%'ted, heedless of >a'odistriasE fiasco, to i%'ose on Greece the bureaucracy of the Iancien rPgi%eI The BavariansE $ork $as entirely destructive The local liberties $hich had gro$n u' under the +tto%an do%inion and been the very life of the national revival, $ere effectively re'ressed #ydhriot and ,'etDiot, ,uliot and "ainate, forfeited their characteristic individuality, but none of the benefits of orderly and unifor% govern%ent $ere realiDed The canker of brigandage defied all efforts to root it out, and in s'ite of the loans $ith $hich the royal govern%ent $as su''lied by the 'rotecting 'o$ers, the 'ublic finance $as subject to 'eriodical breakdo$ns 8n 49J5 >ing +tto, no$ of age, took the govern%ent into his o$n hands, only to have it taken out of the% again by a revolution in 491J Thereafter he reigned as a constitutional %onarch, but he never reconciled hi%self to the 'osition, and in 49/. a second revolution drove hi% into eGile, a sca'egoat for the

afflictions of his kingdo% Bavarian then gave 'lace to !ane, yet the afflictions continued 8n 499. >ing George had been nineteen years on the throne246 $ithout any ha''ier fortune than his 'redecessorEs 8t is true that the frontiers of the kingdo% had been so%e$hat eGtended Great Britain had 'resented the ne$ sovereign $ith the 8onian 8slands as an inaugural gift, and the Berlin 7onference had recently added the 'rovince of Thessaly &et the %ajor 'art of the Greek race still a$aited liberation fro% the Turkish yoke, and regarded the national kingdo%, chronically inca'acitated by the t$in 'lagues of brigandage and bankru'tcy, $ith increasing disillusion%ent The kingdo% of #ellas see%ed to have failed in its %ission altogether 2Footnote 4* >ing George, like >ing +tto, $as only seventeen years old $hen he received his cro$n 6 @hat $as the eG'lanation of this failureF 8t $as that the very nature of the %ission 'aralysed the state fro% taking the ste's essential to its acco%'lish%ent The 'heno%enon has been, unha''ily, only too fa%iliar in the Nearer East, and any one $ho travelled in the Balkans in 499., or even so recently as 4;4., %ust at once have beco%e a$are of it =ntil a nation has co%'letely vindicated its right to eGist, it is hard for it to settle do$n and %ake its life $orth living @e nations of $estern Euro'e Abefore disaster fell u'on usB had learnt to take our eGistence for granted, and EPoliticsE for us had co%e to %ean an organiDed effort to i%'rove the internal econo%y of our co%%unity But a foreigner $ho 'icked u' a Greek ne$s'a'er $ould have found in it none of the %atter $ith $hich he $as fa%iliar in his o$n, no discussion of financial 'olicy, econo%ic develo'%ent, or social reconstruction The ne$s(colu%ns $ould have been %ono'oliDed by foreign 'olitics, and in the cafes he $ould have heard the latest oscillation in the international balance of 'o$er canvassed $ith the sa%e intense and %inute interest that English%en in a rail$ay(carriage $ould have been devoting to +ld Age Pensions, National #ealth 8nsurance, or )and ?aluation #e $ould have been a%aDed by a

dis'lay of inti%ate kno$ledge such as no British Cuidnunc could have %ustered if he had ha''ened to stu%ble across these intricacies of international co%'etition, and the conversation $ould al$ays have ter%inated in the sa%e unans$ered but inconscionable challenge to the future* E@hen $ill the o''ressed %ajority of our race esca'e the Turkish yokeF 8f the +tto%an do%inion is destroyed, $hat redistribution of its 'rovinces $ill follo$F ,hall $e then achieve our national unity, or $ill our Balkan neighbours encroach u'on the inheritance $hich is justly oursFE This 'reoccu'ation $ith events beyond the frontiers $as not caused by any lack of vital 'roble%s $ithin the% The ar%y $as the %ost cons'icuous object of 'ublic activity, but it $as not an aggressive s'eculation, or an invest%ent of national 'rofits deliberately calculated to bring in one day a larger return 8t $as a necessity of life, and its efficiency $as barely %aintained out of the national 'overty 8n fact, it $as al%ost the only 'ublic utility $ith $hich the nation could afford to 'rovide itself, and the traveller fro% Great Britain $ould have been a%aDed again at the %iserable state of all re'roductive 'ublic $orks The rail$ays $ere fe$ and far bet$een, their routes roundabout, and their rolling(stock scanty, so that trains $ere both rare and slo$ @heel(roads $ere no co%%oner a feature in Greece than rail$ays are here, and such stretches as had been constructed had often never co%e into use, because they had just failed to reach their goal or $ere still $aiting for their bridges, so that they $ere si%'ly falling into decay and converting the outlay of ca'ital u'on the% into a dead loss The Peiraeus $as the only 'ort in the country $here stea%ers could co%e alongside a Cuay, and discharge their cargoes directly on shore Else$here, the vessel %ust anchor %any cablesE lengths out, and de'end on the slo$ and eG'ensive services of lighters, for lack of 'ier construction and dredging o'erations For eGa%'le, >ala%ata, the econo%ic outlet for the richest 'art of Pelo'onnesos, and the fifth largest 'ort in the kingdo%,246 $as and still re%ains a %ere o'en roadstead, $here all shi's that call are ke't at a distance by the silt fro% a %ountain torrent, and so 'laced in i%%inent danger of being driven, by the first stor%, u'on the rocks of a neighbouring 'eninsula

2Footnote 4* The four chief 'orts being Peiraeus, Patras, ,yra, and ?olos 6 These grave shortco%ings $ere doubtless due in 'art to the geogra'hical character of the country, though it $as clear, fro% $hat had actually been acco%'lished, that it $ould have been both 'ossible and 'rofitable to atte%'t %uch %ore, if the nationEs energy could have been secured for the $ork But it is hard to tinker at details $hen you are ke't in a 'er'etual fever by a Cuestion of life and death, and the great 'reli%inary Cuestions of national unity and self(govern%ent re%ained still unsettled Before these su're%e 'roble%s all other interests 'aled, for they $ere no $ill(oE(the($is's of theoretical 'olitics 8t needs a long 'olitical education to a''reciate abstract ideas, and the Greeks $ere still in their 'olitical infancy, but the realiDation of Greater Greece i%'lied for the% the satisfaction of all their concrete needs at once ,o long as the Istatus CuoI endured, they $ere isolated fro% the rest of Euro'e by an unbroken band of Turkish territory, stretching fro% the Aegean to the Adriatic ,ea @hat $as the use of overco%ing great engineering difficulties to build a line of Euro'ean gauge fro% Athens right u' to the northern frontier, if Turkey refused to sanction the construction of the tiny section that %ust 'ass through her territory bet$een the Greek railhead and the actual ter%inus of the Euro'ean syste% at ,alonikaF +r if, even su''osing she $ithdre$ her veto, she $ould have it in her 'o$er to bring 'ressure on Greece at any %o%ent by threatening to sever co%%unications along this vital arteryF ,o long as Turkey $as there, Greece $as 'ractically an island, and her only co%%unication $ith continental Euro'e lay through her 'orts But $hat use to i%'rove the 'orts, $hen the recovery of ,alonika, the fairest object of the national drea%s, $ould ulti%ately change the countryEs econo%ic centre of gravity, and %ake her %ariti%e as $ell as her overland co%%erce flo$ along Cuite other channels than the 'resentF

Thus the Greek nationEs 'resent $as overshado$ed by its future, and its actions 'aralysed by its ho'es Perha's a nation $ith %ore 'o$er of a''lication and less of i%agination $ould have schooled itself to the thought that these sordid, obtrusive details $ere the key to the s'lendours of the future, and $ould have devoted itself to the syste%atic a%elioration of the cra%'ed area $hich it had already secured for its o$n This is $hat Bulgaria %anaged to do during her short but $onderful 'eriod of internal gro$th bet$een the Berlin Treaty of 4959 and the declaration of $ar against Turkey in 4;4. But Bulgaria, thanks to her geogra'hical situation, $as fro% the outset freer fro% the tentacles of the Turkish octo'us than Greece had contrived to %ake herself by her fifty yearsE start, $hile her te%'era%entally sober a%bitions $ere not infla%ed by such 'ast traditions as Greece had inherited, not altogether to her advantage Be that as it %ay, Greece, $hether by fault or %isfortune, had failed during this half(century to a''ly herself successfully to the cure of her defects and the eG'loitation of her assets, though she did not lack leaders strong(%inded enough to su%%on her to the dull business of the 'resent #er history during the succeeding generation $as a struggle bet$een the 'arties of the Present and the Future, and the unceasing disco%fiture of the for%er is ty'ified in the tragedy of Trikou'is, the greatest %odern Greek states%an before the advent of ?eneDelos Trikou'is ca%e into 'o$er in 499., just after the acCuisition of the rich agricultural 'rovince of Thessaly under the Treaty of Berlin had given the kingdo% a fresh start There $ere no such continuous areas of good arable land $ithin the original frontiers, and such rare 'atches as there $ere had been desolated by those eight years of savage $arfare246 $hich had been the 'rice of liberty The 'o'ulation had been s$e't a$ay by $holesale %assacres of racial %inorities in every districtH the dearth of industrious hands had allo$ed the torrents to 'lay havoc $ith the cultivation(terraces on the %ountain slo'esH and the s'ectre of %alaria, al$ays lying in $ait for its o''ortunity, had clai%ed the $aterlogged 'lains for its o$n !uring the fifty years of stagnation little atte%'t

had been %ade to co'e $ith the evil, until no$ it see%ed al%ost 'ast re%edy 2Footnote 4* 49.4(.96 8f, ho$ever, the surface of the land offered little 'ros'ect of $ealth for the %o%ent, there $ere considerable treasures to be found beneath it A %etalliferous bolt runs do$n the $hole east coast of the Greek %ainland, cro''ing u' again in %any of the Aegean islands, and so%e of the ores, of $hich there is a great variety, are rare and valuable The lack of transit facilities is 'artly re%edied by the fact that $orkable veins often lie near enough to the sea for the 'roduce to be carried straight fro% %ine to shi', by an endless(chain syste% of overhead trolleysH so that, once ca'ital is secured for installing the 'lant and o'ening the %ine, 'rofitable o'erations can be carried on irres'ective of the general econo%ic condition of the country Trikou'is sa$ ho$ %uch 'otential $ealth $as locked u' in these %ineral sea%s The 'roble% $as ho$ to attract the ca'ital necessary to ta' it The nucleus round $hich have accu%ulated those i%%ense %asses of %obilised ca'ital that are the life(blood of %odern Euro'ean industry and co%%erce, $as originally derived fro% the sur'lus 'rofits of agriculture But a country that finds itself reduced, like Greece in the nineteenth century, to a state of agricultural bankru'tcy, has obviously failed to save any sur'lus in the 'rocess, so that it is unable to 'rovide fro% its o$n 'ocket the %ini%u% outlay it so urgently needs in order to o'en for itself so%e ne$ activity 8f it is to obtain a fresh start on other lines, it %ust secure the co(o'eration of the foreign investor, and the ca'italist $ith a ready %arket for his %oney $ill only 'ut it into enter'rises $here he has so%e guarantee of its safety There $as little doubt that the %inerals of Greece $ould $ell re'ay eGtractionH the uncertain ele%ent $as the Greek nation itself The burning Cuestion of national unity %ight break out at any %o%ent into a blaDe of $ar, and, in the 'robable case of disaster, involve the $hole country and all interests connected $ith it in econo%ic as $ell as 'olitical ruin @estern Euro'e $ould not co%%it itself to Greek %ining

enter'rise, unless it felt confident that the states%an res'onsible for the govern%ent of Greece $ould and could restrain his country fro% its instinctive i%'ulse to$ards 'olitical adventure The great %erit of Trikou'is $as that he %anaged to ins'ire this confidence Greece o$es %ost of the $heelroads, rail$ays, and %ines of $hich she can no$ boast to the doDen years of his %ore or less consecutive ad%inistration But the roads are unfinished, the rail$ay(net$ork inco%'lete, the %ines eG'loited only to a fraction of their ca'acity, because the forces against Trikou'is $ere in the end too strong for hi% 8t %ay be that his eye too rigidly follo$ed the foreign investorEs 'oint of vie$, and that by ado'ting a %ore conciliatory attitude to$ards the national ideal, he %ight have strengthened his 'osition at ho%e $ithout i%'airing his re'utation abroadH but his 'osition $as really %ade i%'ossible by a force Cuite beyond his control, the irres'onsible and often intolerable behaviour $hich Turkey, under $hatever rPgi%e, has al$ays 'ractised to$ards foreign 'o$ers, and es'ecially to$ards those Balkan states $hich have $on their freedo% in her des'ite, $hile 'erforce abandoning a large 'ro'ortion of their race to the 'rotracted outrage of Turkish %isgovern%ent ,everal ti%es over the Porte, by $anton insults to Greece, $recked the efforts of Trikou'is to establish good relations bet$een the t$o govern%ents, and 'layed the ga%e of the chauvinist 'arty led by Trikou'isE rival, !eliyannis !eliyannisE tenures of office $ere al$ays brief, but during the% he contrived to undo %ost of the $ork acco%'lished by Trikou'is in the 'revious intervals A 'articularly tense EincidentE $ith Turkey 'ut hi% in 'o$er in 49;J, $ith a strong enough backing fro% the country to $arrant a general %obiliDation The sole result $as the ruin of Greek credit Trikou'is $as hastily recalled to office by the king, but too late #e found hi%self unable to retrieve the ruin, and retired altogether fro% 'olitics in 49;:, dying abroad neGt year in voluntary eGile and enforced disillusion%ent

@ith the re%oval of Trikou'is fro% the hel%, Greece ran straight u'on the rocks A disastrous $ar $ith Turkey $as 'reci'itated in 49;5 by events in >rete 8t brought the i%%ediate IdPb^cleI of the ar%y and the reoccu'ation of Thessaly for a year by Turkish troo's, $hile its final 'enalties $ere the cession of the chief strategical 'ositions along the northern frontier and the i%'osition of an international co%%ission of control over the Greek finances, in vie$ of the co%'lete national bankru'tcy entailed by the $ar The fifteen years that follo$ed 49;: $ere al%ost the blackest 'eriod in %odern Greek historyH yet the ti%e $as not altogether lost, and such events as the draining of the >o'ais(basin by a British co%'any, and its conversion fro% a %alarious s$a%' into a rich agricultural area, %arked a 'erce'tible econo%ic advance This co%'arative stagnation $as broken at last by the &oung Turk I'ronuncia%ientoI at ,alonika in 4;09, $hich 'roduced such %o%entous re'ercussions all through the Nearer East The &oung Turks had struck in order to forestall the dissolution of the +tto%an E%'ire, but the o''ortunity $as seiDed by every restive ele%ent $ithin it to eGtricate itself, if 'ossible, fro% the Turkish coils No$, just as in 49;5, Greece $as directly affected by the action of the Greek 'o'ulation in >rete As a result of the revolt of 49;/(5, >rete had been constituted an autono%ous state subject to +tto%an suDerainty, autono%y and suDerainty alike being guaranteed by four great 'o$ers Prince George of Greece, a son of the >ing of the #ellenes, had been 'laced at the head of the autono%ous govern%ent as high co%%issionerH but his autocratic tendency caused great discontent a%ong the free(s'irited >retans, $ho had not rid the%selves of the Turkish rPgi%e in order to forfeit their inde'endence again in another fashion !issension cul%inated in 4;0/, $hen the leaders of the o''osition took to the %ountains, and obtained such su''ort and success in the guerrilla fighting that follo$ed, that they forced Prince George to tender his resignation #e $as succeeded as high co%%issioner by Kai%is, another citiDen of the Greek kingdo%, $ho inaugurated a %ore constitutional rPgi%e, and in 4;09 the >retans believed that the %o%ent for realiDing the national ideal had co%e They 'roclai%ed their union $ith Greece, and

elected de'uties to the Parlia%ent at Athens But the guarantor 'o$ers carried out their obligations by 'ro%'tly sending a co%bined naval eG'edition, $hich hauled do$n the Greek flag at 7anea, and 'revented the de'uties fro% e%barking for Peiraeus This a''arently 'edantic insistence u'on the Istatus CuoI $as eGtre%ely eGas'erating to Greek nationalis% 8t 'roduced a fer%ent in the kingdo%, $hich gre$ steadily for nine %onths, and vented itself in July 4;0; in the Icou' dEPtatI of the E"ilitary )eagueE, a second(hand i%itation of the Turkish E7o%%ittee of =nion and ProgressE The royal fa%ily $as cavalierly treated, and constitutional govern%ent su'erseded by a junta of officers But at this 'oint the 'olicy of the four 'o$ers to$ards >rete $as justified Turkey kne$ $ell that she had lost >rete in 49;5, but she could still eG'loit her suDerainty to 'revent Greece fro% gaining ne$ strength by the anneGation of the island The &oung Turks had seiDed the reins of govern%ent, not to %odify the 'olicy of the Porte, but to intensify its chauvinis%, and they accordingly inti%ated that they $ould consider any violation of their suDerain rights over >rete a Icasus belliI against Greece Greece, $ithout ar%y or allies, $as obviously not in a 'osition to incur another $ar, and the E"ilitary )eagueE thus found that it had reached the end of its tether There ensued a deadlock of another eight %onths, only enlivened by a naval %utiny, during $hich the country lay 'aralysed, $ith no 'rogra%%e $hatsoever before it Then the %an de%anded by the situation a''eared uneG'ectedly fro% the centre of disturbance, >rete ?eneDelos started life as a successful advocate at 7anea #e entered >retan 'olitics in the struggle for constitutionalis%, and distinguished hi%self in the successful revolution of 4;0/, of $hich he $as the soul Naturally, he beca%e one of the leading states%en under Kai%isE rPgi%e, and he further distinguished hi%self by resolutely o''osing the E=nionistE agitation as 're%ature, and yet retaining his hold over a 'eo'le $hose 'ara%ount 'olitical 'reoccu'ation $as their national unity The crisis of 4;09(; brought hi% into close relations $ith the govern%ent of the Greek kingdo%H and the king, $ho had gauged his calibre, no$ took the 'atriotic ste' of calling in the %an $ho

had eG'elled his son fro% >rete, to 'ut his o$n house in order 8t s'eaks %uch for both %en that they $orked together in har%ony fro% the beginning ='on the royal invitation ?eneDelos eGchanged >retan for Greek citiDenshi', and took in hand the E"ilitary )eagueE After short negotiations, he 'ersuaded it to dissolve in favour of a national convention, $hich $as able to %eet in "arch 4;40 Thus Greece beca%e a constitutional country once %ore, and ?eneDelos the first 're%ier of the ne$ era !uring five years of continuous office he $as to 'rove hi%self the good genius of his country @hen he resigned his 'ost in A'ril 4;4:, he left the $ork of consolidating the national state on the verge of co%'letion, and it $ill be his countryEs loss if he is baulked of achieve%ent -esults s'eak for the%selves, and the re%ainder of this 'a%'hlet $ill be little %ore than a record of his states%anshi'H but before $e 'ass on to revie$ his deeds, $e %ust say a $ord about the character to $hich they are due 8n "arch 4;4. the ti%e ca%e for the first general election since ?eneDelos had taken office T$o yearsE eG'erience of his ad%inistration had already $on hi% such 'o'ularity and 'restige, that the old 'arty grou's, 'urely 'ersonal follo$ings infected $ith all the corru'tion, jingois%, and insincerity of the dark fifteen years, leagued the%selves in a des'erate effort to cast hi% out 7orru'tion on a grand scale $as atte%'ted, but ?eneDelosE success at the 'olls $as s$ee'ing The $riter ha''ened to be s'ending that %onth in >rete The >retans had, of course, elected de'uties in good ti%e to the 'arlia%ent at Athens, and once %ore the foreign $arshi's sto''ed the% in the act of boarding the stea%er for Peiraeus, $hile ?eneDelos, $ho $as still res'onsible for the Greek Govern%ent till the ne$ 'arlia%ent %et, had declared $ith characteristic frankness that the attendance of the >retan de'uties could not 'ossibly be sanctioned, an o'ening of $hich his o''onents did not fail to take advantage "ean$hile, every one in >rete $as a$aiting ne$s of the 'olling in the kingdo% They %ight have been eG'ected to feel, at any rate, luke$ar%ly to$ards a %an $ho had actually taken office on the 'rogra%%e of deferring their cherished EunionE indefinitelyH but, on the contrary, they greeted his triu%'h $ith enor%ous

enthusias% Their feeling $as eG'lained by the co%%ent of an innkee'er E?eneDelos_E he said* E@hy, he is a %an $ho can say SNoS #e $onEt stand any nonsense 8f you try to get round hi%, heEll 'ut you in irons E And clearly he had hit the %ark ?eneDelos $ould in any case have done $ell, because he is a clever %an $ith an eGcellent 'o$er of judge%entH but acuteness is a co%%on Greek virtue, and if he has done brilliantly, it is because he has the added touch of genius reCuired to %ake the Greek take ENoE for an ans$er, a Cuality, very rare indeed in the nation, $hich eG'lains the dra%atic contrast bet$een his success and Trikou'isE failure Greece has been fortunate indeed in finding the right %an at the crucial hour 8n the $inter of 4;44(4. and the succeeding su%%er, the foreign traveller %et innu%erable results of ?eneDelosE activity in every 'art of the country, and all gave evidence of the sa%e thing* a sane judge%ent and its infleGible eGecution For instance, a resident in Greece had needed an escort of soldiers four years before, $hen he %ade an eG'edition into the $ild country north($est of the Gulf of Patras, on account of the nu%ber of cri%inals E$antedE by the govern%ent $ho $ere lurking in that region as outla$s 8n August 4;4. an inCuiry concerning this danger $as %et $ith a s%ile* E+h, yes, it $as so,E said the gendar%e, Ebut since then ?eneDelos has co%e #e a%nestied every one SoutS for %inor offences, and then caught the Sreally bad onesS, so there are no outla$s in Akarnania no$ E And he s'oke the truth &ou could $ander all about the forests and %ountains $ithout %olestation ,o far ?eneDelos had devoted hi%self to internal reconstruction, after the 'recedent of Trikou'is, but he $as not the %an to desert the national idea The ar%y and navy $ere reorganiDed by French and British %issions, and $hen the o''ortunity a''eared, he $as ready to take full advantage of it 8n the autu%n of 4;4., Turkey had been for a year at $ar $ith 8talyH her finances had suffered a heavy drain, and the 8talian co%%and of the sea not only locked u' her best troo's in Tri'oli, but interru'ted such i%'ortant lines of co%%unication bet$een her Asiatic and Euro'ean

'rovinces as the direct route by sea fro% ,%yrna to ,alonika, and the devious sea('assage thence round Greece to ,cutari, $hich $as the only alternative for Turkish troo's to running the gauntlet of the Albanian %ountaineers 7learly the Balkan nations could find no better %o%ent for striking the blo$ to settle that i%'lacable E'reli%inary Cuestion E of national unity $hich had dogged the% all since their birth Their only chance of success, ho$ever, $as to strike in concert, for Turkey, handica''ed though she $as, could still easily out%atch the% singly =nless they could co%'ro%ise bet$een their conflicting clai%s, they $ould have to let this co%%on o''ortunity for %aking the% good sli' by altogether +f the four states concerned, t$o, ,erbia and "ontenegro, $ere of the sa%e ,outh(,lavonic nationality, and had been dra$n into co%'lete accord $ith each other since the for%al anneGation of Bosnia by Austria(#ungary in 4;09, $hich struck a hard blo$ at their co%%on national idea, $hile neither of the% had any conflicting clai%s $ith Greece, since the Greek and ,outh(,lavonic nationalities are at no 'oint geogra'hically in contact @ith Bulgaria, a nation of ,lavonic s'eech and culture, though not $holly ,lavonic in origin, ,erbia had Cuarrelled for years over the ulti%ate destiny of the TskRb district in north($estern "acedonia, $hich $as still subject to TurkeyH but in the su%%er of 4;4. the t$o states co%'ro%ised in a secret treaty u'on their res'ective territorial a%bitions, and agreed to refer the fate of one debatable stri' to the arbitration of -ussia, after their already 'rojected $ar $ith Turkey had been carried through There $as a %ore for%idable conflict of interests bet$een Bulgaria and Greece These t$o nationalities are conter%inous over a very $ide eGtent of territory, stretching fro% the Black ,ea on the east to the inland )ake of +khrida on the $est, and there is at no 'oint a shar' dividing line bet$een the% The Greek ele%ent tends to 'redo%inate to$ards the coast and the Bulgar to$ards the interior, but there are broad Dones $here Greek and Bulgar villages are ineGtricably inters'ersed, $hile 'urely Greek to$ns are often isolated in the %idst of 'urely Bulgar rural districts Even if the racial areas could be 'lotted out on a large(scale

%a', it $as clear that no 'olitical frontier could be dra$n to follo$ their convolutions, and that Greece and Bulgaria could only divide the s'oils by both %aking u' their %inds to give and take The actual lines this necessary co%'ro%ise $ould follo$, obviously de'ended on the degree of the alliesE success against Turkey in the co%%on $ar that $as yet to be fought, and ?eneDelos rose to the occasion #e had the courage to offer Bulgaria the Greek alliance $ithout sti'ulating for any definite %ini%u% share in the co%%on conCuests, and the tact to induce her to acce't it on the sa%e ter%s Greece and Bulgaria agreed to shelve all territorial Cuestions till the $ar had been brought to a successful closeH and $ith the negotiation of this understanding Aanother case in $hich ?eneDelos achieved $hat Trikou'is had atte%'ted only to failB the Balkan )eague $as co%'lete The events that follo$ed are co%%on kno$ledge The Balkan allies o'ened the ca%'aign in +ctober, and the Turks colla'sed before an i%'etuous attack The Bulgarians cru%'led u' the +tto%an field ar%ies in Thrace at the terrific battle of )ule BurgasH the ,erbians dis'osed of the forces in the "acedonian interior, $hile the Greeks effected a junction $ith the ,erbians fro% the south, and cut their $ay through to ,alonika @ithin t$o %onths of the declaration of $ar, the Turks on land had been driven out of the o'en altogether behind the shelter of the 7hataldja and Galli'oli lines, and only three fortresses((Adriano'le, &annina, and ,cutari((held out further to the $est Their navy, closely blockaded by the Greek fleet $ithin the !ardanelles, had to look on 'assively at the successive occu'ation of the Aegean 8slands by Greek landing('arties @ith the $inter ca%e negotiations, during $hich an ar%istice reigned at Adriano'le and ,cutari, $hile the Greeks 'ursued the siege of &annina and the !ardanelles blockade The negotiations 'roved abortive, and the result of the rene$ed hostilities justified the action of the Balkan 'leni'otentiaries in breaking the% off By the s'ring of 4;4J the three fortresses had fallen, and, under the treaty finally signed at )ondon, Turkey ceded to the Balkan )eague, as a $hole, all her Euro'ean territories $est of a line dra$n fro% Ainos on the Aegean to "id\a on the Black ,ea, including Adriano'le and

the lo$er basin of the river "aritsa The ti%e had no$ co%e for Greece and Bulgaria to settle their account, and the uneG'ected eGtent of the co%%on gains ought to have facilitated their division The territory in Cuestion included the $hole north coast of the Aegean and its i%%ediate hinterland, and ?eneDelos 'ro'osed to consider it in t$o sections A4B The eastern section, conveniently kno$n as Thrace, consisted of the lo$er basin of the "aritsa As far as Adriano'le the 'o'ulation $as Bulgar, but south of that city it $as succeeded by a Greek ele%ent, $ith a considerable s'rinkling of Turkish settle%ents, as far as the sea Geogra'hically, ho$ever, the $hole district is inti%ately connected $ith Bulgaria, and the rail$ay that follo$s the course of the "aritsa do$n to the 'ort of !edeagatch offers a %uch(needed econo%ic outlet for large regions already $ithin the Bulgarian frontier ?eneDelos, then, $as 're'ared to resign all Greek clai%s to the eastern section, in return for a corres'onding concession by Bulgaria in the $est A.B The $estern section, consisting of the lo$er basins of the ?ardar and ,tru%a, lay in the i%%ediate neighbourhood of the for%er frontier of GreeceH but the Greek 'o'ulation of ,alonika,246 and the coast(districts east of it, could not be brought $ithin the Greek frontier $ithout including as $ell a certain hinterland inhabited %ainly by Bulgarians The cession of this $as the return asked for by ?eneDelos, and he reduced it to a %ini%u% by abstaining fro% 'ressing the Cuite $ell(founded clai%s of Greece in the "onastir district, $hich lay further inland still 2Footnote 4* The 'redo%inant ele%ent $ithin the $alls of ,alonika itself is neither Greek nor Bulgarian, but consists of about 90,000 of those ,'anish(s'eaking Je$s $ho settled in Turkey as refugees during the siGteenth century 6 But ?eneDelosE conciliatory 'ro'osals %et $ith no res'onse fro% the Bulgarian Govern%ent, $hich $as in an Eall or nothingE %ood 8t s$allo$ed ?eneDelosE gift of Thrace, and then 'roceeded to eG'loit the Bulgar hinterland of ,alonika as a 'reteGt for de%anding the latter city as $ell

This unco%'ro%ising attitude %ade agree%ent i%'ossible, and it $as aggravated by the aggressive action of the Bulgarian troo's in the occu'ied territory, $ho 'ersistently endeavoured to steal ground fro% the Greek forces facing the% 8n "ay there $as serious fighting to the east of the ,tru%a, and 'eace $as only restored $ith difficulty Bulgarian relations $ith ,erbia $ere beco%ing strained at the sa%e ti%e, though in this case Bulgaria had %ore justice on her side ,erbia %aintained that the veto i%'osed by Austria u'on her eG'ansion to the Adriatic, in coincidence $ith BulgariaEs uneG'ected gains on the "aritsa to $hich ,erbian ar%s had contributed, invalidated the secret treaty of the 'revious su%%er, and she announced her intention of retaining the "onastir district and the line of the ,alonika rail$ay as far as the future frontier of Greece Bulgaria, on the other hand, shut her eyes to ,erbiaEs necessity for an untra%%elled econo%ic outlet to one sea(board or the other, and took her stand on her strictly legal treaty(rights #o$ever the balance of justice inclined, a lasting settle%ent could only have been reached by %utual forbearance and good$illH but Bulgaria 'ut herself ho'elessly in the $rong to$ards both her allies by a treacherous night(attack u'on the% all along the line, at the end of June 4;4J This disastrous act $as the $ork of a single 'olitical 'arty, $hich has since been conde%ned by %ost sections of Bulgarian 'ublic o'inionH but the 'unish%ent, if not the res'onsibility for the cri%e, fell u'on the $hole nation Greece and ,erbia had already been dra$n into an understanding by their co%%on danger They no$ declared $ar against Bulgaria in concert The counter(strokes of their ar%ies %et $ith success, and the intervention of -u%ania %ade BulgariaEs disco%fiture certain The results of the one %onthEs $ar $ere registered in the Treaty of Bucarest "any of its 'rovisions $ere unha''ily, though naturally, ins'ired by the s'irit of revengeH but the Greek 're%ier, at any rate, sho$ed a states%anlike self(restraint in the negotiations ?eneDelos advocated the course of taking no %ore after the $ar than had been de%anded before it #e desired to leave Bulgaria a broad Done of Aegean littoral bet$een the ,tru%a and "aritsa rivers, including 'orts ca'able of

satisfying BulgariaEs 'ressing need for an outlet to$ards the south But, in the eGas'erated state of 'ublic feeling, even ?eneDelosE 'restige failed to carry through his 'olicy in its full %oderation >ing George had just been assassinated in his year of jubilee, in the streets of the long(desired ,alonikaH and >ing 7onstantine, his son, flushed by the victory of >ilkish and encouraged by the "achiavellian di'lo%acy of his #ohenDollern brother(in(la$, insisted on carrying the ne$ Greek frontier as far east as the river "esta, and de'riving Bulgaria of >avala, the natural harbour for the $hole Bulgarian hinterland in the u''er basins of the "esta and ,tru%a 8t is true that Greece did not eGact as %uch as she %ight have done Bulgaria $as still allo$ed to 'ossess herself of a coastal stri' east of the "esta, containing the tolerable harbours of Porto )agos and !edeagatch, $hich had been occu'ied during hostilities by the Greek fleet, and thus her need for an Aegean outlet $as not left unsatisfied altogetherH $hile Greece on her 'art $as cleverly shielded for the future fro% those dra$backs involved in i%%ediate contact $ith Turkish territory, $hich she had so often eG'erienced in the 'ast 8t is also true that the >avala district is of great econo%ic value in itself((it 'roduces the better 'art of the Turkish -Pgie tobacco cro'((and that on grounds of nationality alone Bulgaria has no clai% to this 'riDe, since the tobacco(gro$ing 'easantry is al%ost eGclusively Greek or Turk, $hile the Greek ele%ent has been eGtensively reinforced during the last t$o years by refugees fro% Anatolia and Thrace Nevertheless, it is already clear that ?eneDelosE judge%ent $as the better The settle%ent at the close of the 'resent $ar %ay even yet bring Bulgaria re'aration in %any Cuarters 8f the -u%an and ,outh ,lavonic 'o'ulations at 'resent included in the co%'leGus of Austria(#ungary are freed fro% their i%'rison%ent and united $ith the ,erbian and -u%anian national states, Bulgaria %ay conceivably recover fro% the latter those Bulgarian lands $hich the Treaty of Bucarest %ade over to the% in central "acedonia and the !obrudja, $hile it $ould be still %ore feasible to oust

the Turk again fro% Adriano'le, $here he sli''ed back in the hour of BulgariaEs 'rostration and has succeeded in %aintaining hi%self ever since &et no a%ount of co%'ensation in other directions and no abstract consideration for the national 'rinci'le $ill induce Bulgaria to renounce her clai% on Greek >avala Access to this district is vital to Bulgaria fro% the geogra'hical 'oint of vie$, and she $ill not be satisfied here $ith such rights as ,erbia enjoys at ,alonika((free use of the 'ort and free traffic along a rail$ay connecting it $ith her o$n hinterland #er heart is set on co%'lete territorial o$nershi', and she $ill not co%'ose her feud $ith Greece until she has had her $ay ,o long, therefore, as the Cuestion of >avala re%ains unsettled, Greece $ill not be able to 'ut the 'reli%inary 'roble% of Enational consolidationE behind her, and enter u'on the long(deferred cha'ter of Einternal develo'%entE To acco%'lish once for all this vital transition, ?eneDelos is taking the hel% again into his hands, and it is his evident intention to close the Greek account $ith Bulgaria just as ,erbia and -u%ania ho'e to close theirs $ith the sa%e state((by a bold territorial concession conditional u'on adeCuate territorial co%'ensation else$here 246 2Footnote 4* The above 'aragra'h betrays its o$n dateH for, since it $as $ritten, the intervention of Bulgaria on the side of the 7entral Po$ers has deferred indefinitely the ho'e of a settle%ent based u'on %utual agree%ent 6 The 'ossibility of such co%'ensation is offered by certain outstanding 'roble%s directly de'endent u'on the issue of the Euro'ean conflict, and $e %ust glance briefly at these before 'assing on to consider the ne$ cha'ter of internal history that is o'ening for the Greek nation The 'roble%s in Cuestion are 'rinci'ally concerned $ith the o$nershi' of islands

The integrity of a land(frontier is guaranteed by the $hole strength of the nation included $ithin it, and can only be %odified by a struggle for eGistence $ith the neighbor on $ho% it bordersH but islands by their geogra'hical nature constitute inde'endent 'olitical units, easily detached fro% or incor'orated $ith larger do%ains, according to the %o%entary fluctuation in the balance of sea('o$er Thus it ha''ened that the arrival of the IGoebenI and IBreslauI at the !ardanelles in August 4;41 led Turkey to reo'en 'ro%'tly certain Cuestions concerning the Aegean The islands in this sea are unifor%ly Greek in 'o'ulation, but their res'ective geogra'hical 'ositions and 'olitical fortunes differentiate the% into several grou's 4 The 7yclades in the south($est, half sub%erged vanguards of %ountain ranges in continental Greece, have for%ed 'art of the %odern kingdo% fro% its birth, and their status has never since been called into Cuestion . >rete, the largest of all Greek islands, has been dealt $ith already ,he enjoyed autono%y under Turkish suDerainty for fifteen years before the Balkan @ar, and at its outbreak she once %ore 'roclai%ed her union $ith Greece This ti%e at last her action $as legaliDed, $hen Turkey eG'ressly abandoned her suDerain rights by a clause in the Treaty of )ondon J !uring the $ar itself, the Greek navy occu'ied a nu%ber of islands $hich had re%ained till then under the %ore direct govern%ent of Turkey, The 'arties to the Treaty of )ondon agreed to leave their destiny to the decision of the 'o$ers, and the latter assigned the% all to Greece, $ith the eGce'tion of 8%bros and Tenedos $hich co%%and strategically the %outh of the !ardanelles The islands thus secured to Greece fall in turn into several sub(grou's T$o of these are IAaBI Thasos, ,a%othraki, and )e%nos, off the Euro'ean coast, and IAbBI ,a%os and its satellite NikariW, i%%ediately off the $est coast of AnatoliaH and these five islands see% definitely to have been

given u' by Turkey for lost The Euro'ean grou' is $ell beyond the range of her 'resent frontiersH $hile ,a%os, though it adjoins the Turkish %ainland, does not %ask the outlet fro% any considerable 'ort, and had %oreover for %any years 'ossessed the sa%e 'rivileged autono%y as >rete, so that the +tto%an Govern%ent did not acutely feel its final severance IAcBI A third grou' consists of "itylini and >hios,246 and concerning this 'air Greece and Turkey have so far co%e to no understanding The Turks 'ointed out that the littoral off $hich these islands lie contains not only the %ost indis'ensable 'orts of Anatolia but also the largest enclaves of Greek 'o'ulation on the Asiatic %ainland, and they declared that the occu'ation of this grou' by Greece %enaced the sovereignty of the Porte in its ho%e territory E,eeE, they said, Eho$ the t$o islands flank both sides of the sea('assage to ,%yrna, the ter%inus of all the rail$ays $hich 'enetrate the Anatolian interior, $hile "itylini barricades Aivali and Edre%id as $ell As soon as the Greek Govern%ent has converted the harbours of these islands into naval bases, Anatolia $ill be subject to a 'er'etual Greek blockade, and this violent inti%idation of the Turkish 'eo'le $ill be reinforced by an insidious 'ro'aganda a%ong the disloyal Greek ele%ents in our %idst E Accordingly the Turks refused to recogniDe the a$ard of the 'o$ers, and de%anded the re(establish%ent of +tto%an sovereignty in "itylini and >hios, under guarantee of an autono%y after the 'recedent of >rete and ,a%os 2Footnote 4* 8ncluding its fa%ous satellite PsarW 6 To these argu%ents and de%ands the Greeks re'lied that, neGt to >reteH these are the t$o largest, %ost $ealthy, and %ost 'o'ulous Greek islands in the AegeanH that their inhabitants ardently desire union $ith the national kingdo%H and that the Greek Govern%ent $ould hesitate to use the% as a basis for econo%ic coercion and nationalistic 'ro'aganda against Turkey, if only because the co%%erce of $estern Anatolia is al%ost eGclusively in the hands of the Greek ele%ent on the Asiatic continent Greek interests $ere 'resu%ably bound u' $ith the econo%ic 'ros'erity and

'olitical consolidation of Turkey in Asia, and the Anatolian Greeks $ould %erely have been alienated fro% their co%'atriots by any such i%'olitic %achinations EGreek sovereignty in "itylini and >hiosE, the Greeks %aintained, Edoes not threaten Turkish sovereignty on the 7ontinent But the restoration of Turkish suDerainty over the islands $ould %ost seriously endanger the liberty of their inhabitantsH for Turkish 'ro%ises are notoriously valueless, eGce't $hen they are endorsed by the guarantee of so%e 'hysically stronger 'o$er E Negotiations $ere conducted bet$een Greece and Turkey fro% these res'ective 'oints of vie$ $ithout leading to any result, and the t$o stand'oints $ere in fact irreconcilable, since either 'o$er reCuired the other to leave vital national interests at the %ercy of an ancient ene%y, $ithout undertaking to %ake corres'onding sacrifices itself The 'roble% 'robably $ould never have been solved by co%'ro%iseH but %ean$hile the situation has been entirely transfor%ed by the 'artici'ation of Turkey in the Euro'ean @ar, and the issue bet$een Greece and Turkey, like the issue bet$een Greece and Bulgaria, has been %erged in the general 'roble% of the Euro'ean settle%ent The Balkan @ar of 4;4. doo%ed the +tto%an 'o$er in Euro'e, but left its Asiatic future uni%'aired By %aking $ar against the Uuadru'le Entente, Turkey has staked her eGistence on both continents, and is threatened $ith 'olitical eGtinction if the 7entral Po$ers succu%b in the struggle 8n this event Greece $ill no longer have to acco%%odate her rPgi%e in the liberated islands to the susce'tibilities of a Turkey consolidated on the o''osite %ainland, but $ill be able to stretch out her hand over the Anatolian coast and its hinterland, and co%'ensate herself richly in this Cuarter for the territorial sacrifices $hich %ay still be necessary to a lasting understanding $ith her Bulgarian neighbour The shores that do%inate the !ardanelles $ill naturally re%ain beyond her gras', but she %ay eG'ect to establish herself on the $estern littoral fro% a 'oint as far north as "ount 8da and the 'lain of Edre%id The Greek

coast(to$n of Aivali $ill be hers, and the still %ore i%'ortant focus of Greek co%%erce and civiliDation at ,%yrnaH $hile she $ill 'ush her do%inion along the rail$ays that radiate fro% ,%yrna to$ards the interior ,outh(east$ard, Aidin $ill be hers in the valley of the "endere A"aiandrosB !ue east$ard she $ill re(ba'tiDe the glistening city of Ala ,hehr $ith its ancient na%e of Philadel'hia, under $hich it held out heroically for #ellenis% %any years after Aidin had beco%e the ca'ital of a "osle% 'rinci'ality and the Turkish avalanche had rolled 'ast it to the sea "aybe she $ill follo$ the rail$ay still further inland, and 'lant her flag on the Black 7astle of Afiun, the natural rail$ay(centre of Anatolia high u' on the inner%ost 'lateau All this and %ore $as once #ellenic ground, and the Turkish inco%er, for all his vitality, has never been able here to obliterate the older culture or assi%ilate the earlier 'o'ulation 8n this $estern region Turkish villages are still inters'ersed $ith Greek, and under the govern%ent of co%'atriots the unconCuerable %inority $ould inevitably reassert itself by the 'eaceful $ea'ons of its su'erior energy and intelligence 1 8f Greece realiDes these as'irations through ?eneDelosE states%anshi', she $ill have settled in conjunction her outstanding accounts $ith both Bulgaria and TurkeyH but a fourth grou' of islands still re%ains for consideration, and these, though for%erly the 'ro'erty of Turkey, are no$ in the hands of other Euro'ean 'o$ers IAaBI The first of those in Cuestion are the ,'orades, a chain of islands off the Anatolian coast $hich continues the line of "itylini, >hios, and ,a%os to$ards the south(east, and includes >os, Pat%os, Asty'aliW, >ar'athos, >asos, and, above all, -hodes The ,'orades $ere occu'ied by 8taly during her $ar $ith Turkey in 4;44(4., and she sti'ulated in the Peace of )ausanne that she should retain the% as a 'ledge until the last +tto%an soldier in Tri'oli had been $ithdra$n, after $hich she $ould %ake the% over again to the Porte The continued unrest in Tri'oli %ay or %ay not have been due to Turkish intrigues, but in any case it deferred the evacuation of the islands by 8taly until the situation $as transfor%ed

here also by the successive intervention of both 'o$ers in the Euro'ean @ar The conseCuent la'se of the Treaty of )ausanne si%'lifies the status of the ,'orades, but it is doubtful $hat effect it $ill have u'on their destiny 8n language and 'olitical sy%'athy their inhabitants are as co%'letely Greek as all the other islanders of the Aegean, and if the Uuadru'le Entente has %ade the 'rinci'le of nationality its o$n, 8taly is %orally bound, no$ that the ,'orades are at her free dis'osal, to satisfy their national as'irations by consenting to their union $ith the kingdo% of Greece +n the other hand, the 'ros'ective dissolution of the +tto%an E%'ire has increased 8talyEs stake in this Cuarter 8n the event of a 'artition, the $hole southern littoral of Anatolia $ill 'robably fall $ithin the 8talian s'here, $hich $ill start fro% the Gulf of 8skanderun, include the districts of Adana and Adalia, and %arch $ith the ne$ Anatolian 'rovinces of Greece along the line of the river "endere This continental do%ain and the adjacent islands are geogra'hically co%'le%entary to one another, and it is 'ossible that 8taly %ay for strategical reasons insist on retaining the ,'orades in 'er'etuity if she realiDes her a%bitions on the continent This solution $ould be less ideal than the other, but Greece $ould be $ise to reconcile herself to it, as 8taly has reconciled herself to the incor'oration of 7orsica in FranceH for by sub%itting frankly to this detraction fro% her national unity she $ould give her brethren in the ,'orades the best o''ortunity of develo'ing their national individuality untra%%elled under a friendly 8talian suDerainty IAbBI The advance(guard of the Greek race that inhabits the great island of 7y'rus has been subject to British govern%ent since 4959, $hen the 'rovisional occu'ation of the island by Great Britain under a contract si%ilar to that of )ausanne $as negotiated in a secret agree%ent bet$een Great Britain and Turkey on the eve of the 7onference at Berlin The condition of evacuation $as in this case the $ithdra$al of -ussia fro% >ars, and here like$ise it never beca%e o'erative till it $as abrogated by the outbreak of $ar 7y'rus, like the ,'orades, is no$ at the dis'osal of its Ide factoI 'ossessor, and on Nove%ber :, 4;41, it $as anneGed to the

