PAN Journal

PAN
Current Issue
Issue Number 10, 2013
Editorial
Fungi: an entangled exlporation
Pouliot, Alison and Ryan, John
Scholarly Articles
Dancing the mushroom forest
Tsing, Anna
Intimate strangers of the subterrain: a mycelial metaphor for connectivity
Pouliot, Alison
Supporting soil fungi to rebuild soils in agriculture
O'Brien, Anne Therese
Human-thrush entanglements: homo sapiens as a multi-species ecology
Bates, Tarsh
Fungus sacer or radical outlaws?
Lay, Bronwyn
A poetic mycology of the senses
Ryan, John Charles
Real life: Italo Calvino's funghi ecology
Geier, Ted
Leisure on the recreational fringe: naturework and the place of amateur mycology and entomology
Lemelin, Raynald Harvey and Fine, Gary Alan
Citizen science in mycology
Kearney, Ray
Essays
Circus fungorum: the aesthetics of the invisible and their movements
Money, Nicholas P.
In praise of lichens: we are lichenicolous fungi
Johnson, Anna Maria and Villella, John
Fungi: the unsung heroes of the planet
Boddy, Lynne
Slime moulds: an exquisite obsession
Lloyd, Sarah
Fungivorous
Mott, Joanne
Fleeting lives: a photo essay
Pouliot, Alison
Poetry
At the end of the day
Schultz, Elizabeth
Claviceps
Cutler, Amy
Aspergillus in a well-loved pillow
Hawkridge, Caroline
When I was a mushroom
Hawthorn, Susan
Filamentous fungi
Hawkridge, Caroline
Unexpected visitors
Schultz, Elizabeth
Chaga: an eclogue in fragments
Ryan, John Charles
Nature Morte: for Jane
Nisbet, Rachel
Ontopoetics Forum
Totems
Weston, Anthony
On the emotional footprint in things and places
Angelini, Massimo
Reinhabiting the body, de-colonising Australia: poetry, meditation and place in "The Moving World"
Heald, Michael
Correspondents' Reports
Report from Italy: news from the italian bioregional movement
Addey, Etain
Report from New Zealand: beyond ownership
Warne, Kennedy
Report from Brazil
Seabra, Murilo Rocha
About PAN
PAN: Philosophy, Activism, Nature no. 10, 2013
1

Fungi
An entangled exploration

Alison Pouliot
1
and John Charles Ryan
2

This special issue of PAN: Philosophy, Activism, Nature invited authors to explore
a spectrum of perspectives and ways of thinking about kingdom Fungi. For many
people, fungi are perplexing organisms. With their bizarre trophic modes, complex life
histories and menacing mythologies, fungi arouse human responses from intrigue to
repugnance. They have inspired the imaginations of scientists and aesthetes alike and
are deeply enmeshed in the mythologies and traditions of many cultures. As the effects
of anthropogenic change become ever more dauntingly apparent, the importance of
fungi in underpinning the earths terrestrial ecosystems directly influencing our lives
gains significance. However, despite their ubiquity and ecological importance, fungi are
largely unregarded, especially within English-speaking cultures where mycophobia is
the overwhelming norm.
How do the perspectives of the arts and humanities broaden the ways in which
we think about fungi? Conversely, how might fungi contribute to the evolution of our
understandings of philosophy, literature and other disciplines? In exploring the theme
of fungi with these questions in mind, the special issue combines analytical approaches
with narrative forms commonly found in the humanities. As far as we are aware, this is
the first special issue in an interdisciplinary, academic Australian journal to bring
together these broad-ranging approaches to the fungal kingdom.
3
This variety of lenses
through which to imagine or re-imagine this kingdom will hopefully improve
possibilities for reaching wider audiences and for inspiring new approaches to
considering and conserving fungi. One of the aims of the issue is to provide a forum for
understanding how Homo sapiens might be included within the entangled lives of fungi.
Indeed, human intersections with fungi have broader implications for a challenge faced
by the humanities and arts today: learning to think integratively and ethically about
nature and culture, particularly in terms of other species.
This issue ranges in content from the cultural histories of fungus foragers to the
microscopic mechanisms of spore ejection; from critical examinations of mushrooms in
literature to imaginative reinterpretations of fungi in the visual arts. This variety of
approaches to fungi is explored through descriptive essays, provocative theoretical
papers, stories, poetry and visual representations. Each author offers an expression of
2
his or her own insights, an examination of fungal life sometimes the subject of formal
research, sometimes experience and anecdote. Some of our contributors provide
accounts of their discipline-based research on a particular fungal group. Others embed
fungi within human contexts, identifying human-fungus relationships; most request
greater consideration of fungi within the spheres of human responsibility for the sake
of fungi, humanity and, indeed, the entire biosphere. While the disciplinary and
theoretical approaches towards fungi differ, the intersections the mycelial connective
threads link the writings in this issue together. We suggest that the unique confluence
of ideas about fungi results from the interdisciplinarity of the PAN journal itself.
In total, the special issue has attracted equal representation of papers from
Australia and elsewhere; with contributions from Canada, the USA, the UK, France and
Switzerland. Contributors represent a diversity of disciplines including mycology,
botany, ecology, natural history, microbiology, entomology, anthropology, sociology,
psychology, philosophy, outdoor recreation, poetry, law, sculpture and the visual arts.
All scholarly articles have gone through an external refereeing process. We note that of
the 21 contributors, only two are employed as professional mycologists. While this
might reflect the dearth of professional mycologists in Australia and elsewhere, it also
positively suggests a strong interest in fungi across a spectrum of disciplines. We hope
to elicit this multi-faceted interest in fungi in the special issue, opening the dialogue on
fungi to a broad audience of writers, researchers and thinkers.
The issue kicks off with anthropologist Anna Tsings article Dancing the
Mushroom Forest in which she asks us to consider mushroom foraging as a form of
interspecies dance. Tsing lyrically explores the intersections of fungi and people in the
practice of matsutake harvesting by Asian Americans in the U.S. Pacific Northwest. The
ethnographic narrative approach of the article prompts us to reconsider reductionist,
categorical frameworks for "knowing" fungi. For Tsing, performance-based
appreciation of human-nonhuman ecologies might offer models for environmental
awareness for our times.
Following Tsings forest dance, Alison Pouliots Intimate Strangers of the
Subterrain transports us across the Pacific to the wet forests of Victoria, Australia
where a tiny blue mushroom the pixies parasol (Mycena interrupta) becomes a
profound metaphor for ecological connectivity. Further south in Tasmania, we also
learn of the first scientifically described Australian fungus, a cleverly disguised
dipteran amuse-bouche known as Asero rubra. Pouliot demonstrates through a blend
of historical, scientific and popular materials some of the dominant attitudes towards
fungi. Indeed, disgust, disdain and neglect underpin a motivation to exterminate certain
members of the kingdom. However, the subterrain mycelial networks of fungi crucial
to life on the planet provide hope for advancing conservation and engendering human
empathy for the intimate strangers around and within us.
Situated also within Australia, Anne Therese OBriens Supporting Soil Fungi to
Rebuild Soils in Agriculture illuminates the fundamental place of soil fungi in
sustainable agricultural systems. OBrien advocates the development of different tools,
materials and technologies for promoting soil health. A shift towards valuing soil fungi
also involves a transformation in human perceptions of the environment a becoming
receptive and imaginative, seeing soils not merely as surfaces but as complex three-
Alison Pouliot and John Ryan, Editorial
3
dimensional communities. A palette of convivial assemblages builds soil health and
minimises human impacts through the conscientious application of keyline ploughs,
compost teas and other technologies. Invoking the work of Bruno Latour and Ivan Illich
in science and technology studies, OBrien concludes that such assemblages herald a
shift from a position of mastery over the soil to one of apprenticeship with its living
constituents.
We then leave geographical coordinates behind for a moment to peer down
through a literal and philosophical microscope with Tarsh Bates in HumanThrush
Entanglements. Here, the human becomes a multi-species ecology rather than an
individuated subject, ego, consciousness or body. In this intriguing re-examination of
the human, Bates focuses on the single-celled pathogenic fungus, Candida albicans
more commonly known as thrush. Springing from Donna Haraways suggestion that
to be one is always to become with many, the article theorises, questions and
reinterprets aspects of human identity in the context of our symbiotic relationships with
fungi. Employing Haraways visual metaphor of Cats Cradle throughout, Bates affirms
that the entanglements between humans and Candida are complex, material,
embodied and cultural.
From the ecologies of American forests, Australian fields and laboratory
microscopes, we venture into the French forests with Bronwyn Lay to consider fungi in
the context of ecological jurisprudence. Beginning with Giorgio Agambens work on
sovereignty, Lay takes us on a walk with her friend Val through a forested world
enlivened by fungi. The ramifications of the realisation that fungi are everywhere are
far-reaching and transformative. Lays perspective is not diffident, but bold and
forward-thinking. The article confronts through an amalgam of parable and
philosophical-legal discourses some of the major questions surrounding human
relationships to kingdom Fungi as we freeze in the autumnal wind, wondering why
we humans, as lawmakers and citizens, were not able to see or seek to fully protect
fungi, on which we depend for life. Shifting between the desk and the French forest
between legal structures that disallow fungal sovereignty and those that seriously
acknowledge our absolute interdependence we are left to imagine a jurisprudence
that matters.
From the French forests and west across the Atlantic, we visit 19
th
century
American poet Emily Dickinsons lawn in Amherst, Massachusetts where she regards
the mushroom of the field mythologically as the Elf of Plants. Drawing from ecopoetic
and multispecies theory, John Ryan argues that mycopoetry is a form of ecological
poetry that reflects human attitudes towards kingdom Fungi. Whereas critical studies of
animals and plants have given rise to the new fields of Human-Animal Studies and
Critical Plant Studies, no comparable frameworks have been developed for mycological
research. He, therefore, engages in a critical reading of mushroom focussed poetry
within the context of the "unique otherness of these organisms". Through the works of
four different poets Emily Dickinson, Sylvia Plath, Mary Oliver and Caroline Caddy
Ryan explores some of the ecological, cultural, historical and social lenses through
which humans perceive fungi.
Over to Italy and the haunts of writer Italo Calvino, Ted Geier presents a
mycological reading of the stories Mushrooms in the City and Adam, One
4
Afternoon. For Geier, Calvinos works teem with life and objects, plants and other
creatures, forces and elements, and just about everything else in the universe,
including the fungal. The article convincingly makes the case for Calvino as a
multispecies writer whose works resist hierarchies between species as well as positions
of human privilege over the nonhuman. Calvinos positive representation of fungi as
funky earthy, unconventional, mouldy by definition, possibly unsettling but also
hybrid defines him as not only a seminal literary figure but a prescient ecological
thinker.
Turning from literary representations to recreational pursuits, Raynald Harvey
Lemelin and Gary Alan Fines Leisure on the Recreational Fringe explores amateur
mycology in social terms as a series of recreational interactions between fungi and
people. Through Bruno Latours Actor-Network Theory in conjunction with the concept
of Naturework, the authors consider the commonalities between amateur mycology and
entomology the latter represented by dragonfly or dragon hunting. Recreational
activities relate to broader social attitudes that preference particular species of fungi and
insects over these Kingdoms as a whole and in relation to their ecologies. Lemelin and
Fine conclude that recreational mycology and entomology are not merely isolated
domains of local action, butresources by which societies can structure larger choices
of the relationship between the human and the environment.
Citizen action and community engagement are key themes in Ray Kearneys
Citizen Science in Mycology the final inclusion in this issues series of scholarly
articles. As an activist, conservationist and retired immunologist, Kearney observes that
citizen science has always been vital to professional mycology in Australia. In
advancing his position for citizen science in fungal conservation, the article offers a case
study of the Sydney Fungal Studies Group Inc. (SFSGI). The groups contingent of
citizen scientists initiated the listing of a reserve on the basis of an endangered fungal
community (Hygrocybeae), setting an important precedent in Australian fungal
conservation. However, Kearney leaves us with a message of urgency: without further
funding and support, mycological conservation, based in citizen science, is becoming a
rapidly endangered tradition.
The essay section of this issue includes a compelling range of written and visual
reflections. We begin with Nicholas P. Moneys Circus Fungorum, an entertaining
and provoking account of the aesthetics of fungal spore discharge mechanisms.
Through the use of high-speed cameras for capturing fungal feats of reproductive
wonder, science and art appear to converge. Anna Maria Johnson and John Villellas In
Praise of Lichens takes us foraying through the old-growth forests of Oregon to ponder
an ancient and innovative partnership that of fungi and algae known as lichens.
Although originally classified as plants, lichens represent some of the earth's oldest
terrestrial symbioses, as Johnson and Villella explain in lyrical prose. British mycologist,
Lynne Boddy in Fungi: The Unsung Heroes of the Planet, recounts her distressing
first interaction with fungi as a student when her Georgian terrace house was
dismantled by an unwelcome other the dry rot fungus, Serpula lacrimans. Distress
evidently turned to fascination as Boddy went on to co-author a 600-page book on the
role of fungi in wood decomposition
3
and eventually became a professor of mycology at
Cardiff University. From science to art to science and back again, Melbourne-based
Alison Pouliot and John Ryan, Editorial
5
visual artist, Joanne Mott escorts us through her sculptural and illustrative
representations of fungi in her exhibition Fungivorous. And heading further south across
Bass Strait, Sarah Lloyd takes us deep into the dripping Tasmanian forests to explore
those almost-fungal and peculiarly mobile organisms: the slime moulds. Alison
Pouliots photo essay Fleeting Lives rounds out the section with an evocative account
in words and images of her embodied pursuit of fungi as a photographer. Lastly, the
poetry section of this issue features work by an international cohort of poets with
interests in all things fungal, including Amy Cutler, Caroline Hawkridge, Susan
Hawthorne, Rachel Nisbet, John Ryan and Elizabeth Schultz.
These perspectives prompt us to consider ways in which we might understand
and interact with fungi more sustainably and ethically. The approaches of the authors in
this issue also help us to recognise why fungi have been less well regarded than flora
and fauna and, consequently, overlooked in biodiversity conservation. In sum, we need
fungi and fungi need us: academics and theorists, along with poets, naturalists and
fungal enthusiasts in the field. Through interdisciplinary attention to kingdom Fungi,
important cultural context and meaning can be foregrounded. The synthesis of sciences
and humanities evident in this issue employs various genres and styles to convey
information about the multiple ways that human lives entangle with fungi. But perhaps
most importantly, we need stories about fungi that will touch as broad an audience as
possible. We hope this special issue on fungi inspires you to contemplate and value or
re-value fungi and to discover new perspectives on these very ancient organisms that
are active agents in our lives.
Our enormous thanks go to these contributors and the many anonymous peer
reviewers who assessed the scholarly articles and especially to Professor Freya
Matthews for having the insight and imagination to propose this special issue. We think
it is now appropriate for you to kick back and enjoy a nice ripe Camembert or Roquefort,
a cool beer, a mellow vino or other gift from the fungal world while you contemplate
this issue of PAN.