British E%'ire But $hatever decision 8taly %ay take, it is to be ho'ed that our o$n govern%ent at any rate $ill not be influenced eGclusively by strategical considerations, but $ill 'roclai% an intention of allo$ing 7y'rus ulti%ately to realiDe its national as'irations by union $ith Greece 246 2Footnote 4* ,ince the above $as $ritten, this intention, under a certain condition, has definitely been eG'ressed 6 The $hole 'o'ulation of the island is Greek in language, $hile under an eGcellent British ad%inistration its 'olitical consciousness has been a$akened, and has eG'ressed itself in a gro$ing desire for national unity a%ong the 7hristian %ajority 8t is true that in 7y'rus, as in >rete, there is a considerable Greek(s'eaking %inority of "osle%s246 $ho 'refer the Istatus CuoIH but, since the barrier of language is absent, their anti'athy to union %ay not 'rove 'er%anent #o$ever i%'ortant the retention of 7y'rus %ay be to Great Britain fro% the strategical 'oint of vie$, $e shall find that even in the balance of %aterial interests it is not $orth the 'rice of alienating the sy%'athy of an a$akened and other$ise consolidated nation 2Footnote 4* 8n 7y'rus about .. 'er cent 6 This rather detailed revie$ of 'roble%s in the islands and Anatolia brings out the fact that Greek nationalis% is not an artificial conce'tion of theorists, but a real force $hich i%'els the %ost scattered and do$n(trodden 'o'ulations of Greek s'eech to travail unceasingly for 'olitical unity $ithin the national state &et by far the %ost striking eGa%'le of this attractive 'o$er in #ellenis% is the history of it in EE'irusE 246 2Footnote 4* The na%e coined to include the districts of #i%arra, Argyrokastro, and >oritsW 6

The E'irots are a 'o'ulation of Albanian race, and they still s'eak an Albanian dialect in their ho%esH $hile the $o%en and children, at any rate, often kno$ no other language But so%e$hat over a century ago the 'olitical organis% created by the re%arkable 'ersonality of Ali Pasha in the hinterland of the Adriatic coast, and the relations of Great Britain and France $ith this ne$ 'rinci'ality in the course of their struggle for the "editerranean, began to a$aken in the E'irots a desire for civiliDation Their Albanian origin o'ened to the% no 'ros'ects, for the race had neither a literature nor a co%%on historical traditionH and they accordingly turned to the Greeks, $ith $ho% they $ere linked in religion by %e%bershi' of the +rthodoG 7hurch, and in 'olitics by subjection to AliEs Govern%ent at &annina, $hich had ado'ted Greek as its official language They had a''ealed to the right CuarterH for $e have seen ho$ Greek culture accu%ulated a store of latent energy under the Turkish yoke, and $as eG'ending it at this very 'eriod in a vigorous national revival The 'artially successful @ar of )iberation in the Et$enties of the nineteenth century $as only the 'olitical %anifestation of the ne$ life 8t has eG'ressed itself %ore ty'ically in a steady and universal enthusias% for education, $hich throughout the subseCuent generations of 'olitical stagnation has al$ays o'ened to individual Greeks co%%ercial and 'rofessional careers of the greatest brilliance, and often led the% to s'end the fortunes so acCuired in endo$ing the nation $ith further educational o''ortunities Public s'irit is a Greek virtue There are fe$ villages $hich do not 'ossess %onu%ents of their successful sons, and a school is an even co%%oner gift than a churchH $hile the ,tate has su''le%ented the individual benefactor to an eGtent re%arkable $here 'ublic resources are so slender The school(house, in fact, is generally the %ost 'ro%inent and substantial building in a Greek village, and the advantage offered to the E'irots by a Ira''roche%entI $ith the Greeks is concretely sy%boliDed by the Greek schools established to(day in generous nu%bers throughout their country

For the E'irot boy the school is the door to the future The language he learns there %akes hi% the %e%ber of a nation, and o'ens to hi% a $orld $ide enough to e%'loy all the talent and energy he %ay 'ossess, if he seeks his fortune at Patras or Peiraeus, or in the great Greek co%%ercial co%%unities of AleGandria and 7onstantino'leH $hile, if he stays at ho%e, it still affords hi% a link $ith the life of civiliDed Euro'e through the %ediu% of the ubiCuitous Greek ne$s'a'er 246 The E'irot has thus beco%e Greek in soul, for he has reached the conce'tion of a national life %ore liberal than the isolated eGistence of his native village through the avenue of Greek culture E#ellenis%E and nationality have beco%e for hi% identical ideasH and $hen at last the hour of deliverance struck, he $elco%ed the Greek ar%ies that %arched into his country fro% the south and the east, after the fall of &annina in the s'ring of 4;4J, $ith the sa%e enthusias% $ith $hich all the enslaved 'o'ulations of native Greek dialect greeted the consu%%ation of a centuryEs ho'es 2Footnote 4* There is still 'ractically no literature 'rinted in the Albanian language 6 The Greek troo's arrived only just in ti%e, for the E#ellenis%E of the E'irots had been terribly 'roved by %urderous attacks fro% their "osle% neighbours on the north The latter s'eak a variety of the sa%e Albanian tongue, but $ere differentiated by a creed $hich assi%ilated the% to the ruling race They had been su'erior to their 7hristian kins%en by the $eight of nu%bers and the 'ossession of ar%s, $hich under the +tto%an rPgi%e $ere the %ono'oly of the "osle% At last, ho$ever, the yoke of o''ression $as broken and the Greek occu'ation see%ed a harbinger of security for the future =nluckily, ho$ever, E'irus $as of interest to others besides its o$n inhabitants 8t occu'ies an i%'ortant geogra'hical 'osition facing the eGtre%e heel of 8taly, just belo$ the narro$est 'oint in the neck of the Adriatic, and the 8talian Govern%ent insisted that the country should be included in the ne$ly erected 'rinci'ality of Albania, $hich the 'o$ers had reserved the right to deli%it in concert by a 'rovision in the Treaty of )ondon

8taly gave t$o reasons for her de%and First, she declared it inco%'atible $ith her o$n vital interests that both shores of the strait bet$een 7orfY and the %ainland should 'ass into the hands of the sa%e 'o$er, because the co%bination of both coasts and the channel bet$een the% offered a site for a naval base that %ight do%inate the %outh of the Adriatic ,econdly, she %aintained that the native Albanian s'eech of the E'irots 'roved their Albanian nationality, and that it $as unjust to the ne$ Albanian state to eGclude fro% it the %ost 'ros'erous and civiliDed branch of the Albanian nation Neither argu%ent is cogent The first argu%ent could easily be %et by the neutraliDation of the 7orfY straits,246 and it is also considerably $eakened by the fact that the 'osition $hich really co%%ands the %outh of the Adriatic fro% the eastern side is not the 7orfY channel beyond it but the %agnificent bay of Avlona just $ithin its narro$est section, and this is a "osle% district to $hich the E'irots have never laid clai%, and $hich $ould therefore in any case fall $ithin the Albanian frontier The second argu%ent is al%ost ludicrous The destiny of E'irus is not 'ri%arily the concern of the other Albanians, of for that %atter of the Greeks, but of the E'irots the%selves, and it is hard to see ho$ their nationality can be defined eGce't in ter%s of their o$n conscious and eG'ressed desireH for a nation is si%'ly a grou' of %en ins'ired by a co%%on $ill to co(o'erate for certain 'ur'oses, and cannot be brought into eGistence by the eGternal %ani'ulation of any s'ecific objective factors, but solely by the in$ard subjective i%'ulse of its constituents 8t $as a travesty of justice to 'ut the +rthodoG E'irots at the %ercy of a "osle% %ajority A$hich had been %assacring the% the year beforeB on the ground that they ha''ened to s'eak the sa%e language The hardshi' $as aggravated by the fact that all the routes connecting E'irus $ith the outer $orld run through &annina and ,alonika, fro% $hich the ne$ frontier sundered herH $hile great natural barriers se'arate her fro% Avlona and !uraDDo, $ith $hich the sa%e frontier so ironically signalled her union

2Footnote 4* 7orfY itself is neutraliDed already by the agree%ent under $hich Great Britain transferred the 8onian 8slands to Greece in 49/J 6 The a$ard of the 'o$ers roused great indignation in Greece, but ?eneDelos $as strong enough to secure that it should scru'ulously be res'ectedH and the Ecorrect attitudeE $hich he infleGibly %aintained has finally $on its re$ard As soon as the decision of the 'o$ers $as announced, the E'irots deter%ined to hel' the%selves They raised a %ilitia, and asserted their inde'endence so successfully, that they co%'elled the Prince of @ied, the first Aand 'erha's the lastB ruler of the ne$ EAlbaniaE, to give the% ho%e rule in %atters of 'olice and education, and to recognise Greek as the official language for their local ad%inistration They ensured observance of this co%'act by the %aintenance of their troo's under ar%s ,o %atters continued, until a rebellion a%ong his "osle% subjects and the outbreak of the Euro'ean @ar in the su%%er of 4;41 obliged the 'rince to de'art, leaving Albania to its natural state of anarchy The anarchy %ight have restored every canton and village to the old state of contented isolation, had it not been for the religious hatred bet$een the "osle%s and the E'irots, $hich, $ith the re%oval of all eGternal control, began to vent itself in an aggressive assault of the for%er u'on the latter, and entailed %uch needless %isery in the autu%n %onths The reoccu'ation of E'irus by Greek troo's had no$ beco%e a %atter of life and death to its inhabitants, and in +ctober 4;41 ?eneDelos took the inevitable ste', after serving due notice u'on all the signatories to the Treaty of )ondon Thanks in 'art to the absor'tion of the 'o$ers in %ore %o%entous business, but 'erha's even in a greater degree to the confidence $hich the Greek 're%ier had justly $on by his 'revious handling of the Cuestion, this action $as acco%'lished $ithout 'rotest or o''osition ,ince then E'irus has re%ained sheltered fro% the vicissitudes of civil $ar $ithin and 'unitive eG'editions fro% $ithout, to $hich the unha''y re%nant of Albania has been incessantly eG'osedH and $e %ay 'ro'hesy that the E'iroi, unlike their re'udiated brethren of "osle% or 7atholic faith, have really seen the last of their troubles Even 8taly, fro% $ho% they

had %ost to fear, has obtained such a satisfactory %aterial guarantee by the occu'ation on her o$n 'art of Avlona, that she is as unlikely to de%and the evacuation of E'irus by Greece as she is to $ithdra$ her o$n force fro% her long coveted strategical base on the eastern shore of the Adriatic 8n Avlona and E'irus the for%er rivals are settling do$n to a neighbourly contact, and there is no reason to doubt that the Ide factoI line of de%arcation bet$een the% $ill develo' into a 'er%anent and officially recogniDed frontier The 'roble% of E'irus, though not, unfortunately, that of Albania, %ay be regarded as definitely closed The recla%ation of E'irus is 'erha's the %ost honourable achieve%ent of the Greek national revival, but it is by no %eans an isolated 'heno%enon @estern Euro'e is a't to de'reciate %odern E#ellenis%E, chiefly because its a%bitious deno%ination rather ludicrously challenges co%'arison $ith a vanished glory, $hile any one $ho has studied its rise %ust 'erceive that it has little %ore clai% than $estern Euro'e itself to be the 'eculiar heir of ancient Greek culture And yet this #ellenis% of recent gro$th has a genuine vitality of its o$n 8t dis'lays a re%arkable 'o$er of assi%ilating alien ele%ents and ins'iring the% to an active 'ursuit of its ideals, and its allegiance su''lants all others in the hearts of those eG'osed to its char% The E'irots are not the only Albanians $ho have been #elleniDed 8n the heart of central Greece and Pelo'onnesus, on the 'lain of Argos, and in the suburbs of Athens, there are still Albanian enclaves, derived fro% those successive %igrations bet$een the fourteenth and the eighteenth centuriesH but they have so entirely forgotten their origin that the villagers, $hen Cuestioned, can only re'eat* E@e canEt say $hy $e ha''en to s'eak SArvanitikWS, but $e are Greeks like everybody else E The ?lachs again, a -o%ance(s'eaking tribe of no%adic she'herds $ho have $andered as far south as Akarnania and the shores of the >orinthian Gulf, are settling do$n there to the agricultural life of the Greek village, so that #ellenis% stands to the% for the transition to a higher social 'hase Their still %igratory brethren in the northern ranges of Pindus are already E#ellenesE in 'olitical sy%'athy,246 and are %oving under Greek influence to$ards the sa%e social evolution 8n distant 7a''adocia, at the

root of the Anatolian 'eninsula, the +rthodoG Greek 'o'ulation, sub%erged beneath the Turkish flood %ore than eight centuries ago, has retained little individuality eGce't in its religion, and nothing of its native s'eech but a garbled vocabulary e%bedded in a Turkified syntaG &et even this d$indling rear(guard has been overtaken just in ti%e by the returning current of national life, bringing $ith it the Greek school, and $ith the school a co%%unity of outlook $ith #ellenis% the $orld over @hatever the fate of eastern Anatolia %ay be, the Greek ele%ent is no$ assured a 'ro%inent 'art in its future 2Footnote 4* Greece o$ed her naval su're%acy in 4;4.(4J to the ne$ cruiser IGeorgios AverofI, na%ed after a ?lach %illionaire $ho %ade his fortune in the Greek colony at AleGandria and left a legacy for the shi'Es construction at his death 6 These, %oreover, are the 'eri'heries of the Greek $orldH and at its centre the i%'ulse to$ards union in the national state readies a 'assionate intensity EArenEt you better off as you areFE travellers used to ask in >rete during the era of autono%y E8f you get your S=nionS, you $ill have to do t$o yearsE %ilitary service instead of one yearEs training in the %ilitia, and $ill be taGed u' to half as %uch again E E@e have thought of that,E the >retans $ould re'ly, Ebut $hat does it %atter, if $e are united $ith GreeceFE +n this unity %odern #ellenis% has concentrated its efforts, and after nearly a century of ineffective endeavour it has been brought by the states%anshi' of ?eneDelos $ithin sight of its goal +ur revie$ of outstanding 'roble%s reveals indeed the inconclusiveness of the settle%ent i%'osed at BucarestH but this only $itnesses to the $isdo% of the Greek nation in reaffir%ing its confidence in ?eneDelos at the 'resent juncture, and recalling hi% to 'o$er to cro$n the $ork $hich he has so brilliantly carried through =nder ?eneDelosE guidance $e cannot doubt that the heartEs desire of #ellenis% $ill be acco%'lished at the i%'ending Euro'ean settle%ent by the final consolidation of the #ellenic national state 246

2Footnote 4* This 'aragra'h, again, has been su'erseded by the dra%atic turn of eventsH but the $riter has left it unaltered, for the end is not yet 6 &et ho$ever attractive the sincerity of such nationalis% %ay be, 'olitical unity is only a negative achieve%ent The history of a nation %ust be judged rather by the 'ositive content of its ideals and the 'ositive results $hich it attains, and herein the #ellenic revival dis'lays certain grave shortco%ings The internal 'aralysis of social and econo%ic life has already been noted and ascribed to the urgency of the E'reli%inary CuestionEH but $e %ust no$ add to this the gro$ing e%bitter%ent $hich has 'oisoned the relations of Greece $ith her Balkan neighbours during the crises through $hich the E'reli%inary CuestionE has been $orked out to its solution No$ that this solution is at hand, $ill #ellenis% 'rove ca'able of casting out these t$o evils, and ada't itself $ith strength rene$ed to the ne$ 'hase of develo'%ent that lies before itF The northern territories acCuired in 4;4J $ill give a %uch greater i%'etus to econo%ic 'rogress than Thessaly gave a generation agoH for the "acedonian littoral $est as $ell as east of the ,tru%a 'roduces a considerable 'ro'ortion of the Turkish -Pgie tobacco, $hile the 'ine(forests of Pindus, if judiciously eG'loited, $ill go far to re%edy the 'resent deficiency of ho%e(gro$n ti%ber, even if they do not 'rovide Cuantities sufficient for eG'ort abroad 8f $e take into account the currant(cro' of the Pelo'onnesian 'lain(lands $hich already al%ost %ono'oliDes the $orld(%arket, the rare ores of the south(eastern %ountains and the Archi'elago, and the vintages $hich scientific treat%ent %ight bring into co%'etition $ith the $ines of the Peninsula and France, $e can see that Greece has %any sources of %aterial 'ros'erity $ithin her reach, if only she a''lies her liberated energy to their develo'%ent &et these are all of the% s'ecialiDed 'roducts, and Greece $ill never eG'ort any sta'le co%%odity to rival the grain $hich -u%ania sends in such Cuantities to central Euro'e already, and $hich Bulgaria $ill begin to send $ithin a

fe$ yearsE ti%e Even the consolidated Greek kingdo% $ill be too s%all in area and too little co%'act in geogra'hical outline to constitute an inde'endent econo%ic unit, and the ulti%ate econo%ic interests of the country de%and co(o'eration in so%e organiDation %ore co%'rehensive than the 'olitical %olecule of the national state ,uch an association should e%brace the Balkans in their $idest eGtent(( fro% the Black ,ea to the Adriatic and fro% the 7ar'athians to the AegeanH for, in shar' contrast to the ineGtricable chaos of its linguistic and ecclesiastical divisions, the region constitutes econo%ically a ho%ogeneous and indivisible $hole, in $hich none of the 'arts can divest the%selves of their %utual interde'endence Greece, for eGa%'le, has secured at last her direct link $ith the rail$ay syste% of the Euro'ean continent, but for free transit beyond her o$n frontier she still de'ends on ,erbiaEs good($ill, just, as ,erbia de'ends on hers for an outlet to the Aegean at ,alonika The t$o states have 'rovided for their res'ective interests by a joint 'ro'rietorshi' of the section of rail$ay bet$een ,alonika and BelgradeH and si%ilar rail$ay 'roble%s $ill doubtless bring -u%ania to ter%s $ith ,erbia for access to the Adriatic, and both $ith Bulgaria for rights of $ay to 7onstantino'le and the Anatolian hinterland beyond These co%%on co%%ercial arteries of the Balkans take no account of racial or 'olitical frontiers, but link the region as a $hole $ith other regions in a co%%on econo%ic relation ,outh(eastern and central Euro'e are co%'le%entary econo%ic areas in a s'ecial degree The industries of central Euro'e $ill dra$ u'on the ra$ 'roducts of the south(east to an increasing eGtent, and the south(east $ill absorb in turn increasing Cuantities of %anufactured 'lant fro% central Euro'e for the develo'%ent of its o$n natural resources The t$o areas $ill beco%e 'arties in a vast econo%ic neGus, and, as in all business transactions, each $ill try to get the best of the continually intensified bargaining This is $hy co(o'eration is so essential to the future $ell(being of the Balkan ,tates 8solated individually and %utually co%'etitive as they are at 'resent, they %ust succu%b to the econo%ic

ascendancy of ?ienna and Berlin as inevitably as unorganiDed, unskilled labourers fall under the thraldo% of a $ell(eCui''ed ca'italist 7entral Euro'e $ill have in any event an enor%ous initial su'eriority over the Balkans in $ealth, 'o'ulation, and business eG'erienceH and the Balkan 'eo'les can only ho'e to hold their o$n in this 'erilous but essential intercourse $ith a stronger neighbour, if they take %ore active and deliberate ste's to$ards co(o'eration a%ong the%selves, and find in rail$ay conventions the basis for a Balkan Dollverein A Dollverein should be the first goal of Balkan states%anshi' in the ne$ 'hase of history that is o'ening for Euro'eH but econo%ic relations on this scale involve the 'olitical factor, and the Balkans $ill not be able to deal $ith their great neighbours on eCual ter%s till the Dollverein has ri'ened into a federation The alternative is subjection, both 'olitical and econo%icH and neither the eGhaustion of the 7entral Po$ers in the 'resent struggle nor the individual consolidation of the Balkan ,tates in the subseCuent settle%ent $ill suffice by the%selves to avert it in the end The a$akening of the nation and the consolidation of the state, $hich $e have traced in these 'ages, %ust accordingly lead on to the confederation of the Balkans, if all that has been so 'ainfully $on is not to 'erish again $ithout resultH and $e are confronted $ith the Cuestion* @ill Balkan nationalis% rise to the occasion and transcend itselfF "any s'ectators of recent history $ill dis%iss the suggestion as =to'ian ENationalityE, they $ill say, Erevealed itself first as a constructive force, and Euro'e staked its future u'on itH but no$ that $e are co%%itted to it, it has develo'ed a sinister destructiveness $hich $e cannot re%edy Nationality brought the Balkan ,tates into being and led the% to final victory over the Turk in 4;4., only to set the% tearing one another to 'ieces again in 4;4J 8n the 'resent catastro'he the curse of the Balkans has descended u'on the $hole of Euro'e, and laid bare unsus'ected de'ths of chaotic hatredH yet Balkan antagonis%s still re%ain %ore ineradicable than ours The cure for nationality is forgetfulness, but Balkan nationalis% is rooted altogether in the 'ast The Balkan 'eo'les have

suffered one shattering eG'erience in co%%on((the Turk, and the $aters of +tto%an o''ression that have gone over their souls have not been $aters of )ethe They have endured long centuries of s'iritual eGile by the 'assionate re%e%brance of their ,ion, and $hen they have vindicated their heritage at last, and returned to build u' the $alls of their city and the te%'le of their national god, they have resented each otherEs neighbourhood as the re'atriated Je$ resented the ,a%aritan The Greek drea%s $ith sullen intensity of a golden age before the Bulgar $as found in the land, and the challenge i%'lied in the revival of the #ellenic na%e, so far fro% being a su'erficial vanity, is the do%inant characteristic of the nationalis% $hich has ado'ted it for its title "odern #ellenis% breathes the inconscionable s'irit of the IP%igrPI E This is only too true The faith that has carried the% to national unity $ill suffice neither the Greeks nor any other Balkan 'eo'le for the ne$ era that has da$ned u'on the%, and the future $ould look dark indeed, but for a strange and incalculable leaven, $hich is already 'otently at $ork in the land ,ince the o'ening of the 'resent century, the chaotic, unneighbourly races of south(eastern Euro'e, $ho% nothing had united before but the co%%on i%'ress of the Turk, have begun to share another eG'erience in co%%on(( A%erica Fro% the ,lovak villages in the 7ar'athians to the Greek villages in the )aconian hills they have been crossing the Atlantic in their thousands, to beco%e dockers and navvies, boot(blacks and $aiters, confectioners and barbers in 7hicago, ,t )ouis, +%aha, and all the other cities that have s'rung u' like %agic to $elco%e the i%%igrant to the hos'itable 'lains of the "iddle @est The intoGication of his ne$ environ%ent sti%ulates all the latent industry and vitality of the Balkan 'easant, and he abandons hi%self $hole(heartedly to A%erican lifeH yet he does not relinCuish the national tradition in $hich he gre$ u' 8n A%erica $ork brings $ealth, and the Greek or ,lovak soon $orshi's his God in a finer church and reads his language in a better('rinted ne$s'a'er than he ever enjoyed in his native village The sur'lus flo$s ho%e in re%ittances

of such abundance that they are steadily raising the cost of living in the Balkans the%selves, or, in other $ords, the standard of %aterial civiliDationH and sooner or later the i%%igrant goes the $ay of his %oney orders, for ho%e(sickness, if not a %obiliDation order, eGerts its co%'ulsion before half a doDen years are out 8t is a strange eG'erience to s'end a night in so%e re%ote %ountain(village of Greece, and see A%ericanis% and #ellenis% face to face #ellenis% is re'resented by the village school%aster #e $ears a black coat, talks a little French, and can 'robably read #o%erH but his longest journey has been to the nor%al school at Athens, and it has not altered his belief that the ikon in the neighbouring %onastery $as %ade by ,t )uke and the Bulgar beyond the %ountains by the !evil +n the other side of you sits the returned e%igrant, chattering irre'ressibly in his Cueer version of the EA%erican languageE, and sho$ing you the ne$s'a'ers $hich are %ailed to hi% every fortnight fro% the ,tates #is clean linen collar and his $ell(%ade A%erican boots are cons'icuous u'on hi%, and he $ill de'recate on your behalf and his o$n the disco%fort and sCualor of his native surroundings #is ho%e(co%ing has been a disillusion%ent, but it is a creative 'heno%enonH and if any one can set Greece u'on a ne$ 'ath it is he #e is transfor%ing her %aterial life by his A%erican savings, for they are accu%ulating into a ca'ital $idely distributed in native hands, $hich $ill dis'ense the nation fro% 'a$ning its richest %ines and vineyards to the Euro'ean eG'loiter, and enable it to carry on their develo'%ent on its o$n account at this critical juncture $hen Euro'ean sources of ca'ital are cut off for an indefinite 'eriod by the disaster of the Euro'ean @ar The e%igrant $ill give Greece all Trikou'is drea%ed of, but his greatest gift to his country $ill be his A%erican 'oint of vie$ 8n the @est he has learnt that %en of every language and religion can live in the sa%e city and $ork at the sa%e sho's and sheds and %ills and s$itch(yards $ithout desecrating each otherEs churches or even su''ressing each otherEs ne$s'a'ers, not to s'eak of cutting each otherEs throatsH and $hen neGt he %eets Albanian or Bulgar on Balkan ground, he %ay re%e%ber that he has once d$elt $ith hi% in fraternity at +%aha or ,t )ouis or

7hicago This is the gos'el of A%ericanis%, and unlike #ellenis%, $hich s'read do$n$ards fro% the 'atriarchEs residence and the %erchantEs counting(house, it is being 'reached in all the villages of the land by the least 'rejudiced and %ost enter'rising of their sons Afor it is these $ho ans$er A%ericaEs callBH and s'reading u'$ard fro% the 'easant to$ards the 'rofessor in the university and the 'olitician in 'arlia%ent @ill this ne$ leaven conCuer, and cast out the stale leaven of #ellenis% before it sours the loafF 7o%%on sense is %ighty, but $hether it shall 'revail in Greece and the Balkans and Euro'e lies on the knees of the gods

-="AN8A* #E- #8,T+-& AN! P+)8T87,

4 I8ntroductionI

The 'roble% of the origin and for%ation of the -u%anian nation has al$ays 'rovided %atter for keen dis'utation a%ong historians, and the theories $hich have been advanced are $idely divergent ,o%e of these discussions have been undertaken solely for 'olitical reasons, and in such cases eGisting data 'rove conveniently ada'table This elastic treat%ent of the historical data is facilitated by the fact that a long and i%'ortant 'eriod affecting the for%ation and the develo'%ent of the -u%anian nation A.50(4..0B has beCueathed 'ractically no conte%'orary evidence By linking u', ho$ever, $hat is kno$n antecedent to that 'eriod $ith the 'recise data available regarding the follo$ing it, and by checking the inferred results

$ith $hat little evidence eGists res'ecting the obscure e'och of -u%anian history, it has been 'ossible to reconstruct, al%ost to a certainty, the evolution of the -u%anians during the "iddle Ages A discussion of the varying theories $ould be out of 'ro'ortion, and out of 'lace, in this essay Nor is it 'ossible to give to any eGtent a detailed descri'tion of the e'ic struggle $hich the -u%anians carried on for centuries against the Turks 8 shall have to deal, therefore, on broad lines, $ith the historical facts((laying greater stress only u'on the three funda%ental e'ochs of -u%anian history* the for%ation of the -u%anian nationH its initial casting into a national 'olity Afoundation of the -u%anian 'rinci'alitiesBH and its final evolution into the actual unitary ,tateH and shall then 'ass on to consider the %ore recent internal and eGternal develo'%ent of -u%ania, and her 'resent attitude

. IFor%ation of the -u%anian NationI

About the fifth century B 7 , $hen the 'o'ulation of the Balkan(7ar'athian region consisted of various tribes belonging to the 8ndo(Euro'ean fa%ily, the northern 'ortion of the Balkan 'eninsula $as conCuered by the Thracians and the 8llyrians The Thracians s'read north and south, and a branch of their race, the !acians, crossed the !anube The latter established the%selves on both sides of the 7ar'athian ranges, in the region $hich no$ co%'rises the 'rovinces of +ltenia A-u%aniaB, and Banat and Transylvania A#ungaryB The !acian E%'ire eG'anded till its boundaries touched u'on those of the -o%an E%'ire The -o%an 'rovince of "oesia Abet$een the !anube and the BalkansB fell before its ar%ies, and the ca%'aign that ensued $as so successful that the !acians $ere able to co%'el -o%e to an alliance

T$o eG'editions undertaken against !acia by the E%'eror Trajan A;9(445B released -o%e fro% these igno%inious obligations, and brought !acia under -o%an rule AA ! 40/B Before his second eG'edition Trajan erected a stone bridge over the !anube, the re%ains of $hich can still be seen at Turnu(,everin, a short distance belo$ the 'oint $here the !anube enters -u%anian territory Trajan celebrated his victory by erecting at Ada% >lissi Ain the 'rovince of !obrogeaB the recently discovered ITro'aeu% TraianiI, and in -o%e the celebrated ETrajanEs 7olu%nE, de'icting in %arble reliefs various e'isodes of the !acian $ars The ne$ -o%an 'rovince $as li%ited to the regions originally inhabited by the !acians, and a strong garrison, esti%ated by historians at .:,000 %en, $as left to guard it Nu%erous colonists fro% all 'arts of the -o%an E%'ire $ere brought here as settlers, and $hat re%ained of the !acian 'o'ulation co%'letely a%alga%ated $ith the% The ne$ 'rovince Cuickly develo'ed under the i%'ulse of -o%an civiliDation, of $hich nu%erous inscri'tions and other archaeological re%ains are evidence 8t beca%e one of the %ost flourishing de'endencies of the -o%an E%'ire, and $as s'oken of as I!acia FeliGI About a century and a half later hordes of barbarian invaders, co%ing fro% the north and east, s$e't over the country =nder the strain of those incursions the -o%an legions $ithdre$ by degrees into "oesia, and in A ! .54 !acia $as finally evacuated But the colonists re%ained, retiring into the 7ar'athians, $here they lived forgotten of history The %ost 'o$erful of these invaders $ere the Goths A.54(J5:B, $ho, co%ing fro% the shores of the Baltic, had shortly before settled north of the Black ,ea =naccusto%ed to %ountain life, they did not 'enetrate beyond the 'lains bet$een the 7ar'athians and the !njester They had conseCuently but little intercourse $ith the !aco(-o%an 'o'ulation, and the total absence in the -u%anian language and in -u%anian 'lace(na%es of $ords of Gothic origin indicates that their stay had no influence u'on country or

'o'ulation "aterial evidence of their occu'ation is afforded, ho$ever, by a nu%ber of articles %ade of gold found in 49J5 at Petroasa A"oldaviaB, and no$ in the National "useu% at Bucarest After the Goths ca%e the #uns AJ5:(1:JB, under Attila, the Avars A://(5;;B, both of "ongolian race, and the Ge'idae A1:J(://B, of Gothic race((all savage, bloodthirsty raiders, 'assing and re'assing over the -u%anian regions, 'illaging and burning every$here To avoid destruction the !aco(-o%an 'o'ulation $ithdre$ %ore and %ore into the inaccessible $ooded regions of the %ountains, and as a result $ere in no $ise influenced by contact $ith the invaders But $ith the co%ing of the ,lavs, $ho settled in the Balkan 'eninsula about the beginning of the seventh century, certain funda%ental changes took 'lace in the ethnical conditions 'revailing on the !anube The -u%anians $ere se'arated fro% the -o%ans, follo$ing the occu'ation by the ,lavs of the -o%an 'rovinces bet$een the Adriatic and the Black ,ea ,uch 'art of the 'o'ulation as $as not annihilated during the raids of the Avars $as taken into ca'tivity, or co%'elled to retire south$ards to$ards %odern "acedonia and north$ards to$ards the !acian regions Parts of the -u%anian country beca%e de'endent u'on the ne$ state founded bet$een the Balkans and the !anube in /5; by the Bulgarians, a 'eo'le of Turanian origin, $ho for%erly inhabited the regions north of the Black ,ea bet$een the ?olga and the %outh of the !anube After the conversion of the Bulgarians to 7hristianity A9/1B the ,lovenian language $as introduced into their 7hurch, and after$ards also into the 7hurch of the already 'olitically de'endent -u%anian 'rovinces 246 This finally severed the !aco(-u%anians fro% the )atin $orld The for%er re%ained for a long ti%e under ,lav influence, the eGtent of $hich is sho$n by the large nu%ber of $ords of ,lav origin contained in the -u%anian language, es'ecially in geogra'hical and agricultural ter%inology

2Footnote 4* The -u%anians north and south of the !anube e%braced the 7hristian faith after its introduction into the -o%an E%'ire by 7onstantine the Great AJ.:B, $ith )atin as religious language and their church organiDation under the rule of -o%e A 7hristian basilica, dating fro% that 'eriod, has been discovered by the -u%anianH archaeologist, Tocilescu, at Ada% >lissi A!obrogeaB 6 The co%ing of the #ungarians Aa 'eo'le of "ongolian raceB about the end of the ninth century 'ut an end to the Bulgarian do%ination in !acia @hile a fe$ of the eGisting -u%anian duchies $ere subdued by ,te'hen the ,aint, the first >ing of #ungary A;;:(40J9B, the Eland of the ?lakhsE AITerra Blacoru%IB, in the south(eastern 'art of Transylvania, enjoyed under the #ungarian kings a certain degree of national autono%y The #ungarian chronicles s'eak of the ?lakhs as Efor%er colonists of the -o%ansE The ethnological influence of the #ungarians u'on the -u%anian 'o'ulation has been 'ractically nil They found the -u%anian nation fir%ly established, race and language, and the latter re%ained 'ure of "agyaris%s, even in Transylvania 8ndeed, it is easy to 'rove((and it is only $hat %ight be eG'ected, seeing that the -u%anians had attained a higher state of civiliDation than the #ungarian invaders((that the #ungarians $ere largely influenced by the !aco(-o%ans They ado'ted )atin as their official language, they co'ied %any of the institutions and custo%s of the -u%anians, and recruited a large nu%ber of their nobles fro% a%ong the -u%anian nobility, $hich $as already established on a feudal basis $hen the #ungarians arrived A great nu%ber of the -u%anian nobles and free%en $ere, ho$ever, ini%ical to the ne$ %asters, and %igrated to the regions across the %ountains This the #ungarians used as a 'reteGt for bringing 'arts of -u%ania under their do%ination, and they $ere only 'revented fro% further eGtending it by the co%ing of the Tartars A4.14B, the last 'eo'le of "ongolian origin to harry these regions The #ungarians %aintained the%selves, ho$ever, in the 'arts $hich they had already occu'ied, until the latter $ere united into the

'rinci'ality of the E-u%anian landE To su% u'* EThe -u%anians are living to(day $here fifteen centuries ago their ancestors $ere living The 'ossession of the regions on the )o$er !anube 'assed fro% one nation to another, but none endangered the -u%anian nation as a national entity SThe $ater 'asses, the stones re%ainSH the hordes of the %igration 'eriod, detached fro% their native soil, disa''eared as %ist before the sun But the -o%an ele%ent bent their heads $hile the stor% 'assed over the%, clinging to the old 'laces until the advent of ha''ier days, $hen they $ere able to stand u' and stretch their li%bs E246 2Footnote 4* Traugott Ta%%, ITber den =rs'rung der -u%`nen,I, Bonn, 49;4 6

J IThe Foundation and !evelo'%ent of the -u%anian Princi'alitiesI

The first atte%'t to organiDe itself into a 'olitical entity $as %ade by the -u%anian nation in the thirteenth century, $hen, under the i%'ulse of the disaffected nobles co%ing fro% #ungary, the t$o 'rinci'alities of E"unteniaE A"ountain )andB, co%%only kno$n as @allachia and E"oldaviaE, ca%e into being The eGistence of -u%anians on both sides of the 7ar'athians long before @allachia $as founded is corroborated by conte%'orary chroniclers @e find evidence of it in as distant a source as the I#istory of the "ongols,I of the Persian chronicler, -ashid Al(!in, $ho, describing the invasion of the Tartars, says* E8n the %iddle of s'ring A4.10B the 'rinces A"ongols or TartarsB crossed the %ountains in order to enter the country of the Bulares ABulgariansB and of the Bashguirds A#ungariansB +rda, $ho $as %arching to the right, 'assed through the country of the #aute A+ltB, $here BaDara%ba% %et hi% $ith an

ar%y, but $as beaten Boudgek crossed the %ountains to enter the >ara(=lak, and defeated the =lak A?lakhB 'eo'le E246 >ara(=lak %eans Black @allachiaH BaDara%ba% is certainly the corru'ted na%e of the Ban Bassarab, $ho ruled as vassal of #ungary over the 'rovince of +ltenia, and $hose dynasty founded the 'rinci'ality of "untenia The early history of this 'rinci'ality $as %arked by efforts to free it fro% #ungarian do%ination, a natural develo'%ent of the desire for e%anci'ation $hich i%'elled the -u%anians to %igrate fro% the subdued 'rovinces in #ungary 2Footnote 4* Oeno'ol, I#istoire des -ou%ains,I Paris, 49;/, i, 4/9 6 The foundation of "oldavia dates fro% after the retreat of the Tartars, $ho had occu'ied the country for a century A4.14(4J1:B They $ere driven out by an eG'edition under #ungarian leadershi', $ith the aid of -u%anians fro% the 'rovince of "ara%uresh 8t $as the latter $ho then founded the 'rinci'ality of "oldavia under the suDerainty of #ungary, the chroniclers %entioning as its first ruler the ?oivod !ragosh 246 2Footnote 4* The legend as to the foundation of "oldavia tells us that !ragosh, $hen hunting one day in the %ountains, $as 'ursuing a bison through the dense forest To$ards sunset, just $hen a successful shot fro% his bo$ had struck and killed the ani%al, he e%erged at a 'oint fro% $hich the $hole 'anora%a of "oldavia $as unfolded before his astonished eyes !ee'ly %oved by the beauty of this fair country, he resolved to found a state there 8t is in co%%e%oration of this event that "oldavia bears the head of a $ild bison on her banner 6 The rudi%entary 'olitical for%ations $hich already eGisted before the foundation of the 'rinci'alities $ere s$e't a$ay by the invasion of the Tartars, $ho destroyed all trace of constituted authority in the 'lains belo$ the 7ar'athians 8n conseCuence the i%%igrants fro% Transylvania did not encounter any resistance, and $ere even able to i%'ose obedience u'on the native 'o'ulation, though co%ing rather as refugees than as conCuerors These ne$(co%ers $ere %ostly nobles AboyardsB Their

e%igration de'rived the %asses of the -u%anian 'o'ulation of Transylvania of all %oral and 'olitical su''ort((es'ecially as a 'art of the nobility had already been $on over by their #ungarian %asters((and $ith ti%e the %asses fell into servitude +n the other hand the i%%igrating nobles strengthened and secured the 'redo%inance of their class in the states $hich $ere to be founded 8n both cases the situation of the 'easantry beca%e $orse, and $e have, curiously enough, the sa%e social fact brought about by a''arently contrary causes Though the -u%anians see% to have contributed but little, u' to the nineteenth century, to the advance of civiliDation, their 'art in Euro'ean history is nevertheless a glorious one, and if less a''arent, 'erha's of %ore funda%ental i%'ortance By shedding their blood in the struggle against the +tto%an invasion, they, together $ith the other 'eo'les of +riental Euro'e, 'rocured that security $hich alone %ade 'ossible the develo'%ent of $estern civiliDation Their %erit, like that of all $ith $ho% they fought, Eis not to have vanCuished ti%e and again the follo$ers of "oha%%ed, $ho al$ays ended by gaining the u''er hand, but rather to have resisted $ith un'aralleled energy, 'erseverance, and bravery the terrible +tto%an invaders, %aking the% 'ay for each ste' advanced such a heavy 'rice, that their resources $ere drained, they $ere unable to carry on the fight, and thus their 'o$er ca%e to an endE 246 2Footnote 4* Oeno'ol, o' cit , i .// 6 Fro% the 'halanG of 7hristian $arriors stand out the na%es of a fe$ $ho $ere the bravest of a ti%e $hen bravery $as co%%onH but $hile it is at least due that %ore tribute than a %ere %ention of their na%es should be 'aid to the 'atriot 'rinces $ho fought in life(long conflict against Turkish do%ination, s'ace does not 'er%it %e to give %ore than the briefest su%%ary of the $ars $hich for centuries troubled the country 8t $as in 4J9;, $hen "ircea the +ld $as Prince of @allachia, that the united Balkan nations atte%'ted for the first ti%e to check +tto%an

invasion The battle of >osovo, ho$ever, $as lost, and "ircea had to consent to 'ay tribute to the Turks For a short s'ace after the battle of -ovine A4J;9B, $here "ircea defeated an invading Turkish ar%y, the country had 'eace, until Turkish victories under the ,ultan "oha%%ed resulted, in 4144, in further sub%issions to tribute 8t is $orthy of %ention that it $as on the basis of tribute that the relations bet$een Turkey and -u%ania rested until 4955, the -u%anian 'rovinces beco%ing at no ti%e $hat #ungary $as for a century and a half, na%ely, a Turkish 'rovince 8n a battle arising follo$ing his frustration((by %eans not unconnected $ith his na%e((of a Turkish 'lot against his 'erson, ?lad the 8%'aler A41:9(/.B co%'letely defeated the Turks under "oha%%ed 88H but an unfortunate feud against ,te'hen the Great, Prince of "oldavia, 'ut an end to the reign of ?lad((a fierce but just 'rince A 'eriod of the %ost la%entable decadence follo$ed, during $hich Turkish do%ination 'revailed %ore and %ore in the country !uring an interval of t$enty(five years A4:.4(1/B no less than eleven 'rinces succeeded one another on the throne of "untenia, $hilst of the nineteen 'rinces $ho ruled during the last three(Cuarters of the siGteenth century, only t$o died a natural death $hile still reigning 8n "oldavia also internal struggles $ere $eakening the country Not 'o$erful enough to do a$ay $ith one another, the various as'irants to the throne contented the%selves $ith occu'ying and ruling over 'arts of the 'rovince Bet$een 411J(5 there $ere no less than three 'rinces reigning si%ultaneously, $hilst one of the%, Peter 888, lost and regained the throne three ti%es For forty(seven years A41:5(4:01B ,te'hen the Great fought for the inde'endence of "oldavia At -acova, in 415:, he annihilated an +tto%an ar%y in a victory considered the greatest ever secured by the 7ross

against 8sla% The ,hah of Persia, =Dun #asan, $ho $as also fighting the Turks, offered hi% an alliance, urging hi% at the sa%e ti%e to induce all the 7hristian 'rinces to unite $ith the Persians against the co%%on foe These 'rinces, as $ell as Po'e ,iGtus 8?, gave hi% great 'raiseH but $hen ,te'hen asked fro% the% assistance in %en and %oney, not only did he receive none, but ?ladislav, >ing of #ungary, cons'ired $ith his brother Albert, >ing of Poland, to conCuer and divide "oldavia bet$een the% A Polish ar%y entered the country, but $as utterly destroyed by ,te'hen in the forest of >os%in #aving had the o''ortunity of judging at its right value the friendshi' of the 7hristian 'rinces, on his death(bed ,te'hen advised his son Bogdan to %ake voluntary sub%ission to the Turks Thus "oldavia, like @allachia, ca%e under Turkish suDerainty For %any years after ,te'henEs death the Turks eG'loited the -u%anian countries sha%elessly, the very candidates for the throne having to 'ay great su%s for Turkish su''ort The country groaned under the resultant taGation and the 'ro%iscuousness of the tribute eGacted till, in 4:5., John the Terrible ascended the "oldavian throne This 'rince refused to 'ay tribute, and re'eatedly defeated the Turks An ar%y of 400,000 %en advanced against JohnH but his cavalry, co%'osed of nobles not over(loyal to a 'rince having the 'easant cause so %uch at heart, deserted to the ene%y, $ith the result that, after a gallant and 'rolonged resistance, he suffered defeat "ichael the Brave, Prince of "untenia A4:;J(4/04B, $as the last of the ?lakhs to stand u' against Turkish aggression This 'rince not only succeeded in crushing a Turkish ar%y sent against hi%, but he invaded Transylvania, $hose 'rince had leanings to$ards Turkey, 'ushed further into "oldavia, and succeeded in bringing the three -u%anian countries under his rule "ichael is described in the docu%ents of the ti%e as EPrince of the $hole land of #ungro(@allachia, of Transylvania, and of "oldaviaE #e ruled for eight years E8t $as not the Turkish s$ord $hich