Notes
1. Alison Pouliot is an ecologist and environmental photographer.
2. John Ryan is a Postdoctoral Research Fellow in Communications and Arts at Edith Cowan University in
Western Australia. He is the author of Green Sense: The Aesthetics of Plants, Place and Language (TrueHeart
Press, 2012), Two with Nature (with Ellen Hickman, Fremantle Press, 2012), Unbraided Lines: Essays in
Environmental Thinking and Writing (Common Ground, 2013) and Digital Arts: An Introduction to New
Media (with Cat Hope, Continuum, forthcoming 2014). His interests include environmental writing,
ecocriticism, ecocultural studies and Australian botanical history.
3. See, for example, D. Arora and G. Shepard (2008), Mushrooms and Economic Botany, in Special
Mushroom Issue, Economic Botany, 62(3), pp. 207-212; and T. May (2005), Forgotten Flora Remembered,
Australasian Plant Conservation, 14(1), pp. 2-3. These two special issues on fungi are from the fields of
ethnobotany and conservation biology, respectively.
4. A. Rayner and L. Boddy (1988), Fungal Decomposition of Wood: Its Biology and Ecology, John Wiley & Sons,
Bath.

6

Dancing the Mushroom Forest

Anna Tsing, for the Matsutake Worlds Research Group
1

You might expect that mushroom foragers who spend a lot of time in the
woods would know something about the life of the forest. They do. But the first instinct
of scholars to learn about this knowledge to work through the naming and
classification of plants, animals and ecosystems does not work out as well as one
might expect. Much of the knowledge mushroom pickers carry about the forest is
kinetic knowledge knowledge of how to move through the forest, navigating its sights,
sounds and smells. While they may be eloquent about explaining their movements,
people become experts in mushroom foraging not through talk but by using their
bodies. If we are generous about the meaning of words, it is not too far-fetched to
consider mushroom foraging a form of dance.
2

Dance is a formal art; mushroom picking is not. Yet pickers move in skilled
ways while navigating the forest. These skilled motions might be to dance what
composer John Cage listened for in music: the emergent art of ordinary life.
3
Indeed,
they are closer to dance than Cages random sounds are to music; mushroom pickers
movements are meaningful. Another guide might be the Balinese saying: We have no
art; we do everything as well as possible. Watching dance emerge from livelihood
awakens us to the arts of everyday life.
There are other reasons besides appreciation to care about this dance. Skilled
bodies in motion remind us that humans are not the only ones who dance. Our
dwindling wild and not-so-wild places are made in crossing tracks, human and
nonhuman. Global warming will be experienced in this cross-species dance. Some
populations of any given species will flourish, while others will die; it is the dance-like
activity lines of particular groups that make all the difference. We learn, for example,
about sea birds that followed their food source north to cooler climes, and then found
themselves over open ocean with no rocks on which to nest. Their dance is the flight,
the search for food, the search for nests; each is part of the birds dance of life. Lists of
species alone will no longer be enough. Only by following populations into such dances
can we see the effects of environmental change. We need more stories about such
dances: Mushroom foraging is one.
Anthropologist Tim Ingolds attention to lines not the straight and
constraining lines of grammar-school rule books or modernist architects, but the
always-moving trajectories of lively activities is a great place to start in following the
dance of mushroom foraging.
4
A dance forms a trajectory, a kind of line. Mushroom
foraging can be imagined as a set of looping, meandering lines through the forest.
(Compare Brodys First Nations hunting and berry-picking lines as maps.
5
) Following
foraging lines as dance seems particularly fruitful because dance calls attention to
two further attributes. First, foraging lines are generated by specific kinesthetic
principles, corresponding to varied aesthetic programs and histories of practice. Not all
Anna Tsing, Dancing the Mushroom Forest
7
foragers are alike; their art matters. Second, human livelihood arts intertwine variously
with the life arts of other species, including mushrooms. Many species make dancing
lines. The first of these attributes draws us into diverse cultural histories of human
forest use. The second allows us to track humans and other species together as we
jointly generate multispecies landscapes. These concerns draw us beyond Ingolds
initial proposals while still appreciating the lively possibilities of lines. This essay
follows foragers for matsutake mushrooms into the forests of the U.S. Pacific Northwest
to show how foraging lines are both forms of kinaesthetic art and negotiations of forest
lives.
Matsutake are aromatic wild mushrooms much loved in Japan. Until the 1970s,
Japans forests produced enough for Japanese consumption, but since then
environmental changes have caused a sharp decline in Japanese supplies. This decline
corresponded to Japans rise to prosperity, and since the 1980s, Japan has imported
matsutake from forests across the northern hemisphere. A diverse array of peoples has
mobilised for the matsutake harvest, from Tibetans in China, to Thai guest workers in
Finland, to Moroccans, Bhutanese and the North Korean army. When the prices are
right, it is the most expensive mushroom in the world.
In the mountains of the U.S. Pacific Northwest, two distinct groups pick
matsutake: heritage pickers and commercial pickers.
6
Japanese Americans have picked
the mushroom for a hundred years; today picking forms part of a self-conscious
cultural heritage. One favoured site is Oregons Mt. Hood, a volcanic cone whose
dramatic shape reminds the community of Japans iconic Mt. Fuji. Commercial
importers in Japan know about U.S. matsutake because of Japanese Americans. In the
1970s, when Japanese imports began, Japanese Americans picked commercially, but
since the late 1980s, they have picked mainly as hobbyists, distributing mushrooms
among relatives and across the Japanese American community. Matsutake picking has
become a symbol of Japanese American heritage in the Pacific Northwest, and picking
is regarded as a skill elders ideally might pass to an increasingly reluctant younger
generation.
Since the late 1980s, a much larger population has entered these forests in
search of the mushroom: commercial pickers. Commercial pickers are the offspring of
Reagan-era privatisation and downsizing in the United States. This is entrepreneurship
for those who start with nothing; I think of it as popular neoliberalism, the
entrepreneurship of the poor.
7
There are no employers, and the land is public, national
forest. All you need is a vehicle and the willingness to be out in the deep woods by
yourself. Perhaps you will strike gold; perhaps you will get nothing.
The first commercial pickers were white men who wanted to be alone in the
woods: Vietnam veterans, downsized loggers and the rural conservatives who call
themselves traditionalists. Some of these men have hung on. But at the centre of the
matsutake trade they have been overwhelmed, and largely displaced, by a huge new
population in the woods: refugees from Laos and Cambodia. These groups arrived in
the United States in the 1980s at a time when welfare, public services and standard
employment were disappearing; still living the trauma of war and displacement,
without English or, in many cases, urban job experience, they took to the woods with a
will. Four ethnic groups dominate: Khmer, the majority population of Cambodia; Lao,
the majority group in Laos; and Hmong and Mien, two upland tribal groups from
Laos. I follow the local convention of using these ethnic labels without the qualifier
American, despite the fact that most are American citizens.
As a scholar of Southeast Asia, I could not have been more surprised to find
Southeast Asian encampments in the middle of the Oregon woods. The material culture,
the music, the food: Everything suggested that I had somehow been transported to
8
rural Southeast Asia. There are noodle tents where one can eat pho and listen to Lao
karaoke. You can order laap, not the tame ground beef and onions you might be served
at a Thai American restaurant, but the real thing, all raw blood, intestines, and searing
chillies. This is in the middle of the woods without water or electricity.
Surprise leads me back to my story: The performance that is, the motions and
trajectories of matsutake mushroom picking reveals culturally rich sensibilities for
understanding forest lives. For this, I will take you into the forest three times, first, by
myself to show you the scene, and then again with experts. I will bring along Hiro, an
elder of the Japanese American community. Then we will go again with Moei Lin and
FamTsoi, two middle-aged Mien women.
8
Each time, I will follow the tracks that show
us nature in a forest dance. The dances of my Mien and Japanese American companions
differ in ways linked to the rest of their lives. Following the dances of the matsutake
forest thus engages us in the richness of cultural as well as biological diversity.