'ut an end to the eG'loits of "ichael the Brave The "agyars of Transylvania betrayed hi%H the Ger%an e%'eror conde%ned hi%H and a Greek in AustriaEs service, General Basta, had hi% sabred* as though it $ere fated that all the ene%ies of the -u%anian race, the "agyar, the Ger%an, and the Greek, should unite to di' their hands in the blood of the )atin hero E246 The union of the -u%anian lands $hich he realiDed did not last longH but it gave for% and substance to the idea $hich $as fro% that day on$ard to be the ideal of the -u%anian nation 2Footnote 4* Alfred -u%baud, 8ntroduction to Oeno'ol, o', cit , i GiG 6 The funda%ental cause of all the sufferings of the -u%anian 'rinci'alities $as the hybrid Ehereditary(electiveE syste% of succession to the throne, $hich 'revailed also in %ost of the neighbouring countries All %e%bers of the 'rincely fa%ily $ere eligible for the successionH but the right of selecting a%ong the% lay $ith an asse%bly co%'osed of the higher nobility and clergy All $as $ell if a 'rince left only one successor But if there $ere several, even if illegiti%ate children, clai%ing the right to rule, then each endeavoured to gain over the nobility $ith 'ro%ises, so%eti%es, %oreover, seeking the su''ort of neighbouring countries This syste% rendered easier and hastened the establish%ent of Turkish do%inationH and corru'tion and intrigues, in $hich the ,ultanEs hare% had a share, beca%e ca'ital factors in the choice and election of the ruler Econo%ically and intellectually all this $as disastrous The -u%anians $ere an agricultural 'eo'le The nu%erous class of s%all freeholders A%oshneni and raDeshiB, not being able to 'ay the eGorbitant taGes, often had their lands confiscated by the 'rinces +ften, too, not being able to su''ort the%selves, they sold their 'ro'erty and their very selves to the big lando$ners Nor did the nobles fare better For%erly free, Cuasi(feudal $arriors, seeking fortune in re$ard for services rendered to their 'rince, they $ere often subjected to coercive treat%ent on his 'art no$ that the throne de'ended u'on the good$ill of influential 'ersonages at 7onstantino'le ?arious civil offices $ere created at court, either

necessitated by the eGtension of the relations of the country or intended to satisfy so%e favourite of the 'rince ,ources of social 'osition and great %aterial benefit, these offices $ere coveted greedily by the boyards, and those $ho obtained none could only ho'e to cheat fortune by doing their best to under%ine the 'osition of the 'rince

1 IThe Phanariote -uleI

These offices very 'resently fell to the lot of the Phanariotes AGreek %erchants and bankers inhabiting the Cuarter of PhanarB, $ho had in so%e $ay or another assisted the 'rinces to their thrones, these being no$ 'ractically 'ut u' to auction in 7onstantino'le As a natural conseCuence of such a state of affairs the thoughts of the -u%anian 'rinces turned to -ussia as a 'ossible su''orter against +tto%an o''ression A for%al alliance $as entered into in 4544 $ith Tsar Peter the Great, but a joint %ilitary action against the Turks failed, the Tsar returned to -ussia, and the Porte threatened to transfor% "oldavia, in order to secure her against inci'ient -ussian influence, into a Turkish 'rovince $ith a 'asha as ad%inistrator The nobles $ere 're'aring to leave the country, and the 'eo'le to retire into the %ountains, as their ancestors had done in ti%es of danger 8t is not to be $ondered at that, under the %enace of losing their autono%y, the -u%anians E$elco%ed the no%ination of the drago%an of the Porte, Nicholas "avrocordato, though he $as a Greek The 'eo'le greeted $ith joy the accession of the first Phanariote to the throne of the 'rinci'ality of "oldaviaE246 A4544B 2Footnote 4* Oeno'ol, o' cit , ii 4J96 >no$ledge of foreign languages had enabled the Phanariotes to obtain

i%'ortant di'lo%atic 'ositions at 7onstantino'le, and they ended by acCuiring the thrones of the -u%anian 'rinci'alities as a reco%'ense for their services But they had to 'ay for it, and to %ake %atters %ore 'rofitable the Turks devised the ingenious %ethod of transferring the 'rinces fro% one 'rovince to another, each transference being considered as a ne$ no%ination Fro% 45J0 to 4514 the t$o reigning 'rinces interchanged thrones in this $ay three ti%es They acCuired the throne by gold, and they could only kee' it by gold All de'ended u'on ho$ %uch they $ore able to sCueeDe out of the country The 'rinces soon beca%e 'ast %asters in the art of s'oliation They 'ut taGes u'on chi%neys, and the starving 'easants 'ulled their cottages do$n and $ent to live in %ountain cavesH they taGed the ani%als, and the 'easants 'referred to kill the fe$ beasts they 'ossessed But this often 'roved no re%edy, for $e are told that the Prince 7onstantin "avrocordato, having 'rescribed a taG on do%estic ani%als at a ti%e $hen an e'ide%ic had broken out a%ongst the%, ordered the taG to be levied on the carcasses EThe Ad%inistrative rPgi%e during the Phanariote 'eriod $as, in general, little else than organiDed brigandage,E says Oeno'ol246 8n fact the Phanariote rule $as instinct $ith corru'tion, luGury, and intrigue Though individually so%e of the% %ay not deserve bla%e, yet considering $hat the Phanariotes took out of the country, $hat they introduced into it, and to $hat eGtent they 'revented its develo'%ent, their era $as the %ost cala%itous in -u%anian history 2Footnote 4* 8bid, o' cit , ii J096 The $ar of 45/9 bet$een -ussia and Turkey gave the for%er 'o$er a vague 'rotectorate over the -u%anian 'rovinces ATreaty of >utchuk >ainardjiB 8n 4551 Austria acCuired fro% the Turks, by false 'ro%ises, the northern 'art of "oldavia, the 'leasant land of Bucovina !uring the ne$ conflict bet$een Turkey and -ussia, the -ussian ar%ies occu'ied and battened u'on the -u%anian 'rovinces for siG years Though they had again to abandon their intention of %aking the !anube the southern boundary of their e%'ire((to $hich Na'oleon had agreed by the secret treaty $ith Tsar

AleGander AErfurt, ,e'te%ber .5, 4909B((they obtained fro% Turkey the cession of Bessarabia ATreaty of Bucarest, "ay .9, 494.B, together $ith that 'art of "oldavia lying bet$een the !njester and the Pruth, the -ussians after$ards giving to the $hole region the na%e of Bessarabia

: I"odern Period to 49//I

8n 49.4 the Greek revolution, striving to create an inde'endent Greece, broke out on -u%anian ground, su''orted by the 'rinces of "oldavia and "untenia +f this su''ort the -u%anians strongly disa''roved, for, if successful, the %ove%ent $ould have strengthened the obnoGious Greek do%inationH 8f unsuccessful, the Turks $ere sure to take a terrible revenge for the assistance given by the -u%anian countries The %ove%ent, $hich $as started about the sa%e ti%e by the ennobled 'easant, Tudor ?ladi%irescu, for the e%anci'ation of the lo$er classes, soon acCuired, therefore, an anti(Greek tendency ?ladi%irescu $as assassinated at the instigation of the GreeksH the latter $ere co%'letely checked by the Turks, $ho, gro$n sus'icious after the Greek rising and confronted $ith the energetic attitude of the -u%anian nobility, consented in 49.. to the no%ination of t$o native boyards, JonitDa ,turdDa and Gregory Ghica, reco%%ended by their country%en, as 'rinces of "oldavia and @allachia The iniCuitous syste% of Ethe throne to the highest bidderE had co%e to an end The 'eriod $hich %arks the decline of Greek influence in the -u%anian 'rinci'alities also %arks the gro$th of -ussian influenceH the first %eant econo%ic eG'loitation, the second $as a serious %enace to the very eGistence of the -u%anian nation But if -ussia see%ed a 'ossible future danger, Turkey $ith its Phanariote follo$ing $as a certain and i%%ediate

%enace @hen, therefore, at the outbreak of the conflict $ith Turkey in 49.9 the -ussians once %ore 'assed the Pruth, the country $elco%ed the% 8ndeed, the -u%anian boyards, $ho after the rising of 49.4 and the Turkish occu'ation had taken refuge in Transylvania, had even %ore than once invited -ussian intervention 246 #o'es and fears alike $ere realiDed By the Treaty of Adriano'le A49.;B the rights of Turkey as suDerain $ere li%ited to the eGaction of a %onetary tribute and the right of investiture of the 'rinces, one i%'ortant innovation being that these last $ere to be elected by national asse%blies for life But, on the other hand, a -ussian 'rotectorate $as established, and the 'rovinces re%ained in -ussian %ilitary occu'ation u' to 49J1, 'ending the 'ay%ent of the $ar inde%nity by Turkey The ulti%ate ai% of -ussia %ay be o'en to discussion #er i%%ediate ai% $as to %ake -ussian influence 'ara%ount in the 'rinci'alitiesH this being the only 'ossible eG'lanation of the ano%alous fact that, 'ending the 'ay%ent of the $ar inde%nity, -ussia herself $as occu'ying the 'rovinces $hose autono%y she had but no$ forcibly retrieved fro% Turkey The I-Mgle%ent +rganiCueI, the ne$ constitutional la$ given to the 'rinci'alities by their -ussian governor, 7ount >isseleff, truly reflected the tendency Fro% the ad%inistrative 'oint of vie$ it $as %eant to %ake for 'rogressH fro% the 'olitical 'oint of vie$ it $as %eant to bind the t$o 'rinci'alities to the $ill of the Tsar The 'ersonal char% of 7ount >isseleff see%ed to have established as it $ere an unbreakable link bet$een -ussians and -u%anians But $hen he left the country in 49J1 Ethe liking for -ussia 'assed a$ay to be re'laced finally by the t$o senti%ents $hich al$ays %ost s$ayed the -u%anian heart* love for their country, and affection to$ards FranceE 2Footnote 4* ,ec P Eliade, I#istoire de lEEs'rit Public en -ou%anieI, i, ' 4/5 et seC 6 French culture had been introduced into the 'rinci'alities by the Phanariote 'rinces $ho, as drago%ans of the Porte, had to kno$ the language, and usually e%'loyed French secretaries for the%selves and French tutors for their children @ith the -ussian occu'ation a fresh

i%'etus $as given to French culture, $hich $as 're(e%inent in -ussia at the ti%eH and the -ussian officials, not s'eaking the language of the country, generally e%'loyed French in their relations $ith the -u%anian authorities, French being already $idely s'oken in -u%ania The contact $ith French civiliDation, at an e'och $hen the -u%anians $ere striving to free the%selves fro% Turkish, Greek, and -ussian 'olitical influence, roused in the% the slee'ing )atin s'irit, and the younger generation, in constantly increasing nu%bers, flocked to Paris in search of ne$ for%s of civiliDation and 'olitical life At this turning('oint in their history the -u%anians felt the%selves dra$n to$ards France, no less by racial affinity than by the liberal ideas to $hich that country had so 'assionately given herself during several decades By the Treaty of Adriano'le the Black ,ea $as o'ened to the co%%ercial vessels of all nations This %ade for the ra'id econo%ic develo'%ent of the 'rinci'alities by 'roviding an outlet for their agricultural 'roduce, the chief source of their $ealth 8t also brought the% nearer to $estern Euro'e, $hich began to be interested in a nation $hose s'irit centuries of sufferings had failed to break Political, literary, and econo%ic events thus 're'ared the ground for the -u%anian -enascence, and $hen in 4919 the great revolution broke out, it s'read at once over the -u%anian countries, $here the da$n of freedo% had been struggling to break since 49.4 The -u%anians of Transylvania rose against the tyranny of the "agyarsH those of "oldavia and "untenia against the o''ressive influence of -ussia The %ove%ent under the gallant, but ineG'erienced, leadershi' of a fe$ 'atriots, $ho, significantly enough, had al%ost all been educated in France, $as, ho$ever, soon checked in the 'rinci'alities by the joint action of -ussian and Turkish forces $hich re%ained in occu'ation of the country "any 'rivileges $ere lost A7onvention of Balta )i%an, "ay 4, 491;BH but the revolution had Cuickened the national senti%ent of the younger generation in all classes of society, and the eG'atriated leaders, dis'ersed throughout the great ca'itals of Euro'e, strenuously set to $ork to 'ublish abroad the righteous cause of their country 8n this they received the enthusiastic and invaluable assistance of Edgar Uuinet,

"ichelet, ,aint("arc Girardin, and others This 'ro'aganda had the fortune to be conte%'oraneous and in agree%ent $ith the 'olitical events leading to the 7ri%ean @ar, $hich $as entered u'on to check the designs of -ussia A logical conseCuence $as the idea, raised at the Paris 7ongress of 49:/, of the union of the -u%anian 'rinci'alities as a barrier to -ussian eG'ansion This idea found a 'o$erful su''orter in Na'oleon 888, ever a staunch u'holder of the 'rinci'le of nationality But at the 7ongress the uneG'ected ha''ened -ussia favoured the idea of union, Eto s$allo$ the t$o 'rinci'alities at a gul',E as a conte%'orary di'lo%atist %aliciously suggestedH $hile Austria o''osed it strongly ,o, inconceivably enough, did Turkey, $hose attitude, as the French a%bassador at 7onstantino'le, Thouvenel, 'ut it, E$as less influenced by the o''osition of Austria than by the a''roval of -ussiaE 246 Great Britain also thre$ in her $eight $ith the 'o$ers $hich o''osed the idea of union, follo$ing her traditional 'olicy of 'reserving the Euro'ean eCuilibriu% The treaty of "arch J0, 49:/, re(incor'orated $ith "oldavia the southern 'art of Bessarabia, including the delta of the !anube, abolished the -ussian 'rotectorate, but confir%ed the suDerainty of Turkey((not unnaturally, since the integrity of the +tto%an E%'ire had been the 'ri%e %otive of the $ar By 'rohibiting Turkey, ho$ever, fro% entering -u%anian territory, save $ith the consent of the great 'o$ers, it $as recogniDed indirectly that the suDerainty $as %erely a no%inal one Article .J of the treaty, by 'roviding that the ad%inistration of the 'rinci'alities $as to be on a national basis, i%'licitly 'ointed to the idea of union, as the organiDation of one 'rinci'ality inde'endently of the other $ould not have been national But as the %ain argu%ent of Turkey and Austria $as that the -u%anians the%selves did not desire the union, it $as decided to convene in both 'rinci'alities s'ecial asse%blies Adivans Iad hocIB re'resenting all classes of the 'o'ulation, $hose $ishes $ere to be e%bodied, by a Euro'ean co%%ission, in a re'ort for consideration by the 7ongress 2Footnote 4* A Oeno'ol, I=nionistii si ,e'aratistiiI APa'er read before

the -u%anian Acade%yB, 4;0; 6 To understand the argu%ent of the t$o 'o$ers concerned and the decision to $hich it led, it %ust be borne in %ind that the 'rinci'alities $ere in the occu'ation of an Austrian ar%y, $hich had re'laced the -ussian ar%ies $ithdra$n in 49:1, and that the elections for the asse%blies $ere to be 'resided over by Turkish co%%issaries 8ndeed, the latter, in collaboration $ith the Austrian consuls, so successfully doctored the election lists,246 that the idea of union %ight once %ore have fallen through, had it not been for the invaluable assistance $hich Na'oleon 888 gave the -u%anian countries As Turkish 'olicy $as relying %ainly on EnglandEs su''ort, Na'oleon brought about a 'ersonal %eeting $ith Uueen ?ictoria and Prince Albert, at +sborne AAugust 49:5B, the result of $hich $as a co%'ro%ise* Na'oleon agreed to defer for the ti%e being the idea of an effective union of the t$o 'rinci'alities, England undertaking, on the other hand, to %ake the Porte cancel the 'revious elections, and 'roceed to ne$ ones after revision of the electoral lists The corru't Austrian and Turkish influence on the old elections $as best de%onstrated by the fact that only three of the total of eighty(four old %e%bers succeeded in securing re(election The asse%blies %et and 'roclai%ed as i%'eratively necessary to the future $elfare of the 'rovinces, their union, Efor no frontier divides us, and everything tends to bring us closer, and nothing to se'arate us, save the ill($ill of those $ho desire to see us disunited and $eakEH further, a foreign hereditary dynasty, because Ethe accession to the throne of 'rinces chosen fro% a%ongst us has been a constant 'reteGt for foreign interference, and the throne has been the cause of unending feud a%ong the great fa%ilies of this countryE "oreover, if the union of the t$o 'rinci'alities $as to be acco%'lished under a native 'rince, it is obvious that the co%'etition $ould have beco%e doubly keenH not to s'eak of the jealousies likely to be arousal bet$een "oldavians and "untenians 2Footnote 4* The edifying corres'ondence bet$een the Porte and its co%%issary ?orgoridMs regarding the arrange%ents for the -u%anian

elections fell into the hands of -u%anian 'oliticians, and caused a great sensation $hen it a''eared in I)EEtoile du !anubeI, 'ublished in Brussels by -u%anian IP%igrPsI 6 ,uch $ere the indis'utable $ishes of the -u%anians, based on kno$ledge of %en and facts, and arising out of the desire to see their country $ell started on the high road of 'rogress But Euro'e had called for the eG'ression of these $ishes only to get the Cuestion shelved for the %o%ent, as in 49:/ everybody $as anGious for a 'eace $hich should at all costs be s'eedy 7onseCuently, $hen a second 7ongress %et in Paris, in "ay 49:9, three %onths of discussion and the sincere efforts of France only resulted in a hybrid structure entitled the E=nited Princi'alitiesE These $ere to have a co%%on legislation, a co%%on ar%y, and a central co%%ittee co%'osed of re'resentatives of both asse%blies for the discussion of co%%on affairsH but $ere to continue to for% t$o se'arate states, $ith inde'endent legislative and eGecutive institutions, each having to elect a 'rince of -u%anian descent for life !isa''ointed in their ho'es and reasonable eG'ectations, the -u%anians ado'ted the 'rinci'le of Ehel' yourself and God $ill hel' youE, and 'roceeded to the election of their rulers ,everal candidates co%'eted in "oldavia To avoid a s'lit vote the na%e of an outsider $as 'ut for$ard the day before the election, and on January 45, 49:;, 7olonel AleGander 8oan 7uDa $as unani%ously elected 8n @allachia the outlook $as very uncertain $hen the asse%bly %et, a%id great 'o'ular eGcite%ent, on February : The fe$ 'atriots $ho had realiDed that the 'o$ers, seeking only their o$n interests, $ere consciously and of set 'ur'ose ha%'ering the e%anci'ation of a long(suffering nation, 'ut forth and urged the election of 7uDa, and the asse%bly unani%ously ado'ted this s'irited suggestion By this %aster(stroke the -u%anians had Cuietly acco%'lished the refor% $hich $as an indis'ensable condition to$ards assuring a better future The 'olitical %o%ent $as 'ro'itious 8talyEs %ilitary 're'aration 'revented Austria fro% intervening, and, as usual $hen confronted $ith an acco%'lished fact, the great 'o$ers and Turkey finished by officially

recogniDing the action of the 'rinci'alities in !ece%ber 49/4 The central co%%ission $as at once abolished, the t$o asse%blies and cabinets %erged into one, and Bucarest beca%e the ca'ital of the ne$ state E-u%aniaE 8f the unsy%'athetic attitude of the 'o$ers had any good result, it $as to bring ho%e for the %o%ent to the -u%anians the necessity for national unity @hen the danger 'assed, ho$ever, the $isdo% $hich it had evoked follo$ed suit 7uDa cherished the ho'e of realiDing various ideal refor%s 7onfronted $ith strong o''osition, he did not hesitate to override the constitution by dissolving the National Asse%bly A"ay ., 49/1B and arrogating to hi%self the right, till the for%ation of a ne$ 7ha%ber, to issue decrees $hich had all the force of la$ #e thus gave a dangerous eGa%'le to the budding constitutional 'olityH 'olitical 'assions $ere let loose, and a 'lot organiDed by the +''osition led to the forced abdication of 7uDa on February .J, 49// The 'rince left the country for ever a fe$ days later No disturbance $hatever took 'lace, not one dro' of blood $as shed A series of la$s, %ostly ada'ted fro% French %odels, $as introduced by 7uDa =nder the Education Act of 49/1 all degrees of education $ere free, and ele%entary education co%'ulsory A large nu%ber of s'ecial and technical schools $ere founded, as $ell as t$o universities, one at Jassy A49/0B and one at Bucarest A49/1B After the Icou' dEPtatI of 49/1 universal suffrage $as introduced, largely as an atte%'t to Es$a%'E the fractious 'olitical 'arties $ith the 'easant voteH $hile at the sa%e ti%e a EsenateE $as created as a E%oderating asse%blyE $hich, co%'osed as it $as of %e%bers by right and %e%bers no%inated by the 'rince, by its very nature increased the influence of the cro$n The chief refor%s concerned the rural Cuestion Firstly, 7uDa and his %inister, 7ogalniceanu, seculariDed and converted to the state the do%ains of the %onasteries, $hich during the long 'eriod of Greek influence had acCuired one(fifth of the total area of the land, and $ere co%'letely in the hands of the Greek clergy A)a$ of !ece%ber 4J, 49/JB "ore i%'ortant still, as affecting funda%entally the social structure of the country, $as the -ural )a$

A'ro%ulgated on August ./, 49/1B, $hich had been the cause of the conflict bet$een 7uDa and the various 'olitical factions, the )iberals cla%ouring for %ore thorough refor%s, the 7onservatives denouncing 7uDaEs 'roject as revolutionary As the 'easant Cuestion is the %ost i%'ortant 'roble% left for -u%ania to solve, and as 8 believe that, in a broad sense, it has a considerable bearing u'on the 'resent 'olitical situation in that country, it %ay not be out of 'lace here to devote a little s'ace to its consideration +riginally the 'easant lived in the village co%%unity as a free land(o$ner #e 'aid a certain due Aone(tenth of his 'roduce and three daysE labour yearlyB to his leader AIcneaDIB as reco%'ense for his leadershi' in 'eace and $ar The latter, %oreover, solely enjoyed the 'rivilege of carrying on the occu'ations of %iller and innkee'er, and the 'easant $as co%'elled to %ill $ith hi% @hen after the foundation of the 'rinci'alities the u''er class $as established on a feudal basis, the 'easantry $ere subjected to constantly increasing burdens 8%'overished and having in %any cases lost their land, the 'easants $ere also de'rived at the end of the siGteenth century of their freedo% of %ove%ent By that ti%e the cneaD, fro% being the leader of the co%%unity, had beco%e the actual lord of the village, and his $ealth $as esti%ated by the nu%ber of villages he 'ossessed The 'easant o$ners 'aid their dues to hi% in labour and in kind Those 'easants $ho o$ned no land $ere his serfs, 'assing $ith the land fro% %aster to %aster =nder the Turkish do%ination the -u%anian 'rovinces beca%e the granary of the +tto%an E%'ire The value of land rose Cuickly, as did also the taGes To %eet these taGes((fro% the 'ay%ent of $hich the boyards Athe descendants of the cneaDiB $ere eGe%'t((the 'easant o$ners had freCuently to sacrifice their landsH $hile, greedy after the increased benefits, the boyards used all 'ossible %eans to acCuire %ore land for the%selves @ith the increase of their lands they needed %ore labour, and they obtained 'er%ission fro% the ruler not only to eGact increased labour dues fro% the 'easantry, but also to deter%ine the a%ount of $ork that should be done in

a day This $as effected in such a $ay that the 'easants had, in fact, to serve three and four ti%es the nu%ber of days due The 'o$er to acCuire %ore land fro% the freeholders, and to increase the a%ount of labour due by the 'easants, $as characteristic of the legislation of the eighteenth century By a decree of Prince "oruDi, in 490:, the lords $ere for the first ti%e e%'o$ered to reserve to their o$n use 'art of the estate, na%ely, one(fourth of the %eado$ land, and this 'rivilege $as eGtended in 49.9 to the use of one(third of the arable land The re%aining t$o(thirds $ere reserved for the 'easants, every young %arried cou'le being entitled to a certain a%ount of land, in 'ro'ortion to the nu%ber of traction ani%als they o$ned @hen the Treaty of Adriano'le of 49.; o'ened the $estern %arkets to -u%anian corn, in $hich %arkets far higher 'rices $ere obtainable than fro% the Turks, -u%anian agriculture received an eGtraordinary i%'etus #enceforth the efforts of the boyards $ere directed to$ards lessening the a%ount of land to $hich the 'easants $ere entitled By the I-Mgle%ent +rganiCueI they succeeded in reducing such land to half its 'revious area, at the sa%e ti%e %aintaining and eGacting fro% the 'easant his dues in full 8t is in the sa%e Act that there a''ears for the first ti%e the fraudulent title Elords of the landE, though the boyards had no eGclusive right of 'ro'ertyH they had the use of one(third of the estate, and a right to a due in labour and in kind fro% the 'easant holders, 'resent or 'ros'ective, of the other t$o(thirds @ith a vie$ to ensuring, on the one hand, greater econo%ic freedo% to the land(o$ners, and, on the other, security for the 'easants fro% the enslaving do%ination of the u''er class, the rural la$ of 49/1 'roclai%ed the 'easant(tenants full 'ro'rietors of their holdings, and the land(o$ners full 'ro'rietors of the re%ainder of the estate The original intention of creating co%%on land $as not carried out in the Bill The 'easantEs holding in arable land being s%all, he not infreCuently 'loughed his 'asture, and, as a conseCuence, had either to give u' kee'ing beasts, or 'ay a high 'rice to the land(o$ners for 'asturage !ues in labour and in kind $ere abolished, the land(o$ners receiving an inde%nity $hich $as

to be refunded to the state by the 'easants in instal%ents $ithin a 'eriod of fifteen years This refor% is characteristic of %uch of the legislation of 7uDa* des'otically 'ursuing the realiDation of so%e ideal refor%, $ithout adeCuate study of and ada'tation to social circu%stances, his la$s 'rovided no 'ractical solution of the 'roble% $ith $hich they dealt 8n this case, for eGa%'le, the refor% benefited the u''er class solely, although generally considered a boon to the 'easantry +f ancient right t$o(thirds of the estate $ere reserved for the 'easantsH but the ne$ la$ gave the% 'ossession of no %ore than the stri' they $ere holding, $hich barely sufficed to 'rovide the% $ith the %ere necessaries of life The re%ainder u' to t$o(thirds of the estate $ent as a gift, $ith full 'ro'rietorshi'H to the boyard For the eGe%'tion of their dues in kind and in labour, the 'easants had to 'ay an inde%nity, $hereas the right of their sons to receive at their %arriage a 'iece of land in 'ro'ortion to the nu%ber of traction ani%als they 'ossessed $as lost $ithout co%'ensation 7onseCuently, the younger 'easants had to sell their labour, contracting for 'eriods of a year and u'$ards, and beca%e a %uch easier 'rey to the s'oliation of the u''er class than $hen they had at least a stri' of land on $hich to build a hut, and fro% $hich to 'rocure their daily breadH the %ore so as the country had no industry $hich could co%'ete $ith agriculture in the labour %arket An investigation undertaken by the #o%e +ffice sho$ed that out of 4,./: labour contracts for 4;0/, chosen at rando%, only J; 5 'er cent, $ere concluded at custo%ary $agesH the others $ere lo$er in varying degrees, 4J . 'er cent of the cases sho$ing $ages u'$ards of 5: 'er cent belo$ the usual rates =nder these conditions of 'overty and econo%ic serfdo% the 'easantry $as not able to 'artici'ate in the enor%ous develo'%ent of -u%anian agriculture, $hich had resulted fro% increased 'olitical security and the establish%ent of an eGtensive net$ork of rail$ays @hile the boyards found an increasing attraction in 'olitics, a ne$ class of %iddle%en ca%e into eGistence, renting the land fro% the boyards for 'eriods varying generally fro% three to five years +$ing to the resultant co%'etition, rents increased considerably, $hile conservative %ethods of cultivation ke't

'roduction stationary @hereas the big cultivator obtained higher 'rices to balance the increased cost of 'roduction, the 'easant, $ho 'roduced for his o$n consu%'tion, could only face such increase by a corres'onding decrease in the a%ount of food consu%ed To sho$ ho$ %uch alive the rural Cuestion is, it is enough to state that 'easant risings occurred in 4999, 499;, 49;1, 4;00, and 4;05H that ne$ distributions of land took 'lace in 4994 and 499;H that land $as 'ro%ised to the 'easants as $ell at the ti%e of the ca%'aign of 4955 as at that of 4;4JH and that %ore or less ha''ily conceived %easures concerning rural Cuestions have been 'assed in al%ost every 'arlia%entary session The general tendency of such legislation 'artook of the Efree contractE nature, though o$ing to the social condition of the 'easantry the acts in Cuestion had to e%body 'rotective %easures 'roviding for a %aGi%u% rent for arable and 'asture land, and a %ini%u% $age for the 'easant labourer ,olutions have been suggested in 'rofusion That a solution is 'ossible no one can doubt +ne $riter, basing his argu%ents on official statistics $hich sho$ that the days of e%'loy%ent in 4;0: averaged only ninety(one for each 'easant, clai%s that only the introduction of circulating ca'ital and the creation of ne$ branches of activity can bring about a change The suggested re%edy %ay be o'en to discussionH but our author is undoubtedly right $hen, asking hi%self $hy this solution has not yet been atte%'ted, he says* E+ur country is governed at 'resent by an agrarian class #er $hole 'o$er rests in her o$nershi' of the land, our only $ealth The introduction of circulating ca'ital $ould result in the disintegration of that $ealth, in the loss of its uniCue Cuality, and, as a conseCuence, in the social decline of its 'ossessors E246 This is the funda%ental evil $hich 'revents any solution of the rural Cuestion A s%all class of 'oliticians, $ith the co%'licity of a large ar%y of covetous and unscru'ulous officials, live in oriental indolence out of the sufferings of four(fifths of the -u%anian nation Though ele%entary education is co%'ulsory, %ore than /0 'er cent of the 'o'ulation are still illiterate, %ainly on account of the inadeCuacy of the educational budget Justice is a %yth for the 'easant +f 'olitical rights he is, in fact, absolutely

de'rived The large %ajority, and by far the sanest 'art of the -u%anian nation, are thus fraudulently ke't outside the 'olitical and social life of the country 8t is not sur%ising too %uch, therefore, to say that the o''ortunity of e%anci'ating the Transylvanians $ould not have been $ilfully neglected, had that 'art of the -u%anian nation in $hich the old s'irit still survives had any choice in the deter%ination of their o$n fate 2Footnote 4* ,t Anti%, I7bestiunea ,ocial2Ba6 2ai6n -o%2aa6nia,I 4;09, ' .41 6

/ I7onte%'orary Period* 8nternal !evelo'%entI

8n order to obviate internal disturbances or eGternal interference, the leaders of the %ove%ent $hich had dethroned Prince 7uDa caused 'arlia%ent to 'roclai%, on the day of 7uDaEs abdication, 7ount Phili' of Flanders(( the father of >ing Albert of Belgiu%((Prince of -u%ania The offer $as, ho$ever, not acce'ted, as neither France nor -ussia favoured the 'ro'osal "ean$hile a conference had %et again in Paris at the instance of Turkey and vetoed the election of a foreign 'rince But events of dee'er i%'ortance $ere ri'ening in Euro'e, and the -u%anian 'oliticians rightly sur%ised that the 'o$ers $ould not enforce their 'rotests if a candidate $ere found $ho $as likely to secure the su''ort of Na'oleon 888, then Eschool%asterE of Euro'ean di'lo%acy This candidate $as found in the 'erson of Prince 7arol of #ohenDollern(,ig%aringen, second son of the head of the elder branch of the #ohenDollerns A7atholic and non(reigningB Prince 7arol $as cousin to the >ing of Prussia, and related through his grand%other to the Bona'arte fa%ily #e could conseCuently count u'on the su''ort of France and Prussia, $hile the 'olitical situation fortunately

secured hi% fro% the o''osition of -ussia, $hose relations $ith Prussia $ere at the ti%e friendly, and also fro% that of Austria, $ho% Bis%arck 'ro'osed to Ekee' busy for so%e ti%e to co%eE The latter %ust have vie$ed $ith no little satisfaction the 'ros'ect of a #ohenDollern occu'ying the throne of -u%ania at this junctureH and Prince 7arol, allo$ing hi%self to be influenced by the 8ron 7hancellorEs advice, ans$ered the call of the -u%anian nation, $hich had 'roclai%ed hi% as E7arol 8, #ereditary Prince of -u%aniaE Travelling secretly $ith a s%all retinue, the 'rince second class, his suite first, Prince 7arol descended the !anube on an Austrian stea%er, and landed on "ay 9 at Turnu(,everin, the very 'lace $here, nearly eighteen centuries before, the E%'eror Trajan had alighted and founded the -u%anian nation By inde'endent and energetic action, by a conscious neglect of the $ill of the 'o$ers, $hich only a young constitutional 'olity $ould have dared, by an active and unselfish 'atriotis%, -u%ania had at last chosen and secured as her ruler the foreign 'rince $ho alone had a chance of 'utting a sto' to intrigues fro% $ithin and fro% $ithout And the -u%anians had been eGtre%ely fortunate in their hasty and not Cuite inde'endent choice A 'rince of )atin origin $ould 'robably have been %ore $ar%ly $elco%ed to the hearts of the -u%anian 'eo'leH but after so %any years of 'olitical disorder, corru't ad%inistration, and arbitrary rule, a 'rince 'ossessed of the Ger%an s'irit of disci'line and order $as best fitted to co%%and res'ect and i%'ose obedience and sobriety of 'rinci'le u'on the -u%anian 'oliticians Prince 7arolEs task $as no easy one The journal co%'iled by the 'rovisional govern%ent, $hich held the reins for the 'eriod ela'sing bet$een the abdication of 7uDa and the accession of Prince 7arol, de'icts in the darkest colours the econo%ic situation to $hich the faults, the $aste, the negligence, and short(sightedness of the 'revious rPgi%e had reduced the country, Ethe govern%ent being in the hu%iliating 'osition of having brought disastrous and intolerable hardshi' alike u'on its creditors, its servants, its 'ensioners, and its soldiersE 246 -efor%s

$ere badly needed, and the treasury had nothing in hand but debts To increase the inco%e of the state $as difficult, for the country $as 'oor and not econo%ically inde'endent =nder the Paris 7onvention of 49:9, -u%ania re%ained bound, to her detri%ent, by the co%%ercial treaties of her suDerain, Turkey, the 'o$ers not being $illing to lose the 'rivileges they enjoyed under the Turkish ca'itulations "oreover, she $as s'ecially eGcluded fro% the arrange%ent of 49/0, $hich allo$ed Turkey to increase her i%'ort taGes The inheritance of ultra(liberal %easures fro% the 'revious regi%e %ade it difficult to co'e $ith the unruly s'irit of the nation Any atte%'t at change in this direction $ould have savoured of des'otis% to the 'eo'le, $ho, having at last $on the right to s'eak aloud, believed that to cla%our against anything that %eant EruleE $as the only real and full assertion of liberty And the dissatisfied $ere al$ays certain of finding a sy%'athetic ear and an o'en 'urse in the 7hancellories of ?ienna and ,t Petersburg 2Footnote 4* ! A ,turdDa, ITreiDeci de ani de !o%nie ai -egelui 7arol,I 4;00, i 9. 6 Prince 7arol, not being sufficiently $ell acCuainted $ith the conditions of the country nor 'ossessing as yet %uch influence $ith the governing class, had not been in a 'osition to influence at their ince'tion the 'rovisions of the eGtre%ely liberal constitution 'assed only a fe$ $eeks after his accession to the throne The ne$ constitution, $hich rese%bled that of Belgiu% %ore nearly than any other, $as fra%ed by a constituent asse%bly elected on universal suffrage, and, eGce't for slight %odifications introduced in 495; and 4991, is in vigour to(day 8t entrusts the eGecutive to the king and his %inisters, the latter alone being res'onsible for the acts of the govern%ent 246 The legislative 'o$er is vested in the king and t$o asse%blies((a senate and a cha%ber((the initiative resting $ith any one of the three 2.6 The budget and the yearly bills fiGing the strength of the ar%y, ho$ever, %ust first be 'assed by the 7ha%ber The agree%ent of the t$o 7ha%bers and the sanction of the king are necessary before any bill beco%es la$ The king convenes,

adjourns, and dissolves 'arlia%ent #e 'ro%ulgates the la$s and is invested $ith the right of absolute veto The constitution 'roclai%s the inviolability of do%icile, the liberty of the 'ress and of asse%bly, and absolute liberty of creed and religion, in so far as its for%s of celebration do not co%e into conflict $ith 'ublic order and decency 8t recogniDes no distinction of class and 'rivilegeH all the citiDens share eCually rights and duties $ithin the la$ Education is free in the state schools, and ele%entary education co%'ulsory $herever state schools eGist 8ndividual liberty and 'ro'erty are guaranteedH but only -u%anian citiDens can acCuire rural 'ro'erty "ilitary service is co%'ulsory, entailing t$o years in the infantry, three years in the cavalry and artillery, one year in all ar%s for those having co%'leted their studies as far as the university stage 7a'ital 'unish%ent does not eGist, eGce't for %ilitary offences in ti%e of $ar 2Footnote 4* There are at 'resent nine de'art%ents* 8nterior, Foreign Affairs, Finance, @ar, Education and -eligion, !o%ains and Agriculture, Public @orks, Justice, and 8ndustry and 7o%%erce The President of the 7abinet is Pri%e "inister, $ith or $ithout 'ortfolio 6 2Footnote .* All citiDens of full age 'aying taGes, $ith various eGe%'tions, are electors, voting according to districts and census 8n the case of the illiterate country inhabitants, $ith an inco%e fro% land of less than V4. a year, fifty of the% choose one delegate having one vote in the 'arlia%entary election The 'rofessorial council of the t$o universities of Jassy and Bucarest send one %e%ber each to the ,enate, the heir to the throne and the eight bisho's being %e%bers by right 6 The state religion is Greek +rthodoG =' to 49/1 the -u%anian 7hurch $as subordinate to the Patriarchate of 7onstantino'le 8n that year it $as 'roclai%ed inde'endent, national, and autoce'halous, though this change $as not recogniDed by the Patriarchate till 499:, $hile the seculariDation of the 'ro'erty of the %onasteries 'ut an end Ide factoI to the influence of the Greek clergy -eligious Cuestions of a dog%atic nature are settled

by the #oly ,ynod of Bucarest, co%'osed of the t$o %etro'olitans of Bucarest and Jassy and the eight bisho'sH the "inister for Education, $ith $ho% the ad%inistrative 'art of the 7hurch rests, having only a deliberative vote The %aintenance of the 7hurch and of the clergy is included in the general budget of the country, the %inisters being state officials A)a$ of 49;JB -eligion has never 'layed an i%'ortant 'art in -u%anian national life, and $as generally li%ited to %erely eGternal 'ractices This %ay be attributed largely to the fact that as the ,lavonic language had been used in the 7hurch since the ninth century and then $as su'erseded by Greek u' to the nineteenth century, the clergy $as foreign, and $as neither in a 'osition nor did it endeavour to acCuire a s'iritual influence over the -u%anian 'easant There is no record $hatever in -u%anian history of any religious feuds or dissensions The religious 'assivity re%ained unstirred even during the do%ination of the Turks, $ho contented the%selves $ith treating the unbelievers $ith conte%'t, and sCueeDing as %uch %oney as 'ossible out of the% 7uDa having %ade no 'rovision for the clergy $hen he converted the $ealth of the %onasteries to the state, they $ere left for thirty years in co%'lete destitution, and re%ained as a conseCuence outside the general intellectual develo'%ent of the country Though the situation has %uch i%'roved since the )a$ of 49;J, $hich incor'orated the 'riests $ith the other officials of the Govern%ent, the clergy, recruited largely fro% a%ong the rural 'o'ulation, are still greatly inferior to the -u%anian 'riests of Bucovina and Transylvania "ost of the% take u' #oly orders as a 'rofession* E8 have kno$n several country 'arsons $ho $ere thorough atheists E246 2Footnote 4* - -osetti, IPentru ce s(au r2Ba6sculat 2tE62Ba6raniiI, 4;05, ' /006 #o$ever difficult his task, Prince 7arol never deviated fro% the strictly constitutional 'ath* his o''onents $ere free to conde%n the 'rinceEs o'inionsH he never gave the% the chance of Cuestioning his integrity

Prince 7arol relied u'on the 'osition in $hich his origin and fa%ily alliances 'laced hi% in his relations $ith foreign rulers to secure hi% the res'ect of his ne$ subjects ,uch considerations i%'ressed the -u%anians Nor could they fail to be a$are of Ethe differences bet$een the 'reviously elected 'rinces and the 'resent dynasty, and the i%'roved 'osition $hich the country o$ed to the latterE 246 2Footnote 4* AugenDeuge, IAus de% )eben >Xnig >arls von -u%2Ba6nien, 49;1(4;00,I iii 455 6 To inculcate the -u%anians $ith the s'irit of disci'line the 'rince took in hand $ith energy and 'ursued untiringly, in s'ite of all obstacles, the organiDation of the ar%y A reliable and $ell(organiDed ar%ed force $as the best security against internal trouble(%ongers, and the best argu%ent in international relations, as subseCuent events a%'ly 'roved The -u%anian 'olitical 'arties $ere at the outset 'ersonal 'arties, su''orting one or other of the candidates to the throne @hen Greek influence, e%anating fro% 7onstantino'le, began to %ake itself felt, in the seventeenth century, a national 'arty arose for the 'ur'ose of o''osing it This 'arty counted u'on the su''ort of one of the neighbouring 'o$ers, and its various grou's $ere kno$n accordingly as the Austrian, the -ussian, bc , 'arties @ith the election of 7uDa the eGternal danger di%inished, and the 'oliticians divided u'on 'rinci'les of internal refor% 7uDa not being in agree%ent $ith either 'arty, they united to de'ose hi%, kee'ing truce during the 'eriod 'receding the accession of Prince 7arol, $hen grave eGternal dangers $ore threatening, and 'residing in a coalition %inistry at the introduction of the ne$ constitution of 49// But this done, the truce $as broken Political strife again a$oke $ith all the %ore vigour for having been te%'orarily su''ressed The refor%s $hich it beca%e needful to introduce gave o''ortunity for the

develo'%ent of strong divergence of vie$s bet$een the 'olitical 'arties The )iberals((the -ed Party, as they $ere called at the ti%e((Aled by 7 A -osetti and 8oan Bratianu, both strong "aDDinists, both having taken an i%'ortant 'art in the revolutionary %ove%ents of 4919 and in that $hich led to the de'osition of 7uDaB $ere advocating refor%s hardly 'racticable even in an established de%ocracyH the 7onservatives Aled by )ascar 7atargiuB $ere striving to ste% the flood of ideal liberal %easures on $hich all sense of reality $as being carried a$ay 246 8n little %ore than a year there $ere four different 7abinets, not to %ention nu%erous changes in individual %inisters EBet$een the t$o eGtre%e tendencies Prince 7arol had to strive constantly to 'reserve unity of direction, he hi%self being the only stable ele%ent in that ever unstable country E 8t $as not $ithout %any unto$ard incidents that he succeeded #is 'erson $as the subject of %ore than one unscru'ulous attack by 'oliticians in o''osition, $ho did not hesitate to eG'loit the Ger%an origin and the Ger%an sy%'athies of the 'rince in order to infla%e the %asses These internal conflicts entered u'on an acute 'hase at the ti%e of the Franco(Ger%an conflict of 4950 @hilst, to satisfy 'ublic o'inion, the Foreign ,ecretary of the ti%e, " P P 7ar', had to declare in 'arlia%ent, that E$herever the colours of France are $aving, there are our interests and sy%'athiesE, the 'rince $rote to the >ing of Prussia assuring hi% that Ehis sy%'athies $ill al$ays be $here the black and $hite banner is $avingE 8n these so strained circu%stances a section of the 'o'ulation of Bucarest allo$ed itself to be dra$n into anti(Ger%an street riots !isheartened and des'airing of ever being able to do anything for that Ebeautiful countryE, $hose 'eo'le Eneither kno$ ho$ to govern the%selves nor $ill allo$ the%selves to be governedE, the 'rince decided to abdicate 2Footnote 4* A fe$ years ago a grou' of 'oliticians, %ainly of the old 7onservative 'arty, detached the%selves and beca%e the 7onservative(!e%ocratic 'arty under the leadershi' of " Take 8onescu 6 ,o strong $as the feeling in 'arlia%ent roused by the 'rinceEs decision that one of his %ost inveterate o''onents no$ declared that it $ould be an

act of high treason for the 'rince to desert the country at such a crisis @e have an inkling of $hat %ight have resulted in the letter $ritten by the E%'eror of Austria to Prince 7arol at the ti%e, assuring hi% that E%y Govern%ent $ill eagerly seiDe any o''ortunity $hich 'resents itself to 'rove by deeds the interest it takes in a country connected by so %any bonds to %y e%'ireE Nothing but the efforts of )ascar 7atargiu and the sound 'atriotis% of a fe$ states%en saved the country fro% $hat $ould have been a real %isfortune The 'eo'le $ere $ell a$are of this, and cheers lasting several %inutes greeted that 'ortion of the %essage fro% the throne $hich conveyed to the ne$ 'arlia%ent the decision of the 'rince to continue reigning The situation $as considerably strengthened during a 'eriod of five yearsE 7onservative rule Prince 7arolEs high 'rinci'les and the dignified eGa%'le of his 'rivate life secured for hi% the increasing res'ect of 'oliticians of all coloursH $hile his states%anlike Cualities, his 'atience and 'erseverance, soon 'rocured hi% an unli%ited influence in the affairs of the state This $as %ade the %ore 'ossible fro% the fact that, on account of the 'olitical ignorance of the %asses, and of the varied influence eGercised on the electorate by the highly centraliDed ad%inistration, no -u%anian Govern%ent ever fails to obtain a %ajority at an election Any states%an can undertake to for% a 7abinet if the king assents to a dissolution of 'arlia%ent Bet$een the Ger%an syste%, $here the e%'eror chooses the %inisters inde'endently of 'arlia%ent, and the English syste%, $here the %e%bers of the eGecutive are indicated by the electorate through the %ediu% of 'arlia%ent, inde'endently of the 7ro$n, the -u%anian syste% takes a %iddle 'ath Neither the cro$n, nor the electorate, nor 'arlia%ent 'ossesses eGclusive 'o$er in this direction The Govern%ent is not, generally s'eaking, defeated either by the electorate or by 'arlia%ent 8t is the 7ro$n $hich has the final decision in the changes of rPgi%e, and u'on the king falls the delicate task of inter'reting the significance of 'olitical or 'o'ular %ove%ents The syste%(($hich co%es nearest to that of ,'ain((undoubtedly has its advantages in a young and turbulent 'olity, by enabling its %ost stable

ele%ent, the king, to ensure a continuous and har%onious 'olicy But it also %akes the results dangerously de'endent on the Cuality of that sa%e ele%ent =nder the leadershi' of >ing 7arol it $as an undoubted successH the 'rogress %ade by the country fro% an econo%ic, financial, and %ilitary 'oint of vie$ during the last half(century is really enor%ous 8ts 'osition $as further%ore strengthened by the 'rocla%ation of its inde'endence, by the final settle%ent of the dynastic Cuestion,246 and by its elevation on "ay 40, 4994, to the rank of kingdo%, $hen u'on the head of the first >ing of -u%ania $as 'laced a cro$n of steel %ade fro% one of the guns ca'tured before Plevna fro% an ene%y centuries old 2Footnote 4* 8n the absence of direct descendants and according to the constitution, Prince Ferdinand Aborn 49/:B, second son of >ing 7arolEs elder brother, $as na%ed #eir A''arent to the -u%anian throne #e %arried in 49;. Princess "arie of 7oburg, and follo$ing the death of >ing 7arol in 4;41, he acceded to the throne as Ferdinand 8 6 Fro% the 'oint of vie$ of internal 'olitics 'rogress has been less satisfactory The various refor%s once achieved, the differences of 'rinci'le bet$een the 'olitical 'arties degenerated into %ere o''ortunis%, the +''osition o''osing, the Govern%ent dis'osing The 'arties, and es'ecially the various grou's $ithin the 'arties, are generally kno$n by the na%es of their leaders, these deno%inations not i%'lying any definite 'olitical 'rinci'le or Govern%ent 'rogra%%e 8t is, %oreover, far fro% edifying that the 'ersonal ele%ent should so freCuently distort 'olitical discussion EThe introduction of %odern for%s of state organiDation has not been follo$ed by the de%ocratiDation of all social institutions The %asses of the 'eo'le have re%ained all but co%'letely outside 'olitical life Not only are $e yet far fro% govern%ent of the 'eo'le by the 'eo'le, but our liberties, though dee'ly graven on the facade of our constitution, have not 'er%eated everyday life nor even stirred in the consciousness of the 'eo'le E246 2Footnote 4* 7 ,tere, I,ocial(de%ocratiD% sau Po'oraniD%I, Jassy 6

8t is strange that >ing 7arol, $ho had the $elfare of the 'eo'le sincerely at heart, should not have used his influence to bring about a solution of the rural CuestionH but this %ay 'erha's be eG'lained by the fact that, fro% 7uDaEs eG'erience, he antici'ated o''osition fro% all 'olitical factions 8t $ould al%ost see% as if, by a tacit understanding, and anGious to establish -u%aniaEs international 'osition, >ing 7arol gave his %inisters a free hand in the rural Cuestion, reserving for hi%self an eCually free hand in foreign affairs This see%s borne out by the fact that, in the four volu%es in $hich an Eeye$itnessE, %aking use of the kingEs 'rivate corres'ondence and 'ersonal notes, has %inutely described the first fifteen years of the reign, the 'easant Cuestion is entirely ignored 246 2Footnote 4* The Eeye$itnessE $as !r ,chaeffer, for%erly tutor to Prince 7arol 6 Addressing hi%self, in 4954, to the -u%anian re'resentative at the Porte, the Austrian a%bassador, von Prokesch(+sten, re%arked* E8f Prince 7arol %anages to 'ull through $ithout outside hel', and %ake -u%ania governable, it $ill be the greatest Itour de forceI 8 have ever $itnessed in %y di'lo%atic career of %ore than half a century 8t $ill be nothing less than a conjuring trick E >ing 7arol succeededH and only those acCuainted $ith -u%anian affairs can a''reciate the truth of the a%bassadorEs $ords

I5I I7onte%'orary Period* Foreign AffairsI

=' to 49// -u%anian foreign 'olitics %ay be said to have been non(eGistent The offensive or defensive alliances against the Turks

concluded by the -u%anian rulers $ith neighbouring 'rinces during the "iddle Ages $ere not %ade in 'ursuance of any definite 'olicy, but %erely to %eet the %o%entEs need @ith the establish%ent of Turkish suDerainty -u%ania beca%e a 'a$n in the foreign 'olitics of the neighbouring e%'ires, and $e find her re'eatedly included in their 'rojects of acCuisition, 'artition, or co%'ensation Aas, for instance, $hen she $as 'ut for$ard as eventual co%'ensation to Poland for the territories lost by that country in the first 'artitionB 246 -u%ania %ay be considered fortunate in not having lost %ore than Bucovina to Austria A455:B, Bessarabia to -ussia A494.B, and, te%'orarily, to Austria the region bet$een the !anube and the Aluta, called +ltenia Alost by the Treaty of Passaro$itD, 4549H recovered by the Treaty of Belgrade, 45J;B 2Footnote 4* ,ee Albert ,orel, IThe Eastern Uuestion in the Eighteenth 7enturyI AEngl ed B, 49;9, '' 414, 415 bc 6 @hile her geogra'hical 'osition %ade of -u%ania the cynosure of %any covetous eyes, it at the sa%e ti%e saved her fro% individual attack by eGciting countervailing jealousies "oreover, the 'o$ers ca%e at last to consider her a necessary ra%'art to the +tto%an E%'ire, $hose dissolution all desired but none dared atte%'t Austria and -ussia, looking to the future, $ere continually co%'eting for 'ara%ount influence in -u%ania, though it is not 'ossible to deter%ine $here their 'olicy of acCuisition ended and that of influence began The 'osition of the 'rinci'alities beca%e %ore secure after the Paris 7ongress of 49:9, $hich 'laced the% under the collective guarantee of the great 'o$ersH but this fact, and the %aintenance of Turkish suDerainty, cou'led $ith their o$n $eakness, debarred the% fro% any inde'endence in their foreign relations A sudden change took 'lace $ith the accession of Prince 7arolH a #ohenDollern 'rince related to the >ing of Prussia and to Na'oleon 888 could not be treated like one of the native boyards The situation called

for the %ore delicacy of treat%ent by the 'o$ers in vie$ of the 'ossibility of his being able to better those internal conditions $hich %ade -u%ania EuninterestingE as a factor in international 'olitics 8n fact, the 'rinceEs 'ersonality assured for -u%ania a status $hich she could other$ise have attained only $ith ti%e, by a 'olitical, econo%ic, and %ilitary consolidation of her ho%e affairsH and the 'rince does not fail to re%ark in his notes that the attentions lavished u'on hi% by other sovereigns $ere %eant rather for the #ohenDollern 'rince than for the Prince of -u%ania "any years later even, after the $ar of 4959, $hile the -ussians $ere still south of the !anube $ith their lines of co%%unication running through -u%ania, Bratianu begged of the 'rince to give u' a 'rojected journey on account of the difficulties $hich %ight at any %o%ent arise, and said* E+nly the 'resence of your -oyal #ighness kee's the% 2the -ussians6 at a res'ectful distance E 8t $as but natural under these circu%stances that the conduct of foreign affairs should have devolved al%ost eGclusively on the 'rince The ascendancy $hich his high 'ersonal character, his 'olitical and di'lo%atic skill, his %ilitary ca'acity 'rocured for hi% over the -u%anian states%en %ade this situation a lasting oneH indeed it beca%e al%ost a tradition -u%aniaEs foreign 'olicy since 49// %ay be said, therefore, to have been >ing 7arolEs 'olicy @hether one agrees $ith it or not, no one can deny $ith any sincerity that it $as ins'ired by the interests of the country, as the %onarch sa$ the% -ebuking Bis%arckEs unfair attitude to$ards -u%ania in a Cuestion concerning Ger%an investors, Prince 7arol $rites to his father in 495:* E8 have to 'ut -u%aniaEs interests above those of Ger%any "y 'ath is 'lainly %a''ed out, and 8 %ust follo$ 8t unflinchingly, $hatever the $eather E Prince 7arol $as a thorough Ger%an, and as such naturally favoured the eG'ansion of Ger%an influence a%ong his ne$ subjects But if he desired -u%ania to follo$ in the $ake of Ger%an foreign 'olicy, it $as because of his unshaken faith in the future of his native country, because he considered that -u%ania had nothing to fear fro% Ger%any, $hilst it $as all in the interest of that country to see -u%ania strong and fir%ly established At the sa%e ti%e, acting on the advice of Bis%arck, he did

not fail to $ork to$ard a better understanding $ith -ussia, E$ho %ight beco%e as $ell a reliable friend as a dangerous ene%y to the -u%anian stateE The sy%'athy sho$n hi% by Na'oleon 888 $as not al$ays shared by the French states%en,246 and the unfriendly attitude of the French a%bassador in 7onstantino'le caused Prince 7arol to re%ark that E" de "oustier is considered a better Turk than the Grand Turk hi%selfE =nder the circu%stances a 'ossible alliance bet$een France and -ussia, giving the latter a free hand in the Near East, $ould have 'roved a grave danger to -u%aniaH Eit $as, conseCuently, a skilful, if i%'erious act, to enter voluntarily, and $ithout detri%ent to the eGisting friendly relations $ith France, $ithin the -ussian s'here of influence, and not to $ait till co%'elled to do so E 2Footnote 4* ,ee I-evue des !euG "ondesI, June 4:, 49//, article by EugMne Forcade 6 The ca%'aigns of 49// and 4950 having finally established PrussiaEs su're%acy in the Ger%an $orld, Bis%arck %odified his attitude to$ards Austria 8n an intervie$ $ith the Austrian Foreign ,ecretary, 7ount Beust AGastein, +ctober 4954B, he broached for the first ti%e the Cuestion of an alliance and, touching u'on the eventual dissolution of the +tto%an E%'ire, Eobligingly re%arked that one could not conceive of a great 'o$er not %aking of its faculty for eG'ansion a vital CuestionE 2.6 Uuite in kee'ing $ith that change $ere the counsels henceforth tendered to Prince 7arol Early that year Bis%arck $rote of his sorro$ at having been forced to the conclusion that -u%ania had nothing to eG'ect fro% -ussia, $hile Prince Anthony, Prince 7arolEs father and faithful adviser, $rote soon after the above intervie$ ANove%ber 4954B, that Eunder certain circu%stances it $ould see% a sound 'olicy for -u%ania to rely u'on the su''ort of AustriaE Persevering in this crescendo of suggestion, AustriaEs ne$ foreign secretary, 7ount Andrassy, drifted at length to the 'oint by 'lainly declaring not long after$ards that E-u%ania is not so uni%'ortant that one should de'recate an alliance $ith herE

2Footnote .* Gabriel #anotauG, I)a Guerre des Balkans et lEEuro'eI ABeust, "P%oiresB, Paris, 4;41, ' .;5 6 Prince 7arol had acce'ted the throne $ith the fir% intention of shaking off the Turkish suDerainty at the first o''ortunity, and not unnaturally he counted u'on Ger%anyEs su''ort to that end #e and his country $ere bitterly disa''ointed, therefore, $hen Bis%arck a''ealed directly to the Porte for the settle%ent of a difference bet$een the -u%anian Govern%ent and a Ger%an co%'any entrusted $ith the construction of the -u%anian rail$aysH the %ore so as the Paris 7onvention had eG'ressly forbidden any Turkish interference in -u%aniaEs internal affairs 8t thus beca%e increasingly evident that -u%ania could not break a$ay fro% -ussia, the co%ing 'o$er in the East The eyes of -ussia $ere steadfastly fiGed on 7onstantino'le* by joining her, -u%ania had the best chance of gaining her inde'endenceH by not doing so, she ran the risk of being trodden u'on by -ussia on her $ay to ByDantiu% But though resolved to co(o'erate $ith -ussia in any eventual action in the Balkans, Prince 7arol skilfully avoided delivering hi%self blindfold into her hands by deliberately cutting hi%self a$ay fro% the other guaranteeing 'o$ers To the conference $hich %et in 7onstantino'le at the end of 495/ to settle Balkan affairs he addressed the de%and that Eshould $ar break out bet$een one of the guaranteeing 'o$ers and Turkey, -u%aniaEs line of conduct should be dictated, and her neutrality and rights guaranteed, by the other 'o$ersE This IdP%archeI failed The 'o$ers had acce'ted the invitation to the conference as one acce'ts an invitation to visit a dying %an Nobody had any illusions on the 'ossibility of averting $ar, least of all the t$o 'o$ers 'rinci'ally interested 8n Nove%ber 495/ Ali Bey and " de Nelidov arrived si%ultaneously and secretly in Bucarest to sound -u%ania as to an arrange%ent $ith their res'ective countries, Turkey and -ussia 8n o''osition to his father and 7ount Andrassy, $ho counselled neutrality and the $ithdra$al of the -u%anian ar%y into the %ountains, and in sy%'athy $ith Bis%arckEs advice, Prince 7arol concluded a 7onvention $ith -ussia on A'ril 4/, 4955 -u%ania 'ro%ised to the -ussian ar%y Efree 'assage through -u%anian territory and the treat%ent due to a friendly ar%yEH $hilst

-ussia undertook to res'ect -u%aniaEs 'olitical rights, as $ell as Eto %aintain and defend her actual integrityE E8t is 'retty certainE, $rote Prince 7arol to his father, Ethat this $ill not be to the liking of %ost of the great 'o$ersH but as they neither can nor $ill offer us anything, $e cannot do other$ise than 'ass the% by A successful -ussian ca%'aign $ill free us fro% the no%inal de'endency u'on Turkey, and Euro'e $ill never allo$ -ussia to take her 'lace E +n A'ril .J the -ussian ar%ies 'assed the Pruth An offer of active 'artici'ation by the -u%anian forces in the forthco%ing ca%'aign $as rejected by the Tsar, $ho haughtily declared that E-ussia had no need for the coo'eration of the -u%anian ar%yE, and that Eit $as only under the aus'ices of the -ussian forces that the foundation of -u%aniaEs future destinies could be laidE -u%ania $as to kee' Cuiet and acce't in the end $hat -ussia $ould deign to give her, or, to be %ore correct, take fro% her After a fe$ successful encounters, ho$ever, the TsarEs soldiers %et $ith serious defeats before Plevna, and 'ersistent a''eals $ere no$ urged for the 'artici'ation of the -u%anian ar%y in the %ilitary o'erations The %o%ent had co%e for -u%ania to bargain for her interests But Prince 7arol refused to %ake ca'ital out of the serious 'osition of the -ussiansH he led his ar%y across the !anube and, at the eG'ress desire of the Tsar, took over the su're%e co%%and of the united forces before Plevna After a glorious but terrible struggle Plevna, follo$ed at short intervals by other strongholds, fell, the 'eace 'reli%inaries $ere signed, and Prince 7arol returned to Bucarest at the head of his victorious ar%y Not$ithstanding the flattering $ords in $hich the Tsar s'oke of the -u%anian share in the success of the ca%'aign, -ussia did not ad%it -u%ania to the Peace 7onference By the Treaty of ,an ,tefano A"arch J,4959B -u%aniaEs inde'endence $as recogniDedH -ussia obtained fro% Turkey the !obrudja and the delta of the !anube, reserving for herself the right to eGchange these territories against the three southern districts of Bessarabia, restored to -u%ania by the Treaty of Paris, 49:/ This sti'ulation $as by no %eans a sur'rise to -u%ania, -ussiaEs intention to

recover Bessarabia $as $ell kno$n to the Govern%ent, $ho ho'ed, ho$ever, that the de%and $ould not be 'ressed after the effective assistance rendered by the -u%anian ar%y E8f this be not a ground for the eGtension of our territory, it is surely none for its di%inution,E re%arked 7ogalniceanu at the Berlin 7ongress "oreover, besides the 'ro%ises of the Tsar, there $as the 7onvention of the 'revious year, $hich, in eGchange for nothing %ore than free 'assage for the -ussian ar%ies, guaranteed -u%aniaEs integrity But u'on this sti'ulation Gorchakov 'ut the jesuitical construction that, the 7onvention being concluded in vie$ of a $ar to be $aged against Turkey, it $as only against Turkey that -ussia undertook to guarantee -u%aniaEs integrityH as to herself, she $as not in the least bound by that arrange%ent And should -u%ania dare to 'rotest against, or o''ose the action of the -ussian Govern%ent, Ethe Tsar $ill order that -u%ania be occu'ied and the -u%anian ar%y disar%edE EThe ar%y $hich fought at PlevnaE, re'lied Prince 7arol through his %inister, E%ay $ell be destroyed, but never disar%ed E There $as one last ho'e left to -u%ania* that the 7ongress $hich %et in Berlin in June 4959 for the 'ur'ose of revising the Treaty of ,an ,tefano, $ould 'revent such an injustice But Bis%arck $as anGious that no Esenti%ent de dignitP blessPeE should rankle in -ussiaEs future 'olicyH the French re'resentative, @addington, $as Eabove all a 'ractical %anEH 7orti, the 8talian delegate, $as Enearly rudeE to the -u%anian delegatesH $hile )ord Beaconsfield, EnglandEs envoy, receiving the -u%anian delegates 'rivately, had nothing to say but that Ein 'olitics the best services are often re$arded $ith ingratitudeE -ussia strongly o''osed even the idea that the -u%anian delegates should be allo$ed to 'ut their case before the 7ongress, and consent $as obtained only $ith difficulty after )ord ,alisbury had ironically re%arked that Ehaving heard the re'resentatives of Greece, $hich $as clai%ing foreign 'rovinces, it $ould be but fair to listen also to the re'resentatives of a country $hich $as only seeking to retain $hat $as its o$nE ,hortly before, )ord ,alisbury, s'eaking in )ondon to the -u%anian s'ecial envoy, 7alli%aki 7atargiu, had assured hi% of EnglandEs sy%'athy and of her effective assistance in case either of

$ar or of a 7ongress EBut to be Cuite candid he %ust add that there are Cuestions of %ore concern to England, and should she be able to co%e to an understanding $ith -ussia $ith regard to the%, she $ould not $age $ar for the sake of -u%ania E 8ndeed, an understanding ca%e about, and an indiscretion enabled the IGlobeI to %ake its tenor 'ublic early in June 4959 EThe Govern%ent of her Britannic "ajestyE, it said, Econsiders that it $ill feel itself bound to eG'ress its dee' regret should -ussia 'ersist in de%anding the retrocession of Bessarabia EnglandEs interest in this Cuestion is not such, ho$ever, as to justify her taking u'on herself alone the res'onsibility of o''osing the intended eGchange E ,o Bessarabia $as lost, -u%ania receiving instead !obrudja $ith the delta of the !anube But as the ne$ly created state of Bulgaria $as at the ti%e little else than a detached -ussian 'rovince, -ussia, alone a%ongst the 'o$ers, o''osed and succeeded in 'reventing the de%arcation to the ne$ -u%anian 'rovince of a strategically sound frontier Finally, to the eGas'eration of the -u%anians, the 7ongress %ade the recognition of -u%aniaEs inde'endence contingent u'on the abolition of Article 5 of the 7onstitution(($hich denied to non(7hristians the right of beco%ing -u%anian citiDens((and the e%anci'ation of the -u%anian Je$s 246 2Footnote 4* -u%ania only 'artially gave $ay to this intrusion of the 'o$ers into her internal affairs The 'rohibition $as abolishedH but only individual naturaliDation $as %ade 'ossible, and that by s'ecial Act of Parlia%ent +nly a very s%all 'ro'ortion of the Je$ish 'o'ulation has since been naturaliDed The Je$ish Cuestion in -u%ania is undoubtedly a very serious oneH but the %atter is too controversial to be dealt $ith in a fe$ lines $ithout risking %isre'resentation or doing an injustice to one or other of the 'arties For $hich reason it has not been included in this essay 6 8t $as only after innu%erable difficulties and hardshi's that, at the beginning of 4990, -u%ania secured recognition of an inde'endence $hich she o$ed to nobody but herself @hilst -ussia $as o''osing -u%ania at every o''ortunity in the Euro'ean conferences and co%%issions, she $as at

'ains to sho$ herself %ore a%enable in Itcte(W(tcteI, and a''roached -u%ania $ith favourable 'ro'osals E-ather -ussia as foe than guardian,E $rote Prince 7arol to his fatherH and these $ords indicate an i%'ortant turning('oint in -u%aniaEs foreign 'olicy 8n $resting Bessarabia fro% -u%ania %erely as a so' to her o$n 'ride, and to %ake an end of all that $as enacted by the Treaty of Paris, 49:/, -ussia %ade a serious 'olitical blunder By insisting that Austria should share in the 'artition of Poland, Frederick the Great had skilfully 'revented her fro% re%aining the one country to$ards $hich the Poles $ould naturally have turned for deliverance ,uch an o''ortunity $as lost by -ussia through her short(sighted 'olicy in Bessarabia((that of re%aining the natural ally of -u%ania against -u%aniaEs natural foe, Austria(#ungary -u%ania had neither historical, geogra'hical, nor any i%'ortant ethnogra'hical 'oints of contact $ith the region south of the !anubeH the ai%s of a future 'olicy could only have e%braced neighbouring tracts of foreign territory inhabited by -u%anians @hereas u' to the date of the Berlin 7ongress such tracts $ere confined to Austria(#ungary, by that 7ongress a si%ilar s'here of attraction for -u%anian as'irations $as created in -ussia 246 The interests of a 'eaceful develo'%ent de%anded that -u%ania should %aintain friendly relations $ith both the 'o$ers striving for do%ination in the Near EastH it $as a vital necessity for her, ho$ever, to be able to rely u'on the effective su''ort of at least one of the% in a case of e%ergency -ussiaEs conduct had aroused a dee' feeling of bitterness and %istrust in -u%ania, and every lessening of her influence $as a ste' in AustriaEs favour ,econdary considerations tended to intensify this* on the one hand lay the fact that through -ussiaEs inter'osition -u%ania had no defendable frontier against BulgariaH on the other hand $as the greatly strengthened 'osition created for Austria by her alliance $ith Ger%any, in $hose future Prince 7arol had the ut%ost confidence

2Footnote 4* 8t is 'robable that this confederation had %uch to do $ith the readiness $ith $hich Bis%arck su''orted the de%ands of his good friend, Gorchakov 6 Ger%anyEs attitude to$ards -u%ania had been curiously hostile during these eventsH but $hen Prince 7arolEs father s'oke of this to the Ger%an E%'eror, the latter sho$ed genuine astonish%ent* Bis%arck had obviously not taken the e%'eror co%'letely into his confidence @hen, a fe$ days later, ,turdDa had an intervie$ $ith Bis%arck at the latterEs invitation, the Ger%an 7hancellor discovered once %ore that -u%ania had nothing to eG'ect fro% -ussia 8ndeed, -u%aniaEs 'osition bet$een -ussia and the ne$ ,lav state south of the !anube %ight 'rove dangerous, $ere she not to seek 'rotection and assistance fro% her t$o Enatural friendsE, France and Ger%any And, $ith his usual liberality $hen baiting his 'olicy $ith false ho'es, Bis%arck $ent on to say that ETurkey is falling to 'iecesH nobody can resuscitate herH -u%ania has an i%'ortant role to fulfil, but for this she %ust be $ise, cautious, and strongE This ne$ attitude $as the natural counter'art of the change $hich $as at that ti%e %aking itself felt in -usso(Ger%an relations @hile a Franco(-ussian alliance $as 'ro'ounded by Gorchakov in an intervie$ $ith a French journalist, Bis%arck and Andrassy signed in Gastein the treaty $hich allied Austria to Ger%any A,e'te%ber 495;B As -u%aniaEs interests $ere identical $ith those of Austria(($rote 7ount Andrassy 'rivately to Prince 7arol a fe$ %onths later((na%ely, to 'revent the fusion of the northern and the southern ,lavs, she had only to eG'ress her $illingness to beco%e at a given %o%ent the third 'arty in the co%'act 8n 499J >ing 7arol acce'ted a secret treaty of defensive alliance fro% Austria 8n return for 'ro%ises relating to future 'olitical 'artitions in the Balkans, the %onarch 'ledged hi%self to o''ose all develo'%ents likely to s'eed the de%ocratic evolution, of -u%ania Though the treaty $as never sub%itted to 'arlia%ent for ratification, and not$ithstanding a tariff $ar and a serious difference $ith Austria on the Cuestion of control of the !anube navigation, -u%ania $as, till the Balkan $ars, a faithful Eslee'ing 'artnerE of the Tri'le Alliance

All through that eGternally Cuiet 'eriod a %arked discre'ancy eGisted and develo'ed bet$een that line of 'olicy and the trend of 'ublic o'inion The interest of the -u%anians $ithin the kingdo% centred increasingly on their brethren in Transylvania, the solution of $hose hard case ins'ired %ost of the 'o'ular national %ove%ents Not on account of the 'olitical des'otis% of the "agyars, for that of the -ussians $as in no $ay behind it But $hilst the -u%anians of Bessarabia $ere, $ith fe$ eGce'tions, illiterate 'easants, in Transylvania there $as a solidly established and s'irited %iddle class, $hose 'rotests ke't 'ace $ith the o''ressive %easures "any of the%((and of necessity the %ore turbulent((%igrated to -u%ania, and there ke't alive the ETransylvanian UuestionE That the countryEs foreign 'olicy has nevertheless constantly su''orted the 7entral Po$ers is due, to so%e eGtent, to the fact that the generation %ost dee'ly i%'ressed by the events of 4959 ca%e gradually to the leadershi' of the countryH to a greater eGtent to the increasing influence of Ger%an education,246 and the econo%ic and financial su're%acy $hich the benevolent 'assivity of England and France enabled Ger%any to acCuireH but above all to the 'ersonal influence of >ing 7arol Ger%any, he considered, $as at the beginning of her develo'%ent and needed, above all, 'eaceH as -u%ania $as in the sa%e 'osition the $isest 'olicy $as to follo$ Ger%any, neglecting i%'racticable national ideals >ing 7arol outlined his vie$s clearly in an intervie$ $hich he had in ?ienna $ith the E%'eror FranD Jose'h in 499J* ENo nation consents to be bereaved of its 'olitical as'irations, and those of the -u%anians are constantly ke't at fever heat by "agyar o''ression But this $as no real obstacle to a friendly understanding bet$een the t$o neighbouring states E 2Footnote 4* "any 'ro%inent states%en like ,turdDa, "aiorescu, 7ar', bc $ere educated in Ger%any, $hereas the school established by the Ger%an co%%unity AIEvangelische >naben und -ealschuleIB, and $hich it under the direct control of the Ger%an "inistry of Education, is attended by %ore 'u'ils than any other school in Bucarest 6 ,uch $as the 'osition $hen the Balkan 'eo'les rose in 4;4. to sever the

last ties $hich bound the% to the decadent Turkish E%'ire >ing 7arol, $ho had, s$ord in hand, $on the inde'endence of his country, could have no objection to such a desire for e%anci'ation Nor to the Balkan )eague itself, unfortunately so e'he%eralH for by the first year of his reign he had already a''roached the Greek Govern%ent $ith 'ro'osals to$ard such a league, and to$ard freeing the Balkans fro% the undesirable interference of the 'o$ers 246 8t is true that -u%ania, like all the other states, had not foreseen the radical changes $hich $ere to take 'lace, and $hich considerably affected her 'osition in the Near East But she $as safe as long as the situation $as one of stable eCuilibriu% and the league re%ained in eGistence E-u%ania $ill only be %enaced by a real danger $hen a Great Bulgaria co%es into eGistence,E re%arked Prince 7arol to Bis%arck in 4990, and Bulgaria had done nothing since to allay -u%anian sus'icions +n the contrary, the 'roviso of the Berlin 7onvention that all fortifications along the -u%ania frontier should be raDed to the ground had not been carried out by the Bulgarian Govern%ent Bulgarian official 'ublications regarded the !obrudja as a EBulgaria 8rredentaE, and at the outset of the first Balkan $ar a certain section of the Bulgarian 'ress s'eculated u'on the Bulgarian character of the !obrudja 2Footnote 4* ,ee AugenDeuge, o' cit , i 4596 The Balkan )eague having 'roclai%ed, ho$ever, that their action did not involve any territorial changes, and the %aintenance of the Istatus CuoI having been insisted u'on by the Euro'ean 7oncert, -u%ania declared that she $ould re%ain neutral All this jugglery of %utual assurances broke do$n $ith the uneG'ected rout of the TurksH the for%ula Ethe Balkans to the Balkan 'eo'lesE %ade its a''earance, u'on $hich Bulgaria $as at once notified that -u%ania $ould insist u'on the Cuestion of the !obrudja frontier being included in any funda%ental alteration of the Berlin 7onvention The Bulgarian Pre%ier, " !anev, concurred in this 'oint of vie$, but his conduct of the subseCuent )ondon negotiations $as so Edi'lo%aticE that their only result $as to strain the 'atience of the -u%anian Govern%ent and 'ublic o'inion to breaking 'oint Nevertheless,

the -u%anian Govern%ent agreed that the 'oint in dis'ute should be sub%itted to a conference of the re'resentatives of the great 'o$ers in ,t Petersburg, and later acce'ted the decision of that conference, though the country considered it highly unsatisfactory The for%ation of the Balkan )eague, and es'ecially the colla'se of Turkey, had %eant a serious blo$ to the 7entral Po$ersE 'olicy of 'eaceful 'enetration "oreover, Efor a century %en have been labouring to solve the Eastern Uuestion +n the day $hen it shall be considered solved, Euro'e $ill inevitably $itness the 'ro'ounding of the Austrian Uuestion E246 To 'revent this and to kee' o'en a route to the East Austro(Ger%an di'lo%acy set to $ork, and having engineered the creation of Albania succeeded in barring ,erbiaEs $ay to the AdriaticH ,erbia $as thus forced to seek an outlet in the south, $here her interests $ere doo%ed to clash $ith Bulgarian as'irations The at%os'here gre$ threatening 8n antici'ation of a conflict $ith Bulgaria, Greece and ,erbia sought an alliance $ith -u%ania The offer $as declinedH but, in accordance $ith the 'olicy $hich Bucarest had already %ade Cuite clear to ,ofia, the -u%anian ar%y $as ordered to enter Bulgaria i%%ediately that country attacked her for%er allies The -u%anians advanced uno''osed to $ithin a fe$ %iles of ,ofia, and in order to save the ca'ital Bulgaria declared her $illingness to co%'ly $ith their clai%s -u%ania having refused, ho$ever, to conclude a se'arate 'eace, Bulgaria had to give $ay, and the Balkan 're%iers %et in conference at Bucarest to discuss ter%s The circu%stances $ere not aus'icious The $ay in $hich Bulgaria had conducted 'revious negotiations, and es'ecially the attack u'on her for%er allies, had eGas'erated the -u%anians and the Balkan 'eo'les, and the 'ressure of 'ublic o'inion hindered fro% the outset a fair consideration of the Bulgarian 'oint of vie$ "oreover, cholera $as %aking great ravages in the ranks of the various ar%ies, and, $hat threatened to be even %ore destructive, several great 'o$ers $ere looking for a crack in the door to 'ut their tails through, as the -u%anian saying runs ,o anGious $ere the Balkan states%en to avoid any such interference that they agreed bet$een the%selves to a short ti%e li%it* on a certain day, and by a certain hour, 'eace $as to be

concluded, or hostilities $ere to start afresh The treaty $as signed on August 40, 4;4J, -u%ania obtaining the line Turtukai(!obrich(Balchik, this being the line already de%anded by her at the ti%e of the )ondon negotiations The de%and $as 'ut forth originally as a security against the avo$ed a%bitions of BulgariaH it $as a strategical necessity, but at the sa%e ti%e a 'olitical %istake fro% the 'oint of vie$ of future relations The Treaty of Bucarest, i%'erfect arrange%ent as it $as, had nevertheless a great historical significance E@ithout co%'licating the discussion of our interests, $hich $e are best in a 'osition to understand, by the consideration of other foreign, interests,E re%arked the President of the 7onference, E$e shall have established for the first ti%e by ourselves 'eace and har%ony a%ongst our 'eo'les E !ynastic interests and i%'atient a%bitions, ho$ever, co%'letely subverted this %o%entous ste' to$ards a satisfactory solution of the Eastern Uuestion 2Footnote 4* Albert ,orel, o', cit , ' .// 6 The natural counter(effect of the di'lo%atic activity of the 7entral Po$ers $as a change in -u%anian 'olicy -u%ania considered the %aintenance of the Balkan eCuilibriu% a vital Cuestion, and as she had entered u'on a closer union $ith Ger%any against a Bulgaria subjected to -ussian influence, so she no$ turned to -ussia as a guard against a Bulgaria under Ger%an influence This breaking a$ay fro% the EtraditionalE 'olicy of adjutancy(in($aiting to the 7entral Po$ers $as indicated by the visit of Prince Ferdinand((no$ >ing of -u%ania((to ,t Petersburg, and the even %ore significant visit $hich Tsar Nicholas after$ards 'aid to the late >ing 7arol at 7onstanDa Ti%e has been too short, ho$ever, for those ne$ relations so to sha'e the%selves as to eGercise a notable influence u'on -u%aniaEs 'resent attitude

I-u%ania and the Present @arI

IAaB The -u%anians outside the >ingdo%I The aGis on $hich -u%anian foreign 'olicy ought naturally to revolve is the circu%stance that al%ost half the -u%anian nation lives outside -u%anian territory As the available official statistics generally sho$ 'olitical bias it is not 'ossible to give 'recise figuresH but roughly s'eaking there are about one %illion -u%anians in Bessarabia, a Cuarter of a %illion in Bucovina, three and a half %illions in #ungary, $hile so%ething above half a %illion for% scattered colonies in Bulgaria, ,erbia, and "acedonia All these live in %ore or less close 'roGi%ity to the -u%anian frontiers That these -u%anian ele%ents have %aintained their nationality is due to 'urely intrinsic causes @e have seen that the inde'endence of -u%ania in her foreign relations had only recently been established, since $hen the king, the factor %ost influential in foreign 'olitics, had discouraged nationalist tendencies, lest the countryEs internal develo'%ent %ight be co%'ro%ised by friction $ith neighbouring states The Govern%ent eGerted its influence against any active eG'ression of the national feeling, and the fe$ EnationalistsE and the E)eague for the cultural unity of all -u%aniansE had been, as a conseCuence, driven to seek a justification for their eGistence in antise%itic agitation The above circu%stances had little influence u'on the situation in Bucovina This 'rovince for%s an integral 'art of the #absburg %onarchy, $ith $hich it $as incor'orated as early as 455: The 'olitical situation of the -u%anian 'rinci'alities at the ti%e, and the absence of a national cultural %ove%ent, left the detached 'o'ulation eG'osed to Ger%aniDation, and later to the ,lav influence of the ra'idly eG'anding -uthene ele%ent That language and national characteristics have, nevertheless, not been lost is due to the fact that the -u%anian 'o'ulation of Bucovina is

'easant al%ost to a %an((a class little a%enable to changes of civiliDation This also a''lies largely to Bessarabia, $hich, first lost in 494., $as incor'orated $ith -u%ania in 49:/, and finally detached in 4959 The fe$ -u%anians belonging to the landed class $ere $on over by the ne$ %asters But $hile the -u%anian 'o'ulation $as denied any cultural and literary activities of its o$n, the reactionary attitude of the -ussian Govern%ent to$ards education has enabled the -u%anian 'easants to 'reserve their custo%s and their language At the sa%e ti%e their resultant ignorance has ke't the% outside the s'here of intellectual influence of the %other country The -u%anians $ho live in scattered colonies south of the !anube are the descendants of those $ho took refuge in these regions during the ninth and tenth centuries fro% the invasions of the #uns Generally kno$n as >utDo(?lakhs, or, a%ong the%selves, as Aro%uni, they are((as even @eigand, $ho undoubtedly has Bulgaro'hil leanings, recogniDes((the %ost intelligent and best educated of the inhabitants of "acedonia 8n 4;0: the -u%anian Govern%ent secured fro% the Porte official recognition of their se'arate cultural and religious organiDations on a national basis EG'osed as they are to Greek influence, it $ill be difficult to 'revent their final assi%ilation $ith that 'eo'le The interest taken in the% of late by the -u%anian Govern%ent arose out of the necessity to secure the% against 'an(#ellenic 'ro'aganda, and to 'reserve one of the factors entitling -u%ania to 'artici'ate in the settle%ent of Balkan affairs 8 have sketched else$here the early history of the -u%anians of Transylvania, the cradle of the -u%anian nation As already %entioned, 'art of the -u%anian nobility of #ungary $ent over to the "agyars, the re%ainder %igrating over the %ountains !ebarred fro% the su''ort of the noble class, the -u%anian 'easantry lost its state of autono%y, $hich changed into one of serfdo% to the soil u'on $hich they toiled !es'erate risings in 4J.1, 41J5, 4:41, 4/00, and 4591 tended to case the #ungarian

o''ression, $hich u' to the nineteenth century strove 'ri%arily after a 'olitical and religious hege%ony But the "agyars having failed in 4919 in their atte%'t to free the%selves fro% Austrian do%ination Adefeated $ith the assistance of a -ussian ar%y at ?illagos, 491;B, %ainly on account of the fidelity of the other nationalities to the Austrian 7ro$n, they henceforth directed their efforts to$ards strengthening their o$n 'osition by forcible assi%ilation of those nationalities This they $ere able to do, ho$ever, only after >Xniggr`tD, $hen a $eakened Austria had to give $ay to #ungarian de%ands 8n 49/5 the !ual "onarchy $as established, and Transylvania, $hich u' to then for%ed a se'arate duchy enjoying full 'olitical rights, $as incor'orated $ith the ne$ #ungarian kingdo% The "agyars $ere handica''ed in their i%'erialist a%bitions by their nu%erical inferiority As the neGt best %eans to their end, therefore, they resorted to 'olitical and national o''ression, class des'otis%, and a co%'lete disregard of the 'rinci'les of liberty and hu%anity 246 #ungarian $as %ade co%'ulsory in the ad%inistration, even in districts $here the bulk of the 'o'ulation did not understand that language 8n villages co%'letely inhabited by -u%anians so(called E,tateE schools $ere founded, in $hich only #ungarian $as to be s'oken, and all children u'$ards of three years of age had to attend the% The electoral regulations $ere dra$n u' in such a %anner that the -u%anians of Transylvania, though ten ti%es %ore nu%erous than the "agyars, sent a far s%aller nu%ber than do the latter to the National Asse%bly To Cuash all 'rotest a s'ecial 'ress la$ $as introduced for Transylvania But the -u%anian journalists being usually acCuitted by the juries a ne$ regulation 'rescribed that 'ress offences should be tried only at >luj A>lausenburgB((the sole Transylvanian to$n $ith a 'redo%inating #ungarian 'o'ulation((a %easure $hich $as in funda%ental contradiction to the 'rinci'les of justice 2.6 8n 49;. the -u%anian grievances $ere e%bodied in a %e%orandu% $hich $as to have been 'resented to the e%'eror by a de'utation An audience $as, ho$ever, refused, and at the instance of the #ungarian Govern%ent the %e%bers of the de'utation $ere sentenced to long ter%s of i%'rison%ent for having 'lotted against the unity of the "agyar state