Searching, sensing
Mushroom pickers even those who make all of their income from it agree:
picking is not work. One Lao picker was particularly articulate about this. Work, he
said, involves following orders. One must put up with the constant burden of hierarchy.
In contrast, mushroom picking is searching. Searching involves initiative and
awareness. The mushrooms are hard to find. One must use all ones senses.
Searching, I am alert to smell. Matsutake have a pungent aroma, and sometimes I
can pick it up before I find any mushrooms. I flare my nostrils, concentrating the smells,
which mix with fir and dust. Sometimes I stop in the middle of a step, aroused by the
smell. Then my other senses awake too. My eyes sweep the ground, like windshield
wipers, as one picker explains. Sometimes I get down on the ground to look at a better
angle, or even to feel.
For the secret of matsutake mushroom picking is this: One never looks for
mushrooms. Every now and then one spots a whole mushroom probably one
discarded by animals or so old that worms have almost consumed it. Good mushrooms,
however, are under the ground. To find a good mushroom, one looks for the signs of its
growth, its activity line. Mushrooms move the ground slightly as they come up, and one
must look for that site of movement. Some people call it a bump, but that implies a well-
defined hillock, very rare. Instead, I sense a heave, an effect like the inhalation of breath
in the chest. The heave is easy to imagine as the breath of the mushroom. Sometimes
there is a slight crack, as if the mushrooms breath escaped. Of course, mushrooms do
not breathe in that way. Yet it is this recognition of common life that forms the basis of
the dance of the matsutake forest.
There are lots of lumps and cracks in any forest floor, and most have nothing to
do with mushrooms. Many are old, static, without an indication of lifes movement.
The matsutake mushroom picker must search for the dynamic heaves, those that signal
that a living thing is slowly, slowly pushing. One then feels the ground, perhaps
inserting a stick. The mushroom may be two or three inches below the surface, but a
good picker knows, having sensed the liveliness of the ground, the life line of the
mushroom.
Searching has a rhythm, both impassioned and still. Pickers describe their
eagerness to get into the forest as a fever. Sometimes, they say, they did not plan to
go at all, but the fever catches you. In the heat of the fever, one picks in the rain, in the
snow, even at night with lights. One gets up before dawn to be there first. Lets go,
times wasting; somebody else will take those mushrooms. Yet no one can find a
mushroom by hurrying through the forest. Slow down. . . slow down, I was constantly
advised. Inexperienced pickers miss most of the mushrooms by moving too quickly;
9
only careful observation reveals the earths gentle heaves. Calm but fevered,
impassioned but still: The pickers rhythm condenses the contradiction in a poised
alertness.
Pickers also study the forest. Matsutake establish a symbiotic relationship with
certain trees, winding around and into their rootlets. Like us, they live off the sugars
plants manufacture from sunlight; the trees feed them. In turn, like good farmers, they
make nutrients available to their trees. Much of the useful business of classification
among pickers involves naming the right trees. But tree classification only opens the
door, perhaps determining the general area a picker chooses to search. It is not so
helpful in actually finding mushrooms. Pickers do not waste much time looking up to
identify trees. Our gaze is directed below, where the mushrooms rise through the
heaving earth.
There, the picker scans for lines of life the activity lines that create the micro-
ecologies of the forest. Matsutake is unlikely to be found in fertile, well-watered places;
other fungi will grow there, and matsutake is a bad competitor. Instead, matsutake is
found in poor environments with few easily available nutrients: sand dunes; volcanic
rock; eroded hillsides; high desert. If there are too many dwarf huckleberry bushes, the
ground is probably too wet. If heavy machinery has been through the area, it spells
death for the fungus. If the trees are only a few decades grown from logging, no
mushrooms will appear. If animals have left droppings and tracks, this is a good place
to look. If moisture has found a place to hide next to a rock or a log, this too is good.
There is one little plant on the forest floor that depends entirely on matsutake.
9
Candy cane forms a red-and-white striped stalk adorned by flowers. Even after the
flowers fade, candy canes dry stalks can be easily seen in the forest, and they are an
indicator of matsutake whether fruiting, or just fungal threads underground.
Life lines are entangled: candy cane and matsutake; matsutake and its host trees;
host trees and suites of herbs, mosses, insects, soil bacteria, and forest animals; heaving
bumps and mushroom pickers. My point so far is this: Matsutake mushroom pickers are
alert to life lines in the forest. Searching with all the senses creates this alertness. It is a
form of forest knowledge and appreciation. It lacks the completeness of a system of
classification. Instead, searching brings us to the liveliness of nonhuman populations
experienced as subjects rather than objects.
So much for my mushroom picking; it is time to bring in the experts.

Mapping memories
Hiro is an elder in Portlands Japanese American community. Now in his late 80s,
he has led an exemplary working-class life. For many years, he worked in a forge,
making heavy equipment and participating in the union. For that long life of work, he
receives $11 a year in pension. When World War II broke out, Hiro was a young man
farming with his parents. His parents lost the farm when the authorities classified them
as enemy aliens and moved them into the Portland livestock yard, and then into a
barbed-wired internment camp. Hiro joined the U.S. army and served in the Nisei
442nd Regimental Combat Team, famous for the losses it was asked to suffer while
whiter troops flourished. If Japanese Americans behaved like model minorities after
the war, it has a great deal to do with this history of discrimination and loss. As another
elder put it, We stayed away from everything Japanese-y. If you had a pair of
[Japanese] slippers, you took them off before you left the house. Although his parents
were migrants from Japan, Hiro speaks only a little Japanese and reads none; he is
fluent in American culture. Indeed, this is the kind of nervous-to-be-locked-up, quick-
to-assimilate Asian American culture I myself grew up with in Ohio.
10

10
Within the culture of 20th century Asian American assimilation, however, some
forms of imagined Asianness flowered. For Portlands Japanese Americans, the search
for matsutake mushrooms became a locus of pleasure, pride and attachment to place.
Community members recount with pleasure their opportunity to send something
valuable back to Japan even if it sometimes arrived full of worms.
The distribution of matsutake mushrooms is one of the greatest pleasures of
picking. Hiro says that last year he gave matsutake to 64 people, mainly older folks who
could not get to the mountains to pick themselves. Matsutake builds a sense of pleasure
and community, especially among the older people. As such too, it has become a gift
that elders can give to the young. Looking for matsutake moves a picker through time
as well as space. Memory is vitalised by the bodys motion in the forest: Memory
inspires the dance, and the dance inspires memory.
Driving with Hiro to the forest, memory gets personal. He points out the window,
Thats Roys matsutake hunting place; over there its Henrys special spot. Only later
do I realise that both Roy and Henry are deceased. But they live on in Hiros map of the
forest, recalled every time he passes their spots. Hiro teaches younger people how to
hunt for mushrooms; and with the skill comes the memory.
As we walk into the forest, memory gets specific. Under that tree, I once found
19 mushrooms, a whole row, stretching half way round the tree. Over there I found
the biggest mushroom Ive ever found, four pounds it was, and another two pounds
and still a bud. He shows me where storms have felled a once good mushroom tree;
there will be no more mushrooms there. We look at the places where a flood wiped off
the topsoil, and where pickers have undermined a bush by digging. Once those were
good mushroom places, no more.
Even outside the forest, Hiro walks with a cane, and it is amazing that he can still
clamber over fallen logs, through brush, and up and down slippery ravines. But Hiro
does not try to cover ground. Instead, he goes from one of his remembered mushroom
spots to another. The best way to find matsutake is to look where one has found it
before.
Of course, if that spot is in the middle of nowhere, under a random bush near a
random tree, it is pretty hard to remember that place from year to year. It would be
impossible to catalogue all the places one has found a mushroom. But, Hiro explains,
one does not have to. When one arrives in the spot, the memory washes over one,
making every detail of that time before suddenly come clear.
This kind of memory requires motion and inspires an intimate historical
knowledge of the forest. Hiro remembers when a road was first opened to the public:
There were so many mushrooms by the side of the road that you didnt have to go into
the forest at all! He remembers particularly good years: I found three orange crates of
mushroom, and I couldnt figure out how to carry them to the car. All of this history is
layered on the landscape, threaded in and out of the spots we check for new life
emerging.
The power of the dance of memory on landscape struck me particularly hard
when we spoke of the people who could no longer perform it. Hiro always brings
mushrooms to those who can no longer walk in the forest. Gifting mushrooms re-inserts
the ill and the families of the deceased into the communal landscape. Sometimes,
however, memory fails, and then, for better or worse, all the world becomes mushrooms.
Ken told me about an elderly community member with Alzheimers, confined to a
nursing home. You should have been here last week, the old man told him when Ken
visited, That hillside was white with mushroom. He was pointing out the window to
the clipped lawn where matsutake would never grow, nodding vigorously at an illusion.
Without the dance of matsutake forests, memory loses focus. The dance is memory.
11
In contrast, commercial pickers cover ground. Unlike heritage pickers, for whom
a half-bucket of mushrooms is a good days haul, commercial pickers recognise that a
half-bucket probably will not pay for gas. Commercial pickers cannot afford to just
check their remembered spots. To make a living, they pick longer days, wider ranges,
and more diverse ecosystems. Let me sweep you into another dance.

Lines and alignments
For Moei Lin and FamTsoi, matsutake picking is both a livelihood and a
vacation. Every matsutake season since the early 1990s, they have made their way with
their husbands from Redding, California, to the central Cascades; on weekends their
children and grandchildren sometimes join them. When the season is over, Moei Lins
husband stacks milk crates at the Redding Wal-Mart for $11.50/hour without benefits;
FamTsois husband drives a school bus. In a good year, matsutake picking is a better
living than either of these alternatives. Still, they look forward to the season for multiple
reasons, including the exercise and the fresh air of the forest. The women feel released
from the confinement of the cities. The closely-built shelters of their Mien encampment
are the nearest they have come, in the United States, to a village in upland Laos. Mien
mushroom camps are full of the bustle of village life. Neighbours bring news, cooked
food to share and wild meat to distribute. Mien pickers describe the pleasures of the
mushroom camp as a chance to re-create village life.
There are also reasons to forget, as FamTsoi reminded me when I asked her
about memories of home. Since many Hmong pickers had told me that hiking the
Oregon forests reminded them of the hills of Laos, I asked FamTsoi if she sometimes
thought of Laos when she was picking. Yes, of course, she said. But if you just think
about the mushroom, you can forget.
Mien came to the United States with the tragedies of the U.S. war in Indochina.
Like the Hmong, Mien were swept up as whole villages into the CIA secret war in Laos.
No Laotian Mien escaped a history of deaths, forced migrations, divided families and
wartime betrayals. When the Americans withdrew in 1975, many were caught on the
wrong side. After spending years in upland Thai villages and refugee camps, a
significant number were accepted as refugees to the United States. Many moved to the
mild weather and agricultural wealth of central California.
11