2Footnote 4* The -u%anians inhabit %ainly the 'rovince of Transylvania, Banat, 7rishiana, and "ara%uresh They re'resent 1/ . 'er cent of the total 'o'ulation of these 'rovinces, the "agyars J. : 'er cent , the Ger%ans 44 : 'er cent , and the ,erbs 1 : 'er cent These figured are taken fro% official #ungarian statistics, and it %ay therefore be assu%ed that the -u%anian 'ercentage re'resents a %ini%u% 6 2Footnote .* +ver a 'eriod of .. years A499/(4;09B 9:0 journalists $ere charged, J/5 of $ho% $ere -u%aniansH the sentences totalling .4/ years of i%'rison%ent, the fines a%ounting to Fcs 4J9,000 6 Not$ithstanding these disabilities the -u%anians of Transylvania enjoyed a long 'eriod of co%'arative social and econo%ic liberty at a ti%e $hen Turkish and Phanariote do%ination $as ha%'ering all 'rogress in -u%ania +ffice under the Govern%ent gro$ing increasingly difficult to obtain, the -u%anians in Transylvania turned largely to co%%ercial and the o'en 'rofessions, and, as a result, a 'o$erful %iddle class no$ eGists 8n their clergy, both of the +rthodoG and the =niate 7hurch(($hich last, $hile conducting its ritual in the vernacular, recogniDes 'a'al su're%acy(( the -u%anians have al$ays found strong %oral su''ort, $hile the national struggle tends to unite the various classes The -u%anians of #ungary for% by far the sanest ele%ent in the -u%anian nation Fro% the -u%anians $ithin the kingdo% they have received little beside sy%'athy The i%'ortant 'art 'layed by the country at the Peace of Bucarest, and her detach%ent fro% Austria(#ungary, %ust necessarily have sti%ulated the national consciousness of the TransylvaniansH $hile at the sa%e ti%e all ho'e for better%ent fro% $ithin %ust have ceased at the death of Archduke Francis Ferdinand, an avo$ed friend of the long(suffering nationalities 8t is, therefore, no %ere %atter of conjecture that the 'assive attitude of the -u%anian Govern%ent at the beginning of the 'resent conflict %ust have been a bitter disa''oint%ent to the% IAbB -u%aniaEs AttitudeI

The tragic develo'%ent of the crisis in the su%%er of 4;41 thre$ -u%ania into a vorteG of uneG'ected ho'es and fears As'irations till then considered little else than =to'ian beca%e tangible 'ossibilities, $hile, as suddenly, dangers dee%ed far off loo%ed large and near Not only $as such a situation Cuite unforeseen, nor had any 'lan of action been 'reconceived to %eet it, but it $as in -u%aniaEs case a situation uniCue fro% the nu%ber of conflicting considerations and influences at $ork $ithin it ,till under the $aning influence of the thirty years Cuasi(alliance $ith Austria, -u%ania $as not yet accli%atiDed to her ne$ relations $ith -ussia Not$ithstanding the inborn sy%'athy $ith and ad%iration for France, the -u%anians could not be blind to Ger%anyEs %ilitary 'o$er The enthusias% that $ould have sided $ith France for FranceEs sake $as faced by the influence of Ger%an finance ,y%'athy $ith ,erbia eGisted side by side $ith sus'icion of Bulgaria Po'ular senti%ent clashed $ith the vie$s of the kingH and the bright vision of the E'rinci'le of nationalityE $as darkened by the shado$ of -ussia as des'ot of the Near East +ne fact in the situation stood out fro% the rest, na%ely, the uneG'ected o''ortunity of redee%ing that half of the -u%anian nation $hich $as still under foreign ruleH the %ore so as one of the 'arties in the conflict had given the E'rinci'le of nationalityE a 'ro%inent 'lace in its 'rogra%%e But the fact that both Austria(#ungary and -ussia had a large -u%anian 'o'ulation a%ong their subjects rendered a 'urely national 'olicy i%'ossible, and -u%ania could do nothing but $eigh $hich issue offered her the greater advantage Three $ays lay o'en* co%'lete neutrality, active 'artici'ation on the side of the 7entral Po$ers, or co%%on cause $ith the Tri'le Entente 7o%'lete neutrality $as advocated by a fe$ $ho had the countryEs %aterial security %ost at heart, and also, as a I'is allerI, by those $ho realiDed that their o'inion that -u%ania should %ake co%%on cause $ith the 7entral Po$ers had no 'ros'ect of being acted u'on

That >ing 7arol favoured the idea of a joint action $ith Ger%any is likely enough, for such a 'olicy $as in kee'ing $ith his faith in the 'o$er of the Ger%an E%'ire "oreover, he undoubtedly vie$ed $ith satisfaction the 'ossibility of regaining Bessarabia, the loss of $hich %ust have been bitterly felt by the victor of Plevna ,uch a 'olicy $ould have %et $ith the a''roval of %any -u%anian states%en, notably of " ,turdDa, so%eti%e leader of the )iberal 'arty and Pri%e "inisterH of " 7ar', so%eti%e leader of the 7onservative 'arty and Pri%e "inisterH of " "aiorescu, eG(Pri%e "inister and Foreign ,ecretary, $ho 'resided at the Bucarest 7onference of 4;4JH of " "arghilo%an, till recently leader of the 7onservative 'arty, to na%e only the %ore i%'ortant " ,turdDa, the old states%an $ho had been one of >ing 7arolEs chief coadjutors in the %aking of %odern -u%ania, and $ho had severed for %any years his conneGion $ith active 'olitics, again took u' his 'en to raise a $ord of $arning " 7ar', the 'olitical aristocrat $ho had retired fro% 'ublic life a fe$ years 'reviously, and had 'rofessed a lifelong conte%'t for the EPress and all its $orksE, hi%self started a daily 'a'er AI"oldovaIB $hich, he intended should eG'ound his vie$s @ell(kno$n $riters like " -adu -osetti $rote246 es'ousing the cause favoured by the king, though not for the kingEs reasons* 7arol had faith in Ger%any, the -u%anians %istrusted -ussia They sa$ no advantage in the dis%e%ber%ent of Austria, the %ost 'o$erful check to -ussiaEs 'lans in the Near East They dreaded the idea of seeing -ussia on the Bos'horus, as rendering illusory -u%aniaEs s'lendid 'osition at the %outh of the !anube For not only is a chea' $ater$ay absolutely necessary for the bulky 'roducts for%ing the chief eG'orts of -u%aniaH but these very 'roducts, corn, 'etroleu%, and ti%ber, also for% the chief eG'orts of -ussia, $ho, by a stroke of the 'en, %ay rule -u%ania out of co%'etition, should she fail to a''reciate the 'olitical leadershi' of Petrograd Paris and -o%e $ere, no doubt, beloved sistersH but ,ofia, "osco$, and Buda'est $ere neGt(door neighbours to be reckoned $ith 2Footnote 4* ,ee - -osetti, I-ussian Politics at @ork in the -u%anian 7ountriesI, facts co%'iled fro% French official docu%ents, Bucarest,

4;41 6 Those $ho held vie$s o''osed to those, confident in the righteousness of the AlliesE cause and in their final victory, advocated i%%ediate intervention, and to that end %ade the %ost of the t$o senti%ents $hich ani%ated 'ublic o'inion* interest in the fate of the Transylvanians, and sy%'athy $ith France They contended that though a 'urely national 'olicy $as not 'ossible, the difference bet$een Transylvania and Bessarabia in area and in nu%ber and Cuality of the 'o'ulation $as such that no hesitation $as ad%issible The 'ossession of Transylvania $as assured if the Allies $ere successfulH $hereas -ussia $ould soon recover if defeated, and $ould regain Bessarabia by force of ar%s, or have it once %ore 'resented to her by a 7ongress anGious to soothe her Esenti%ent de dignitP blessPeE A -u%ania enlarged in siDe and 'o'ulation had a better chance of successfully $ithstanding any eventual 'ressure fro% the north, and it $as clear that any atte%'t against her inde'endence $ould be bound to develo' into a Euro'ean Cuestion -u%ania could not forget $hat she o$ed to FranceH and if circu%stances had %ade the Transylvanian Cuestion one EW laCuelle on 'ense toujours et dont on ne 'arle ja%aisE, the greater $as the duty, no$ that a favourable o''ortunity had arisen, to hel' the brethren across the %ountains 8t $as also a duty to fight for right and civiliDation, 'roclai%ed " Take 8onescu, the eG'onent of 'rogressive ideas in -u%anian 'oliticsH and he, together $ith the 'ro%inent 7onservative states%an, " Fili'escu, $ho loathes the idea of the -u%anians being do%inated by the inferior "agyars, are the leaders of the interventionist %ove%ent 8t $as due to " Fili'escuEs activity, es'ecially, that " "arghilo%an $as forced by his o$n 'arty to resign his 'osition as leader on account of his Austro'hil senti%ents((an event un'aralleled in -u%anian 'olitics These $ere the t$o %ain currents of o'inion $hich %et in conflict at the 7ro$n 7ouncil((a co%%ittee Iad hocI consisting of the 7abinet and the leaders of the +''osition((su%%oned by the king early in August 4;41, $hen -u%aniaEs neutrality $as decided u'on The great influence $hich the 7ro$n can al$ays $ield under the -u%anian 'olitical syste% $as rendered the %ore

'otent in the 'resent case by the fact that the Pre%ier, " Bratianu, is above all a 'ractical %an, and the )iberal 7abinet over $hich he 'resides one of the %ost colourless the country ever had* a 7abinet $eak to the 'oint of being inca'able of realiDing its o$n $eakness and the i%'erative necessity at this fateful %o%ent of 'lacing the hel% in the hands of a national %inistry " Bratianu considered that -u%ania $as too eG'osed, and had suffered too %uch in the 'ast for the sake of other countries, to enter no$ u'on such an adventure $ithout a%'le guarantees There $ould al$ays be ti%e for her to co%e in This 'olicy of o''ortunis% he $as able to justify by 'o$erful argu%ent The su''ly of $ar %aterial for the -u%anian ar%y had been co%'letely in the hands of Ger%an and Austrian arsenals, and es'ecially in those of >ru'' For obvious reasons -u%ania could no longer rely u'on that sourceH indeed, Ger%any $as actually detaining contracts for $ar and sanitary %aterial 'laced $ith her before the outbreak of the $ar There $as the further consideration that, o$ing to the nature of -u%aniaEs foreign 'olicy in the 'ast, no due attention had been given to the defence of the 7ar'athians, nor to those branches of the service dealing $ith %ountain $arfare +n the other hand, a continuous line of fortifications running fro% GalatD to Focshani for%ed, together $ith the lo$er reaches of the !anube, a strong barrier against attack fro% the north -u%aniaEs geogra'hical 'osition is such that a successful offensive fro% #ungary could soon 'enetrate to the ca'ital, and by cutting the country in t$o could co%'letely 'aralyse its organiDation ,uch argu%ents acCuired a %agnified i%'ortance in the light of the failure of the negotiations $ith Bulgaria, and found %any a $illing ear in a country governed by a heavily involved landed class, and de'ending al%ost eGclusively in its banking organiDation u'on Ger%an and Austrian ca'ital Fro% the 'oint of vie$ of 'ractical 'olitics only the issue of the conflict $ill deter%ine the $isdo% or other$ise of -u%aniaEs attitude But, though it is 'erha's out of 'lace to enlarge u'on it here, it is i%'ossible not to s'eak of the %oral as'ect of the course ado'ted By giving heed to the uns'oken a''eal fro% Transylvania the -u%anian national s'irit $ould have been Cuickened, and the 'eo'le braced to a $holeso%e

sacrifice "any $ere the $istful glances cast to$ards the 7ar'athians by the subject -u%anians, as they $ere being led a$ay to fight for their o''ressorsH but, $ilfully un%indful, the leaders of the -u%anian state buried their noses in their ledgers, oblivious of the fact that in these ti%es of internationalis% a $ill in co%%on, $ith as'irations in co%%on, is the very life(blood of nationality That senti%ent ought not to enter into 'olitics is an argu%ent untenable in a country $hich has yet to see its national as'irations fulfilled, and $hich %akes of these as'irations definite clai%s No -u%anian states%an can contend that 'ossession of Transylvania is necessary to the eGistence of the -u%anian state @hat they can %aintain is that deliverance fro% "agyar o''ression is vital to the eGistence of the Transylvanians The right to advance such a clai% gro$s out of their very duty of $atching over the safety of the subject -u%anians E@hen there are sCuabbles in the household of %y brother(in(la$,E said the late 8oan Bratianu $hen s'eaking on the Transylvanian Cuestion, Eit is no affair of %ineH but $hen he raises a knife against his $ife, it is not %erely %y right to intervene, it is %y duty E 8t is difficult to account for the obliCuity of vision sho$n by so %any -u%anian 'oliticians EThe $hole 'olicy of such a state 2having a large co%'atriot 'o'ulation living in close 'roGi%ity under foreign do%ination6 %ust be 'ri%arily influenced by anGiety as to the fate of their brothers, and by the duty of e%anci'ating the%,E affir%s one of the %ost ardent of -u%anian nationalist oratorsH and he goes on to assure us that Eif -u%ania $aits, it is not fro% hesitation as to her duty, but si%'ly in order that she %ay discharge it %ore co%'letelyE 246 "eanti%e, $hile -u%ania $aits, regi%ents co%'osed al%ost co%'letely of Transylvanians have been re'eatedly and of set 'ur'ose 'laced in the forefront of the battle, and as often annihilated ,uch could never be the si%'le(hearted -u%anian 'easantEs conce'tion of his duty, and here, as in so %any other cases in the 'resent conflict, the nation at large %ust not be judged by the 'olicy of the fe$ $ho hold the reins 2Footnote 4* IUuarterly -evie$I, )ondon, A'ril, 4;4:, '' 11;(:0 6

-u%aniaEs clai%s to Transylvania are not of an historical nature They are founded u'on the nu%erical su'eriority of the subject -u%anians in Transylvania, that is u'on the E'rinci'le of nationalityE, and are %orally strengthened by the treat%ent the Transylvanians suffer at the hands of the "agyars By its 'assivity, ho$ever, the -u%anian Govern%ent has sacrificed the 'ri%e factor of the E'rinci'le of nationalityE to the attain%ent of an object in itself subordinate to that factorH that is, it has sacrificed the E'eo'leE in order to %ake %ore sure of the ElandE 8n this $ay the -u%anian Govern%ent has entered u'on a 'olicy of acCuisitionH a 'olicy $hich -u%ania is too $eak to 'ursue save under the 'atronage of one or a grou' of great 'o$ersH a 'olicy unfortunate inas%uch as it $ill de'rive her of freedo% of action in her eGternal 'olitics #er 'olicy $ill, in its conseCuences, certainly react to the detri%ent of the 'osition acCuired by the country t$o years ago, $hen inde'endent action %ade her arbiter not only a%ong the s%aller Balkan ,tates, but also a%ong those and her late suDerain, Turkey ,uch, indeed, %ust inevitably be the fate of Balkan 'olitics in general Passing fro% Turkish do%ination to no%inal Turkish suDerainty, and thence to inde'endence $ithin the s'here of influence of a 'o$er or grou' of 'o$ers, this gradual e%anci'ation of the states of south(eastern Euro'e found its highest eG'ression in the Balkan )eague The $ar against Turkey $as in effect a rebellion against the 'olitical tutelage of the 'o$ers But this e%anci'ation $as short(lived By their greed the Balkan ,tates again o'ened u' a $ay to the intrusion of foreign di'lo%acy, and even, as $e no$ see, of foreign troo's The first Balkan $ar %arked the Denith of Balkan 'olitical e%anci'ationH the second Balkan $ar $as the first act in the tragic IdPb^cleI out of $hich the 'resent situation develo'ed The interval bet$een August 4;4J APeace of BucarestB and August 4;41 $as %erely an ar%istice during $hich Bulgaria and Turkey recovered their breath, and Ger%an and Austrian di'lo%acy had ti%e to find a 'reteGt for $ar on its o$n account EEGhausted but not vanCuished $e have had to furl our glorious standards

in order to a$ait better days,E said Ferdinand of Bulgaria to his soldiers after the conclusion of the Peace of BucarestH and Buda'est, ?ienna, and Berlin have no doubt done their best to kee' this s'irit of revenge alive and to 'revent a renascence of the Balkan Alliance They have succeeded They have done %ore* they have succeeded in causing the E'rinci'le of nationalityE((that idea $hich involves the disru'tion of Austria((to be stifled by the very 'eo'le $ho% it $as %eant to save For $hilst the Ger%an 'eo'les are united in this conflict, the %ajority of the southern ,lavs, in fighting the Ger%an battles, are fighting to 'er'etuate the 'olitical servitude of the subject races of Austria(#ungary #o$ever sus'icious -u%ania %ay be of -ussia, ho$ever bitter the Cuarrels bet$een Bulgars, Greeks, and ,erbs, it is not, nor can it ever be natural, that 'eo'les $ho have groaned under Turkish des'otis% for centuries should, after only one year of co%'lete liberation, join hands $ith an old and dreaded ene%y not only against their fello$ sufferers, but even against those $ho ca%e Eto die that they %ay liveE These are the !ead ,ea fruits of dynastic 'olicy 7alled to the thrones of the s%all states of the Near East for the 'ur'ose of creating order and 'eace, the Ger%an dynasties have overste''ed their function and abused the 'o$er entrusted to the% As long as, in nor%al ti%es, 'olitical activities $ere confined to the di'lo%atic arena there $as no 'eril of rousing the %asses out of their ignorant indolenceH but, $hen ti%es are abnor%al, it is a different and a dangerous thing to %arch these 'eo'les against their %ost inti%ate feelings @hen, as the outco%e of the 'resent false situation, sooner or later the dynastic 'o$er breaks, it $ill then be for the 'o$ers $ho are no$ fighting for better 'rinci'les not to i%'ose their o$n vie$s u'on the 'eo'les, or to 'lace their o$n 'rinces u'on the vacant thrones -ather %ust they see that the s%all nations of the Near East are given a chance to develo' in 'eace and according to their 'ro'er idealsH that they be not again subjected to the disintegrating influence of Euro'ean di'lo%acyH and that, above all, to the nations in co%%on, irres'ective of their 'resent attitude, there should be a just a''lication of the E'rinci'le of nationalityE

T=->E&

Turkey is no better na%e for the +s%anli do%inion or any 'art of it than Nor%andy $ould be for Great Britain 8t is a %ediaeval error of no%enclature sanctioned by long usage in foreign %ouths, but $ithout any eCuivalent in the vernacular of the +s%anlis the%selves The real ETurkeyE is Turkestan, and the real Turks are the Turco%ans The +s%anlis are the least ty'ical Turks surviving +nly a very s%all 'ro'ortion of the% have any strain of Turkish blood, and this is diluted till it is rarely 'erce'tible in their 'hysiogno%y* and if environ%ent rather than blood is to be held res'onsible for racial features, it can only be said that the territory occu'ied by the +s%anlis is as unlike the ho%eland of the true Turks as it can $ell be, and is Cuite unsuited to ty'ically Turkish life and %anners @hile of course it $ould be absurd to 'ro'ose at this ti%e of day any change in the ter%s by $hich the civiliDed $orld unani%ously designates the +s%anlis and their do%inion, it is $ell to insist on their incorrectness, because, like %ost erroneous na%es, they have bred erroneous beliefs Thanks in the %ain to the%, the +tto%an 'o$er is su''osed to have originated in an over$hel%ing invasion of Asia "inor by i%%ense nu%bers of 7entral Asiatic %igrants, $ho, intent, like the early Arab ar%ies, on offering to Asia first and Euro'e second the choice of a'ostasy or death, absorbed or annihilated al%ost all the 'revious 'o'ulations, and s$e't for$ard into the Balkans as single(%inded a'ostles of 8sla% 8f the co%'osition and the ai%s of the +s%anlis had been these, it $ould 'ass all understanding ho$ they contrived, $ithin a century of their a''earance on the $estern scene, to establish in North($est Asia and

,outh(east Euro'e the %ost civiliDed and best(ordered state of their ti%e @ho, then, are the +s%anlis in realityF @hat have they to do $ith true TurksF and in virtue of $hat innate Cualities did they found and consolidate their 'o$erF

4 I+rigin of the +s%anlisI

@e hear of Turks first fro% 7hinese sources They $ere then the inhabitants, strong and 'redatory, of the Altai 'lains and valleys* but later on, about the siGth century A ! , they are found fir%ly established in $hat is still called Turkestan, and 'ushing $est$ards to$ards the 7as'ian ,ea ,o%e$hat %ore than another century 'asses, and, reached by a %issionary faith of @est Asia, they co%e out of the Far Eastern darkness into a di% light of $estern history +ne Boja, lord of >ashgar and >han of $hat the 7hinese kne$ as the 'eo'le of Thu(>iu(('robably the sa%e na%e as ETurkE((e%braced 8sla% and forced it on his "aDdeist subjectsH but other Turkish tribes, notably the 'o$erful =ighurs, re%ained intolerant of the ne$ dis'ensation, and eG'elled the Thu(>iu Ien %asseI fro% their holding in Turkestan into Persia #ere they distributed the%selves in detached hordes over the north and centre At this day, in so%e 'arts of Persia, e g ADerbaijan, Turks %ake the bulk of the 'o'ulation besides su''lying the reigning dynasty of the $hole kingdo% For the ,hahs of the >ajar house are not 8ranian, but 'urely Turkish This, it should be observed, $as the $estern li%it of Turkish eG'ansion in the %ass ADerbaijan is the nearest region to us in $hich Turki blood 'redo%inates, and the $estern%ost 'rovince of the true Turk ho%eland All Turks $ho have 'assed thence into #ither Asia have co%e in co%'aratively s%all detach%ents, as %inorities to alien %ajorities They have invaded as

grou's of no%ads seeking vacant 'asturage, or as bands of %ilitary adventurers $ho, first offering their s$ords to 'rinces of the elder 'eo'les, have subseCuently, on several occasions and in several localities, i%'osed the%selves on their for%er %asters To the first category belong all those Turco%an, Avshar, &uruk, and other Turki tribes, $hich filtered over the Eu'hrates into unoccu'ied or s'arsely inhabited 'arts of ,yria and Asia "inor fro% the seventh century on$ards, and survive to this day in isolated 'atches, distinguished fro% the %ass of the local 'o'ulations, 'artly by an ineradicable instinct for no%adic life, 'artly by retention of the 're(8sla%ic beliefs and 'ractices of the first i%%igrants 8n the second category((%ilitary adventurers((fall, for eGa%'le, the Turkish 'raetorians $ho %ade and un%ade not less than four cali'hs at Bagdad in the ninth century, and that bold IcondottiereI, Ah%ed ibn Tulun, $ho ca'tured a throne at 7airo Even 7hristian e%'erors availed the%selves of these stout fighters Theo'hilus of 7onstantino'le antici'ated the +tto%an invasion of Euro'e by so%e five hundred years $hen he established ?ardariote Turks in "acedonia The %ost i%'ortant %e%bers of the second category, ho$ever, $ere the ,eljuks )ike the earlier Thu(>iu, they $ere 'ushed out of Turkestan late in the tenth century to found a 'o$er in Persia #ere, in >horasan, the %ass of the horde settled and re%ained* and it $as only a co%'aratively s%all section $hich $ent on $est$ard as %ilitary adventurers to fall u'on Bagdad, ,yria, Egy't, and Asia "inor This first conCuest $as little better than a raid, so brief $as the resultant tenureH but a century later t$o dis'ossessed ne'he$s of "elek ,hah of Persia set out on a %ilitary adventure $hich had %ore lasting conseCuences Penetrating $ith, a s%all follo$ing into Asia "inor, they seiDed >onia, and instituted there a kingdo% no%inally feudatory to the Grand ,eljuk of Persia, but in reality inde'endent and destined to last about t$o centuries Though nu%erically $eak, their forces, recruited fro% the 'rofessional soldier class $hich had bolstered u' the Abbasid E%'ire and for%ed the ,eljukian kingdo%s of Persia and ,yria, $ere su'erior to any ByDantine troo's that could be arrayed in southern or central Asia "inor They constituted indeed the

only co%'act body of fighting %en seen in these regions for so%e generations 8t found reinforce%ent fro% the scattered Turki grou's introduced already, as $e have seen, into the countryH and even fro% native 7hristians, $ho, descended fro% the 8conoclasts of t$o centuries before, found the rule of "osle% i%age(haters %ore congenial, as it $as certainly %ore effective, than that of ByDantine e%'erors The creed of the ,eljuks $as 8sla% of an 8ranian ty'e +f 8ncarnationist colour, it re'udiated the dour illiberal s'irit of the early Arabian a'ostles $hich latter(day ,unnite orthodoGy has revived Accordingly its 'rofessors, backed by an effective force and offering security and 'rivilege, Cuickly $on over the aborigines(()ycaonians, Phrygians, 7a''adocians, and 7ilicians((and $elded the% into a nation, leaving only a fe$ detached co%%unities here and there to cherish allegiance to ByDantine 7hristianity 8n the event, the 'o'ulation of Cuite t$o(thirds of the Anatolian 'eninsula had already identified itself $ith a ruling Turki caste before, early in the thirteenth century, fresh Turks a''eared on the scene((those Turks $ho $ere to found the +tto%an E%'ire They entered Asia "inor %uch as the earlier Turco%ans had entered it((a s%all body of no%adic adventurers, thro$n off by the larger body of Turks settled in Persia to seek ne$ 'astures $est of the Eu'hrates There are divers legends about the first a''earance and establish%ent of these 'articular Turks* but all agree that they $ere of inconsiderable nu%ber(( not above four hundred fa%ilies at %ost !rifting in by $ay of Ar%enia, they 'ressed gradually $est$ard fro% ErDeru% in ho'e of finding so%e unoccu'ied country $hich $ould 'rove both ele%ent and fertile ByDantine influence $as then at a very lo$ ebb @ith 7onstantino'le itself in )atin hands, the Greek $rit ran only along the north Anatolian coast, ruled fro% t$o se'arate centres, 8snik ANicaeaB and TrebiDond* and the ,eljuk kingdo% $as run in reality %uch %ore vigorous Though a''arently $ithout a rival, it $as subsisting by consent, on the 'restige of its 'ast, rather than on actual 'o$er The %o%ent of its dissolution $as a''roaching, and the Anatolian 'eninsula, t$o(thirds 8sla%iDed, but ill(organised and very loosely knit, $as beco%ing once %ore a fair field for any adventurer able

to co%%and a s%all co%'act force The ne$ly co%e Turks $ere invited finally to settle on the eGtre%e north($estern fringe of the ,eljuk territory((in a region so near Nicaea that their s$ord $ould be a better title to it than any $hich the feudal authority of >onia could confer 8n fact it $as a debatable land, an angle 'ushed u' bet$een the lake 'lain of Nicaea on the one hand and the 'lain of Brusa on the other, and divided fro% each by not lofty heights, &enishehr, its chief to$n, $hich beca%e the +s%anli chief ErtogrulEs residence, lies, as the cro$ flies, a good deal less than fifty %iles fro% the ,ea of "ar%ora, and not a hundred %iles fro% 7onstantino'le itself #ere Ertogrul $as to be a @arden of the "arches, to hold his territory for the ,eljuk and eGtend it for hi%self at the eG'ense of Nicaea if he could 8f he $on through, so %uch the better for ,ultan AlaeddinH if he failed, Ivile da%nu%_I #ardly $ere his tribes%en settled, ho$ever, a%ong the Bithynians and Greeks of &enishehr, before the ,eljuk colla'se beca%e a fact The Tartar stor%, ridden by Jenghis >han, $hich had over$hel%ed 7entral Asia, s'ent its last force on the kingdo% of >onia, and, $ithdra$ing, left the ,eljuks bankru't of force and 'restige and Anatolia $ithout an overlord The feudatories $ere free every$here to %ake or %ar the%selves, and they s'ent the last half of the thirteenth century in fighting for $hatever %ight be saved fro% the ,eljuk $reck before it foundered for ever about 4J00 A ! 8n the south, the centre, and the east of the 'eninsula, $here 8sla% had long rooted itself as the 'o'ular social syste%, various Turki e%irates established the%selves on a 'urely "osle% basis((certain of these, like the !anish%and e%irate of 7a''adocia, being restorations of tribal jurisdictions $hich had eGisted before the i%'osition of ,eljuk overlordshi' 8n the eGtre%e north($est, ho$ever, $here the %ass of society $as still 7hristian and held itself Greek, no Turkish, 'otentate could either revive a 're(,eljukian status or si%'ly carry on a ,eljukian syste% in %iniature

8f he $as to 'reserve inde'endence at all, he %ust rely on a society $hich $as not yet "osle% and for% a coalition $ith the EGreeksE, into $ho% the recent recovery of 7onstantino'le fro% the )atins had 'ut fresh heart +s%an, $ho had succeeded Ertogrul in 4.99, recogniDed $here his only 'ossible chance of continued do%inion and future aggrandiDe%ent lay #e turned to the Greeks, as an ele%ent of vitality and nu%erical strength to be absorbed into his nascent state, and a''lied hi%self unre%ittingly to $inning over and identifying $ith hi%self the Greek feudal seigneurs in his territory or about its frontiers ,o%e of these, like "ichael, lord of #ar%ankaya, readily enough stood in $ith the vigorous Turk and beca%e "osle%s +thers, as the ne$ state gained %o%entu%, found the%selves obliged to acce't it or be crushed There are to this day Greek co%%unities in the Brusa district jealously guarding 'rivileges $hich date fro% co%'acts %ade $ith their seigneurs by +s%an and his son +rkhan 8t $as not till the ,eljuk kingdo% $as finally eGtinguished, in or about 4J00 A ! that +s%an assu%ed at &enishehr the style and title of a sultan Ackno$ledged fro% Afiu% >ara #issar, in northern Phrygia, to the Bithynian coast of the "ar%ora, beside $hose $aters his standards had already been dis'layed, he lived on to see Brusa fall to his son +rkhan, in 4J./, and beco%e the ne$ ca'ital Though Nicaea still held out, +s%an died virtual lord of the Asiatic GreeksH and %arrying his son to a 7hristian girl, the fa%ous Nilufer, after $ho% the river of Brusa is still na%ed, he laid on 7hristian foundations the strength of his dynasty and his state The first regi%ent of 'rofessional +tto%an soldiery $as recruited by hi% and e%bodied later by +rkhan, his son, fro% Greek and other 7hristian(born youths, $ho, forced to a'ostatiDe, $ere educated as 8%'erial slaves in i%itation of the "a%elukes, constituted %ore than a century earlier in Egy't, and no$ %asters $here they had been bond%en 8t is not indeed for nothing that +s%anEs latest successor, and all $ho hold by hi%, distinguish the%selves fro% other 'eo'les by his na%e They are +s%anlis Aor by a Euro'ean use of the %ore correct for% +th%an, E+tto%ansEB, because they derived their being as a nation and derive their national strength, not so %uch fro% central Asia as fro% the blend of Turk and

Greek $hich +s%an 'ro%oted a%ong his 'eo'le This Greek strain has often been reinforced since his day and %ingled $ith other 7aucasian strains 8t $as left to +rkhan to round off this Turco(Grecian real% in ByDantine Asia by the ca'ture first of 8s%id ANico%ediaB and then of 8snik ANicaeaBH and $ith this last acCuisition the nucleus of a self(sufficient sovereign state $as co%'lete After the 'eaceful absor'tion of the e%irate of >arasi, $hich added $est central Asia "inor al%ost as far south as the #er%us, the +s%anli ruled in 4JJ9 a do%inion of greater area than that of the Greek e%'eror, $hose ca'ital and coasts no$ looked across to +tto%an shores all the $ay fro% the Bos'horus to the #elles'ont

. IEG'ansion of the +s%anli >ingdo%I

8f the ne$ state $as to eG'and by conCuest, its line of advance $as already foreshado$ed For the 'resent, it could hardly break back into Asia "inor, occu'ied as this $as by "osle% 'rinci'alities sanctioned by the sa%e tradition as itself, na%ely, the 'restige of the ,eljuks To attack these $ould be to sin against 8sla% But in front lay a rich but $eak 7hristian state, the centre of the civiliDation to $hich the 'o'ular ele%ent in the +s%anli society belonged As inevitably as the state of Nicaea had desired, $on, and transferred itself to, 7onstantino'le, so did the +s%anli state of Brusa yearn to$ards the sa%e goalH and it needed no invitation fro% a Greek to dis'ose an +tto%an sultan to 'ush over to the Euro'ean shore ,uch an invitation, ho$ever, did in fact 'recede the first +s%anli crossing in force 8n 4J1: John 7antacuDene solicited hel' of +rkhan against the %enace of !ushan, the ,erb T$elve years later ca%e a second

invitation +rkhanEs son, ,ulei%an, this ti%e ferried a large ar%y over the #elles'ont, and, by taking and holding Galli'oli and -odosto, secured a 'assage fro% continent to continent, $hich the +tto%ans $ould never again let go ,uch invitations, though they neither 'ro%'ted the eGtension of the +s%anli real% into Euro'e nor sensibly 'reci'itated it, did nevertheless divert the course of the +tto%an ar%s and re'rieve the Greek e%'ire till Ti%ur and his Tartars could co%e on the scene and, all unconsciously, secure it a further res'ite But for these diversions there is little doubt 7onstantino'le $ould have 'assed into +tto%an hands nearly a century earlier than the historic date of its fall The +s%anli ar%ies, thus led aside to %ake the ,erbs and not the Greeks of Euro'e their first objective, beca%e involved at once in a tangle of Balkan affairs fro% $hich they only eGtricated the%selves after forty years of incessant fighting in al%ost every 'art of the 'eninsula eGce't the do%ain of the Greek e%'eror This $arfare, $hich in no $ay advanced the 'ro'er ai%s of the lords of Brusa and Nicaea, not only 'rofited the Greek e%'eror by relieving hi% of concern about his land frontier but also used u' strength $hich %ight have %ade head against the Tartars 7onstantino'le then, as no$, $as detached fro% the Balkans The +s%anlis, had they 'ossessed the%selves of it, %ight $ell have let the latter be for a long ti%e to co%e 8nstead, they had to battle, $ith the hel' no$ of one section of the Balkan 'eo'les, no$ of another, till forced to %ake an end of all their feuds and treacheries by anneGations after the victories of >osovo in 4J9; and Niko'olis in 4J;/ Nor $as this all They beca%e involved also $ith certain 'eo'les of the %ain continent of Euro'e, $hose interests or sy%'athies had been affected by those long and sanguinary Balkan $ars There $as already bad blood and to s'are bet$een the +s%anlis on the one hand, and #ungarians, Poles, and 8talian ?enetians on the other, long before any second o''ortunity to attack 7onstantino'le occurred* and the +s%anlis $ere in for that age(long struggle to secure a Escientific frontierE beyond the !anube, $hence the

Adriatic on the one flank and the EuGine on the other could be co%%anded, $hich $as to %ake +tto%an history do$n to the eighteenth century and s'ell ruin in the end 8t is a vulgar error to su''ose that the +s%anlis set out for Euro'e, in the s'irit of Arab a'ostles, to force their creed and do%inion on all the $orld Both in Asia and Euro'e, fro% first to last, their eG'editions and conCuests have been ins'ired 'al'ably by %otives si%ilar to those active a%ong the 7hristian 'o$ers, na%ely, desire for 'olitical security and the co%%and of co%%ercial areas ,uch $ars as the +tto%an sultans, once they $ere established at 7onstantino'le, did $age again and again $ith knightly orders or $ith 8talian re'ublics $ould have been undertaken, and fought $ith the sa%e 'ersistence, by any Greek e%'eror $ho felt hi%self strong enough Even the Asiatic ca%'aigns, $hich ,eli% 8 and so%e of his successors, do$n to the end of the seventeenth century, $ould undertake, $ere 'lanned and carried out fro% si%ilar %otives Their object $as to secure the eastern basin of the "editerranean by the establish%ent of so%e strong frontier against 8ran, out of $hich had co%e %ore than once forces threatening the destruction of +tto%an 'o$er 8t does not, of course, in any res'ect dis'rove their 'ur'ose that, in the event, this object $as never attained, and that an unsatisfactory Turco(Persian border still illustrates at this day the failures of ,eli% 8 and "oha%%ed 8? By the o'ening of the fifteenth century, $hen, all unlooked for, a %ost terrible Tartar stor% $as about to break u'on $estern Asia, the +s%anli real% had gro$n considerably, not only in Euro'e by conCuest, but also in Asia by the 'eaceful effect of %arriages and heritages 8ndeed it no$ co%'rised scarcely less of the Anatolian 'eninsula than the last ,eljuks had held, that is to say, the $hole of the north as far as the #alys river beyond Angora, the central 'lateau to beyond >onia, and all the $estern coast(lands The only e%irs not tributary $ere those of >ara%ania, 7a''adocia, and Pontus, that is of the southern and eastern fringesH and one detached frag%ent of Greek 'o$er survived in the last(na%ed country, the kingdo% of TrebiDond As for Euro'e, it had beco%e the %ain scene of

+s%anli o'erations, and no$ contained the ad%inistrative ca'ital, Adriano'le, though Brusu ke't a senti%ental 'ri%acy ,ultan "urad, $ho so%e years after his succession in 4J:; had definitely transferred the centre of 'olitical gravity to Thrace, $as nevertheless carried to the Bithynian ca'ital for burial, Bulgaria, ,erbia, and districts of both Bosnia and "acedonia $ere no$ integral 'arts of an e%'ire $hich had co%e to nu%ber at least as %any 7hristian as "osle% subjects, and to de'end as %uch on the first as on the last Not only had the 'rofessional +s%anli soldiery, the Janissaries, continued to be recruited fro% the children of native 7hristian races, but contingents of adult native $arriors, $ho still 'rofessed 7hristianity, had been invited or had offered the%selves to fight +s%anli battles((even those $aged against %en of the True Faith in Asia A considerable body of 7hristian ,erbs had stood u' in "uradEs line at the battle of >onia in 4J94, before the treachery of another body of the sa%e race gave hi% the victory eight years later at >osovo ,o little did the +s%anli state %odel itself on the earlier cali'hial e%'ires and so naturally did it lean to$ards the -o%an or ByDantine i%'erial ty'e And just because it had co%e to be in Euro'e and of Euro'e, it $as able to survive the terrible disaster of Angora in 410. Though the +s%anli ar%y $as annihilated by Ti%ur, and an +s%anli sultan, for the first and last ti%e in history, re%ained in the hands of the foe, the ad%inistrative %achinery of the +s%anli state $as not 'aralysed A ne$ ruler $as 'roclai%ed at Adriano'le, and the Euro'ean 'art of the real% held fir% The %o%ent that the Tartars began to give ground, the +s%anlis began to recover it 8n less than t$enty years they stood again in Asia as they $ere before Ti%urEs attack, and secure for the ti%e on the east, could return to restore their 'restige in the $est, $here the Tartar victory had bred unrest and brought both the #ungarians and the ?enetians on the Balkan scene Their success $as once %ore ra'id and astonishing* ,alonika 'assed once and for all into +tto%an hands* the Frank seigneurs and the des'ots of Greece $ere alike hu%bledH and although "urad 88 failed to crush the Albanian, ,kanderbey, he $orsted his %ost dangerous foe, John #unyadi, $ith the hel' of @allach treachery at the second battle of

>osovo At his death, three years later, he left the Balkans Cuiet and the field clear for his successor to 'roceed $ith the long deferred but inevitable enter'rise of attacking all that $as left of Greek e%'ire, the district and city of 7onstantino'le The doo% of Ne$ -o%e $as fulfilled $ithin t$o years 8n the end it 'assed easily enough into the hands of those $ho already had been in 'ossession of its 'ro'er e%'ire for a century or %ore #istorians have %ade %ore of this fall of 7onstantino'le in 41:J than conte%'orary o'inion see%s to have %ade of it No 'rince in Euro'e $as %oved to any action by its 'eril, eGce't, very half(heartedly, the !oge ?enice could not feel Cuite indifferent to the 'ros'ect of the %ain 'art of that e%'ire, $hich, $hile in Greek hands, had been her %ost serious co%%ercial co%'etitor, 'assing into the stronger hands of the +s%anlis +nce in 7onstantino'le, the latter, long a land 'o$er only, $ould be bound to concern the%selves $ith the sea also The ?enetians %ade no effort $orthy of their a''rehensions, though these $ere indeed eGceedingly $ell foundedH for, as all the $orld kno$s, to the sea the +s%anlis did at once betake the%selves 8n less than thirty years they $ere ranging all the eastern "editerranean and laying siege to -hodes, the stronghold of one of their %ost dangerous co%'etitors, the >nights #os'itallers 8n this conseCuence consists the chief historic i%'ortance of the +s%anli ca'ture of 7onstantino'le For no other reason can it he called an e'och(%arking event 8f it guaranteed the E%'ire of the East against 'assing into any $estern hands, for eGa%'le, those of ?enice or Genoa, it did not affect the balance of 'o$er bet$een 7hristendo% and 8sla%H for the strength of the for%er had long ceased to reside at all in 7onstantino'le The last Greek e%'eror died a %artyr, but not a cha%'ion