Southeast Asian refugees came to California at a time when the Reagan
administration was closing down the welfare state. State assistance was limited to 18
months; job training was minimal. Most of the refugees had few skills in English and
many had no urban job experience. In contrast to the coercive assimilation of mid-20th
century American citizenship, these refugees had entered a U.S. where no one much
cared about assimilation, as long as you asked for nothing. The institutions of
assimilation affirmative action, public education, standard employment were in
decline. Mien formed ethnic enclaves, growing Southeast Asian foods, forging
traditional tools and revitalising ceremonies. Unlike my immigrant Chinese mother who
studied how to cook hamburgers and meatloaf a half-century ago, Mien housewives feel
proud to hang strips of drying game over the kitchen fire. When the refugees heard that
money could be made picking mushrooms in the forest, they flocked to join the harvest.
Left to earn a living by their own wits, Southeast Asian refugees have found
good uses for old repertoires of skills. Pioneering across landscape is a traditional Mien
skill, once necessary to a migratory shifting cultivation. Mien people have always used
the forest; it is not a place of fear or disorientation. Lao pickers from urban Laos get lost
in the forest as did I but Mien pickers rarely do. Everyone felt so comfortable that
there was no need to stay close. When I picked with them, the men went off on their
12
own, quicker trajectories, while the women forged their own way. Men run off chasing
big bumps, explained FamTsoi, while women scratch the ground.
I learned to scratch the ground with FamTsoi and Moei Lin. Everywhere we
picked, other pickers had been before us. But rather than cursing their messy digs, we
explored them. Moei Lin would lean over and touch her stick to the area where soil had
been disturbed. No heave would be in evidence because the surface had already been
broken. But sometimes there would be a mushroom! We followed the tracks of earlier
harvesters, touching their remains. Because matsutake, anchored to trees, come up again
in the same spots, this was a surprisingly productive strategy. We aligned ourselves
with invisible pickers who had gone before us but left traces of their activity lines.
Nonhuman pickers were as important as humans in this strategy. Deer and elk
love matsutake; when we found their spoor or tracks, they often led us to a patch. Bears
turn over logs with matsutake underneath and create a mess, digging up the ground.
But bears like deer and elk never take all the mushrooms. To find a recent animal
digging is a sign that mushrooms may be around. Following the traces of animal lives,
we entangled and aligned our movements, searching with them.
Not all tracks guide one well. How often I found a lively bump, which, pressed,
revealed only air: the tunnel of a mole! And when I asked Moei Lin if she looked for
candy cane, the little plant that grows only with matsutake, she frowned and said no.
Other people will have already been there, she explained. It was too obvious a sign
for the subtle entanglements we sought.
To view trash in this light was a revelation for me. White hikers hate trash. It
mars the forest, they say. Southeast Asian pickers, the Forest Service agrees, leave too
much trash. Some spoke of closing the forest to pickers just because of trash. But out
looking for life lines, a little trash helps. Not the mountains of beer cans white hunters
leave, but a little trash tracked through the forest. A wrinkled piece of tin foil, the
discarded vial of a ginseng tonic, a soggy box for Cambodian cigarettes: Each of these is
a sign that a Southeast Asian picker had passed. I could recognise the line; I could align
myself; it kept me from getting lost; it put me on the track for mushrooms. I found
myself looking forward to the lines on which trash might lead me.
Trash is not the only Forest Service bugaboo. Their main concern is raking,
which means digging up the ground. Anti-raking spokesmen describe raking as the
work of egotistical or ignorant individuals. Rakers dig the ground with their big sticks,
destroying the resource, heedless of others. But women pickers suggested something
different. Sometimes the disturbed ground labelled as raking is the work of many hands.
When many hands have touched an area to find its life lines, a trough may form.
Raking is sometimes the result of many consecutive and entangled life lines.
The ground where Moei Lin and FamTsoi pick is not the sculpted carpet of
Hiros valley. In the volcanic high desert of the eastern Cascades, the ground is dry; the
trees are windblown, sickly, and sometimes sparse. Fallen trees litter the ground, their
uprooted butts blocking passage. Waves of logging and Forest Service treatments have
left a trail of stumps and roads and broken earth. It seems strange to argue that pickers
are among the worst threats to this forest. Still, their tracks are easy to see. For Moei Lin
and FamTsoi, this is an advantage.
By following life lines and aligning their movements with them, Moei Lin and
FamTsoi cover a lot of ground. We rise before dawn, and after a meal we are in the
forest at first light. We may be out in the forest for four or five hours before we contact
the men on the walkie-talkie. Although the general contours of the hills are familiar, we
are always checking new places. This is not the forest of familiar attachments. We scout
new territory by following lines of life.
13
At lunchtime, we sit on a log and pull out plastic bags of cooked rice. Today,
our topping is carp, made into small brown nuggets, mixed with red and green bits. It is
tantalisingly rich and spicy, and I ask how it is made. FamTsoi explains, You have a
fish. You add salt. She falters; that is it. I imagine myself in the kitchen with a raw
salty fish dripping in my hand. Language has met its limit. The trick of cooking is in the
bodily performance, which is not easy to explain. The same is true for mushroom
picking, more dance than classification. It is a dance that partners here with many
dancing lives.

Handing on the dance
Japanese Americans and Mien have had different experiences of American
citizenship. Although transnational connections remain a vibrant feature of diasporic
lives, neither Japanese nor Mien Americans offer a museum copy of earlier ways of life
in East and Southeast Asia. In each case, cultural expression answers the challenges
offered by American politics and society. If picking performances contrast between the
two groups, it is in part because their dance floors have been differently laid out by the
U.S. state.
Meanwhile, each dance offers an appreciation of other forest lives. It is perfectly
possible to learn a lot about mushrooms from books and courses; I did. Yet watching the
dance offers something else. Rather than attending to other species as objects of
classification or resource management, following the intersection of moving and
growing bodies tracks them as dynamic subjects.
This is exciting in itself; it is also a key skill for our times. Consider the dilemmas
of global climate change. Just as climate change affects humans in Bangladesh and in
Minnesota differently, so too nonhuman populations within a single species are
differentially affected depending on their ecological activity lines. Species lists alone
are not enough; we need new ways to narrate our relations with each other in changing
conditions, including stories of tangled life lines.
The mushroom pickers I have described are observers of others life performances
as well as performers of their own forest dances. They do not care about all the creatures
of the forest; they are selective. But the way they notice is to incorporate others life
performances into their own performance. Intersecting life lines guide the performance,
creating one kind of forest appreciation. Pickers, elk, pine trees, candy cane and
matsutake mushrooms dance and wander in each others paths, sometimes
consequentially touching. Performance-based appreciation of human-nonhuman
ecologies might offer models for environmental awareness for our times.
Its time to return the dance back to you.

Notes
1. Anna Tsing is professor of anthropology at the University of California, Santa Cruz, and Niels Bohr
Professor at Aarhus University. Her forthcoming matsutake book is Living in Ruins: Capitalism, Blasted
Landscapes, and the Possibility of Life on Earth.
2. This article joins the collaborative work of the Matsutake Worlds Research Group (Timothy Choy, Leiba
Faier, Michael Hathaway, Miyako Inoue, Shiho Satsuka and myself). My research in Oregon is indebted
to further collaboration with Hjorleifur Jonsson and Lue Vang. This article was first a talk at the
University of Minnesota for Ananya Chatterjea and the Department of Theater Arts and Dance. My
interlocutors there offered generous comments. Research in Oregon was conducted every September and
October from 2004 to 2008. The University of California Pacific Rim Research Program supported
preliminary research; the Toyota Foundation helped support the wider collaborative program. Thanks
too to Kathryn Chetkovich, Paulla Ebron and the anonymous reviewers.
3. Cage heard music, for example, in the sounds of traffic: YouTube (2007), John Cage About Silence.
Website: www.youtube.com/watch?v=pcHnL7aS64Y (Accessed 30 July 2013).
4. T. Ingold (2007), Lines: A Brief History, Routledge, London.
5. H. Brody (1997), Maps and Dreams, Waveland Press, Long Grove, Illinois.
14
6. Generalisations here about mushroom pickers refer to Oregon. My research on matsutake has taken
me also to Japan, China, Canada and Finland; different agendas and skills are relevant there. My website
www.matsutakeworlds.org offers a taste of the differences.
7. A. Tsing (2013), Free in the forest: Popular neoliberalism and the aftermath of war in the US Pacific
Northwest, In Z. Gambetti and M. Godoy-Anativia (eds), Rhetorics of Insecurity: Belonging and Violence in
the Neoliberal Era, New York University Press, New York, pp. 20-39.
8. All personal names are pseudonyms. I am grateful to the many Japanese American, Southeast Asian
American, white and Latino pickers who showed me how they forage.
9. C. Lefevre (2002), Host Associations of Tricholoma magnivelare, the American Matsutake., PhD Dissertation,
Oregon State University, Corvallis.
10. For a moving account of Japanese American history in Oregon, see L. Kessler (2008), Stubborn Twig: Three
Generations in the Life of a Japanese American Family, Oregon State University Press, Corvallis.
11. For an insightful discussion of Mien American war memories as they inform refugee experience in the
United States, see H. Jonsson (forthcoming), Disarming Ethnology: Iu Mien, Ancestors and the Future.

A|iscn Pcu|ici, |niinaic Sirangcrs cj inc Su|icrrain
15

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2 %34'5$&5 %'#&6/-* .-* 4-""'4#$7$#3

25$,-" 8-05$-#
9

In nalure ve never see anylhing
isoIaled, bul everylhing in conneclion
vilh somelhing eIse vhich is before il,
beside il, under il and over il. jcnann
Wc|jgang tcn Gccinc

Hidden benealh ferns in a vel Viclorian foresl, a liny bIue organism ekes oul a
brief exislence on a faIIen Iog. Mqccna inicrrupia, or lhe ixie's arasoI, slands |usl seven
miIIimelres high. Irom ils unseen erch, il exudes enzymes lhal degrade lhe
IignoceIIuIose of ils Iog, lhereby recycIing nulrienls and crealing soiI. InvisibIe sores
are reIeased inlo micro-currenls of air from lhe IameIIae benealh ils ca. Then, in a
maller of days, ils reroduclive roIe comIeled, il coIIases and succumbs lo lhe humus
of lhe foresl fIoor.
Such smaII unnoliced Iives seIdom receive lhe necessary arecialion or
conservalion lo rolecl lheir exislence, or lhal of lhe foresl and bioshere incIuding
humanily. Conservalion of fungi is hindered IargeIy by ubIic faiIure lo acknovIedge
lheir ivolaI roIe in underinning lhe earlh's ecosyslems.
2
Moreover, a revaIenl
disdain for fungi arising from a Iong mylhoIogy of negalive associalions and
misunderslandings has furlher larnished lheir rofiIe.
3
Indeed il seems lhal bolh a Iack
of ecoIogicaI avareness and cuIluraI aversions have induced a kind of nqcc-nqcpia. In
lhis aer I endeavour lo exIore human bIindness lo lhe imorlance of fungi and
argue for lheir aroriale incIusion in biodiversily conservalion.
The more consicuous and ouIarIy charismalic fIora and fauna have Iong
been lhe focus of bolh AuslraIian and gIobaI biodiversily conservalion. NegIigence of
lhe lhird f, lhe fungi, is erhas unsurrising as mosl conducl lheir exlremeIy
imorlanl business vilhin lhe darkness of lhe sublerrain.
4
The ehemeraI Iife of lhe liny
bIue mushroom offers bul a mere hinl of somelhing far grealer, for il is |usl lhe
reroduclive slruclure of lhe fungus. The main body of a fungus exisls as an oflen
unimaginabIy vasl nelvork of ceIIuIar lhreads caIIed nqcc|iun, vilhin soiI, Ieaf Iiller,
vood or olher organisms. This comIex malrix of inleraclions rovides a vilaI
sublerranean Iife-suorl syslem. Indeed fungi are a cornerslone of ecosyslem rocesses,
enabIing lhe more visibIe biola of above-ground ecosyslems lo exisl.
The liny bIue mushroom aIso symboIises somelhing furlher in roviding lhe
ossibiIily lo enler anolher vorId of significance and meaning, vhere Hcnc sapicns nol
onIy observe or calure, bul acliveIy engage as dynamic co-arlicianls. To exIore lhe
vaIue of inleracling vilh lhis smaII vondrous Iife-form is lo chaIIenge nolions of human
excelionaIily. Thal is, ve mighl ol lo disregard lhe imaginary Iine belveen humanily
PAN. Pni|cscpnq, Aciitisn, Naiurc nc 10, 2013