I#eritage and EG'ansion of ByDantine E%'ireI

+n the %orro$ of his victory, "oha%%ed the 7onCueror took 'ains to %ake it clear that his introduction of a ne$ heaven did not entail a ne$ earth As little as %ight be $ould be changed #e had dis'laced a Palaeologus by an +s%anli only in order that an e%'ire long in fact +s%anli should henceforth be so also Ide jureI Therefore he confir%ed the 're(eGisting +ecu%enical 'atriarch in his functions and the ByDantine Greeks in their 'rivileges, rene$ed the rights secured to 7hristian foreigners by the Greek e%'erors, and 'roclai%ed that, for his accession to the throne, there should not be %ade a "osle% the %ore or a 7hristian the less "oreover, during the thirty years left to hi% of life, "oha%%ed devoted hi%self to 'recisely those tasks $hich $ould have fallen to a Greek e%'eror desirous of restoring ByDantine 'o$er #e thrust back )atins $herever they $ere encroaching on the Greek s'here, as $ere the ?enetians of the "orea, the #os'itallers of -hodes, and the Genoese of the 7ri%ea* and he rounded off the 'ro'er ByDantine holding by anneGing, in Euro'e, all the Balkan 'eninsula eGce't the i%'racticable Black "ountain, the Albanian highlands, and the #ungarian fortress of BelgradeH and, in Asia, $hat had re%ained inde'endent in the Anatolian 'eninsula, the e%irates of >ara%ania and 7a''adocia Before "oha%%ed died in 4194 the +s%anli Turco(Grecian nation %ay be said to have co%e into its o$n 8t $as lord Ide facto et de jure belliI of the eastern or Greek E%'ire, that is of all territories and seas grou'ed geogra'hically round 7onstantino'le as a centre, $ith only a fe$ eGce'tions unredee%ed, of $hich the %ost notable $ere the islands of 7y'rus, -hodes, and >rete, still in )atin hands Needless to say, the +s%anlis the%selves differed greatly fro% their i%'erial 'redecessors Their official s'eech, their official creed, their fa%ily syste% $ere all foreign to Euro'e, and %any of their ideas of govern%ent had been learned in the 'ast fro% Persia and 7hina, or $ere derived fro% the original tribal organiDation of the true Turks But if they $ere neither %ore nor

less Asiatics than the conte%'orary -ussians, they $ere Cuite as %uch Euro'eans as %any of the Greek e%'erors had been((those of the 8saurian dynasty, for instance They had given no evidence as yet of a fanatical "osle% s'irit((this $as to be bred in the% by subseCuent eG'eriences((and their official creed had governed their 'olicy hardly %ore than does ours in 8ndia or Egy't "oha%%ed the 7onCueror had not only sho$n %arked favour to 7hristians, $hether his IrayasI or not, but encouraged letters and the arts in a very un(Arabian s'irit !id he not have hi%self 'ortrayed by Gentile BelliniF The higher offices of state, both civil and %ilitary, $ere confided Aand $ould continue so to be for a century to co%eB al%ost eGclusively to %en of 7hristian origin 7o%%erce $as encouraged, and $estern traders recogniDed that their facilities $ere greater no$ than they had been under Greek rule The ?enetians, for eGa%'le, enjoyed in 'erfect liberty a virtual %ono'oly of the Aegean and EuGine trade The social condition of the 'easantry see%s to have been better than it had been under Greek seigneurs, $hether in Euro'e or in Asia, and better than it $as at the %o%ent in feudal 7hristendo% The +s%anli %ilitary organiDation $as re'uted the best in the $orld, and its fa%e attracted adventurous s'irits fro% all over Euro'e to learn $ar in the first school of the age +tto%an ar%ies, it is $orth $hile to re%e%ber, $ere the only ones then attended by efficient %edical and co%%issariat services, and %ay be said to have introduced to Euro'e these alleviations of the horrors of $ar #ad the i%%ediate successors of "oha%%ed been content((or, rather, had they been able((to re%ain $ithin his boundaries, they $ould have robbed +tto%an history of one century of sinister brilliance, but %ight have 'ost'oned for %any centuries the subseCuent sordid decayH for the seeds of this $ere undoubtedly so$n by the three great sultans $ho follo$ed the taker of 7onstantino'le Their a%bitions or their necessities led to a great increase of the 'rofessional ar%y $hich $ould entail %any evils in ti%e to co%e A%ong these $ere 'raetorianis% in the ca'ital and the great 'rovincial to$nsH subjection of land and 'easantry to %ilitary seigneurs, $ho gradually detached the%selves fro% the central controlH $ars

undertaken abroad for no better reason than the e%'loy%ent of soldiery feared at ho%eH conseCuent eG'ansion of the territorial e%'ire beyond the ad%inistrative ca'acity of the central govern%entH develo'%ent of the Etribute(childrenE syste% of recruiting into a scourge of the IrayasI and a continual offence to neighbouring states, and the su''le%enting of that syste% by acce'tance of any and every alien outla$ $ho %ight offer hi%self for service* lastly, revival of the dor%ant crusading s'irit of Euro'e, $hich reacted on the +s%anlis, begetting in the% an Arabian fanaticis% and dis'osing the% to revert to the obscurantist s'irit of the earliest "osle%s To su% the %atter u' in other $ords* the o%ni'otence and indisci'line of the JanissariesH the contu%acy of E!ere BeysE AE)ords of the ?alleys,E $ho %aintained a feudal inde'endenceB and of 'rovincial governorsH the concentration of the official %ind on things %ilitary and religious, to the eGclusion of other interestsH the degradation and e%bitter%ent of the 7hristian ele%ents in the e%'ireH the 'er'etual financial e%barrass%ent of the govern%ent $ith its inevitable conseCuence of o''ression and neglect of the governedH and the constant 'rovocation in 7hristendo% of a hostility $hich $as al$ays latent and recurrently active(( all these evils, $hich co%bined to 'ush the e%'ire nearer and nearer to ruin fro% the seventeenth century on$ards, can be traced to the brilliant e'och of +s%anli history associated $ith the na%es of BayeDid 88, ,eli% 8, and ,ulei%an the "agnificent At the sa%e ti%e Fate, rather than any sultan, %ust be bla%ed 8t $as i%'ossible to forgo so%e further eGtension of the e%'ire, and very difficult to arrest eGtension at any satisfactory static 'oint For one thing, as has been 'ointed out already, there $ere i%'ortant territories in the 'ro'er ByDantine s'here still unredee%ed at the death of "oha%%ed -hodes, >rete, and 7y'rus, $hose 'ossession carried $ith it so%ething like su'erior control of the )evantine trade, $ere in )atin hands Austrian as $ell as ?enetian occu'ation of the best harbours $as virtually closing the Adriatic to the %asters of the Balkans Nor could the inner lands of the Peninsula be Cuite securely held $hile the great fortress of Belgrade, $ith the 'assage of the !anube, re%ained in #ungarian kee'ing,

Further%ore, the Black ,ea, $hich all %asters of the Bos'horus have desired to %ake a ByDantine lake, $as in dis'ute $ith the @allachs and the PolesH and, in the reign of "oha%%edEs successor, a cloud no bigger than a %anEs hand ca%e u' above its northern horiDon((the harbinger of the "uscovite As for the Asiatic 'art of the ByDantine s'here, there $as only one little corner in the south(east to be rounded off to bring all the Anatolian 'eninsula under the +s%anli But that corner, the 7ilician 'lain, 'ro%ised trouble, since it $as held by another 8sla%ic 'o$er, that of the Egy'tian "a%elukes, $hich, clai%ing to be at least eCual to the +s%anli, 'ossessed vitality %uch belo$ its 'retensions The te%'tation to 'oach on it $as strong, and any lord of 7onstantino'le $ho once gave $ay to this, $ould find hi%self led on to assu%e control of all coasts of the eastern%ost )evant, and then to 'ush into inland Asia in Cuest of a scientific frontier at their back(('erilous and costly enter'rise $hich -o%e had essayed again and again and had to renounce in the end BayeDid 88 took the first ste' by su%%oning the "a%eluke to evacuate certain forts near Tarsus, and eG'elling his garrisons Ivi et ar%isI 7ilicia 'assed to the +s%anliH but for the %o%ent he 'ushed no farther BayeDid, $ho $as under the obligation al$ays to lead his ar%y in 'erson, could %ake but one ca%'aign at a ti%eH and a need in Euro'e $as the %ore 'ressing 8n Cuitting 7ilicia, ho$ever, he left o'en a ne$ Cuestion in +tto%an 'olitics((the Asiatic continental Cuestion((and indicated to his successor a line of least resistance on $hich to advance Nor $ould this be his only dangerous legacy The 'rolonged and re'eated raids into Adriatic lands, as far north as 7arniola and 7arinthia, $ith $hich the rest of BayeDidEs reign $as occu'ied, brought +tto%an %ilitaris% at last to a 'oint, $hose eventual attain%ent %ight have been foreseen any ti%e in the 'ast century(( the 'oint at $hich, strong in the 'ossession of a ne$ ar%, artillery, it $ould assu%e control of the state BayeDidEs seed $as harvested by ,eli% First in a long series of 'raetorian creatures $hich $ould end only $ith the destroyer of the

'raetorians the%selves three centuries later, he o$ed his elevation to a Janissary revolt, and all the eight bloody years of his reign $ere to be 'unctuated by Janissary tu%ults To kee' his creators in any sort of order and content%ent he had no choice but to %ake $ar fro% his first year to his last @hen he died, in 4:.0, the +tto%an E%'ire had been s$elled to al%ost as $ide li%its in Asia and Africa as it has ever attained since his day ,yria, Ar%enia, great 'art of >urdistan, northern "eso'ota%ia, 'art of Arabia, and last, but not least, Egy't, $ere forced to ackno$ledge +s%anli suDerainty, and for the first ti%e an +s%anli sultan had 'roclai%ed hi%self cali'h True that neither by his birth nor by the %anner of his a''oint%ent did ,eli% satisfy the orthodoG cali'hial traditionH but, besides his acCuisition of certain venerated relics of the Pro'het, such as the I,anjak i(sherifI or holy standard, and besides a yet %ore i%'ortant acCuisition((the control of the holy cities of the faith(( he could base a clai% on the unCuestioned fact that the office $as vacant, and the eCually certain fact that he $as the %ost 'o$erful "osle% 'rince in the $orld Purists %ight deny hi% if they dared* the vulgar ,unni %ind $as i%'ressed and dis'osed to acce't The %ain i%'ortance, ho$ever, of ,eli%Es assu%'tion of the cali'hate $as that it consecrated +s%anli %ilitaris% to a religious end((to the original 'rogra%%e of 8sla% This $as a ne$ thing, fraught $ith dire 'ossibilities fro% that day for$ard 8t %arked the su'ersession of the ByDantine or Euro'ean ideal by the Asiatic in +s%anli 'olicy, and introduced a 'hase of +tto%an history $hich has endured to our o$n ti%e The inevitable 'rocess $as continued in the neGt reign Al%ost all the %ilitary glories of ,ulei%an((kno$n to conte%'orary Euro'e as Ethe "agnificentE and often held by historians the greatest of +s%anli sultans(( %ade for $eakening, not strengthening, the e%'ire #is earliest o'erations indeed, the ca'tures of -hodes fro% the >nights and of Belgrade and 2B,6abac fro% the #ungarians, eG'ressed a legiti%ate ByDantine 'olicyH and the siege of "alta, one of his latest ventures, %ight also be defended as a %easure taken in the true interests of ByDantine co%%erce But the %ost brilliant and %o%entous of his achieve%ents bred evils for $hich %ilitary

'restige and the %aterial 'rofits to be gained fro% the o''ression of an irreconcilable 'o'ulation $ere inadeCuate co%'ensation This $as the conCuest of #ungary 8t $ould result in Buda and its kingdo% re%aining +tto%an territory for a century and a half, and in the 'rinci'alities of @allachia and "oldavia abiding under the +tto%an shado$ even longer, and 'assing for all ti%e out of the central Euro'ean into the Balkan s'hereH but also it $ould result in the +s%anli 'o$er finding itself on a $eak frontier face to face at last $ith a really strong 7hristian race, the Ger%anic, before $hich, since it could not advance, it $ould have ulti%ately to $ithdra$H and in the rousing of Euro'e to a sense of its co%%on danger fro% "osle% activity ,ulei%anEs failure to take ?ienna %ore than %ade good the 'anic $hich had follo$ed on his victory at "ohacs 8t $as felt that the "osle%, no$ that he had failed against the bul$ark of central Euro'e, $as to go no farther, and that the hour of revenge $as near 28llustration* The +tto%an E%'ire AEGce't the Arabian and African 'rovincesB6 8t $as nearer than 'erha's $as eG'ected +tto%an ca'acity to ad%inister the overgro$n e%'ire in Euro'e and Asia $as strained already al%ost to breaking('oint, and it $as in recognition of this fact that ,ulei%an %ade the great effort to reorganiDe his i%'erial syste%, $hich has earned hi% his honourable title of IEl >anunI, the -egulator But if he could reset and cleanse the $heels of the ad%inistrative %achine, he could not increase its ca'acity Ne$ blood $as beginning to fail for the governing class just as the de%ands on it beca%e greater No longer could it be %anned eGclusively fro% the 7hristian born T$o centuries of recruiting in the Balkans and @est Asia had sa''ed their resources Even the Janissaries $ere not no$ all Etribute(childrenE Their o$n sons, free %en "osle% born, began to be ad%itted to the ranks This change $as a vital infringe%ent of the old 'rinci'le of +s%anli rule, that all the higher ad%inistrative and %ilitary functions should be vested in slaves of the i%'erial household, directly de'endent on the sultan hi%selfH and once breached, this

'rinci'le could not but give $ay %ore and %ore The descendants of i%'erial slaves, free(born "osle%s, but barred fro% the glory and 'rofits of their fathersE function, had gradually beco%e a very nu%erous class of country gentle%en distributed over all 'arts of the e%'ire, and a very %alcontent one Though it $as still subservient, its dissatisfaction at eGclusion fro% the central ad%inistration $as soon to sho$ itself 'artly in assaults on the ti%e(honoured syste%, 'artly in assu%'tion of local jurisdiction, $hich $ould develo' into 'rovincial inde'endence The overgro$th of his e%'ire further co%'elled ,ulei%an to divide the standing ar%y, in order that %ore than one i%'erial force %ight take the field at a ti%e =nable to lead all his ar%ies in 'erson, he elected, in the latter 'art of his reign, to lead none, and for the first ti%e left the Janissaries to %arch $ithout a sultan to $ar -e%aining hi%self at the centre, he initiated a fashion $hich $ould encourage +s%anli sultans to la'se into half(hidden beings, $ho% their subjects $ould gradually invest $ith religious character =nder these conditions the ruler, the governing class Aits 'o$er gre$ $ith this devolutionB, the do%inant 'o'ulation of the state, and the state itself all gre$ %ore fanatically "osle% 8n the early years of the seventeenth century, Ah%ed 8 being on the throne, the +tto%an E%'ire e%braced the $idest territorial area $hich it $as ever to cover at any one %o%ent 8n $hat %ay be called the 'ro'er ByDantine field, 7y'rus had been recovered and >rete alone stood out +utside that field, #ungary on the north and &e%en Asince ,eli%Es conCuest in 4:4/B on the south $ere the frontier 'rovinces, and the +tto%an flag had been carried not only to the Persian Gulf but also far u'on the 8ranian 'lateau, in the long $ars of "urad 888, $hich cul%inated in 4:99 $ith the occu'ation of TabriD and half ADerbaijan

I,hrinkage and -etreatI

The fringes of this vast e%'ire, ho$ever, none too surely held, $ere already involving it in insoluble difficulties and i%%inent dangers +n the one hand, in Asia, it had been found i%'ossible to establish %ilitary fiefs in Arabia, >urdistan, or any$here east of it, on the syste% $hich had secured the +s%anli tenure else$here +n the other hand, in Euro'e, as $e have seen, the e%'ire had a very unsatisfactory frontier, beyond $hich a strong 'eo'le not only set li%its to further 'rogress but $as 're'ared to dis'ute the ground already gained 8n a treaty signed at ,itvatorok, in 4/0/, the +s%anli sultan $as forced to ackno$ledge definitely the absolute and eCual sovereignty of his northern neighbour, AustriaH and although, less than a century later, ?ienna $ould be attacked once %ore, there $as never again to be serious 'ros'ect of an eGtension of the e%'ire in the direction of central Euro'e "oreover, ho$ever a''earances %ight be %aintained on the frontiers, the heart of the e%'ire had begun 'atently to fail The history of the neGt t$o centuries, the seventeenth and eighteenth, is one long record of 'raetorian tu%ults at ho%eH and ever %ore rarely $ill these be co%'ensated by %ilitary successes abroad The first of these centuries had not half ela'sed ere the Janissaries had taken the lives of t$o sultans, and brought the Grand ?iDierate to such a 'erilous 'ass that no ordinary holder of it, unless backed by so%e very 'o$erful Albanian or other tribal influence, could ho'e to save his credit or even his life !uring this 'eriod indeed no +s%anli of the older stocks ever eGercised real control of affairs 8t $as only a%ong the %ore recently assi%ilated ele%ents, such as the Albanian, the ,lavonic, or the Greek, that %en of the reCuisite character and vigour could be found The rally $hich %arked the latter half of the seventeenth century $as entirely the $ork of Albanians or of other generals and ad%irals, none of $ho% had had a "osle% grandfather "arked by the last +s%anli conCuest %ade at the eG'ense of Euro'e((that of >reteH by the definite subjugation of @allachiaH by the second siege of

?iennaH by the recovery of the "orea fro% ?eniceH and finally by an honourable arrange%ent $ith Austria about the !anube frontier((it is all to be credited to the >u'rili EdynastyE of Albanian viDiers, $hich cons'icuously outshone the conte%'orary sovereigns of the dynasty of +s%an, the best of the%, "oha%%ed 8?, not eGce'ted 8t $as, ho$ever, no %ore than a rallyH for greater danger already threatened fro% another Cuarter Agree%ent had not been reached $ith Austria at 7arlo$itD, in 4/;;, before a ne$ and baleful 'lanet s$a% into the +s%anli sky 8t $as, this ti%e, no central Euro'ean 'o$er, to $hich, at the $orst, all that lay north of the 'ro'er ByDantine s'here %ight be abandonedH but a clai%ant for 'art of that s'here itself, 'erha's even for the very heart of it -ussia, seeking an econo%ic outlet, had sa''ed her $ay south to the EuGine shore, and $as on the 'oint of challenging the +s%anli right to that sea The contest $ould involve a vital issueH and if the Porte did not yet gras' this fact, others had gras'ed it The fa%ous ETesta%ent of Peter the GreatE %ay or %ay not be a genuine docu%entH but, in either case, it 'roves that certain vie$s about the necessary 'olicy of -ussia in the ByDantine area, $hich beca%e co%%on'laces of $estern 'olitical thinkers as the eighteenth century advanced, $ere already fa%iliar to east Euro'ean %inds in the earlier 'art of that century Battle $as not long in being joined 8n the event, it $ould cost -ussia about siGty years of strenuous effort to reduce the ByDantine 'o$er of the +s%anlis to a condition little better than that in $hich +s%an had found the ByDantine 'o$er of the Greeks four centuries before !uring the first t$o(thirds of this 'eriod the contest $as $aged not uneCually By the Treaty of Belgrade, in 45J;, ,ultan "ah%ud 8 a''eared for a %o%ent even to have gained the $hole issue, -ussia agreeing to her o$n eGclusion fro% the Black ,ea, and fro% interference in the !anubian 'rinci'alities But the success could not be sustained -e'eated effort $as ra'idly eGhausting +s%anli strength, sa''ed as it $as by increasing internal disease* and $hen a crisis arrived $ith the accession of the E%'ress 7atherine, it 'roved too $eak to %eet it !uring the ten years follo$ing 45/1 +s%anli

hold on the Black ,ea $as lost irretrievably After the destruction of the fleet at 7hes%e the 7ri%ea beca%e untenable and $as abandoned to the brief %ercies of -ussia* and $ith a veiled -ussian 'rotectorate established in the !anubian 'rinci'alities, and an o'en -ussian occu'ation in "orean 'orts, 7onstantino'le had lost once %ore her o$n seas @hen ,eli% 888 $as set on a tottering throne, in 4595, the $heel of ByDantine destiny see%ed to have co%e again al%ost full circle* and the $orld $as eG'ecting a "uscovite succession to that e%'ire $hich had ackno$ledged already the -o%an, the Greek, and the +s%anli 7ertainly history looked like re'eating itself As in the fourteenth century, so in the eighteenth, the i%'erial 'rovinces, having shaken off al%ost all control of the ca'ital, $ere ad%inistering the%selves, and ha''ier for doing so "eso'ota%ia, ,yria, Egy't, and TrebiDond ackno$ledged adventurers as virtually inde'endent lords Asia "inor, in general, $as being controlled, in like disregard of i%'erial %ajesty, by a grou' of E!ere BeysE, descended, in different districts, fro% tribal chieftains or 'rivileged taG(far%ers, or, often, fro% both The latter 'art of the eighteenth century $as the heyday of the Anatolian feudal fa%ilies((of such as the 7ha'anoghlus of &uDgad, $hose s$ay stretched fro% Pontus to 7ilicia, right across the base of the 'eninsula, or the >ara%anoghlus of "agnesia, Berga%a, and Aidin, $ho ruled as %uch territory as the for%er e%irs of >arasi and ,arukhan, and $ere recogniDed by the re'resentatives of the great trading co%'anies as $ielding the only effective authority in ,%yrna The $ide and rich regions controlled by such fa%ilies usually contributed neither an Ias'erI to the sultanEs treasury nor a %an to the i%'erial ar%ies +n no %ountain of either Euro'e or Asia((and %ountains for%ed a large 'art of the +tto%an e%'ire in both((did the i%'erial $rit run "acedonia and Albania $ere obedient only to their local beys, and so far had gone the devolution of ,erbia and Bosnia to Janissary aghas, feudal beys, and the Beylerbey of -u%ili, that these 'rovinces hardly concerned the%selves %ore $ith the ca'ital The late sultan, "usta'ha 888, had lost al%ost the last

re%nant of his subjectsE res'ect, not so %uch by the ill success of his %utinous ar%ies as by his de'reciation of the i%'erial coinage #e had died bankru't of 'restige, leaving no visible assets to his successor @hat %ight beco%e of the latter no one in the e%'ire a''eared to care As in 41:J, it $aited other lords

: I-evivalI

8t has been $aiting, nevertheless, ever since(($aiting for %uch %ore than a centuryH and 'erha's the end is not even yet @hy, then, have eG'ectations not only $ithin but $ithout the e%'ire been so greatly at faultF #o$ ca%e "ontesCuieu, Burke, and other confident 'ro'hets since their ti%e to be so signally %istakenF There $ere several co(o'erating causes, but one 'ara%ount 7onstantino'le $as no longer, as in 41:J, a %atter of concern only to itself, its i%%ediate neighbours, and certain trading re'ublics of 8taly 8t had beco%e involved $ith the co%%ercial interests of a far $ider circle, in 'articular of the great trading 'eo'les of $estern Euro'e, the British, the French, and the !utch, and $ith the 'olitical interests of the Ger%anic and -ussian nations None of these could be indifferent to a revolution in its fortunes, and least of all to its 'assing, not to a 'o$er out of Asia, but to a rival 'o$er a%ong the%selves Euro'e $as already in labour $ith the doctrine of the Balance of Po$er The bantling $ould not be born at ?ienna till early in the century to co%e* but even before the end of the eighteenth century it could be foreseen that its life $ould be bound u' $ith the %aintenance of 7onstantino'le in inde'endence of any one of the 'arent 'o$ers((that is, $ith the 'rolongation of the +s%anli 'hase of its i%'erial fortunes This doctrine, consistently acted u'on by Euro'e, has been the sheet anchor of the +tto%an e%'ire for a century Even to this day its "osle% dynasty has

never been $ithout one 'o$erful 7hristian cha%'ion or another There $ere, ho$ever, so%e thirty years still to ela'se after ,eli%Es accession before that doctrine $as fully born* and had her hands been free, -ussia %ight $ell have been in secure 'ossession of the ByDantine throne long before 494: For, internally, the +s%anli state $ent fro% bad to $orse The tu%ultuous insubordination of the Janissaries beca%e an ever greater scandal Never in all the long history of their riots $as their record for the years 4905(; eCualled or even a''roached Never before, also, had the 'rovinces been so utterly out of hand This $as the era of JeDDar the Butcher at Acre, of the rise of "ehe%et Ali in Egy't, of Ali Pasha in E'irus, and of Pasvanoghlu at ?idin @hen "ah%ud 88 $as thrust on to the throne in 490;, he certainly began his reign $ith no %ore 'ersonal authority and no %ore i%'erial 'restige or jurisdiction than the last Greek e%'eror had enjoyed on his accession in 4119 The great Euro'ean $ar, ho$ever, $hich had been raging inter%ittently for nearly t$enty years, had saved "ah%ud an e%'ire to $hich he could succeed in na%e and try to give substance @hatever the +s%anlis suffered during that $ar, it undoubtedly ke't the% in 7onstantino'le Te%'orary loss of Egy't and the s%all da%age done by the British attack on 7onstantino'le in 4905 $ere a s%all 'rice to 'ay for the diversion of -ussiaEs %ain energies to other than ByDantine fields, and for the assurance, %ade doubly sure $hen the great ene%y did again attack, that she $ould not be allo$ed to settle the account alone @hatever Na'oleon %ay have 'lanned and signed at Tilsit, the aegis of France $as consistently o''osed to the ene%ies of the +s%anlis do$n to the close of the Na'oleonic age Thus it ca%e about that those thirty 'erilous years 'assed $ithout the eG'ected catastro'he There $as still a successor of +s%an reigning in 7onstantino'le $hen the great 7hristian 'o$ers, %et in conclave at ?ienna, half unconsciously guaranteed the continued eGistence of the +s%anli E%'ire si%'ly by leaving it out of account in striking a Balance of Po$er in Euro'e 8ts Euro'ean territory, $ith the ca'ital $ithin it, $as of

Cuite enough i%'ortance to disturb seriously the nice adjust%ent agreed at ?iennaH and, therefore, $hile any oneEs henceforth to take or leave, it $ould beco%e al$ays so%e oneEs to guard A fe$ years had yet to 'ass before the 'hrase, the "aintenance of the 8ntegrity of the +tto%an E%'ire, $ould be a $atch$ord of Euro'ean di'lo%acy* but, $hether for%ulated thus or not, that 'rinci'le beca%e a sure rock of defence for the +s%anli E%'ire on the birthday of the doctrine of the Balance of Po$er ,ecure fro% destruction by any foes but those of his o$n household, as none kne$ better than he, the reigning +s%anli $as sche%ing to regain the inde'endence and dignity of his forefathers #i%self a creature of the Janissaries, "ah%ud had 'lotted the abolition of his creators fro% the first year of his reign, but %aking a too 'reci'itate effort after the conclusion of 'eace $ith -ussia, had igno%iniously failed and fallen into $orse bondage than ever No$, better assured of his i%'erial 'osition and su''orted by leading %en of all classes a%ong his subjects, he returned not only to his original enter'rise but to sche%es for re%oving other checks on the 'o$er of the sovereign $hich had co%e into being in the last t$o centuries((notably the feudal inde'endence of the !ere Beys, and the irres'onsibility of 'rovincial governors Probably "ah%ud 88((if he is to be credited $ith 'ersonal initiation of the refor%s al$ays associated $ith his na%e(($as not conscious of any 'ur'ose %ore revolutionary than that of beco%ing %aster in his o$n house, as his ancestors had been @hat he ulti%ately acco%'lished, ho$ever, $as so%ething of %uch greater and %ore lasting %o%ent to the +s%anli state 8t $as nothing less than the eli%ination of the %ost ByDantine features in its constitution and govern%ent The substitution of national forces for %ercenary 'raetorians* the substitution of direct i%'erial govern%ent of the 'rovinces for devolution to seigneurs, tribal chiefs, and irres'onsible officers* the substitution of direct collection for taG(far%ing* and the substitution of ad%inistration by bureaucrats for ad%inistration by household officers((these, the chief refor%s carried through under "ah%ud, $ere all anti(ByDantine They did not cause the

+s%anli state to be born ane$, but, at least, they $ent far to 'urge it of original sin That "ah%ud and his advisers could carry through such refor%s at all in so old a body 'olitic is re%arkable* that they carried the% through a%id the events of his reign is al%ost %iraculous +ne affront after another $as 'ut on the ,ultan, one blo$ after another $as struck at his e%'ire 8ns'ired by echoes of the French -evolution and by Na'oleonEs recognition of the rights of nationalities, first the ,erbs and then the Greeks seiDed %o%ents of +tto%an disorder to rise in revolt against their local lords The first, $ho had risen under ,eli% 888, achieved, under "ah%ud, autono%y, but not inde'endence, nothing re%aining to the sultan as before eGce't the fortress of Belgrade $ith five other strongholds The second, $ho began $ith no higher ho'es than the ,erbs, $ere encouraged, by the better acCuaintance and keener sy%'athy of Euro'e, to fight their $ay out to co%'lete freedo% The "orea and central Greece 'assed out of the e%'ire, the first 'rovinces so to 'ass since the +s%anli loss of #ungary &et it $as in the %iddle of that fatal struggle that "ah%ud settled for ever $ith the Janissaries, and during all its course he $as settling one after another $ith the !ere Beys_ @hen he had thus sacrificed the flo$er of his 'rofessional troo's and had hardly had ti%e to re'lace the local govern%ents of the 'rovinces by anything %uch better than general anarchy, he found hi%self faced by a -ussian assault #is ra$ levies fought as no other ra$ levies than the Turkish can, and, hel'ed by %anifestations of jealousy by the other 'o$ers, staved off the ca'ture of 7onstantino'le, $hich, at one %o%ent, see%ed about to take 'lace at last But he had to acce't hu%iliating ter%s, a%ounting virtually, to a cession of the Black ,ea "ah%ud recogniDed that such a 'rice he %ust 'ay for crossing the broad strea% bet$een ByDantinis% and Nationalis%, and ke't on his $ay Finally ca%e a blo$ at the hands of one of his o$n household and creed "ehe%et Ali of Egy't, $ho had faithfully fought his sovereignEs battles in

Arabia and the "orea, held his services ill reCuited and his clai% to be increased beyond other 'ashas ignored, and 'roceeded to take $hat had not been granted #e $ent farther than he had intended((%ore than half($ay across Asia "inor((after the i%'erial ar%ies had suffered three signal defeats, before he eGtorted $hat he had desired at first* and in the end, after very brief enjoy%ent, he had to resign all again to the %andate, not of his sovereign, but of certain Euro'ean 'o$ers $ho co%%anded his seas "ah%ud, ho$ever, $ho lived neither to see hi%self saved by the IgiaurI fleets, nor even to hear of his latest defeat, had gone for$ard $ith the reorganiDation of the central and 'rovincial ad%inistration, undis%ayed by "ehe%et AliEs contu%acy or the insistence of -ussia at the gate of the Bos'horus As ne$s arrived fro% ti%e to ti%e in the $est of "ah%udEs disasters, it $as custo%ary to 'ro'hesy the i%%inent dissolution of his e%'ire @e, ho$ever, looking back$ard no$, can see that by its losses the +s%anli state in reality gre$ stronger Each of its hu%iliations 'ledged so%e 'o$er or grou' of 'o$ers %ore dee'ly to su''ort it* and before "ah%ud died, he had reason to believe that, so long as the Euro'ean 7oncert should ensue the Balance of Po$er, his dynasty $ould not be eG'elled fro% 7onstantino'le #is belief has been justified At every fresh crisis of +tto%an fortunes, and es'ecially after every fresh -ussian attack, foreign 'rotection has unfailingly been eGtended to his successors 8t $as not, ho$ever, only in virtue of the increasing solicitude of the 'o$ers on its behalf that during the nineteenth century the e%'ire $as gro$ing and $ould gro$ stronger, but also in virtue of certain assets $ithin itself First a%ong these ranked the resources of its Asiatic territories, $hich, as the Euro'ean lands di%inished, beca%e %ore and %ore nearly identified $ith the e%'ire @hen, having got rid of the old ar%y, "ah%ud i%'osed service on all his "osle% subjects, in theory, but in effect only on the +s%anlis Anot the Arabs, >urds, or other half assi%ilated no%ads and hill%enB, it %eant %ore than a si%ilar %easure $ould have %eant in a 7hristian e%'ire For, the life of 8sla% being $ar,

%ilitary service binds "osle%s together and to their chiefs as it binds %en under no other dis'ensationH therefore "ah%ud, so far as he $as able to enforce his decree, created not %erely a national ar%y but a nation #is success $as %ost i%%ediate and co%'lete in Anatolia, the ho%eland of the +s%anlis There, ho$ever, it $as attained only by the 'revious reduction of those feudal fa%ilies $hich, for %any generations, had arrogated to the%selves the levying and control of local forces #ence, as in 7onstantino'le $ith the Janissaries, so in the 'rovinces $ith the !ere Beys, destruction of a drastic order had to 'recede construction, and %ore of "ah%udEs reign had to be devoted to the for%er than re%ained for the latter #e did, ho$ever, live to see not only the ger% of a nation e%erge fro% chaos, but also the fra%e$ork of an organiDation for governing it $ell or ill The centraliDed bureaucracy $hich he succeeded in initiating $as, of course, $retchedly i%'erfect both in constitution and eCui'%ent But it 'ro%ised to 'ro%ote the end he had in vie$ and no other, inas%uch as, being the only eGistent %achine of govern%ent, it derived any effective 'o$er it had fro% hi%self alone !e'endent on ,ta%bul, it served to turn thither the eyes and 'rayers of the 'rovincials The naturally sub%issive and 'eaceful 'o'ulation of Asia "inor Cuickly accusto%ed itself to look beyond the dis%antled strongholds of its fallen beys As for the rest(( contu%acious and bellicose beys and sheikhs of >urdish hills and ,yrian ste''es((their hour of surrender $as yet to co%e The eventual 'roduct of "ah%udEs 'ersistency $as the ETurkeyE $e have seen in our o$n ti%e((that Turkey irretrievably Asiatic in s'irit under a se%i(Euro'ean syste% of ad%inistration, $hich has governed des'otically in the interests of one creed and one class, $ith sli'shod, %akeshift %ethods, but has al$ays governed, and little by little has eGtended its range >no$ing its i%'erfections and its $eakness, $e have $atched $ith a%aDe%ent its hand feeling for$ard none the less to$ards one re%ote frontier district after another, 'ainfully but surely getting its gri', and at last closing on Turco%an chiefs and >urdish beys, first in the

Anatolian and 7ilician hills, then in the %ountains of Ar%enia, finally in the $ildest Al's of the Persian borderland @e have %arked its stealthy %ove%ent into the ste''es and deserts of ,yria, "eso'ota%ia, and Arabia(( no$ dra$n back, no$ 'ushed farther till it has reached and held regions over $hich "ah%ud could clai% nothing but a suDerainty in na%e To judge ho$ far the shrinkage of the +s%anli Euro'ean e%'ire has been co%'ensated by eG'ansion of its Asiatic, one has only to co%'are the 'olitical state of >urdistan, as it $as at the end of the eighteenth century, and as it has been in our o$n ti%e 8t is i%'ossible to believe that the Greek E%'ire, ho$ever buttressed and 'rotected by foreign 'o$ers, could ever have reconstituted itself after falling so lo$ as it fell in the fourteenth century and as the +s%anli E%'ire fell in the eighteenthH and it is clear that the latter %ust still have 'ossessed latent s'rings of vitality, deficient in the for%er @hat can these have beenF 8t is $orth $hile to try to ans$er this Cuestion at the 'resent juncture, since those s'rings, if they eGisted a hundred years ago, can hardly no$ be dry 8n the first 'lace it had its 'redo%inant creed This had acted as 8sla% acts every$here, as a very strong social bond, uniting the vast %ajority of subjects in all districts eGce't certain 'arts of the Euro'ean e%'ire, in instinctive loyalty to the 'erson of the 'adishah, $hatever %ight be felt about his govern%ent Thus had it acted $ith s'ecial efficacy in Asia "inor, $hose inhabitants the +s%anli e%'erors, unlike the Greek, had al$ays been at so%e 'ains to attach to the%selves The sultan, therefore, could still count on general su''ort fro% the 'o'ulation of his e%'ireEs heart, and had at his dis'osal the resources of a country $hich no ad%inistration, ho$ever i%'rovident or %align, has ever been able to eGhaust 8n the second 'lace the +s%anli ETurksE, ho$ever fallen a$ay fro% the virtues of their ancestors, had not lost either Ethe $ill to 'o$erE or their ca'acity for governing under %ilitary la$ 8f they had never

succeeded in learning to rule as civilians they had not forgotten ho$ to rule as soldiers 8n the third 'lace the sultanate of ,ta%bul had retained a vague but valuable 'restige, based 'artly on 'ast history, 'artly on its 'retension to religious influence throughout a %uch larger area than its 'ro'er do%inionsH and the conservative 'o'ulation of the latter $as in great %easure very i%'erfectly infor%ed of its sovereignEs actual 'osition 8n the fourth and last 'lace, a%ong the 'o'ulations on $hose loyalty the +s%anli sultan could %ake good his clai%, $ere several strong uneGhausted ele%ents, es'ecially in Anatolia There are fe$ %ore vigorous and enduring 'eo'les than the 'easants of the central 'lateau of Asia "inor, north, east, and south @ith this rock of defence to stand u'on, the sultan could dra$ also on the strength of other %ore distant races, less fir%ly attached to hi%self, but not less vigorous, such, for eGa%'le, as the Albanians of his Euro'ean %ountains and the >urds of his Asiatic #o$ever decadent %ight be the Turco(Grecian +s%anli Ahe, unfortunately, had the lionEs share of officeB, those other ele%ents had suffered no decline in 'hysical or %ental develo'%ent 8ndeed, one cannot be a%ong the% no$ $ithout feeling that their day is not only not gone, but is still, for the %ost 'art, yet to be ,uch $ere latent assets of the +s%anli E%'ire, a''reciated i%'erfectly by the 'ro'hets of its dissolution Thanks to the%, that e%'ire continued not only to hold together throughout the nineteenth century but, in so%e %easure, to consolidate itself Even $hen the 'rotective fence, set u' by Euro'ean 'o$ers about it, $as violated, as by -ussia several ti%es((in 49.;, in 49:1, and in 4955((the nation, $hich "ah%ud had %ade, al$ays 'roved ca'able of stout enough resistance to delay the ene%y till Euro'ean di'lo%acy, ho$ever slo$ of %ove%ent, could co%e to its aid, and ulti%ately to dis'ose the victor to acce't ter%s consistent $ith its continued eGistence 8t $as an eGistence, of course, of sufferance, but one $hich gre$ better assured the longer it lasted By an irony of the +s%anli

'osition, the $orse the e%'ire $as ad%inistered, the stronger beca%e its international guarantee No better eGa%'le can be cited than the effect of its financial follies @hen national bankru'tcy, long conte%'lated by its Govern%ent, su'ervened at last, the sultan had nothing %ore to fear fro% Euro'e #e beca%e, Ii'so factoI, the cherished 'rotPgP of every 'o$er $hose nationals had lent his country %oney 7onsidering the %agnitude of the change $hich "ah%ud instituted, the stage at $hich he left it, and the character of the society in $hich it had to be carried out, it $as unfortunate that he should have been follo$ed on the throne by t$o $ell(%eaning $eaklings, of $ho% the first $as a volu'tuary, the second a fantastic s'endthrift of doubtful sanity "ah%ud, as has been said, being occu'ied for the greater 'art of his reign in destroying the old order, had been able to reconstruct little %ore than a fra%e$ork #is o'erations had been al%ost entirely forcible((of a kind understood by and congenial to the +s%anli character((and 'artly by circu%stances but %ore by his natural sy%'athies, he had been identified fro% first to last $ith %ilitary enter'rises Though he $as kno$n to conte%'late the eventual su're%acy of civil la$, and the eCuality of all sorts and conditions of his subjects before it, he did nothing to o'en this vista to 'ublic vie$ 7onseCuently he encountered little or no factious o''osition ?ery fe$ held briefs for either the Janissaries or the !ere BeysH and fe$er regretted the% $hen they $ere gone +s%anli society identified itself $ith the ne$ ar%y and acce'ted the conseCuent refor% of the central or 'rovincial ad%inistration Nothing in these changes see%ed to affect 8sla% or the 'rivileged 'osition of "osle%s in the e%'ire 8t $as Cuite another %atter $hen Abdul "ejid, in the beginning of his reign, 'ro%ulgated an i%'erial decree((the fa%ous TanDi%at or #atti ,herif of Gulkhaneh(($hich, a%id %any eGcellent and 'o'ular 'rovisions for the continued refor% of the ad%inistration, 'roclai%ed the eCuality of 7hristian and "osle% subjects in service, in re$ard, and before the la$ The ne$ sultan, essentially a civilian and a %an of easy(going

te%'era%ent, had been induced to believe that the end of an evolution, $hich had only just begun, could be antici'ated I'er saltu%I, and that he and all his subjects $ould live ha''ily together ever after #is counsellors had been 'artly 'oliticians, $ho for various reasons, good and bad, $ished to gain @est Euro'ean sy%'athy for their country, involved in 'otential bondage to -ussia since the Treaty of =nkiar ,kelessi A49JJB, and recently afflicted by 8brahi% PashaEs victory at NiDibH and they looked to Great Britain to get the% out of the ,yrian %ess Partly also Abdul "ejid had been influenced by enthusiasts, $ho set %ore store by ideas or the 'hrases in $hich they $ere eG'ressed, than by the evidence of facts There $ere then, as since, Eyoung %en in a hurryE a%ong the %ore Euro'eaniDed +s%anlis The net result of the sultanEs 'reci'itancy $as to set against hi%self and his 'olicy all $ho $ished that such it consu%%ation of the refor% 'rocess %ight never co%e and all $ho kne$ it $ould never co%e, if snatched at thus((that is, both the E+ld TurksE and the %oderate )iberalsH and, further, to change for the $orse the s'irit in $hich the ne$ %achine of govern%ent $as being $orked and in $hich fresh develo'%ents of it $ould be acce'ted To his credit, ho$ever, Abdul "ejid $ent on $ith ad%inistrative refor% The organiDation of the ar%y into cor's((the foundation of the eGisting syste%((and the i%'osition of five yearsE service on all subjects of the e%'ire Ain theory $hich an Albanian rising caused to be i%'erfectly realiDed in factB, belong to the early 'art of his reignH as do also, on the civil side, the institution of res'onsible councils of state and for%ation of %inistries, and %uch 'rovision for secondary education To his latest years is to be credited the codification of the civil la$ #e had the advantage of so%e doDen initial years of co%'arative security fro% eGternal foes, after the ,yrian Cuestion had been settled in his favour by Great Britain and her allied 'o$ers at the chea' 'rice of a guarantee of hereditary succession to the house of "ehe%et Ali Thanks to the sa%e su''ort, $ar $ith Persia $as avoided and $ar $ith -ussia 'ost'oned But the 'rovinces, even if Cuiet A$hich so%e of the%, e g the )ebanon in

the early EfortiesE, $ere notB, 'roved far fro% content 8f the for% of +s%anli govern%ent had changed greatly, its s'irit had changed little, and defective co%%unications %ilitated against the res'onsibility of officials to the centre "oney $as scarce, and the 'a'er currency((an ill(o%ened device of "ah%udEs(($as de'reciated, distrusted, and regarded as an i%'erial betrayal of confidence Finally, the hostility of -ussia, notoriously unabated, and the encourage%ent of as'iring IrayasI credited to her and other foreign 'o$ers %ade bad blood bet$een creeds and encouraged o''osition to the eGecution of the 'ro(7hristian TanDi%at @hen 7hristian turbulence at last brought on, in 49:1, the -ussian attack $hich develo'ed into the 7ri%ean @ar, and 7hristian allies, though they frustrated that attack, %ade a 'eace by $hich the +s%anlis gained nothing, the latter $ere in no %ood to $elco%e the re'etition of the TanDi%at, $hich Abdul "ejid consented to e%body in the Treaty of Paris The reign closed a%id turbulence and hu%iliations((%assacre and bo%bard%ent at Jidda, %assacre and Franco(British coercion in ,yria((fro% all of $hich the sultan took refuge $ith $o%en and $ine, to %eet in 49/4 a drunkardEs end #is successor, Abdul ADiD, had %uch the sa%e intentions, the sa%e civilian sy%'athies, the sa%e 'olicy of Euro'eaniDation, and a different, but %ore fatal, $eakness of character #e $as, 'erha's, never $holly saneH but his aberration, at first attested only by an eGalted conviction of his divine character and inability to do $rong, eGcited little attention until it began to issue in fantastic eG'enditure By an irony of history, he is the one +s%anli sultan u'on the roll of our +rder of the Garter, the right to 'lace a banner in ,t, GeorgeEs 7ha'el having been offered to this Allah('ossessed cali'h on the occasion of his visit to the @est in 49/5 !es'ite the good intentions of Abdul ADiD hi%self((as sincere as can be credited to a disordered brain(((and des'ite %ore than one %inister of outstanding ability, refor% and al%ost everything else in the e%'ire $ent to the bad in this unha''y reign The ad%inistration settled do$n to lifeless routine and la'sed into corru'tion* the national ar%y $as starved*

the de'reciation of the currency gre$ $orse as the revenue declined and the sultanEs household and 'ersonal eGtravagance increased Encouraged by the inertia of the i%'erial Govern%ent, the 7hristians of the Euro'ean 'rovinces $aGed bold Though "ontenegro $as severely handled for contu%acy, the ,erbs $ere able to cover their 'enulti%ate stage to$ards freedo% by forcing in 49/5 the $ithdra$al of the last +tto%an garrisons fro% their fortresses >rete stood at bay for three years and all but $on her liberty Bosnia rose in ar%s, but divided against herself Pregnant $ith graver trouble than these, Bulgaria sho$ed signs of $aking fro% long slee' 8n 4950 she obtained recognition as a nationality in the +tto%an E%'ire, her 7hurch being detached fro% the control of the +ecu%enical Patriarch of the Greeks and 'laced under an EGarch Presently, her 'easantry gro$ing ever %ore restive, 'assed fro% 'rotest to revolt against the 7ircassian refugee(colonists $ith $ho% the Porte $as flooding the land The sultan, in an evil hour, for lack of trained troo's, let loose irregulars on the villages, and the Bulgarian atrocities, $hich they co%%itted in 495:, so$ed a fatal harvest for his successor to rea' #is o$n ti%e $as al%ost fulfilled The follo$ing s'ring a doDen high officials, $ith the assent of the ,heikh(ul(8sla% and the active dissent of no one, took Abdul ADiD fro% his throne to a 'rison, $herein t$o days later he 'erished, 'robably by his o$n hand A 'u''et reigned three %onths as "urad ?, and then, at the bidding of the sa%e king(%akers $ho% his uncle had obeyed, left the throne free for his brother Abdul #a%id, a %an of affairs and ability, $ho $as to be the %ost cons'icuous, or rather, the %ost notorious +s%anli sultan since ,ulei%an