16
and lhe resl of lhe bioshere and reconsider ourseIves vilhin muIlisecies
communilies lhal emerge lhrough lhe enlangIemenls of agenliaI beings.
5
Our caacily
lo arliciale vilh olher secies vilhin lhe bioshere is exceedingIy comIex. As aclive
arlicianls or agenls in our inleraclions, ossibiIilies arise for nol |usl cognilive bul
sensoriaI engagemenl. As lhe exerience moves from "knoving" lo "feeIing" lhe
olenliaI increases lo infuse elhics inlo lhe exchange, so lhal il is nol onIy causaI, bul
aIso meaningfuI.
6
Using fungi as a melahor for lhe conneclivilies of lhe bioshere, I
endeavour lo exIore vays in vhich ve mighl calure lhe ubIic imaginalion in
reIalion lo fungi. I argue lhal such an aroach lo conservalion requires a genuine
meIding of scienlific, hiIosohicaI, elhicaI and sensoriaI aroaches lo nol |usl inform,
bul lo calure ubIic hearls, minds and bodies in lhe viev lo insire a more sensilive
vay of inhabiling lhe Ianel.
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IungaI conservalion has been driven IargeIy by mycoIogisls and
conservalionisls vho have endured a hislory of excIusion and rofound ignorance
aboul fungi, even from vilhin lhe bioIogicaI sciences. WhiIe exemIary rogress has
been made in lhe Iasl lhree decades since increased ubIic inleresl in fungi savned a
fIurry of fieId guides and mycoIogicaI socielies, lhe urgency vilh vhich ve musl
address lhe imacls of anlhroogenic change on biosyslems requires relhinking fungaI
conservalion nol |usl as an environmenlaI issue, bul one lhal acknovIedges lhe various
vays in vhich fungi are enmeshed in human cuIlure. Given lhal human aclions are lhe
ma|or cause of environmenlaI decIine, il foIIovs accordingIy lhal humanily shouId aIso
be a ma|or focus of research inlo lhe abalemenl of lhis decIine.
7
The immense efforls of
scienlisls advocaling for biodiversily conservalion have reveaIed lhe comIexilies of lhe
Ianel and rovided an immense foundalion of knovIedge. Hovever, science offers |usl
one vay of knoving. Hov do ve meId lhis knovIedge vilh lhe greal seclrum of olher
vays in vhich lhe vorId is lransIaled, underslood and vaIued` Iassion for lhe
environmenl is arguabIy as imorlanl as knovIedge in driving biodiversily
conservalion. WhiIe scienlific knovIedge is an essenliaI recursor lo conservalion,
reIiance on scienlific reason and |uslificalion aIone can aIso inadverlenlIy reinforce
nalure-cuIlure duaIisms vilh counlerroduclive resuIls.
8
AIlernaliveIy, an inlegraled
and conceluaIIy sensilive aroach lo environmenlaI issues
9
lhal baIances knovIedge
and assion, couId rovide a more exlensive framevork and vocabuIary vilhin vhich
lo rolecl biodiversily incIuding lhese unseen denizens of lhe soiI.
Ingaging lhe lhinking of olher disciIines rovides aIlernalive fora for re-
framing lhe nalure-cuIlure duaIism lhal can undermine conservalion lhinking. This
duaIism reresenls more lhan a simIe dicholomy bul embodies aII lhe inevilabIe
lensions of synlhesising exisling allerns of lhoughl vilh noveI aroaches.
10
A more
exansive seclrum of lhinking couId offer a myriad of inlerrelalions of nalure and
cuIlure. This couId rovide oorlunilies lo bolh resiluale Hcnc sapicns vilhin lhe
bioshere, as veII as lo re-imagine lhe bioshere vilhin cuIluraI and elhicaI framevorks,
by addressing environmenlaI, sociaI and elhicaI issues.
11
Synergies disliIIed from lhe
inlerseclion of lhe sciences and humanilies couId rovide nev Ienses, vocabuIaries and
conlexls from vhich lo reconsider our exislence vilhin lhe bioshere incIuding
inleraclions vilh fungi. ridging lhe disciIinary divides of Ianguage, melhodoIogies,
conceluaI framevorks and modes of reresenlalion of environmenlaI issues is
inevilabIy chaIIenging. Hovever, lhe grealesl chaIIenge erhas Iies in hov lo achieve
comIex underslanding vilhin conlrasling ideoIogies and knovIedges.
12
One aroach
lo highIighling lhe significance of fungi lo humanily couId begin vilh recognising lhal
17
Hcnc sapicns share more in common vilh fungi lhan erhas commonIy reaIised lhal
lhey are, in facl, our hyIogenelic oIder sibIings.
13

;''#$"+ #/' *'5&#$7', < .0"+$ &, 6/35-+'"'#$4 -5='* ,$15$"+,
The ehemeraI Iife of lhe liny bIue mushroom is aradoxicaIIy |uxlaosed lo ils
ancienl hislory. Iirsl aearing during lhe Iale Irecambrian (-570 miIIion years ago),
lhe ersislence and significance of fungi may be difficuIl lo comrehend vilhin lhe
verliginous magnilude of geoIogicaI lime.
14
Lichens are beIieved lo have been lhe firsl
fungi lo form beneficiaI muluaIisms, aIIying vilh holosynlhesising organisms such as
green aIgae and cyanobacleria. WhiIe originaIIy cIassified vilh Ianls, recenl insighls
inlo lhe ceIIuIar fealures, melaboIic alhvays and lrohic nalure of fungi have reveaIed
a shared evoIulionary Iineage vilh animaIs. Indeed, lhose vho slruggIe lo conlemIale
Hcnc sapicns arboreaI asl may be furlher chaIIenged lo gras lhe idea of fungi as our
hyIogenelic oIder sibIings.
15
These findings have immense imIicalions for lhe
underslanding of lhe origins of Iife and lhe significance and biosheric funclion of fungi.
Hovever, desile such remarkabIe findings, fungi, an enlire kingdom of
olenliaIIy 5.1 miIIion secies, rareIy enler lhe consciousness of many AuslraIians.
16
The
charismalic secies lhal |oslIe lheir vay onlo lhe vorId's RID Iisls or vin lhe badge of
fIagshi secies are lhose erceived as eilher imorlanl, allraclive, or, oflenlimes, as
somehov resembIing humans.
17
OnIy a meagre 0.03 ercenl of lhe vorId's fungi have
been evaIualed by lhe vorId's mosl aulhorilalive RID Lisl, lhal of lhe InlernalionaI
Union for Conservalion of Nalure.
18
The discovery of lhis Iinkage belveen fungi and
animaIs rovides an oorlunily, aIbeil an eseciaIIy ambilious one, lo romole fungi
as being lhal one sle cIoser lo humanily and hence erhas more amenabIe lo our
emalhy and allenlion.
)01#'**&"'&" $"#$%&4$',
WhiIe some fungi such as lhe liny bIue mushroom erform a sarohylic roIe
by decomosing organic maller, olhers are enlvined in inlimale unions vilh Ianls
knovn as mycorrhizaI reIalionshis.
19
These muluaIIy beneficiaI exchanges belveen
fungi and lhe greal ma|orily of higher Ianls are lhe foundalion from vhich bolh
underground and aboveground ecoIogies funclion. The fossiI record and moIecuIar
sludies confirm lhal lhe rools of lhe earIiesl Iand Ianls co-evoIved vilh fungi lo form
seciaIised fungus rools, lhal is, mycorrhizas. In lhis reIalionshi fungi assisl Ianls
by exanding lhe surface area of lheir rools, increasing lheir caacily lo exIoil much
grealer voIumes of soiI and lhereby maximising access lo valer and nulrienls. They
achieve lhis by eilher enelraling or shealhing lhe roolIels of Ianls, roviding an
inleIIigenl inlerface belveen Ianl and soiI, aIIoving for lhe seIeclive ulake of
nulrienls vhiIe excIuding loxins. In lhis recirocaI arrangemenl, lhe Ianl relurns lhe
favour by suIying lhe fungus vilh sugars roduced lhrough holosynlhesis. WhiIe
some Ianls and fungi form excIusive arlnershis, lhe ma|orily inleracl vilh a range of
arlners. Hence, one fungus may unile lhe rool syslems of numerous Ianl secies.
AIlhough visuaIising or imagining lhis coverl inlerIay may be chaIIenging,
mycorrhizaI reIalionshis reresenl an inordinaleIy vasl malrix of inlerconneclions
uniling secies, kingdoms and biosyslems.
20
Given lhe imIicalions of lhese symbioses
nol |usl in suorling naluraI ecosyslems, bul aIso in driving agricuIluraI syslems,
slabiIising soiIs, imroving valer quaIily and lhe inlegrily of cros, lhe near lolaI
absence of fungi on conservalion agendas seems slaggeringIy negIigenl. Delermining
vhy fungi have been overIooked requires an underslanding of ubIic alliludes lovard
fungi. IxIoring hisloricaI erseclives on fungi rovides a vaIuabIe slarling oinl for
examining lhe various ercelions of lhis curious kingdom.

18
>/' 4/&55'"+' -. 1'$"+ 1$?&**'
Tvo hundred and lvenly years ago, lhe Irench naluraIisl, }acques LabiIIardiere,
encounlered a mosl bizarre organism near lhe remole soulhern li of Tasmania.
21
He
may have in facl smeIl il before seeing il, for lhis secies ossesses a fouI odour lhal
effecliveIy mimics lhal of rolling fIesh or faeces. ul vhal he discovered vas neilher
fIesh nor faeces, bul fungus. The oozing brovn sIime resonsibIe for ils slench vas
ossibIy seelhing vilh fervenlIy feasling fIies. This cIeverIy disguised dileran amuse-
bouche vas in facl lhe sore mass of lhe fungus. In lhis remarkabIe union, lhe fIy
rocures a feed vhiIe lhe fungus exIoils lhe fIy's craving for lhe ulrid and caacily lo
serve as an airborne sore dislribulion mechanism. Togelher, fungus and fIy reresenl
an examIe of an ingenious muluaIIy beneficiaI symbiosis lhal characlerises fungi as
conneclors of Iife-forms. AIong vilh ils maIodorous funk, lhis secies' oslenlalious
aearance vas vhal erhas caughl lhe Irenchman's eye as ils mosl ecuIiar fruil
body emerges from a geIalinous egg-Iike sack, magicaIIy unfoIding u lo len eIongaled
red lenlacIes and hence earning il lhe common name slarfish fungus or anemone
slinkhorn.
Ils generic name, Ascrcc, is derived from lhe ancienl Greek for !isgusi (As) and
juicc (ro) vhiIe ils secific eilhel, ru|ra, refers lo ils red coIouralion.
22
Il beIongs lo a
grou commonIy knovn as lhe haIIoids vilh ils reIalives exhibiling equaIIy
idiosyncralic morhoIogies. WhiIe occurring videIy from IovIand Tasmania lo lhe
Iacific IsIes lo Soulh Africa, il reguIarIy srings u in AuslraIian suburban gardens,
oflen inciling reaclions of aIarm. Il look LabiIIardiere eighl years lo ubIish an accounl
of his unusuaI find, vilh Ascrcc ru|ra being lhe firsl fungaI secies lo be described in
AuslraIia. UnsurrisingIy, il vas lhose fungi lhal exhibiled dramalic and ersislenl fruil
bodies lhal vere among lhe firsl lo be documenled, aIlhough il vas sliII a furlher lhirly
odd years before lhe nexl fungaI secies caughl lhe eye or nose of Iuroean naluraIisls
and vas formaIIy described.
23

According lo his diaries, il is unIikeIy lhal LabiIIardiere soughl knovIedge
aboul Ascrcc ru|ra from lhe IocaI Ninene vomen.
24
In erhas overIooking lhe
imorlanl roIe of vomen in many cuIlures as keeers of fungaI Iore, a vilaI oorlunily
lo la inlo indigenous knovIedge of AuslraIian fungi may veII have been missed.
WhiIe AboriginaI AuslraIians are knovn lo have used various fungi for food, medicinaI,
ceremoniaI and olher uroses, il is nol knovn hov lhe Ninene regarded Ascrcc ru|ra
as fev elhnomycoIogicaI sludies exisl in AuslraIia.
25
Hovever, hov lhis secies vas
erceived by a Sydneysider vho recenlIy discovered il in his garden is exressed on lhe
AuslraIian Iungi Iog as:
I found lhis disgusling fungi (sic) in my garden. I digged (sic) lhem u and dumed inlo a bin.
Hovever, vilhin a veek, lhey slarled lo grov and nov lhey invade lhe garden so quickIy. Is lhere any vay lo
exlerminale hyhae vilhoul damaging my Ianls`
26

Such anlagonism lovards Ascrcc ru|ra vas exressed by olher conlribulors lo lhe bIog,
lheir main inleresl being lo find an effeclive vay lo kiII il. Olhers vere concerned lhal
lhe fungus vas kiIIing lheir lrees, or couId kiII lheir dogs or chiIdren. Such vioIenlIy
adverse reaclions refIecl a dee-sealed disdain, vhich aears lo have lransired
IargeIy from fear and ignorance of fungi ralher lhan from any documenled evidence of
lhis secies' aarenl IelhaIily. No AuslraIian fieId guide, for examIe, menlions Ascrcc
ru|ra as being a lhreal lo eilher lrees, dogs or chiIdren. Given lhal deadIy oisonous
secies are lhoughl lo reresenl a miniscuIe minorily of lhe currenlIy knovn fungaI
secies vorIdvide, lhese reaclions seem somevhal unfounded.
27
IorlunaleIy lhere are
lhose vho lhink olhervise vilh one bIog conlribulor commenling ...Iel lhese
myslerious Iife forms lhrive and decorale our gardens.
28

19
The overvheIming ma|orily of lhe earlh's biodiversily, incIuding fungi,
inverlebrales and rolisls, is IargeIy invisibIe. Those advocaling for fungaI conservalion
face lhe chaIIenge of conserving nol onIy vhal is inconsicuous, bul aIso vhal is oflen
deemed undesirabIe. To raise lhe bar even higher, lhere is lhe addilionaI chaIIenge of
conserving lhe unnamed, as eoIe rareIy vaIue vhal lhey cannol name and lhe greal
ma|orily of fungi are yel lo be formaIIy described. IungaI conservalion requires
underslanding of vhal secies exisl and vhere lhey exisl, as veII as lhe rocesses lhal
lhrealen lheir exislence. Hovever, efforls lovard underslanding ubIic ercelions of
fungi couId aIso grealIy inform fungaI conservalion. WhiIe many cuIlures revere fungi
for lheir vaIue as food and medicines and lhe mind-exanding olenliaI of
haIIucinogenic secies, IngIish-seaking cuIlures have hisloricaIIy regarded fungi Iess
favourabIy.
29
AuslraIia's originaI IngIish-seaking coIonisers broughl vilh lhem an
unheaIlhy mycohobia lhal sliII ersisls loday. Underslanding ubIic aversion lo fungi
and finding vays lo erode negalive ercelions shouId underin effeclive fungaI
conservalion.

)'",-*3 6&#/@&3, #- '%6&#/3
Human reaclions lo Ascrcc ru|ra reveaI lhal fungi can cerlainIy ignile bolh lhe
senses and lhe emolions. One may even consider fungi lo be exlraordinariIy exressive
organisms. Iungi reveaI lhemseIves lhrough lhe ecuIiarilies of lheir morhoIogies,
coIours, lexlures, smeIIs and habils, lhereby imarling somelhing of lheir characler. We
acknovIedge lhe individuaIily of secies by assigning lhem names, bul rareIy address
our emolionaI resonses lo lhem. Underslanding and arlicuIaling such resonses
requires firsl hand encounlers lhal couId enIiven our feeIings aboul fungi. To exerience
fungi lhrough muIliIe senses is a vay lo inlimaleIy knov lhem. Iven lhe mosl olenl
or oelic vrillen descrilions of "nalure" cannol calure lhe muIlisensory and energelic
exerience of hysicaI resence in "nalure". Wilhoul sensoriaIIy exeriencing fungi,
lhey are more IikeIy lo remain ureIy in lhe reaIm of lhe cognilive.
As communicalion lechnoIogies raidIy acceIerale lhe lransfer of informalion lo
vasl audiences, one mighl hoe lhal lhey had aIso calaIysed ubIic environmenlaI
avareness. Hovever, lhe guIf belveen humanily and lhe resl of lhe bioshere seems lo
grov ever vider. IossibiIilies for hysicaI and sensoriaI encounlers vilh fungi (and
vilh "naluraI" environmenls generaIIy) have raidIy diminished as AuslraIia becomes
increasingIy urbanised and more eoIe reside in concreled Iandscaes. The araIIeI
belveen shrinking knovIedge of naluraI environmenls and increasing urbanisalion is
veII documenled.
30
WhiIe lhe media have ouIarised Iarger scaIe environmenlaI
issues, eseciaIIy lhose of a sensalionaIIy calaslrohic nalure, inlimale knovIedge of
IocaI environmenls is decIining. Long lerm observalions of IocaI environmenls lhal are
ercelive lo minule varialions in sace and lime are vilaI lo underslanding lhe
bioshere in ils grealer comIexilies. Those vho acliveIy engage in conservalion efforls,
incIuding fungaI conservalion, usuaIIy do so al a IocaI IeveI. A greal chaIIenge Iies in
lrying lo scaIe-u IocaI knovIedge and vaIues lo a nalionaI and gIobaI IeveI.
The increasing divide belveen humanily and lhe resl of lhe bioshere and lhe
subsequenl suile of sociaI, sychoIogicaI, hysioIogicaI, emolionaI, elhicaI and olher
imacls, oflen referred lo as a nalure deficil, is veII knovn.
31
Whal does il mean lo
our evoIulion as elhicaI beings lo grov u vilhoul a deeer underslanding of and
emalhy for olher organisms` Iurlhermore, increasing addiclion lo eIeclronic
enlerlainmenl as an aIlernalive lo ouldoor aclivily has diminished our sensory vorId
and hence lhe caacily lo direclIy exerience and inlerrel our surrounds.
32
One may
aIso queslion lhe evoIulionary imIicalions of sensory Ioss as humanily becomes ever
more confined lo urban environmenls. Il is erhas unreaIislic lo hoe lhal fulure

20
generalions viII advocale for environmenlaI roleclion vhen lhey have nol had lhe
oorlunily lo deveIo environmenlaI emalhy. WhiIe il is oflen asked vhal kind of
Ianel viII be Iefl lo fulure generalions, a more erlinenl queslion mighl aIso be
concerned aboul lhe heaIlh of fulure generalions hysicaIIy, menlaIIy and elhicaIIy
lhal viII be Iefl "lo" lhe Ianel. AIlhough numerous inilialives lo re-engage eoIe vilh
"naluraI" environmenls have arisen in recenl decades vilhin schooIs and communilies,
fev have incIuded fungi or exIored lhem as a melahor for conneclivily belveen
humanily and lhe resl of lhe bioshere.
Iungi rovide a rich and overfuI melahor and conduil lo assisl eoIe lo
undersland such conneclions. Melahor is a dynamic looI for buiIding knovIedge and
enabIing nev insighls and conneclions by reIaling lhoughls from one shere lo
anolher.
33
Mosl erlinenlIy, melahors rovide olher vays in vhich lo inlerrel lhe
vorId. Slamels uls forvard an inleresling cIaim in suggesling lhal lhe inlernel is
simIy an exlension of a bioIogicaI modeI, mimicking erhas lhe inlerconneclivilies of
fungaI myceIia as a means of reIaying informalion. Given lhis Iink, he lherefore
considers lhal lhe exislence of lhe inlernel shouId nol be conslrued as haenslance.
34

To ursue lhe idea of fungi as a melahor for conneclivily, in lhe same vay lhal fungaI
mycorrhizas rovide Ianls vilh an inlerface belveen Ianl and soiI, ve loo ossess a
sensory inlerface lhal aIIovs for medialed exchange belveen our inlernaI and exlernaI
environmenls. Our senses aIIov us lo nol onIy exerience our surrounds bul sensalion,
or aeslhesis, forms lhe very core of embodied exerience. In silu sensale exerience can
ignile inlrigue and calaIyse conneclion. Ior lhe erson vho has never recIined on
her/his back and eered u inlo lhe mind-bending microcosm of a mushroom's
underbeIIy, concels, such as secies exlinclion or earlh |urisrudence or vaIuing nalure,
remain aII lhe more abslracl, removed from lhe senses, disconnecled from humanily.
According lo environmenlaI sychoIogisl Louise ChaIva, vilhoul direcl and sensale
exerience vilh nalure, ve forgel our Iace, ve forgel lhal Iarger fabric on vhich our
Iives deend.
35
Il is arguabIy lhrough nol |usl cognilive underslanding, bul lhrough
hysicaI sensale resence lhal one can deeIy exerience nalure. OnIy lhen erhas,
can lhe borders of cuIlure and nalure begin lo dissoIve. RacheI Carson famousIy
reminded us lhal, Il is nol haIf so imorlanl lo knov as lo feeI vhen inlroducing a
young chiId lo lhe naluraI vorId.
36