/ I-ela'seI

The ne$ sultan, $ho had not eG'ected his throne, found his real% in

'erilous case No%inally sovereign and a %e%ber of the 7oncert of Euro'e, he $as in reality a se%i(neutraliDed de'endant, eGisting, as an undischarged bankru't, on sufferance of the 'o$ers ,hould the 7oncert be dissolved, or even divided, and any one of its %e%bers be left free to foreclose its +tto%an %ortgages, the e%'ire $ould be at an end 8nternally it $as in %any 'arts in o'en revolt, in all the rest stagnant and slo$ly rotting The thrice(foiled clai%ant to its succession, $ho siG years before had denounced the Black ,ea clause of the Treaty of Paris and so freed its hands for offence, $as %anifestly 're'aring a fresh assault ,o%ething drastic %ust be doneH but $hatF This danger of the e%'ireEs international situation, and also the disgrace of it, had been evident for so%e ti%e 'ast to those $ho had any just a''reciation of affairsH and in the educated class, at any rate, so%ething like a 'ublic o'inion, very a''rehensive and very %uch asha%ed, had struggled into being The discovery of a leader in "idhat Pasha, for%er governor(general of Bagdad, and a king(%aker of recent notoriety, induced the 'arty of this o'inion to take 'reci'itate action "urad had been de'osed in August Before the year $as out "idhat 'resented hi%self before Abdul #a%id $ith a for%al de%and for the 'ro%ulgation of a 7onstitution, 'ro'osing not only to 'ut into eGecution the 'ious ho'es of the t$o #atti ,herifs of Abdul "ejid but also to li%it the sovereign and govern the e%'ire by re'resentative institutions The ne$ sultan, hardly settled on his uneasy throne, could not deny those $ho had de'osed his t$o 'redecessors, and, shre$dly a$are that ri'e facts $ould not be long in getting the better of i%%ature ideas, acce'ted A 'arlia%ent $as su%%onedH an electorate, $ith only the haDiest notions of $hat it $as about, $ent through the for% of sending re'resentatives to 7onstantino'leH and the sittings $ere inaugurated by a s'eech fro% the throne, fra%ed on the %ost a''roved Britannic %odel, the de'uties, it is said, jostling and cro$ding the $hile to sit, as %any as 'ossible, on the right, $hich they understood $as al$ays the side of 'o$ers that be 8t is true this eGte%'oriDed cha%ber never had a chance The -ussians

crossed the Pruth before it had done %uch %ore than verify its 'o$ers, and the thoughts and energies of the +s%anlis $ere soon occu'ied $ith the %ost severe and disastrous struggle in $hich the e%'ire had ever engaged But it is eCually certain that it could not have turned to account any chance it %ight have had +nce %ore the Eyoung %en in a hurryE had snatched at the end of an evolution hardly begun, $ithout taking into account the i%%aturity of +s%anli society in 'olitical education and 'olitical ca'acity After sus'ension during the $ar, the 'arlia%ent $as dissolved unregretted, and its creator $as tried for his life, and banished 8n failing, ho$ever, "idhat left bad to beco%e so %uch $orse that the neGt refor%ers $ould inevitably have a %ore convinced 'ublic o'inion behind the%, and he had virtually destroyed the 'o$er of "ah%udEs bureaucracy 8f the only i%%ediate effect $as the substitution of an unli%ited autocracy, the +s%anli 'eo'les $ould be able thencefor$ard to ascribe their %isfortunes to a single 'erson, %editate attack, on a single 'osition, and drea% of realiDing so%e day an ideal $hich had been definitely for%ulated The -ussian onslaught, $hich began in both Euro'e and Asia in the s'ring of 4955, had been brought on, after a fashion beco%e custo%ary, by %ove%ents in the ,lavonic 'rovinces of the +tto%an E%'ire and in -u%aniaH and the latter 'rovince, no$ inde'endent in all but na%e and, in defiance of +tto%an 'rotests, dis'osing of a regular ar%y, joined the invader 8n ca%'aigns lasting a little less than a year, the +s%anli E%'ire $as brought nearer to 'assing than ever before, and it $as in a suburb of 7onstantino'le itself that the final ar%istice $as arranged But action by rival 'o$ers, both before the 'eace and in the revision of it at Berlin, gave fresh assurance that the end $ould not be suffered to co%e yetH and, %oreover, through the long series of disasters, %uch latent strength of the e%'ire and its 'eo'les had been revealed @hen that e%'ire had e%erged, shorn of several 'rovinces((in Euro'e, of -u%ania, ,erbia, and northern Greece, $ith Bulgaria also $ell on the road they had travelled to e%anci'ation, and in Asia, of a broad slice of 7aucasia((Abdul #a%id cut his losses, and, under the ne$ guarantee of the

Berlin Treaty, took heart to try his hand at reviving +s%anli 'o$er #e and his advisers had their idea, the contrary of the idea of "idhat and all the sultans since "ah%ud The e%'ire %ust be %ade, not %ore Euro'ean, but %ore Asiatic 8n the develo'%ent of 8sla%ic s'irit to 'an(8sla%ic unity it $ould find ne$ strengthH and to$ards this end in the early eighties, $hile he $as yet co%'aratively young, $ith intelligence unclouded and courage sufficient, Abdul #a%id 'atiently set hi%self 8n Asia, naturally sy%'athetic to autocracy, and the ho%e of the faith of his fathers, he set on foot a 'an(8sla%ic 'ro'aganda #e eGalted his cali'hateH he $ooed the Arabs, and he 'lotted $ith eGtraneous "osle%s against $hatever foreign govern%ent they %ight have to endure 8t cannot be denied that this idea $as based on the logic of facts, and, if it could be realiDed, 'ro%ised better than "idhatEs for esca'e fro% sha%eful de'endence 8ndeed, Abdul #a%id, an autocrat bent on re%aining one, could hardly have acted u'on any other By far the greater 'art of the territorial e%'ire re%aining to hi% lay in Asia The little left in Euro'e $ould obviously soon be reduced to less The Balkan lands $ere $aking, or already a$ake, to a sense of se'arate nationality, and $hat chance did the +s%anli ele%ent, less 'rogressive than any, stand in the%F The acce'tance of the +tto%an 'o$er into the 7oncert of Euro'e, though for%ally notified to Abdul "ejid, had 'roved an e%'ty thing 8n that galley there $as no 'lace for a sultan eGce't as a de'endent or a slave As an Asiatic 'o$er, ho$ever, eGerting te%'oral s$ay over so%e eighteen %illion bodies and religious influence over %any ti%es %ore souls, the +s%anli cali'h %ight co%%and a 'lace in the sun The result belied these ho'es Abdul #a%idEs failure $as o$ed in the %ain to facts inde'endent of his 'ersonality or statecraft The eG'ansion of 8sla% over an i%%ense geogra'hical area and a%ong 'eo'les living in inco%'atible stages of so'histication, under %ost diverse 'olitical and social conditions, has 'robably %ade any universal cali'hial authority for ever i%'ossible The original idea of the cali'hate, like that of the IjehadI or holy $ar of the faithful, 'resu''osed that all "osle%s $ere

under govern%ents of their o$n creed, and, 'erha's, under one govern%ent "oreover, if such a cali'h $ere ever to be again, an +s%anli sultan $ould not be a strong candidate A'art fro% the disCualification of his blood, he being not of the Pro'hetEs tribe nor even an Arab, he is lord of a state irretrievably co%'ro%ised in 'urist eyes Aas @ahabis and ,enussis have testified once and againB by its ByDantine heritage of necessary relations $ith infidels Abdul #a%idEs 'redecessors for t$o centuries or %ore had been at no 'ains to infuse reality into their no%inal leadershi' of the faithful To call a real cali'hate out of so long abeyance could hardly have been effected even by a bold soldier, $ho a''ealed to the general i%agination of "osle%sH and certainly $as beyond the 'o$er of a ti%id civilian @hen Abdul #a%id had 'layed this card and failed, he had no otherH and his natural 'usillani%ity and shiftiness induced hi% to $ithdra$ ever %ore into the de'ths of his 'alace, and there use his intelligence in eG'loiting this sha%eful de'endence of his country on foreign 'o$ers =nable or un$illing to encourage national resistance, he consoled hi%self, as a $eak %alcontent $ill, by setting one 'o$er against another, 'in('ricking the stronger and blustering to the $eaker The history of his reign is a long record of 'rotests and surrenders to the great in big %atters, as to Great Britain in the %atter of Egy't in 4994, to -ussia in that of Eastern -u%elia in 499:, to France on the Cuestion of the 7onstantino'le Cuays and other clai%s, and to all the 'o$ers in 4994 in the %atter of the financial control Bet$een ti%es he 'ut in such 'in('ricks as he could, re%oving his neighboursE land%arks in the Aden IhinterlandI or the ,inaitic 'eninsula #e succeeded, ho$ever, in kee'ing his e%'ire out of a foreign $ar $ith any 'o$er for about thirty years, $ith the single eGce'tion of a brief conflict $ith Greece in 49;5 @hile in the first half of his reign he $as at 'ains to %ake no Euro'ean friend, in the latter he fell %ore and %ore under the influence of Ger%any, $hich, al%ost fro% the accession of >aiser @ilhel% 88, began to 're'are a south$ard $ay for future use, and alone of the 'o$ers, never bro$beat the sultan

8nternally, the e%'ire 'assed %ore and %ore under the govern%ent of the i%'erial household !efeated by the sheer geogra'hical difficulty of controlling directly an area so vast and inadeCuately eCui''ed $ith %eans of co%%unication, Abdul #a%id soon relaGed the s'as%odic efforts of his early years to better the condition of his subjectsH and, uncontrolled and de%oraliDed by the national disgrace, the ad%inistration $ent fro% bad to %uch $orse "inisters irres'onsibleH officials $ithout sense of 'ublic obligationH venality in all ranksH universal sus'icion and delationH violent re%edies, such as the Ar%enian %assacres of 49;1, for diseases due to neglectH the 'easantry, $hether "osle% or 7hristian, but es'ecially 7hristian, forced ulti%ately to liCuidate all accountsH i%'overish%ent of the $hole e%'ire by the i%'rovidence and o''ression of the central 'o$er(( such 'hrasing of the conventional results of EPalaceE govern%ent eG'resses inadeCuately the fruits of &ildiD under Abdul #a%id 88 IPari 'assuI $ith this disorder of central and 'rovincial ad%inistration increased the foreign encroach%ents on the e%'ire The nation sa$ not only ra'id %ulti'lication of concessions and hy'othecations to aliens, and of alien 'ersons the%selves installed in its %idst under eGtra(territorial i%%unity fro% its la$s, secured by the ca'itulations, but also $hole 'rovinces seCuestered, ad%inistered inde'endently of the sultanEs govern%ent, and 're'ared for eventual alienation Egy't, Tunisia, Eastern -u%elia, >rete((these had all been $ithdra$n fro% +tto%an control since the Berlin settle%ent, and no$ "acedonia see%ed to be going the sa%e $ay Bitter to s$allo$ as the other losses had been(('ills thinly sugared $ith a guarantee of suDerainty((the loss of "acedonia $ould be %ore bitter stillH for, if it $ere $ithdra$n fro% +tto%an use and 'rofit, Albania $ould follo$ and so $ould the co%%and of the north Aegean and the Adriatic shoresH $hile an ancient "osle% 'o'ulation $ould re%ain at 7hristian %ercy 8t $as 'artly +tto%an fault, 'artly the fault of circu%stances beyond +tto%an control, that this district had beco%e a scandal and a re'roach

8n the days of +s%anli greatness "acedonia had been neglected in favour of 'rovinces to the north, $hich $ere richer and %ore nearly related to the $ays into central Euro'e @hen %ore attention began to be 'aid to it by the Govern%ent, it had already beco%e a cock'it for the ne$(born 7hristian nationalities, $hich had been develo'ed on the north, east, and south These $ere using every $ea'on, %aterial and s'iritual, to secure 're'onderance in its society, and had created chronic disorder $hich the +tto%an ad%inistration no$ $eakly encouraged to save itself trouble, no$ violently dragooned Already the 'o$ers had not only 'ro'osed autono%y for it, but begun to control its 'olice and its finance This $as the last stra$ The 'ublic o'inion $hich had slo$ly been for%ing for thirty years gained the ar%y, and "idhatEs seed ca%e to fruit By an irony of fate "acedonia not only su''lied the s'ectacle $hich eGas'erated the ar%y to revolt, but by its very disorder %ade the 're'aration of that revolt 'ossibleH for it $as due to local li%itations of +tto%an sovereignty that the chief 'ro%oters of revolution $ere able to cons'ire in safety By another irony, t$o of the fe$ 'rogressive %easures ever encouraged by Abdul #a%id contributed to his undoing 8f he had not sent young officers to be trained abroad, the ar%y, the one +tto%an institution never allo$ed $holly to decay, $ould have re%ained outside the cons'iracy 8f he had never 'ro%oted the construction of rail$ays, as he began to do after 49;5, the ,alonika ar%y could have had no such influence on affairs in 7onstantino'le as it eGerted in 4;09 and again in 4;0; As it $as, the sultan, at a %andate fro% -esna in "acedonia, re(enacted "idhatEs 7onstitution, and, a year later, sa$ an ar%y fro% ,alonika arrive to u'hold that 7onstitution against the reaction he had fostered, and to send hi%, dethroned and ca'tive, to the 'lace $hence itself had co%e

5 I-evolutionI

)ooking back on this revolution across seven years of its conseCuences, $e see 'lainly enough that it $as ins'ired far less by desire for hu%ane 'rogress than by sha%e of +s%anli %ilitary decline The E)iberty, ECuality, FraternityE 'rogra%%e $hich its authors 'ut for$ard Aa civilian %inority a%ong the%, sincerely enoughB, Euro'e acce'ted, and the 'o'ulace of the e%'ire acted u'on for a %o%ent, did not eG'ress the %otive of the %ove%ent or eventually guide its course The essence of that %ove%ent $as %ilitant nationalis% The e%'ire $as to be regenerated, not by hu%aniDing it but by +tto%aniDing it The +s%anli, the %an of the s$ord, $as the ty'e to $hich all others, $ho $ished to be of the nation, $ere to confor% ,uch as did not so $ish %ust be eli%inated by the rest The revolutionary 7o%%ittee in ,alonika, called Eof =nion and ProgressE, held u' its cards at first, but by 4;40 events had forced its hand on the table The definite anneGation of Bosnia and #ercegovina by Austria(#ungary in 4;09, and the declaration of inde'endence and assu%'tion of the title Tsar by the ruler of Bulgaria, since they $ere the 'rice to be 'aid by the revolutionaries for a success largely %ade in Ger%any, $ere o''osed officially only I'ro for%aIH but $hen uninfor%ed o'inion in the e%'ire $as eGas'erated thereby against 7hristendo%, the 7o%%ittee, to a''ease reactionaries, had to give 're%ature 'roof of 'an(+s%anli and 'ro("osle% intentions by taking drastic action against IrayasI The Greeks of the e%'ire, never $ithout sus'icions, had failed to testify the sa%e enthusias% for +tto%an fraternity $hich others, e g the Ar%enians, had sho$nH no$ they resu%ed their se'aratist attitude, and %ade it clear that they still as'ired, not to +tto%an, but to #ellenic nationality Nor $ere even the "osle%s of the e%'ire unani%ous for fraternity a%ong the%selves The Arab(s'eaking societies co%'lained of under(re'resentation in the councils and offices of the state, and %ade no secret of their intention not to be assi%ilated by the Turk(s'eaking +s%anlis To all suggestions, ho$ever, of local ho%e(rule and conciliation of 'articularist societies in the e%'ire, the 7o%%ittee $as deaf @ithout

union, it believed in no 'rogress, and by union it understood the assi%ilation of all societies in the e%'ire to the +s%anli )ogic $as on the side of the 7o%%ittee in its choice of both end and %eans 8n 'an(+tto%anis%, if it could be effected, lay certainly the single chance of restoring +s%anli inde'endence and 'o$er to anything like the 'osition they had once held 8n rule by a %ilitarist oligarchy for so%e generations to co%e, lay the one ho'e of realiDing the 'an(+tto%an idea and educating the resultant nation to self(govern%ent That end, ho$ever, it $as i%'ossible to realiDe under the circu%stances in $hich 'ast history had involved the +tto%an E%'ire There $as too %uch bad blood bet$een different ele%ents of its society $hich +s%anli rulers had been labouring for centuries rather to kee' a'art than to uniteH and certain i%'ortant ele%ents, both "osle% and 7hristian, had already develo'ed too %ature ideas of se'arate nationality @ith all its defects, ho$ever, the ne$ order did undoubtedly rest on a $ider basis than the old, and its organiDation $as better conceived and eGecuted 8t retained so%e of the sy%'athy of Euro'e $hich its beginnings had eGcited, and the $estern 'o$ers, regarding its re'resentative institutions as earnests of good govern%ent, ho$ever ill they %ight $ork at the first, $ere dis'osed to give it every chance =nfortunately the &oung Turks $ere in a hurry to bring on their %illenniu%, and careless of certain neighbouring 'o$ers, not for%idable individually but to be reckoned $ith if united, to $ho% the 'ros'ect of regenerated +s%anlis assi%ilating their nationals could not be $elco%e #ad the &oung Turks been content to 'ut their 'olicy of +tto%aniDation in the background for a$hile, had they %ade no %ore than a sho$ of acce'ting local distinctions of creed and 'olitics, kee'ing in the %eanti%e a tight rein on the +ld Turks, they %ight long have avoided the union of those neighbours, and been in a better 'osition to resist, should that union eventually be arrayed against the%selves But a considerable and energetic ele%ent a%ong the% belonged to the

nervous )evantine ty'e of +s%anli, $hich is as little %inded to co%'ro%ise as any +ld Turk, though fro% a different %otive 8t elected to deal drastically and at once $ith "acedonia, the 'eculiar object not only of Euro'ean solicitude but also of the interest of Bulgaria, ,erbia, and Greece 8f ever a 'rovince reCuired delicate handling it $as this 8t did not get it The interested neighbours, each beset by fugitives of its o''ressed nationals, 'rotested only to be ignored or bro$beaten They dre$ to$ards one anotherH old feuds and jealousies $ere 'ut on one sideH and at last, in the su%%er of 4;4., a #oly )eague of Balkan ,tates, ins'ired by ?eneDelos, the ne$ >retan Pri%e "inister of Greece, and by Ferdinand of Bulgaria, $as for%ed $ith a vie$ to co%%on action against the o''ressor of Greek, ,erbian, and Bulgarian nationals in "acedonia "ontenegro, al$ays s'oiling for a fight, $as de'uted to fire the train, and at the a''roach of autu%n the first Balkan $ar blaDed u'

9 IBalkan @arI

The course of the struggle is described else$here in this volu%e 8ts event illustrates the danger of an alliance succeeding beyond the eG'ectations in $hich it $as for%ed The constituent 'o$ers had looked for a stiff struggle $ith the +tto%an ar%ies, but for final success sufficient to enable the%, at the best, to divide "acedonia a%ong the%selves, at the $orst, to secure its autono%y under international guarantee Neither they nor any one else eG'ected such an +tto%an colla'se as $as in store Their %o%ent of attack $as better chosen than they kne$ The +s%anli @ar +ffice $as caught fairly in the %iddle of the strea% Fighting during the revolution, subseCuently against Albanians and other recalcitrant 'rovincials, and latterly against the 8talians, $ho had snatched at Tri'oli the year before, had reduced the INiDa%I, the first line of

troo's, far belo$ strength The I-edifI, the second line, had received hardly %ore training, thanks to the disorganiDation of Abdul #a%idEs last years and of the first years of the ne$ order, than the I"ustafuDI, the third and last line Ar%a%ent, auGiliary services, and the like had been disorganiDed 're'aratory to a sche%e for thorough reorganiDation, $hich had been carried, as yet, but a very little $ay A foreign AGer%anB ele%ent, introduced into the co%%and, had had ti%e to i%'air the old s'irit of +tto%an soldiers, but not to create a ne$ one The ar%ies sent against the Bulgarians in Thrace $ere so %any %obs of various ar%sH those $hich %et the ,erbs, a little betterH those $hich o''osed the Greeks, a little $orse 8t follo$ed that the Bulgarians, $ho had 'ro'osed to do no %ore in Thrace than block Adriano'le and i%%obiliDe the 7onstantino'le forces, $ere carried by their o$n %o%entu% right do$n to 7hataldja, and there and at Adriano'le had to 'rosecute siege o'erations $hen they ought to have been %arching to >avala and ,alonika The ,erbs, after hard fighting, broke through not only into "acedonia but into Albania, and reached the Adriatic, but $arned off this by the 'o$ers, consoled the%selves $ith the occu'ation of %uch %ore "acedonian territory than the concerted 'lans of the allies had foreseen The Greeks, instead of hard contests for the #aliac%on ?alley and E'irus((their 'ro'er 8rredenta(('ushed such $eak forces before the% that they got through to ,alonika just in ti%e to forestall a Bulgarian colu%n +tto%an colla'se $as co%'lete every$here, eGce't on the 7hataldja front 8t re%ained to divide the s'oil ,erbia %ight not have Adriatic Albania, and therefore $anted as %uch "acedonia as she had actually overrun Greece $anted the rest of "acedonia and had virtually got it -e%ained Bulgaria $ho, $ith %ore of Thrace than she $anted, found herself al%ost entirely cro$ded out of "acedonia, the co%%on objective of all Faced $ith division IeG 'ost factoI, the allies found their Ia 'rioriI agree%ent $ould not resolve the situation Bulgaria, the 'redo%inant 'artner and the %ost aggrieved, $ould neither recogniDe the othersE rights

of 'ossession nor honestly sub%it her clai%s to the only 'ossible arbiter, the Tsar of -ussia Finding herself one against t$o, she tried a Icou' de %ainI on both fronts, failed, and brought on a second Balkan $ar, in $hich a ne$ deter%ining factor, -u%ania, intervened at a critical %o%ent to decide the issue against her The +tto%an ar%ies recovered nearly all they had lost in eastern and central Thrace, including Adriano'le, al%ost $ithout firing a shot, and $ere not ill 'leased to be Cuit of a des'erate situation at the 'rice of "acedonia, Albania, and $estern Thrace !efeated and i%'overished, the +tto%an 'o$er ca%e out of the $ar clinging to a %ere re%nant of its Euro'ean e%'ire((one single %utilated 'rovince $hich did not 'ay its $ay @ith the lost territories had gone about one(eighth of the $hole 'o'ulation and one(tenth of the total i%'erial revenue But $hen these heavy losses had been cut, there $as nothing %ore of a serious nature to 'ut to debit, but a little even to credit +tto%an 'restige had suffered but slightly in the eyes of the 'eo'le The obstinate and successful defence of the 7hataldja lines and the subseCuent recovery of eastern Thrace $ith Adriano'le, the first Euro'ean seat of the +s%anlis, had al%ost effaced the sense of +s%anli disgrace, and stood to the general credit of the 7o%%ittee and the individual credit of its %ilitary leader, Enver Bey The loss of so%e thousands of soldiers and %uch %aterial $as co%'ensated by an invaluable lesson in the faultiness of the %ilitary syste%, and es'ecially the I-edifI organiDation The $ay $as no$ clearer than before for re(%aking the ar%y on the best Euro'ean %odel, the Ger%an The ca%'aign had not been long, nor, as $ars go, costly to $age 8n the 'eace Turkey gained a ne$ lease of life fro% the 'o$ers, and, 'rofligate that she $as, the 'ro%ise of %ore %illions of foreign %oney +ver and above all this an advantage, $hich she rated above international guarantees, $as secured to her((the 'ros'ective su''ort of the strongest %ilitary 'o$er in Euro'e The success of ,erbia so %enaced Ger%ano(Austrian 'lans for the 'enetration of the Balkans, that the 7entral Po$ers $ere bound to $oo Turkey even %ore lavishly than before, and to seek alliance $here they had been content $ith influence 8n a

strong Turkey resided all their ho'e of saving fro% the ,lavs the $ay to the "editerranean They had ke't this 'olicy in vie$ for %ore than t$enty years, and in a hundred $ays, by introduction of Ger%ans into the %ilitary organiDation, 'ro%otion of Ger%an financial enter'rise, 'ushing of Ger%an co%%erce, 'ressure on behalf of Ger%an concessions $hich $ould entail 'rovincial influence Afor eGa%'le, the construction of a transcontinental rail$ay in AsiaB, those 'o$ers had been %anifesting their interest in Turkey $ith ever(increasing solicitude No$ they %ust attach her to the%selves $ith hoo's of steel and, $ith her hel', as soon as %ight be, try to recast the Balkan situation The eG'erience of the recent $ar and the 'ros'ect in the future %ade continuance and accentuation of %ilitary govern%ent in the +tto%an E%'ire inevitable The 7o%%ittee, $hich had %ade its $ay back to 'o$er by violent %ethods, no$ su''ressed its o$n 7onstitution al%ost as co%'letely as Abdul #a%id had su''ressed "idhatEs 'arlia%ent -e(organiDation of the %ilitary 'ersonnel, accu%ulation of $ar %aterial, strengthening of defences, 'rovision of arsenals, dockyards, and shi's, together $ith devices for obtaining %oney to 'ay for all these things, %ake +tto%an history for the years 4;4.(41 The bond $ith Ger%any $as dra$n lighter "ore Ger%an instructors $ere invited, %ore Ger%an engineers co%%issioned, %ore %unitions of $ar 'aid for in French gold By 4;41 it had beco%e so evident that the +s%anlis %ust array the%selves $ith Austro(Ger%any in any Euro'ean $ar, that one $onders $hy a %o%entEs credit $as ever given to their 'rotestations of neutrality $hen that $ar ca%e at last in August 4;41 Turkey then needed other three %onths to co%'lete her first line of defences and %obiliDe These $ere allo$ed to her, and in the late autu%n she entered the field against Great Britain, France, and -ussia, ar%ed $ith Ger%an guns, led by Ger%an officers, and fed $ith Ger%an gold

IThe FutureI

TurkeyEs situation, therefore, in general ter%s has beco%e this @ith the dissolution of the 7oncert of Euro'e the +tto%an E%'ire has lost $hat had been for a century its chief security for continued eGistence 8ts fate no$ de'ends on that of t$o Euro'ean 'o$ers $hich are at $ar $ith the rest of the for%er 7oncert A%ong the last na%ed are TurkeyEs t$o 'rinci'al creditors, holding together about seventy(five 'er cent of her 'ublic debt 8n the event of the defeat of her friends, these creditors $ill be free to foreclose, the debtor being certainly in no 'osition to %eet her obligations Allied $ith 7hristian 'o$ers, the +s%anli cali'h has 'roved no %ore able than his 'redecessors to unite 8sla% in his defenceH but, for $hat his title is $orth, "oha%%ed ? is still cali'h, no rival clai% having been 'ut for$ard The loyalty of the e%'ire re%ains $here it $as, 'ending victory or defeat, the 'rovinces being slo$ to realiDe, and still slo$er to resent, the disastrous econo%ic state to $hich the $ar is reducing the% The 'resent struggle %ay leave the +s%anli E%'ire in one of three situations* A4B %e%ber of a victorious alliance, reinforced, enlarged, and lightened of financial burdens, as the $ages of its sinH A.B %e%ber of a defeated alliance, bound to 'ay the 'rice of blood in loss of territory, or inde'endence, or even eGistenceH AJB 'arty to a co%'ro%ise under $hich its territorial e%'ire %ight conceivably re%ain +tto%an, but under even stricter Euro'ean tutelage than of old The first alternative it $ould be idle to discuss, for the result of conditions so novel are i%'ossible to foresee Nor, indeed, $hen i%%ediate events are so doubtful an at the 'resent %o%ent, is it 'rofitable to atte%'t to forecast the ulti%ate result of any of the alternatives ,hould, ho$ever, either the second or the third beco%e fact, certain general truths about the +s%anlis $ill govern the conseCuencesH and these %ust be borne in %ind by any in $hose hands the dis'osal of the e%'ire %ay

lie The influence of the +s%anlis in their e%'ire to(day resides in three things* first, in their 'ossession of 7onstantino'leH second, in the sultanEs cali'hate and his guardianshi' of the holy cities of 8sla%H third, in certain Cualities of +s%anli character, notably E$ill to 'o$erE and courage in the field @hat 7onstantino'le %eans for the +s%anlis is i%'lied in that na%e I-ou%I by $hich the $estern do%inions of the Turks have been kno$n ever since the ,eljuks $on Asia "inor A'art fro% the 'restige of their o$n early conCuests, the +s%anlis inherited, and in a %easure retain in the Near East, the traditional 'restige of the greatest e%'ire $hich ever held it They stand not only for their o$n 'ast but also for $hatever still lives of the 'restige of -o%e Theirs is still the re'ute of the i%'erial 'eo'le I'ar eGcellenceI, chosen and called to rule That this re'ute should continue, after the s$ee'ing victories of ,e%ites and subseCuent centuries of +tto%an retreat before other heirs of -o%e, is a 'aradoG to be eG'lained only by the fact that a large 'art of the 'o'ulation of the Near East re%ains at this day in about the sa%e stage of civiliDation and kno$ledge as in the ti%e of, say, #eraclius The +s%anlis, be it re%e%bered, $ere and are foreigners in a great 'art of their Asiatic e%'ire eCually $ith the Greeks of ByDantiu% or the -o%ans of 8talyH and their establish%ent in 7onstantino'le nearly five centuries ago did not %ean to the indigenous 'eo'les of the Near East $hat it %eant to Euro'e((a victory of the East over the @est((so %uch as a continuation of i%%e%orial E-o%anE do%inion still eGercised fro% the sa%e i%'erial centre ,ince -o%e first s'read its shado$ over the Near East, %any %en of %any races, $hose variety $as i%'erfectly realised, if realised at all, by the 'easants of Asia "inor, ,yria, "eso'ota%ia, and Egy't, have ruled in its na%eH the +s%anlis, $hose govern%ental syste% $as in 'art the ByDantine, %ade but one %ore change $hich %eant the sa%e old thing The 'easants kno$, of course, about those ,e%itic victoriesH but they kno$ also that if

the ,e%ite has had his day of triu%'h and i%'osed, as $as right and 'ro'er, his God and his Pro'het on -ou%((even on all %ankind as %any believed, and so%e %ay be found in re%oter regions $ho still believe((he has returned to his o$n 'lace south of TaurusH and still -ou% is -ou%, natural indefeasible )ord of the @orld ,uch a belief is dying no$, of courseH but it dies slo$ly and hard 8t still constitutes a real asset of the +s%anlis, and $ill not cease to have value until they lose 7onstantino'le +n the 'ossession of the old i%'erial city it de'ends for $hatever vitality it has &ou %ay de%onstrate, as you $ill, and as %any 'ublicists have done since the Balkan @ar and before, $hat and ho$ great econo%ic, 'olitical, and social advantages $ould accrue to the +s%anlis, if they could bring the%selves to transfer their ca'ital to Asia #ere they $ould be rid of -u%elia, $hich costs, and $ill al$ays cost the%, %ore than it yields #ere they could concentrate "osle%s $here their co(religionists are already the great %ajority, and so have done $ith the everlasting friction and $eakness entailed in jurisdiction over 're'onderant 7hristian ele%ents #ere they %ight thro$ off the re%nants of their ByDantinis% as a gar%ent and, no longer forced to face t$o $ays, live and govern $ith single %inds as the Asiatics they are ?ain illusion, as +s%anli i%'erialists kno$_ 8t is their e%'ire that $ould fall a$ay as a gar%ent so soon as the Near East realiDed that they no longer ruled in the 8%'erial 7ity Enver Pasha and the 7o%%ittee $ere a%'ly justified in straining the resources of the +tto%an E%'ire to cracking('oint, not %erely to retain 7onstantino'le but also to recover Adriano'le and a territory in Euro'e large enough to bulk as -ou% Nothing that ha''ened in that $ar %ade so greatly for the continuation of the old order in Asiatic Turkey as the reoccu'ation of Adriano'le The one occasion on $hich Euro'eans in ,yria had reason to eG'ect a general eG'losion $as $hen 're%ature ru%ours of the entry of the Bulgarian ar%y into ,ta%bul gained currency for a fe$ hours That eG'losion, had the ne$s 'roved true or not been contradicted in ti%e, $ould have been a

'anic(stricken, ungovernable i%'ulse of anarchy((of %en conscious that an old $orld had 'assed a$ay and ignorant $hat conceivable ne$ $orld could co%e to be But the 'erilous %o%ent 'assed, to be succeeded by general diffusion of a belief that the inevitable catastro'he $as only 'ost'oned 8n the breathing(ti%e allo$ed, Arabs, >urds, and Ar%enians discussed and 'lanned together revolt fro% the %oribund +s%anli, and, se'arately, the %utual %assacre and 'lundering of one another Arab national organiDations and nationalist journals s'rang to life at Beirut and else$here The revival of Arab e%'ire $as talked of, and na%es of 'ossible ca'itals and kings $ere bandied about +ne Arab 'rovince, the #asa, actually broke a$ay Then %en began to say that the Bulgarians $ould not advance beyond 7hataldja* the Balkan ,tates $ere at $ar a%ong the%selves* finally, Adriano'le had been re(occu'ied And all $as as in the beginning Budding life $ithered in the Arab %ove%ent, and the Near East settled do$n once %ore in the 'ersistent shado$ of -ou% ,uch is the first ele%ent in +s%anli 'restige, doo%ed to disa''ear the %o%ent that the +tto%an state relinCuishes Euro'e "ean$hile there it is for $hat it is $orthH and it is actually $orth a tradition of sub%ission, natural and honourable, to a race of su'erior destiny, $hich is instinctive in so%e %illions of savage si%'le hearts < < < < <

@hat of the second ele%entF The religious 'restige of the +tto%an 'o$er as the re'ository of cali'hial authority and trustee for 8sla% in the #oly )and of Arabia, is an asset al%ost i%'ossible to esti%ate @ould a death struggle of the +s%anlis in Euro'e rouse the ,unni $orldF @ould the "osle%s of 8ndia, Afghanistan, Turkestan, 7hina, and "alaya take u' ar%s for the +tto%an sultan as cali'hF Nothing but the event $ill 'rove that they $ould Jehad, or #oly @ar, is an obsolescent $ea'on difficult and dangerous for &oung Turks to $ield* difficult because their o$n 8sla%ic

sincerity is sus'ect and they are taking the field no$ as clients of IgiaurI 'eo'lesH dangerous because the +tto%an nation itself includes nu%erous 7hristian ele%ents, indis'ensable to its econo%y =ndoubtedly, ho$ever, the +tto%an sultanate can count on its religious 'restige a''ealing $idely, overriding counteracting senti%ents, and, if it rouses to action, rousing the %ost dangerous te%'er of all 8t is futile to ignore the cali'h because he is not of the >oreish, and o$es his dignity to a siGteenth(century transfer These facts are either unkno$n or not borne in %ind by half the ,unnites on $ho% he %ight call, and $eigh far less $ith the other half than his hereditary do%inion over the #oly 7ities, sanctioned by the 'rescri'tion of nearly four centuries +ne thing can be foretold $ith certainty The religious 'restige of an +tto%an sultan, $ho had definitely lost control of the #oly Places, $ould cease as Cuickly and utterly as the secular 'restige of one $ho had evacuated 7onstantino'le* and since the loss of the latter $ould 'robably 'reci'itate an Arab revolt, and cut off the #ejaD, the religious ele%ent in +tto%an 'restige %ay be said to de'end on 7onstantino'le as %uch as the secular All the %ore reason $hy the 7o%%ittee of =nion and Progress should not have acce'ted that $ell(%eant advice of Euro'ean 'ublicists_ A successful revolt of the Arab(s'eaking 'rovinces $ould indeed sound the death(knell of the +tto%an E%'ire No other event $ould be so i%%ediately and surely catastro'hic < < < < <

The third ele%ent in +s%anli 'restige, inherent Cualities of the +s%anli ETurkE hi%self, $ill be ad%itted by every one $ho kno$s hi% and his history To say that he has the E$ill to 'o$erE is not, ho$ever, to say that he has an a'titude for govern%ent #e $ishes to govern othersH his $ill to do so i%'oses itself on 'eo'les $ho have not the sa%e $illH they give $ay to hi% and he governs the% indifferently, though often better than they can govern the%selves For eGa%'le, bad as, according to our

standards, Turkish govern%ent is, native Arab govern%ent, $hen not in tutelage to Euro'eans, has generally 'roved itself $orse, $hen tried in the +tto%an area in %odern ti%es @here it is of a 'urely Beda$i barbaric ty'e, as in the e%irates of central Arabia, it does $ell enoughH but if the 'o'ulation be conta%inated ever so little $ith non(Arab ele%ents, 'ractices, or ideas, Arab ad%inistration see%s inca'able of 'roducing effective govern%ent 8t has had chances in the #oly 7ities at intervals, and for longer 'eriods in the &e%en But a Euro'ean, long resident in the latter country, $ho has groaned under Turkish ad%inistration, $here it has al$ays been %ost o''ressive, bore $itness that the rule of the native 8%a% only served to re'lace o''ressive govern%ent by o''ressive anarchy As for the +s%anliEs courage as a fighting %an, that has often been eGe%'lified, and never better than in the Galli'oli 'eninsula 8t is ad%itted The Euro'ean and Anatolian +s%anlis yield little one to the other in this virtueH but the 'al%, if a$arded at all, %ust be given to the levies fro% northern and central Asia "inor < < < < <

8f 7onstantino'le should be lost, the Arab(s'eaking 'arts of the e%'ire $ould in all likelihood break a$ay, carrying the #oly 7ities $ith the% @hen the constant risk of this consu%%ation, $ith the cataclys%ic nature of its conseCuences is considered, one %arvels $hy the 7o%%ittee, $hich has sho$n no %ean understanding of so%e conditions essential to +s%anli e%'ire, should have done so little hitherto to conciliate Arab susce'tibilities Neither in the constitution of the 'arlia%ent nor in the higher co%%ands of the ar%y have the Arab(s'eaking 'eo'les been given anything like their fair shareH and loudly and insistently have they 'rotested Perha's the 7o%%ittee, $hose leading %e%bers are of a %arkedly Euro'eaniDed ty'e, understands Asia less $ell than Euro'e 7ertainly its 'rogra%%e of +tto%aniDation, elaborated by %ilitary eG(attachPs, by Je$ bankers and officials fro% ,alonika, and by doctors, la$yers, and other IintellectuelsI fresh fro% Paris, $as conceived on lines $hich offered

the 'ure Asiatic very little sco'e The free and eCual +s%anlis $ere all to take their cue fro% %en of the ByDantine sort $hich the Euro'ean 'rovinces, and es'ecially the city of 7onstantino'le, breed After the revolution, nothing in Turkey struck one so %uch as the a''arition on the to' of things every$here of a ty'e of +s%anli $ho has the characteristic Cualities of the )evantine Greek &oung officers, controlling their elders, only needed a change of unifor% to 'ass in an Athenian cro$d ,'are and da''er officials, 'residing in seats of authority over >urds and Arabs, re%inded one of Greek journalists +s%anli journalists the%selves treated one to rhodo%ontades 'unctuated $ith restless gesticulation, $hich revived %e%ories of Athenian cafPs in $ar(ti%e 8t $as the ByDantine triu%'hing over the AsiaticH and the %ost Asiatic ele%ents in the e%'ire $ere the least likely to %eet $ith the a''reciation or sy%'athy of the ByDantines Are the Arab(s'eaking 'eo'les, therefore, likely to revolt, or be successful in s'litting the +tto%an E%'ire, if they doF The 'resent $riter $ould like to say, in 'arenthesis, that, in his o'inion, this consu%%ation of the e%'ire is not devoutly to be $ished The substitution of Arab ad%inistration for +s%anli $ould necessarily entail Euro'ean tutelage of the 'arts of the Arab(s'eaking area in $hich 'o$ers, like ourselves, have vital interests((,yria, for eGa%'le, southern "eso'ota%ia, and, 'robably, #ejaD The last na%ed, in 'articular, $ould involve us in so ticklish and thankless a task, that one can only be thankful for the Turkish caretaker there to(day, and loth to see hi% dis%issed An Arab revolt, ho$ever, %ight break out $hether the Tri'le Entente desired its success or not @hat chance of success $ould it haveF The 'eo'les of the Arab 'art of the +tto%an E%'ire are a congeries of differing races, creeds, sects, and social syste%s, $ith no co%%on bond eGce't language The 'hysical character of their land co%'els a good third of the% to be no%adic, 'redatory barbarians, feared by the other t$o(thirds The settled folk are divided into "osle% and 7hristian Anot to %ention a large Je$ish ele%entB, the cleavage being %ore abru't than in

$estern Turkey and the tradition and actual s'irit of %utual en%ity %ore se'arative Further, each of those %ain creed(divisions is subdivided Even 8sla% in this region includes a nu%ber of inco%'atible sects, such as the Ansariye, the "eta$ali, and the !ruses in the ,yrian %ountains, ,hiite Arabs on the Gulf coast and the Persian border, $ith 'agan >urds and &eDidis in the latter region and north "eso'ota%ia As for the 7hristians, their divisions are notorious, %ost of these being subdivided again into t$o or %ore hostile co%%unions a'iece 8t is al%ost i%'ossible to i%agine the inhabitants of ,yria concerting a co%%on 'lan or taking co%%on action The only ele%ents a%ong the% $hich have sho$n any 'olitical sense or ca'acity for 'olitical organiDation are 7hristian The "aronites of the )ebanon are %ost cons'icuous a%ong theseH but neither their nu%bers nor their traditional relations $ith their neighbours Cualify the% to for% the nucleus of a free united ,yria The EArab "ove%entE u' to the 'resent has consisted in little %ore than talk and journalese 8t has not develo'ed any considerable organiDation to %eet that stable efficient organiDation $hich the 7o%%ittee of =nion and Progress has directed throughout the +tto%an do%inions As for the rest of the e%'ire, Asia "inor $ill stand by the +s%anli cause, even if Euro'e and 7onstantino'le, and even if the #oly Places and all the Arab(s'eaking 'rovinces be lost 8ts allegiance does not de'end on either the tradition of -ou% or the cali'hate, but on essential unity $ith the +s%anli nation Asia "inor is the nation There, 're'ared eCually by ByDantine do%ination and by ,eljukian influence, the great %ass of the 'eo'le long ago identified itself insensibly and co%'letely $ith the tradition and ho'e of the +s%anlis The subseCuent occu'ation of the ByDantine ca'ital by the heirs of the ByDantine syste%, and their still later assu%'tion of cali'hial res'onsibility, $ere not needed to ce%ent the union Even a %ilitary occu'ation by -ussia or by another strong 'o$er $ould not detach Anatolia fro% the +s%anli unityH for a thing cannot be detached fro% itself But, of course, that occu'ation %ight after long years cause the unity itself to cease to be

,uch an occu'ation, ho$ever, $ould 'robably not be seriously resisted or subseCuently rebelled against by the "osle% %ajority in Asia "inor, su''osing +s%anli ar%a%ents to have been crushed The Anatolian 'o'ulation is a sober, labouring 'easantry, essentially agricultural and $edded to the soil The levies for &e%en and Euro'e, $hich have gone far to de'lete and eGhaust it of recent years, $ere co%'osed of %en $ho fought to order and $ithout i%agination, steadily and faithfully, as their fathers had fought They have no lust for $ar, no Arabian tradition of fighting for its o$n sake, and little, if any, fanaticis% Atte%'ts to ins'ire Anatolian troo's $ith religious rage in the Balkan @ar $ere failures They $ere asked to fight in too %odern a $ay under too %any Teutonic officers The result illustrated a 'ro'hecy ascribed to Ghasri "ukhtar Pasha @hen Ger%an instructors $ere first introduced into Turkey, he foretold that they $ould be the end of the +tto%an ar%y No, these Anatolians desire nothing better than to follo$ their 'lough(oGen, and live their co%%on village life, under any %aster $ho $ill let the% be Ele%ents of the 7hristian %inority, ho$ever, Ar%enian and Greek, $ould give trouble $ith their develo'ed ideas of nationality and irre'ressible tendency to EEuro'iDeE They $ould 'resent, indeed, 'roble%s of $hich at 'resent one cannot foresee the solution 8t see%s inevitable that an autono%ous Ar%enia, like an autono%ous Poland, %ust be constituted ere longH but $hereF There is no geogra'hical unit of the +tto%an area in $hich Ar%enians are the %ajority 8f they cluster %ore thickly in the vilayets of Angora, ,ivas, ErDeru%, >har'ut, and ?an, i e in eastern%ost Asia "inor, than else$here, and for% a village 'eo'le of the soil, they are consistently a %inority in any large ad%inistrative district Nu%erous, too, in the trans(Tauric vilayets of Adana and Ale''o, the seat of their %ost recent inde'endence, they are to$ns%en in the %ain, and not an essential ele%ent of the agricultural 'o'ulation Even if a considerable 'ro'ortion of the Ar%enians, no$ dis'ersed through to$ns of $estern Asia "inor and in 7onstantino'le, could be induced to concentrate in a reconstituted Ar%enia A$hich is doubtful, seeing ho$ addicted they are to general co%%erce and $hat %ay be called 'arasitic lifeB, they could

not fill out both the Greater and the )esser Ar%enias of history, in sufficient strength to overbear the +s%anli and >urdish ele%ents The $idest area $hich %ight he constituted an autono%ous Ar%enia $ith good 'ros'ect of self(sufficiency $ould be the 'resent -ussian 'rovince, $here the head(Cuarters of the national religion lie, $ith the addition of the 'rovinces of ErDeru%, ?an, and >har'ut But, if -ussia had brought herself to %ake a self(denying ordinance, she $ould have to 'olice her ne$ Ar%enia very strongly for so%e yearsH for an acute >urdish 'roble% $ould confront it, and no concentration of nationals could be looked for fro% the Ar%enia 8rredenta of !iarbekr, =rfa, Ale''o, Aintab, "arash, Adana, >aisariyeh, ,ivas, Angora, and TrebiDond Anot to %ention farther and %ore foreign to$nsB, until 'ublic security $as assured in $hat for generations has been a cock'it The >urd is, of course, an 8ndo(Euro'ean as %uch as the Ar%enian, and rarely a true "osle%H but it $ould be a very long ti%e indeed before these facts reconciled hi% to the do%ination of the race $hich he has 'lundered for three centuries "ost of the +s%anlis of eastern Asia "inor are descendants of converted Ar%eniansH but their assi%ilation $ould be slo$ and doubtful 8sla%, %ore ra'idly and co%'letely than any other creed, eGtinguishes racial sy%'athies and grou's its adherents ane$ The Anatolian Greeks are less nu%erous but not less difficult to 'rovide for The scattered grou's of the% on the 'lateau((in 7a''adocia, Pontus, the >onia district((and on the east$ard coast(lands $ould offer no serious difficulty to a lord of the interior But those in the $estern river(basins fro% 8sbarta to the "ar%ora, and those on the $estern and north($estern littorals, are of a %ore advanced and cohesive 'olitical character, i%bued $ith nationalis%, inti%ate $ith their inde'endent nationals, and actively interested in #ellenic national 'olitics @hat ha''ens at Athens has long concerned the% %ore than $hat ha''ens at 7onstantino'leH and $ith Greece occu'ying the islands in the daily vie$ of %any of the%, they are co%ing to regard the%selves %ore and %ore every day as citiDens of Graecia 8rredenta @hat is to be done $ith theseF @hat, in

'articular, $ith ,%yrna, the second city of the +tto%an E%'ire and the first of E"agna GraeciaEF 8ts three and a half hundred thousand souls include the largest Greek urban 'o'ulation resident in any one city ,hall it be united to GreeceF Greece herself %ight $ell hesitate 8t $ould 'rove a very irkso%e 'ossession, involving her in all sorts of continental difficulties and risks There is no good frontier inland for such an IenclaveI 8t could hardly be held $ithout the rest of $estern%ost Asia, fro% 7aria to the !ardanelles, and in this region the great %ajority of the 'o'ulation is "osle% of old stocks, devotedly attached both to their faith and to the +s%anli tradition The 'resent $riter, ho$ever, is not a%ong the 'ro'hets #e has but tried to set forth $hat %ay delay and $hat %ay 'reci'itate the colla'se of an e%'ire, $hose doo% has been long foreseen, often 'lanned, invariably 'ost'onedH and, further, to indicate so%e difficulties $hich, being bound to confront heirs of the +s%anlis, $ill be better %et the better they are understood before the final agony((8f this is, indeed, to be_

8N!EO

Abbasid E%'ire, Abdul ADiD, ,ultan, Abdul #a%id, ,ultan, Abdul "ejid, ,ultan, Achaia, Ach%et 888* IseeI Ah%ed 888 Adalia, Adana, Aden, Adha%andios >orZis, Adriano'le,

ca'tured by the Turks A4J/4B, ca'tured by ,erbians and Bulgarians A4;4JB, first Euro'ean seat of the +s%anlis, foundation of, Peace and Treaty of A49.;B, restored to Turkey A4;4JB, -ussians before A4959B, siege of A4;4.(4JB, Adriatic, the, Aegean, the, islands of, trade of, Aehrenthal, Baron and 7ount, Afiu% >ara #issar, Agra% AKagrebB, ca'ital of 7roatia, Agra% high treason trial, the, Agra'ha, clans%en of, Ahiolu AAnchialoB, Ah%ed 8, ,ultan, Ah%ed 888, ,ultan, Ah%ed ibn Tulun, Aidin, Aintab, Aigina, Ainos, I,ee alsoI Enos Aivali, I,ee alsoI >ydhonies Akarnania, Aker%an, 7onvention of A49./B, Alaeddin, ,ultan, Ala ,hehr APhiladel'hiaB, Albania, and the "acedonian Cuestion, conCuest of, by the Turks, during the ,lav i%%igration,

in classical ti%es, %ade inde'endent, revolts against &oung Turks, under the Turks, Albanian language, the, Albanians, the, %igrations of, Ale''o, AleGander the Great, AleGander 8, >ing of ,erbia A499;(4;0JB, AleGander 8, E%'eror of -ussia, AleGander 88, E%'eror of -ussia, AleGander 888, E%'eror of -ussia, AleGander, 7ro$n Prince of ,erbia, AleGander of Battenberg, Prince of Bulgaria A495;(9:B, AleGander >aragjorgjevi2Ec6, Prince of ,erbia A491J(:9B, AleGandria, AleGis 7o%nenus, the E%'eror, Ali Pasha, A%belakia, A%erica, effect of e%igration fro% south(eastern Euro'e to, Anatolia, the Turks and, character of the 'o'ulation, feudal fa%ilies, AnatolikLn, ca'tured by the Turks A49.:B, Andrassy, 7ount, Angora, battle of A410.B, Arabia, Turkish 'restige in, and the Turks, %ove%ent of, in the direction of revolt, Arabs and Anatolia, and Bulgars,

and 8sla%, Arcadio'olis* IseeI )ule(Burgas Argos, Arian controversy, the, Ar%atoli, or 7hristian %ilitia, Ar%enians, the, character of the, %assacres of A49;1B, Arnauts* IseeI Albanians Arta, Gulf of, 'lain of, Asen dynasty, the, Asia "inor, Turks in, As'arukh ABulgar 'rinceB, As'ro'ota%o, the, Asty'aliW, Athens, !uchy of, =niversity of, siege of A49.4(.B, A49.5B, Athos, "ount, Attila, AusterlitD, battle of A490:B, Austria(#ungary and the Adriatic, and the "acedonian Cuestion, and ,erbia, relations bet$een, and the ,erbs, and the Treaty of Berlin, and Turkey, relations bet$een, $ars bet$een, anneGation of Bosnia and #ercegovina by, occu'ation of Bosnia and #ercegovina by, relations $ith the Balkan )eague,

relations $ith -u%ania, -u%an and ,outh ,lavonic 'o'ulations in, Austrian 'olitics in -u%ania, Austrians and ,erbs, relations bet$een, and Turks, Avars, the* their invasion of the Balkan 'eninsula $ith the ,lavs, their $ar $ith the Bulgars, Avlona, bay of, Avshar tribe, EAyon +rosE, ADerbaijan,

Ba2Bc6ka, Bagdad, EBalance of Po$erE, the, Balkan )eague, the, for%ation of the, dissolution of the, Balkan 'eninsula, the, anneGation of, by "oha%%ed 88, control of, econo%ic unity of, Ger%an 'olicy in, nationalis% in, ,lav inhabitants of, Turkish 'o$er in, under -o%an rule, Balkan ,tates, relations bet$een the, Dollverein, Balkan $ar, the first A4;4.(4JB, the second AJune 4;4JB, Banat, the, Baranya,

Basil 8, the E%'eror, Basil 88, the E%'eror, E,layer of the BulgarsE, Bassarab, dynasty of, BayeDid 8, ,ultan, BayeDid 88, ,ultan, Beaconsfield, Earl of, Beirut, Belgrade, ca'ital of ,erbia, ca'tured by the ,erbs A4905B, ca'tured by the Turks A4:.4B, A494JB, its 7eltic na%e, Treaty of A45J;B, Belisarius, Berchtold, 7ount, Berga%a, Berlin, 7ongress of A4959B, Treaty of A4959B, Bessarabia, Bulgars in, .:, lostA494.B, regained A49:/B, lost again A4959B, i%'ortance $ith regard to 'resent situation, Bieberstein, !uron "arschall von, Bis%arck, Bitolj* IseeI "onastir Black 7astle of Afiun, Black ,ea, -ussian eGclusion fro%, Bogo%il heresy, the, Boja, lord of >ashgar,

Boris, Bulgar 'rince A9:.(99B, Boris, 7ro$n Prince of Bulgaria, Bosnia, anneGation of, inde'endence of, and conCuest of, by the Turks, in relation to the other ,erb territories, its ,lavonic 'o'ulation, relations of, $ith #ungary, revolts in, against Turkey, under Austro(#ungarian rule, under Turkish rule, Bos'horus, the, BotDaris, "arko, Brankovi2Ec6, George, Brankovi2Ec6, ?uk, Bratianu, 8oan AfatherB, AsonB, Bregalnica, battle of the A4;4JB, Brusa, Bucarest, 7o%%ittee of, Peace 7onference A4;4JB, Treaty of A494.B, A4;4JB, Bucovina, acCuisition by Austria, -u%anians in, Buda, Buda'est, in relation to the ,erbo(7roats, Budua, Bulgaria, declaration of inde'endence by, and assu%'tion of title Tsar by its ruler, conflicting interests $ith Greece, early $ars bet$een, and the Greeks, geogra'hical 'osition of, gro$th of, intervention on the side of the 7entral Po$ers in the Euro'ean @ar,

its division into eastern and $estern, eGtent of $estern, in the t$o Balkan $ars A4;4.(4JB, its early relations $ith -o%e, its relations $ith -ussia, obtains recognition as a nationality in the +tto%an E%'ire, of ,lav s'eech and culture, 'lace of, in the Balkan 'eninsula, Turkish atrocities in, Bulgaria and -u%ania, Bulgaria and ,erbia, contrasted, the agree%ent bet$een, $ars bet$een A499:, 4;4JB, Bulgaria and Turkey, relations bet$een, Bulgarian bisho'rics in "acedonia, 7hurch, early vicissitudes of the, clai%s and 'ro'aganda in "acedonia, EGarchist 7hurch, the, literature, %onarchy, origins of the, Bulgarians, general distribution of, their attitude to the ,lavs and the Ger%ans, Bulgarians and ,erbians, contrast bet$een, Bulgars, the, their origin, their advance $est$ards and then south$ards into the Balkan 'eninsula, their absor'tion by the ,lavs, north of the !anube, adherents of the +rthodoG 7hurch, Burke, Ed%und, Byron, )ord, ByDantine 7hristianity, co%%erce, di'lo%acy, its attitude to$ards the ,lav and other invaders,

E%'ire, heritage and eG'ansion of, by the Turks, ByDantiu%, ascendancy of, over Bulgaria, decline of, Greek colony of, -o%an ad%inistrative centre,

7airo, 7ali'hate, the, 7a%'o For%io, Treaty of A45;5B, 7andia, siege of, 7anea, 7antucuDene, John, 7a'e "alea, 7a''adocia, 7aria, 7arinthia, 7arlo$itD, Treaty of A4/;;B, 7arniola, 7arol, Prince of -u%ania, his accession, joins -ussia against Turkey, intention to abdicate, 'roclai%ed king, >ing, and the Balkans, 'ersonal 'oints, 7ar', P P , 7ar'athian %ountains, the, 7atargiu, )ascar, 7atherine, E%'ress, 7attaro, Bocche di, 7aucasia,

7efalonia, 7elts, the, in the Balkan 'eninsula, 7erigo, 7etina river A!al%atiaB, 7etinje, 7haeronea, 7harle%agne, crushes the Avars, 7harles ?8, E%'eror of Austria, 7harles, Prince and >ing of -u%ania* IseeI 7arol 2B76aslav, revolts against Bulgars, 7hataldja, lines of, 7hes%e, destruction of Turkish fleet in, 7hios* IseeI >hios 7hristianity, in the Balkan 'eninsula in classical ti%es, introduced into Bulgaria, introduced a%ongst the ,erbs, 7hristians, their treat%ent by the Turks, 7hurch, division of the, affects the ,erbs and 7roats, 7hurch, Generalissi%o ,ir -ichard, 7hurches, rivalry of the eastern and $estern, 7ilicia, 7laudius, the E%'eror, 7oalition, ,erbo(7roat or 7roato(,erb, the, 7ochrane, Grand Ad%iral, 7ogalniceanu, " , 7o%nenus* IseeI AleGis IandI "anuel 7oncert of Euro'e, 7onstantine the Great, 7onstantine, >ing of Greece, 7onstantine, ruler of Bulgaria, 7onstantino'le, and the ,erbian 7hurch, ascendancy of, over Bulgaria,

cathedral of Aya ,o'hia, co%%ercial interests of, decline of, defences of, ecclesiastical influence of, fall of A4.01B, A41:JB, its 'osition at the beginning of the barbarian invasions, %ade an i%'erial city, Patriarchate at, EPhanariE, the, s'iritual rivalry of, $ith -o%e, 7onstitution, -u%anian, 7orfY, 7orinth* IseeI >orinth 7rete* IseeI >rete 7ri%ea, abandoned to -ussia, 7ri%ean @ar, the, 7roatia, absorbed by #ungary, 'osition of, in relation to the ,erb territories, 7roato(,erb unity, %ove%ent in favour of, 7roats, 7rotians, general distribution of, their origin, 7roats and ,erbs, difference bet$een, 7rusaders, the, in the Balkan 'eninsula, 7rusadesH the firstH the fourth, 7uDa, Prince of -u%ania, 7yclades, the, 7y'rus, in )atin hands, in +tto%an hands, under the British,

7yrenaica, 7yril, ,t , 7yrillic al'habet, the,

!acia, subjection to, and abandon%ent by, the -o%ans, !acians, settle%ent in 7ar'athian regions, $ars $ith -o%e, !al%atia, acCuired by Austria(#ungary, and ?enice, in classical ti%es, in relation to other ,erb territories, its ,lavonic 'o'ulation, relations of, $ith #ungary, !aniel, Prince(Bisho' of "ontenegro, !anilo, Prince of "ontenegro, !anube, the, as frontier of -o%an E%'ire, !anube IAcontinuedBI* Bulgars cross the, ,lavs cross the, !anubian 'rinci'alities, -ussian 'rotectorate in, !ardanelles, the, !ecius, the E%'eror, !edeagach, !eliyannis, !e%otika, !hi%itDZna, !iocletian, the E%'eror, his redistribution of the i%'erial 'rovinces, !nie'er, the, !niester, the,

!obrudja, acCuisition by -u%ania, Bulgarian as'irations in regard to, !raga, Uueen(7onsort of ,erbia, !ra%ali, !rave, the, !rina, the, !ubrovnik* IseeI -agusa !ulcigno A=lcinjB, !uraDDo, !urostoru%* IseeI ,ilistria !ushan* IseeI ,te'hen !u2Bs6an

Eastern 7hurch, the, Eastern ,lavsH IseeI -ussians Edre%id, Egy't, Egy'tian eG'edition A49.J(1B, Enos("idia line, the, Enver Bey, E'irus, 'o$er of #ellenis% in, Ertogrul, +s%anli chief, ErDeru%, Eugen, Prince, of ,avoy, Eu'hrates, the, EuGine trade, EvyPnios ?oulgZris, EGarchist 7hurch, the,

Fabvier, Ferdinand, Prince and >ing of Bulgaria A499/(B,

his relations $ith foreign 'o$ers, Ferdinand, >ing of -u%ania, Fili'escu, Nicholas, Fiu%e A-jekaB, France, and the "acedonian Cuestion, and the struggle for Greek inde'endence, and the struggle for the "editerranean, and the Turks, relations $ith -u%ania, French, the, in the Balkan 'eninsula, in !al%atia, in "orocco, influence in -u%ania, French -evolution and the rights of nationalities, Friedjung, !r , and the accusation against ,erbia,

GalaGidhi, Galicia, Galli'oli, Genoese, George, 7ro$n Prince of ,erbia, George, >ing of Greece, assassination of, George, Prince of Greece, Ger%an di'lo%acy at 7onstantino'le, influence in the Near East, influence in -u%ania, influence in Turkey, Ger%an E%'ire, restlessness of,

Ger%an hierarchy, early struggles of, against ,lavonic liturgy, Ger%anic 'eo'les, south$ard %ove%ent of, Ger%an]s, %etro'olitan bisho' of Patrae, Ger%any and the Turkish frontier, efforts to reach the Adriatic, its eG'ansion east$ard, and the "acedonian Cuestion, and -ussia, relations bet$een, and the Treaty of Berlin, relations $ith -u%ania, revolutions 'ro%oted by, Gjorgjevi2Ec6, !r ? , Golden #orn, Golucho$ski, 7ount, GoraDd, Gorchakov, Prince, Goths, invasion of the, Great Britain and the Balkan ,tates, relations bet$een, and Egy't, and -u%ania, and ,yria, and the 8onian 8slands, and the "acedonian Cuestion, and the struggle for Greek inde'endence, and the struggle for the "editerranean, and the Treaty of Berlin, loan to Greece, occu'ation of 7y'rus, Greece, anarchy in, ancient, and "acedonia, and -ussia, and ,erbia, and the adjacent islands,

and the 7hristian religion, and the first Balkan $ar, and the 8onian 8slands, and the +rthodoG 7hurch, and the ,lav %igration, brigandage in, conflict of interests $ith Bulgaria, conCuest of, by the Turks, deli%itation of the frontier A49.;B, dis'ute $ith 8taly as to 'ossession of E'irus, effect of the French -evolution on, invasion of, by Goths, land(taG, loans to, local liberties, E"ilitary )eagueE of 4;0;, %inerals of, %onarchy established, and its results, ENational Asse%blyE, o''ressive relations $ith Turkey, and efforts for liberation, revolutions in 491J and 49/. territorial contact $ith Turkey Etribute(childrenE for Turkish ar%y fro% $ar $ith Turkey A49.9BH A49;5BH A4;4.B Greek agriculture anti(Greek %ove%ent in -u%ania ar%y art and architecture ascendancy in Bulgaria IbourgeoisieI clai%s and 'ro'aganda in "acedonia coalition $ith the ,eljuks co%%erce and econo%ic 'rogress dialects of Ancient Greece

education influence in the Balkan 'eninsula influence in Bulgaria influence in -u%ania language in -u%anian 7hurch literature %onastic culture nationalis% national religion navy officials tinder the Turks Patriarch 'ublic finance 'ublic s'irit 'ublic $orks rail$ays renaissance shi''ing unity Greek E%'ire, decline of Greek hierarchy, in Bulgaria, the Greeks, Anatolian ByDantine general distribution of +tto%an their attitude $ith regard to the barbarian invasions Gregorios, Greek Patriarch at 7onstantino'le Gulkhaneh

#adrian, the E%'eror #aliac%on ?alley #alys river #asa

#atti ,herif #ejaD #ellenic culture and civiliDation #ellenic -e'ublic #elles'ont, the #ercegovina anneGation of, by Austria(#ungary its ,lavonic 'o'ulation origin and inde'endence of, and conCuest of, by the Turks revolts in, against Turkey under Austro(#ungarian rule under Turkish rule #il%i Pasha #ungarians and the Turks invade the Balkan 'eninsula #ungary, and the Balkan 'eninsula, and the ,erbo(7roats, and the ,erbs, and Turkey, $ars bet$een, conCuest of, by ,ulei%an 8, gro$th of, loss of, by the Turks, ,lavs in, #uns, arrival of the, in Euro'e, their origin, settled in #ungary, #unyadi, John, #ydhra and the #ydhriots, #y'silantis, Prince AleGander, Prince !e%etrius,

8bar, the, 8brahi% Pasha, 8da, "ount, 8gnatiyev, 7ount, 8llyria, 7eltic invasion of, 'refecture of, -o%an conCuest of, 8llyrians, the, 8%bros, 8onescu, Take, 8onian islands, 'resented to Greece by Great Britain, 8'ek* IseeI Pe2Ec6 8ran, 8skanderoun, Gulf of, 8talian influence in the Balkan 'eninsula, trading cities, 8taly, and the "acedonian Cuestion, and the 'ossession of E'irus, diocese of, 'refecture of, $ar $ith Turkey A4;44(4.B, 8van 888, Tsar of -ussia, 8van 8?, Tsar of -ussia,

Jehad, or #oly @ar, Jenghis >han, Jerusale%, Je$s, at 7onstantino'le, in -u%ania, in Turkey, JeDDar the Butcher, Jidda,

John AleGander, ruler of Bulgaria, John Asen 8, Bulgar Tsar A449/(;/B, John Asen 88, Bulgar Tsar A4.49(14B, John TDi%isces, the E%'eror, John the Terrible, Prince of "oldavia, Jose'h 88, E%'eror of Austria, Judah, Jugo(,lavAiaB, Justin 8, the E%'eror, Justinian 8, the E%'eror,

>aisariyeh, >ala%ata, >aloian, Bulgar Tsar A44;/(4.05B, >a%a, Bulgars on the, >anaris, 7onstantine, >a'odistrias, John, >ara(George APetrovi2Ec6B, >aragjorgjevi2Ec6 Asc fa%ily of >ara(GeorgeB dynasty, the, >araiskakis, >ara%ania, >arasi, >arlovci A7arlo$itD, >arlo$itDB, >ar'athos, >asosH destruction of A49.1B, >avala, >aDan, >halkidhiki, >har'ut, siege of A49..B, >horasan, >hurshid Pasha,

>iev, >ilkish, Greek victory at, >irk(>ilissP, battle of, >isseleff, 7ount, >ladovo, >nights #os'itallers of ,t John, >ochana, >olettis, >olokotrLnis, Theodore, >ondouriottis, >onia, battle of, >o'ais basin, draining of, >orinth, surrender of A49..B, >orinthian Gulf, >os, >osovo, vilayet of, >osovo Polje, battle of, >raljevi2Ec6, "arko* IseeI "arko > >rete, conCuest of, by Turks, intervention of the 'o$ers and constituted an autono%ous state, s'eech of, >ru% ABulgar 'rinceB, >ru2Bs6evac, >ubrat ABulgar 'rinceB, >u%anovo, battle of A4;4.B, >u%ans, the Tartar, >urdistan, >urds, the, >utchuk >ainardji, Treaty of, >ydhonies, destruction of,

)aibach A)jubljanaB, )ansdo$ne, "arCuess of, )Zrissa, )atin E%'ire at 7onstantino'le, the, influence in the Balkan 'eninsula, )ausanne, Treaty of A4;4.B, )aDar A,erbian PrinceB, E)eague of FriendsE, )ei'sic, battle of A494JB, )e%nos, )eo, the E%'eror, )eo'old 88, E%'eror of Austria, )e'anto, battle of A4:54B, )erna, )eskovac, )evant, the, co%%erce of, )ibyan $ar A4;44(4.B, )o%bards, the, )ondon, 7onference of A4;4.(4JB, Treaty of A4;4JB, )ouis, conCuers the ,erbs, )ule(Burgas, battle of A4;4.B,

"acedonia, anarchy in, defeat of the Turks by the ,erbians in, establish%ent of Turks in, general characteristics of, in classical ti%es, inhabitants of, revolt in,

'lace(na%es in, "acedonian Cuestion, the, ,lavs, the, "agnesia, "agyars, the, their irru'tion into Euro'e, gro$ing 'o$er and a%bitions of the, influence u'on the -u%anians, "ah%ud 8, ,ultan, "ah%ud 88, ,ultan, "aina, "aiorescu, Titu "alasgerd, battle of, "alta, siege of, "a%elukes, Egy'tian, "anichaean heresy, the, "anuel 7o%nenus, the E%'eror, "arash, "arcus Aurelius, the E%'eror, "arghilo%an, AleGander, "aria Theresa, E%'ress of Austria, "aritsa, the, battle of, "arko >raljevi2Ec6, "ar%ora, ,ea of, "avrokordatos, AleGander, "avro%ichalis clan, "avro%ichalis, Petros, "editerranean, the, "egas'Plaion, "ehe%et Ali* IseeI "oha%%ed Ali "elek ,hah, of Persia, "endere A"aiandrosB, "esolonghi,

"eso'ota%ia, "essenia, "esta, "etPora, "ethodius, ,t , "ichael +brenovi2Ec6 888, Prince of ,erbia A4910(., 49/0(9B, "ichael 888, the E%'eror, "ichael the Brave, Prince of @allachia, "idhat Pasha and re'resentative institutions in Turkey, "edia, "ilan +brenovi2Ec6 88, Prince of ,erbia A49J;B, "ilan +brenovi2Ec6 8?, Prince and >ing of ,erbia A49/9(9;B, "ile2Bs6evo, %onastery of, "ilica, Princess, "ilitary colonies, Austro(#ungarian, of ,erbs against Turkey, "ilo2Bs6 +brenovi2Ec6 8, Prince of ,erbia A4945(J;, 49:9(/0B, "ilovanovi2Ec6, !r , "ircea the +ld, Prince of @allachia, "isivria A"ese%briaB, "itylini, "odhon, "ohacs, battle of, "oha%%ed 88, ,ultan, "oha%%ed 8?, ,ultan, "oha%%ed ?, ,ultan, "oha%%ed Ali Pasha, of Egy't, "oha%%edan influence in the Balkan 'eninsula, "oha%%edan ,erbs, of Bosnia and #ercegovina, the, "oldavia, foundation of, "onastir ABitolj, in ,erbianB, battle of A4;4.B, "ontenegro, achieves its inde'endence,

and the Balkan )eague, autono%ous, beco%es a kingdo%, conCuered by the Turks, during the Na'oleonic $ars, in the Balkan $ar A4;4.(4JB, 'osition of, a%ongst the other ,erb territories, relations $ith -ussia, revolt in, under Turkish rule, $ar $ith Turkey, "ontesCuieu, "orava, the, "oravia, its conversion to 7hristianity, "orea* IseeI Pelo'onnesos "orocco crisis, the, "osle%s, "ukhtar Pasha, "untenia A@allachiaB, foundation of, "urad 8, ,ultan, %urder of, "urad 88, ,ultan, "urad 888, ,ultan, "urad ?, ,ultan, "urDsteg 'rogra%%e of refor%s, the, "usta'ha 88, ,ultan, "usta'ha 888, ,ultan,

Naissus* IseeI Nish Na'oleon 8, Na'oleon 888, and -u%ania, Natalie, Uueen(7onsort of ,erbia, Nationalis%, Nau'lia,

fall of A49..B, Nau'lia Bay, Navarino, battle of A49.5B, Negre'ont, Ne%anja dynasty, the, Nicaea, Nicholas 8, Prince and >ing of "ontenegro A49/0(B, Nicholas 8, E%'eror of -ussia, Nicholas 88, E%'eror of -ussia, Nico%edia, NikariW, .J0 Niki'hLros Phokas, the E%'eror, Niko'olis, battle of, Nik2Bs6i2Ec6, Nilufer, Nish ANaissus, Ni2Bs6B, 7eltic origin, Goths defeated at, Bulgarians %arch on, geogra'hical 'osition of, Nish(,alonika rail$ay, NiDib, Nor%ans, the, Novae* IseeI ,vishtov Novi PaDar, ,andjak of, occu'ied by Austria(#ungary, evacuated by Austria(#ungary, occu'ied by ,erbia and "ontenegro,

+bili2Ec6, "ilo2Bs6, +brenovi2Ec6 dynasty, the, +dessa,

7o%%ittee of, +dhyssMus, +ecu%enical Patriarch, the, +khrida, Archbisho'ric and Patriarchate of, )ake of, +ld ,erbia Anorthern "acedoniaB, +rient, 'refecture of the, +rkhan, +rthodoG 7hurch* IseeI Eastern 7hurch +s%an A+th%anB, ,ultan, +s%anli* IseeI Turkey IandI Turks +strogoths, the, +tranto, straits of, +tto, Prince, of Bavaria, >ing of Greece, driven into eGile, +tto%an E%'ire* IseeI Turkey +uchy, Treaty of* IseeI )ausanne, Treaty of +Gus,

Palaiologos, -o%aic dynasty of, Pannonia, Bulgars in, Pan(,erb %ove%ent, the Pan(,lavis%, Paris, 7ongress of A49:/B, 7onvention A49:9B, Treaty of A49:/B, Pa2Bs6a, ", Passaro$itD, Treaty of, Pasvanoghlu, Pat%os, Patras,

Gulf of, Paul, E%'eror of -ussia, Paulicians, the, Pe2Ec6 A8'ek, in TurkishB, 'atriarchate of, Pechenegs, the Tartar, Petraeus, EPelo'onnesian ,enateE, Pelo'onnesos A"oreaB, Pera, Persia and the Turks, at $ar $ith 7onstantino'le, Grand ,eljuk of, Persian Gulf, Peter the Great, ETesta%entE of, Peter, Bulgar Tsar A;.5(/;B Peter 8, >ing of ,erbia A4;0JB, Peter 8, Prince(Bisho' of "ontenegro, Petrovi2Ec6(Njego2Bs6, dynasty of, Petta, battle of, Phanariote Greeks, the, I,eeI Greek officials under the Turks, IandI Turkey, Phanariot rPgi%e EPhilhellenesE, EPhilik[ #etairiaE, Phili', 7ount of Flanders, Phili' of "acedonia, Phili''o'olis, Bogo%il centre, foundation of, revolts against Turks, Pindus, Pirot, Place(na%es, the distribution of classical, indigenous, and ,lavonic, in the Balkan 'eninsula, Plevna, siege of,

Podgorica, Poland, Pontus, Po'es, attitude of the, to$ards the ,lavonic liturgy, Poros, Porto )agos, Po2BD6arevac, Preslav, Bulgarian ca'ital, Pres'a, Pressburg, Treaty of A490:B, Prile', battle of A4;4.B, EPri%atesE, the, PriDren, Prussia and Austria, $ar bet$een A49//B, PsarW,

-ado$itD, Baron von, -agusa A!ubrovnik, in ,erbianB, its relations $ith the ,erbian state, 'ros'erity of, under Turkish rule, decline of, -ail$ays in the Balkan 'eninsula, -ashid Pasha, -a2Bs6ka, centre of ,erb state, -Mgle%ent +rganiCue, -eligious divisions in the Balkan 'eninsula, -esna, in "acedonia, -hodes, siege of, -isti2Ec6, " , -odosto, -o%aic architecture, govern%ent,

language, E-o%aioiE, -o%an 7atholicis% in the Balkan 'eninsula, -o%an E%'ire, -o%an la$, -o%e, its conCuest of the Balkan 'eninsula, relations of, $ith Bulgaria, relations of, $ith ,erbia, s'iritual rivalry of, $ith 7onstantino'le, -osetti, 7 A , -ovine, battle of, -u%ania and the Balkan 'eninsula, and the second Balkan $arA4;4JB, and Bulgaria, and the -usso(Turkish $ar A4955B, anti(Greek %ove%ent in, anti(-ussian revolution in, co%%erce of, convention $ith -ussia A4955B, dynastic Cuestion in, education in, influences at $ork in, %ilitary situation, nationalist activity in, neutrality of, origins of, PatriarchEs authority in, 'easantry of, Phanariotes in, 'olitical 'arties in, 'olitics of, internal, relations $ith -ussia, religion and 7hurch in, -o%an civiliDation, influence in,

rural Cuestion in, -ussian influence inH 'olitics in, struggle for inde'endence, territorial gains, territorial losses, Turkish rule in, =''er class in AcneaDi, boyardsB, origins of, social evolution of, econo%ic and 'olitical su're%acy, -u%anian ar%y, clai%s in "acedonia, 'rinci'alities, foundation of, union of, revolt A49..B, -u%anians, early evidences of, in Bessarabia, in Bucovina, in #ungary, in "acedonia, -u%elia, Eastern, -ussia and Bulgaria, and Greece, and "ontenegro, and -u%ania, and ,erbia, and Turkey, and the "acedonian Cuestion, and the struggle for Greek inde'endence, Bulgars in, co%%ercial treaty $ith Turkey A459JB, convention $ith -u%ania A4955B, conversion to 7hristianity, occu'ation of >ars,

re(organiDation under Peter the Great, $ars $ith Turkey A45/;(91B, A4595B, A4905B, A49.9B, A4955(9B, A4;41(4:B, -ussian di'lo%acy at 7onstantino'le, influence in Bulgaria, invasion of Balkan 'eninsula, relations $ith the Balkan 7hristians, relations $ith the Balkan )eague, -ussians, the, co%'arison of, $ith the ,outhern ,lavs, IseeI ,lavs, the Eastern,

2B,6abac A,habatDB, ,alisbury, )ord, ,alonika, ,alonika(Nish rail$ay, the, ,a%os, ,a%othraki, ,a%uel, Tsar of $estern Bulgaria A;55(4041B, ,an ,tefano, Treaty of A4959B, ,aracens, the, ,arajevo, ca'ital of Bosnia, ,ava, ,t , ,ave, the, ,cutari Adi AlbaniaB, ,kodra, ,eli% 8, ,ultan, ,eli% 888, ,ultan, ,eljuks, the, ,e%endria* IseeI ,%ederevo

,e%ites, the, ,erb %igrations, national life, centres of, 'olitical centres, race, ho%e of the, territories, divisions of the, ,erbia and Austria(#ungary, relations bet$een, and Bulgaria, contrasted, the agree%ent bet$een, and "acedonia, and -ussia, relations bet$een, and the anneGation of Bosnia and #ercegovina, and the Balkan )eague, and Turkey, dissensions in, geogra'hy of, PatriarchEs authority in, the barrier to Ger%an eG'ansion east$ards, Turkish conCuest of, $ars $ith Turkey A495:(5B, ,erbian 7hurch, the, clai%s and 'ro'aganda in "acedonia, E%'ire, its eGtent under ,te'hen !u2Bs6an, literature, nation, centre of gravity of, 'rinci'ality, its eGtent in 49J0, ,erbo(Bulgarian $ar A499:B, A4;4JB, ,erbo(7roat nationality, for%ation of the, ,erbo(7roat unity, %ove%ent in favour of, ,erbo(7roats, general distribution of, ,erbs, defeat Bulgars and Greeks, distribution of the, in the Balkan 'eninsula, general distribution of the,

north of the !anube, outside the boundaries of the ,erb state, religious 'ersecution of, revolt against Bulgaria, revolt against the "agyars, revolts against Turkey, their attitude to$ards the Ger%ans, ,erbs and 7roats, difference bet$een, ,habatD* IseeI 2B,6abac ,hi'ka Pass, ,hish%an, revolts against Bulgaria, ,icily, ,ilistria, ,i%eon the Great, Bulgar Tsar A9;J(;.5B, ,ingidunu%* IseeI Belgrade ,itvatorok, Treaty of, ,ivas, ,kanderbey, ,kodra* IseeI ,cutari ,ko'lje ATskRb, in TurkishB, ,lav influence in -u%ania, ,lavonia, absorbed by #ungary, ,lavonic i%%igration, the strea%s of, in the Balkan 'eninsula, languages, the, use of, in -u%anian 7hurch, liturgy, the, southern, nationalities, ,lavs, %ariti%e, %ethod of their %igration south$ards into the Balkan 'eninsula %igration, in the seventh century, their lack of cohesion, their attacks on ,alonika and 7onstantino'le $ith the Avars, their original ho%e, their settle%ent south of the !anube, the Balkan, their attitude to$ards the 7hurch, under Turkish rule,

the Eastern A-ussiansB, the ,outhern, general distribution of, the @estern, ,livnitsa, battle of A499:B, ,lovenes, the, ,%ederevo A,e%endriaB, ,%yrna, ,ofia, ca'tured by the Bulgars fro% the Greeks, ca'tured by the Turks, ,oudha Bay, ,outhern ,lav nationalities, the, ,'ain, Je$s eG'elled fro%, ,'alajkovi2Ec6, !r , ,'etDa, ,'orades, the, ,re%* IseeI ,yr%ia ,ta%bul, ,ultanate of, ,ta%bulov, ,te'hen !ragutin, ,te'hen !u2Bs6an, >ing of ,erbiaA4JJ4(1:B, Tsar of ,erbs, Bulgars, and Greeks A4J1:(::B, ,te'hen A)aDarevi2Ec6B, ,erbian Prince, ,te'hen Ne%anja, Iveliki 2BD6u'anI, ,te'hen Ne%anji2Ec6, >ing of ,erbia A44;/(4..JB, the First(7ro$ned, ,te'hen -adoslav, >ing of ,erbia A4..J(JJB, ,te'hen =ro2Bs6 8, >ing of ,erbia A4.1.(5/B, ,te'hen =ro2Bs6 88 A"ilutinB, >ing of ,erbia A4.9.(4J.4B, ,te'hen =ro2Bs6 888 A!e2Ec6anskiB, >ing of ,erbia A4J.4(J4B, ,te'hen ?ladislav, >ing of ,erbia A4.JJ(1.B, ,te'hen the Great, Prince of "oldavia, ,tru%a, the, ,ulei%an 8, ,ultan Athe "agnificentB, ,uli, clans%en of, 2B,6u%adija,

,vetoslav, ruler of Bulgaria, ,vishtov, ,vyatoslav, Prince of >iev, ,yria, ,yrian Cuestion, the, ,yr%ia,

TabriD, TanDi%at, the, Tarabo2Bs6, "ount, Tarsus, Tartar invasion, the, Tartars of the Golden #orde, Tenedos, Teutons, the, Thasos, Theodore )ascaris, the E%'eror, Theodoric, Theodosius, the E%'eror, Theo'hilus of 7onstantino'le, Thessaly, Thrace, Thu(>iu, 'eo'le of, Tilsit, 'eace of A4905B, Ti%ok, the, Ti%ur, Tirnovo, centre and ca'ital of second Bulgarian e%'ire, Trajan, the E%'eror, in the Balkan 'eninsula, his conCuest of !acia, Transylvania, TrebiDond, Trieste, TrikPri, destruction of,

Trikou'is, Greek states%an, Tri'oli, Tri'olitDa, Tunisia, Turco%ans, the, Turkestan, Turkey* ad%inistrative syste%s, and the Ar%enian %assacres A49;1B, and the Balkans, and Bulgaria, and the Bulgarian atrocities, and Greece, and the islands of southeastern Euro'e, and -u%ania, and -ussia, and ,erbia, and the struggle for Greek inde'endence, and the suDerainty of >rete, 7hristians in, 'osition of, codification of the civil la$, co%%ercial treaties, 7o%%ittee of =nion and Progress, conCuests in Euro'e, in Asia, of the Balkan 'eninsula, decline and losses of territory in Euro'e and Asia, E!ere BeysE, !rago%an, office of, 491, 49:, eG'ansion* of the +s%anli kingdo%, of the ByDantine E%'ire, eGtent of the e%'ire in the siGteenth and seventeenth centuries, territorial eG'ansion in Asia, feudal aristocracy of, financial e%barrass%ents and 'ublic debt,

frontier beyond the !anube, Ger%an influence in, Grand ?iDierate, %ilitary organiDation, soldiery recruited fro% 7hristian races, Etribute(childrenE syste% of recruiting, na%e of, 'an(8sla%ic 'ro'aganda under Abdul #a%ul, 'an(+tto%anis%, Phanariot rPgi%e, 'raetorians, rail$ay construction, effect of, refor%s in, re'resentative institutions inaugurated, revival and rela'se in the nineteenth century, revolution of 4;40, $ar in the Balkans A4;4.B, $ar $ith Great Britain, France, and -ussia A4;41(4:B, $ars $ith Greece A49.4B, A49;5B, A4;4.B, $ar $ith 8taly A4;44(4.B, $ars $ith -ussia A45/;(51B, A4595B, A4905B, A49.9B, A4955(9B, A4;41(4:B, $ars $ith ,erbia A495:(5B, &oung Turks, the, Turkish conCuests in Euro'e, fleet, janissaries, Turks A+s%anlisB, entry into Euro'e,

general distribution of, no%adic tribes of, origin of, vitality and inherent Cualities of the, TDakonia,

=ighurs, Turkish tribe, =nkiar ,kelessi, Treaty of A49JJB, =ro2Bs6, >ing of ,erbia* IseeI ,te'hen =ro2Bs6 =ro2Bs6, ,erbian Tsar A4J::(54B, Tskub* IseeI ,ko'lje, ?alens, the E%'eror, ?altetDi, battle of, ?an, ?ardar, the, ?arna, battle of A4111B, ca'tured by the Bulgars, ?eneDelos, E , >retan and Greek states%an, his 'art in the >retan revolution, beco%es 're%ier of Greece, $ork as a constructive states%an, the for%ation of the Balkan )eague, his 'ro'osals to Bulgaria for settle%ent of clai%s, his handling of the 'roble% of E'irus, results of his states%anshi', ?enice and the ?enetian -e'ublic, ?ictoria, Uueen of England, ?ienna, besieged by the Turks A4:./B, A4/9JB, 7ongress of A4941B,

in relation to the ,erbo(7roats* IseeI Buda'est ?isigoths, the, ?lad the 8%'aler, Prince of @allachia, ?lakhs, the, ?olga, Bulgars of the, ?olo, Gulf of, ?ranja, ?rioni, +%er,

@allachia, advent of the Turks in, subjugation of, by the Turks, @ied, Prince of, @illia% 88, Ger%an E%'eror,

&annina, &antra, the, &e%en, &enishehr, &uruk tribe, &uDgad,

Kabergan, Kai%is, high co%%issioner of >rete, Kante, Keta, the, river and district,

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