Lack of underslanding of fungi and various cuIluraI aversions mean lhal lhey
are fairIy unIikeIy lo allracl inleresl and concern in lheir ovn righl. One mighl lhen
queslion hov ve can make lhe greal Iea lo inserl argumenls aboul lhe vaIue of fungi
inlo lhe ubIic forum. The mere suggeslion of |uslice for mushrooms vouId IikeIy
lrigger Ioud guffavs aII round, eseciaIIy given hov infrequenlIy environmenlaI elhics
arise in ubIic debale. In lhe revious issue of lhis |ournaI severaI aulhors discussed lhe
chaIIenges of gaining elhicaI recognilion of Ianls.
37
Achieving elhicaI recognilion of
fungi for lhe numerous reasons discussed seems considerabIy more chaIIenging. The
key lo arousing ubIic inleresl in fungi erhas reIies on eIucidaling lhe conneclion
belveen lhe conservalion of fungi and lhe heaIlh and veII-being of humanily. y
connecling humanily vilh fungi, lhe issue becomes one nol |usl of conservalion of fungi,
bul aIso of humanily. Remembering lhal fungi are our hyIogenelic oIder sibIings couId
be an imorlanl firsl sle.
A-6' $" & #$"3 150' %0,/*--%
Huge chaIIenges exisl in our efforls lo incororale and reconciIe lhe greal suile
of vaIues ascribed lo nalure, incIuding lhose of lhe liny bIue mushroom. The fulure
exislence of lhe Ianel's biodiversily requires many of us lo lhink and acl differenlIy. In
arlicuIar lhis invoIves nev vays of conceiving of human agency and our dynamic
21
deendence on lhe resl of lhe bioshere. The earlh's caacily lo mainlain lhe Ianel's
Iife-suorl syslems needs reosilioning vilhin lhe reaIm of human moraI
consideralion. WhiIe science has rovided us vilh a vasl body of knovIedge, il is onIy
lhrough lhe cuIluraI-sociaI conlexl of our Iives lhal lhis knovIedge derives meaning and
over.
38
Iurlher scienlific knovIedge is necessary lo beller undersland and rolecl lhe
bioshere, bul a fundamenlaI change in our dominanl vaIues is erhas even more
urgenlIy required.
39
UIlimaleIy, conservalion of fungi and, indeed, of aII biodiversily
viII slruggIe lo rogress vilhin lhe limeframe of lhe need for change unIess ve relhink
lhe nalure-cuIlure duaIism. WhiIe ve calegoricaIIy deend on lhe resl of lhe bioshere
for our survivaI, as VaI IIumvood reminded us, much of nalure aIso deends on
cuIlure lo ensure ils roleclion and suorl ils deendency on a heaIlhy almoshere.
40

Ingagemenl vilh lhe bioshere lhrough sensale exerience aIso reIies on
anolher ofl-forgollen faclor in fungaI conservalion. Hoe remains one of lhe mosl vilaI
and overfuI drivers of ro-environmenlaI behaviour vilhoul vhich lhe media
onsIaughl of environmenlaI doom can reciilale a essimislic sIide inlo ambivaIence,
aalhy and inaclion. WhiIe acknovIedging lhal hoe can aIso manifesl as iIIusory
olimism based on deniaI or vishfuI lhinking ralher lhan agency, osilive correIalions
exisl belveen hoe and ro-environmenlaI behaviour.
41
IndividuaIs vilh higher IeveIs
of environmenlaI hoe have grealer caacily for conslruclive lhinking and are more
IikeIy lo become acliveIy engaged.
42
The key once again Iies in conneclivily. Hoe comes
from insiralion and insiralion comes from sensale in silu exeriences of nalure.
Given lhese reIalionshis belveen emolion and environmenlaI engagemenl are veII
documenled, emolionaI resonses lo fungi shouId erhas become a ma|or focus of
conservalion inilialives.
IungaI conservalion is unIikeIy lo be a riorily of any oIilicaI candidale al lhe
nexl eIeclion, lhe one lhereafler and robabIy nol lhe one afler lhal. There viII aIvays
be seemingIy more ressing and reIevanl issues lhal viII lake recedence over fungaI
conservalion. ul as organisms lhal mainlain ecosyslem heaIlh, grealIy infIuence lhe
success or faiIure of our lerreslriaI food roduclion and offer lhe olenliaI lo counler lhe
environmenlaI damage of lhe Anlhroocene, fungi are sureIy vorlhy of more lhan a
cursory aflerlhoughl in biodiversily conservalion. WhiIe individuaI fungaI secies
cerlainIy exhibil lheir curiosilies, il is vhal lhey coIIecliveIy reresenl in lhe much
grealer scheme of connecling lhe bioshere lhal needs lo be beller underslood and
communicaled. Advocaling for biodiversily conservalion is noloriousIy difficuIl.
Iromoling lhe significance of lhe liny bIue mushroom - of fungi as a melahor for lhe
comIex inlerconneclivilies of our Ianel - couId rovide one more grealIy needed
olion lo encourage a relhinking of humanily's Iace vilhin lhe resl of lhe bioshere.

BC>D)

1. AIison IouIiol is an ecoIogisl and environmenlaI holograher. She vishes lo lhank lhe
lvo anonymous revievers for lheir vaIuabIe commenls.
2. A. IouIiol and T. May (2010), "The Third 'I' Iungi in AuslraIian iodiversily
Conservalion: Aclions, Issues and Inilialives", Mqcc|cgia Ba|canica 7, . 27-34.
3. I. oa (2004), Wi|! |!i||c |ungi A G|c|a| Otcrticu cj incir Usc an! |npcriancc ic Pccp|c,
Iood & AgricuIluraI Organisalion of lhe Uniled Nalions, Rome.
4. MycoIogisl, NeaIe ougher, coined lhe lerm lhe lhird I in reference lo lhe omission of
fungi in biodiversily conservalion, lhe olher lvo Is being for fIora and fauna.


22

5. D. ird Rose, T .van Dooren, M. ChruIevb, S. Cooke, M. Kearnes and I. O'Gormand
(2012), Thinking Through lhe Invironmenl, UnsellIing lhe Humanilies", |ntircnncnia|
Hunaniiics 1, . 1-5.
6. N. Cooer (2000), "Seaking and Lislening lo Nalure: Ilhics vilhin IcoIogy", Bic!itcrsiiq
an! Ccnscrtaiicn 9, . 1009-1027, I. Mallhevs (2009), "Inlroduclion: Invilalion lo
Onlooelics", Pni|cscpnq Aciitisn Naiurc . 61-67.
7. S. SrIin (2012), InvironmenlaI Humanilies: Why ShouId ioIogisls Inleresled in lhe
Invironmenl Take lhe Humanilies SeriousIy`, BicScicncc 62, no. 9, . 788-89.
8. Y. HaiIa (1999), "iodiversily and lhe Divide elveen CuIlure And Nalure", Bic!itcrsiiq
an! Ccnscrtaiicn, 8, . 165-181.
9. D. Rose (2012), .2
10. Y. HaiIa (1999), .166
11. V. IIumvood (2003), AnimaIs and IcoIogy: Tovards a eller Inlegralion, unubIished
arlicIe, avaiIabIe al: hll://hdI.handIe.nel/1885/41767.
12. W. Sleffen (2005), "Iorevord" in R. Graflon, L. Robin and R. Wasson, Un!crsian!ing inc
|ntircnncni. Bri!ging Tnc Oiscip|inarq Oiti!cs, UNSW Iress, Sydney, . xi-xii.
13. W. }ehne (2012), "The RoIe of Iungi in SoiI HeaIlh, UnubIished aer, resenled al
Iungima Conference, Hobarl 2012, Websile:
hll://vvv.rbg.vic.gov.au/fungima/fungi-conservalion-and-managemenl-
symosium-W} (Accessed 02 May 2012).
14. M. rundrell (2002), "CoevoIulion of Rools and Mycorrhizas of Land IIanls", Ncu
Pnqic|cgisi, 154, . 275-304.
15. W. }ehne (2012).
16. D. Havksvorlh (2001),"The Magnilude of IungaI Diversily: The 1.5 MiIIion Secies
Islimale Revisiled" Mqcc|cgica| |cscarcn 105, . 1422-1432, M. IackveII (2011), "The
fungi: 1,2,3...5.1 miIIion secies`", Ancrican jcurna| cj Bcianq 98 (3), . 436-438.
17. RID Iisls are Rarily, Indangermenl and Dislribulion (RID) Iisls. They rovide an
invenlory of lhe conservalion slalus of bioIogicaI secies.
18. }. Hance (2012), "96 Iercenl of The WorId's Secies Remain UnevaIualed by lhe Red Lisl",
Websile: hll://nevs.mongabay.com/2012/0628-hance-red-Iisl-udale-2012.hlmI-
(Accessed 12 December 2012)
19. Sarohylic or sarobic fungi secrele enzymes lhal break dovn organic maller.
20. I. Slamels (2005), Mqcc|iun |unning. Hcu Musnrccns can Hc|p Satc inc Wcr|!, Ten Seed
Iress, USA.
21. T. May and I. Iascoe (1996), "Hislory of The Taxonomic Sludy of AuslraIian Iungi", In
|ungi cj Ausira|ia, VoI. 1A, . 171-206, ARS/CSIRO, AuslraIia, T. May (2001),
"Documenling lhe IungaI iodiversily of AuslraIasia: Irom 1800 lo 2000 and eyond",
Ausira|ian Sqsicnaiic Bcianq 14, . 329-356.
22. H. LiddeII and R. Scoll (1980), A Grcck-|ng|isn Icxiccn (Abridged Idilion), Oxford
Universily Iress, Uniled Kingdom.
23. May and Iascoe (1996), . 329
24. L. Ryan, (1996), Tnc A|crigina| Tasnanians, Second edilion, Sl Leonards, AIIen and
Unvin, V. IIumvood (1998), "WiIderness Scelicism and WiIderness DuaIism", . 652-
690, in }. CaIIicoll and M. NeIson (eds), Tnc Grcai Ncu Wi|!crncss Oc|aic, Universily of
Georgia Iress, London.
25. A. KaIolas (1996), "AboriginaI KnovIedge and Use of Iungi", in |ungi cj Ausira|ia, VoI. I,
. 269-295, CSIRO, MeIbourne.
26. AuslraIian Iungi bIog vebsile: hll://auslraIianfungi.bIogsol.ch/2007/05/12-aseroe-
rubra.hlmI (Accessed 07 Dec 2012).
27. I. oa (2011), "Irom Chiho lo Msika: An Inlroduclion lo Mushrooms, Trees and
Ioresls", in A. Cunningham and X. Yang (eds) Musnrccns in |crcsis an! Wcc!|an!s.
|cscurcc Managcncni, Va|ucs an! Icca| Iitc|incc!s, Iarlhscan Limiled, Uniled Kingdom,

23

M. IackveII (2011), "The Iungi: 1,2,3...5.1 MiIIion Secies`", Ancrican jcurna| cj Bcianq 98
(3), . 436-438.
28. AuslraIian Iungi bIog vebsile: hll://auslraIianfungi.bIogsol.ch/2007/05/12-aseroe-
rubra.hlmI (Accessed 07 Dec 2012).
29. I. oa (2004), .3
30. R. Louv (2005), Iasi Cni|! in inc Wcc!s, AIgonquin ooks, Nev York.
31. Ibid., .58.
32. Ibid., 58.
33. N. Cooer (2000), .1013
34. I. Slamels (2005), .7
35. L. ChaIva (2002), Grcuing Up in an Ur|anising Wcr|!, UNISCO, London.
36. R. Carson (1962), Tnc Scnsc cj Wcn!cr, Harer and Rov, Nev York.
37. A. Reid (2012), "InvironmenlaI Ilhics in Iducalion: Three Ways in for IIanl Ilhics",
Pni|cscpnq, Aciitisn, Naiurc No. 9, . 48-53, }. Ryan (2012), "Tovards Inlimale ReIalions :
Geslure and Conlacl elveen IIanls and IeoIe", Pni|cscpnq, Aciitisn, Naiurc No. 9, .
29-36.
38. N. Cooer (2000), . 1011
39. }. GoddeII (2012), Cnangc |tcrqining Ncu. A Sc|cciicn cj |ssaqs jrcn Oricn Magazinc,
Orion, Massachusells.
40. V. IIumvood (1998).
41. M. O|aIa (2012), "Hoe and CIimale Change: The Imorlance of Hoe for InvironmenlaI
Ingagemenl Among Young IeoIe", |ntircnncnia| |!ucaiicn |cscarcn, VoI. 18, (5), .
625-642.
42. S. CourviIIe and N. Iier (2004), "Harnessing Hoe lhrough NGO Aclivism", Tnc Anna|s
cj inc Ancrican Aca!cnq cj Pc|iiica| an! Sccia| Scicncc 592, . 39-61.
24

Supporting Soil Fungi To Rebuild Soils in
Agriculture

Anne Therese OBrien
1
Taking up Judith Wrights call to make a new choice
2
I argue that, if we are to
reverse soil degradation and its contribution to climate change, we need to relate to soil
fungi differently, becoming allies of certain fungi through recognising and enabling
their life-supporting roles in ecosystems. This stance involves using different tools,
materials and technologies, as well as becoming receptive and imaginative, seeing soils
not merely as surfaces but as complex three-dimensional communities and meshworks
3
:
worlds in themselves. The first section of the paper looks at how mainstream agriculture
involves numerous practices that have banished soil fungi to the downtrodden margins
of agricultural land. The second section explores a vision of agriculture as an intimate
craft. I discuss how some innovative farmers and scientists are learning to support the
flourishing of soil fungi through tools and methods that help soil life to become more
interdependent.
In 2009, the residents of Sydney woke to a dust storm that enveloped the city in
a surreal orange light. Social media and online news outlets were ablaze with images of
the apocalyptic dawn. Scientists quoted in newspaper articles reassured the public
that such an event was natural; that it was unlikely to be related to global warming,
and that farmers' land management practices had improved markedly since the regular
dust storms of seventy years ago.
4
The origin of the dust was said to be the Lake Eyre
Basin, an arid region in South Australia that has been desert since before European
settlement. A later research paper published in 2011 by Lim and others analysed the
dust (including bacterial DNA) and traced it to Australia's agricultural food bowl: the
highly erodible and drought-stricken Mallee and Riverina regions of Victoria and
central NSW.
5
These regions lie within the Murray-Darling Basin, some of the most
intensively cultivated and degraded land in Australia.
The dust storm has served as an image of the breakdown of human
relationships with the land since ancient times. In numerous works of literature, the
dust storm is a portent of ecological and social breakdown, and certain technologies are
framed as its cause. In Steinbeck's The Grapes of Wrath (1939), the soil loses its binding
qualities to the landscape and becomes an emulsion of dust and air. For the farming
communities portrayed, the dawn came, but no day.
6
The erosion prefigures the
unbinding of the people to the land as the dust bowl conditions and economic
restructuring force farmers to migrate to California to become landless labourers at the
beginning of the Great Depression. As the tractors take over, there is a corresponding
loss of loyalty and care given by people to the landscape. The tractor demolishes
carefully-built homes and fills in water wells in pursuit of the straight line furrow of
progress.
Anne Therese OBrien, Supporting Soil Fungi
25
Timothy Morton points to the plough as the ultimate image of the
Anthropocene in his analysis of Sophocles' play Antigone, written around 441 BCE.
According to the translation Morton uses, this tool grinds the unastonishable earth
with horse and shatter
7
, leading to elemental chaos. A dust storm forms not only the
backdrop to the human turmoil but also a parallel drama of the play in its own right:
SENTRY: Suddenly, a whirlwind!
Twisting a great dust storm up from the earth,
a black plague of the heavens, filling the plain,
ripping the leaves off every tree in sight,
choking the air and sky. We squinted hard
and took our whipping from the gods.
8

According to Morton, agriculture turn[s] reality into domination-ready chunks of
parcelled-out space waiting to be filled and ploughed by humans.
9
Judith Wright's
1946 poem Dust similarly draws connections between sickness, misfortune,
ploughing and dust:
This sick dust, spiralling with the wind,
is harsh as grief's taste in our mouths
and has eclipsed the small sun.
The remnant earth turns evil,
the steel-shocked earth has turned against the plough
and runs with wind all day, and all night
sighs in our sleep against the windowpane.
10

While for Sophocles, the earth is unastonishable, for Wright the earth is steel-
shocked. Both imply the question: Can the earth express a discernible reaction while
encountering destructive activities? If so, are we capable of noticing and heeding it? In
Wright's poem, the soil rises up, turning against the plough and eroding in the wind.
Wright urges us to act differently towards the land, to make a new choice, that is, to
go on in a new way.

Business as usual agriculture
If we subtract the concept dirt from soil we are left with what is known as
humus, the carbon-based components, both living and non-living. Subtracting dust
from dirt leaves moisture and the heavier compound particles. Implicit in the
different meanings of the words dust, dirt and soil is knowledge about the
importance of soil aggregation processes. Yet while this language reveals some
understanding about healthy soil structures, our understanding is limited when it
comes to the microbes that are the architects of such structures, and the impact of tilling
on soil structure.
The words culture, cult and cultivatederive from the Latin colere,
meaning to till or toil over [the soil].
11
Massimo Angelini beautifully analyses the
etymology of culture in the last edition of Philosophy, Activism, Nature.
12
These terms
are imbued with associations of care, with the Latin cultus also meaning care, worship,
reverence.
13
Cultivation today is both a synonym for ploughing and also a synecdoche
for associated practices of farming: growing, tending. It also is a verb of deliberate self
and group actualisation. Such long-standing positive associations reveal and reproduce
an assumption that tilling the soil is necessary for agricultural landscapes to bear an
abundant harvest.
In large scale, capitalist agriculture, soil is often objectified and treated as an
inert growing medium. Like hydroponics, such farming understands soil more in terms
of its anchoring functions than the interactive capacities of its biological inhabitants.
According to advocacy group Healthy Soils Australia, "in the view of traditional soil
scientists, soil is merely a porous medium for holding water and keeping plants
26
upright. The role of micro-organisms is seen as little understood, and certainly not as
important as climate, geography and soil chemistry.
14

Figure 1. Pumpkin at the Blue Mountains Food Co-op, New South Wales, Australia

Conventional plough usage upturns and crushes clods of soil, breaking apart
the networks of beneficial microbes, especially fungi, leaving the newly opened-up
surfaces exposed to the sun, which dehydrates the organic matter contained within.
Carbon bound up in the soil particles can then become unbound, and can be consumed
as food by certain creatures, and respired into the atmosphere, increasing the
greenhouse effect. The burning of crop residues and of grassland further destroys the
fungal networks in soils, and releases carbon that could have been incorporated into the
soil. The wheels of a tractor or hooves of an ox can also compact the soil, reducing
oxygen and promoting anaerobic microbes. These produce alcohols that inhibit the
growth of plant roots and fungi, the primary dispensers of energy in the underground
economy, reducing the overall biomass in the soil. Similarly, herbicides and
fungicides eliminate much soil biodiversity, while artificial fertilisers allow plants to
obtain nutrients the easy way, reducing incentives to develop relationships with
microorganisms
15
.
Certain species, vocabularies, ideal images, accounting systems, understandings
of time and hygiene routines reinforce each other in assemblages to promote a clean
slate surface as the goal at the end of each season. Annual plants, bred for a short
lifecycle, are pulled out, roots and branches taken away or burned rather than allowed
to be decomposed, and new seeds sown in the crumbly topsoil. There is a break in life-
cycles, which is understood to be a good thing: in order to reduce the danger of disease.
Anna Tsing calls this the grain model, applied to broad acre agriculture, based on the
skewed experiences of monocultural grain and potato-growing that encountered fungi
mainly as threats, in the form of devastating diseases such as rust and blight
16
. In a
27
recent public lecture in Sydney, American farmer Joel Salatin proposed a different
typology: he called this the germ model of disease. Instead he advocates for a more
complex terrain model that takes into account biodiversity and competition
17
. When
plants are demolished each year with a plough and herbicides and the soil left to dry
out, new microbial communities must laboriously establish each season in response to
the new crop. With each harvest, each new removal of dead biomass, the soil life,
especially the fungi, declines in abundance and diversity, thus creating greater potential
for diseases to spread, and slowing crucial soil-building processes.
Tsing's critique of the grain model shows how assumptions from one context
can become rigidly incorporated into templates for action, habits and technologies.
When considering fungi, a large part of the problem is that their invisibility makes it
difficult to perceive feedback that may inform farmers to change their actions. Michael
Carolan claims that tensions between the visible and the non-visible play out in the
debate between sustainable and conventional agriculture. He argues that a large part of
achieving sustainable agriculture, involves working to nurture certain ways of seeing,
which can only be accomplished by institutional changes and new social network
formations.
18
Problems of scale can be compounded by the broadacre size of many
farms, with mechanical work delegated to machinery, minimising direct contact with
the soil surface by the hands and feet of farmers. Such machinery can frame the
perspective from which soils are viewed (e.g., from a cockpit). In The Grapes of Wrath,
Steinbeck's narrator critiques the atomism that became dominant with the rise of the
tractor:
in the tractor man there grows the contempt that comes only to a stranger who has no
understanding and no relation. For nitrates are not the land, nor phosphates; and the
length of fibre in the cotton is not the land. Carbon is not a man, nor salt nor water nor
calcium. He is all these, but he is much more, much more; and the land is so much more
than its analysis.
19

Here is a double-alienation: The farmer suffers in losing wonder for and connection
with the land and enjoyment of the work. Wonder implies a deeper understanding than
mechanistic and atomistic science can impart, and a relationship that comes with
embodied, respectful contact, kneeling in the earth to eat his lunch
20
. The land, in the
paradigm ushered in by the technology of the tractor, is conceived of as a mere surface,
and an amalgam of different chemical components. Steinbeck is lambasting the
alienation of capitalist agriculture and of its attendant strains of reductionist science.
Such ideologies are reproduced by the technological-social assemblages in which we
participate. As Ivan Illich says, a technology [can] incorporate the values of the society
for which it was invented to such a degree that these values become dominant in every
society which applies that technology.
21
Just as oppressive ideologies can be
unwittingly re-performed by language, so too, technologies are performative; a critical
outlook would problematise the worldviews that technologies sometimes presuppose.
Tim Ingold critiques the spatial imaginary that Western ontologies encourage:
that of moving across a pre-formed surface, rather than through a nascent world.
22

He seeks to re-animate thought through engaging with the phenomenological method
of Merleau-Ponty. He sees the indigenous animistic awareness of the aerial flux of
weather to promote an ontology of interrelatedness in contrast to an outlook
constituted by the grounded fixities of landscape. Ingold advocates for a meshwork"
image of the fungal mycelium as preferable to the rhizome image of Deleuze and
Guattari, to illustrate our entangled existences with other life in a relational field.
Organisms extend along the multiple pathways of their involvement in the
world
23
. The mycelium has a high surface area for the purpose of extending its capacity
to interact with the world and the soil, to transport messages, to secrete sugars, to obtain
water and nutrients. Its form is porous, receptive, sensitive. Not only do fungal mycelia
28
grow outwards in order to grasp, but also in order to accept other outstretched limbs; to
be nourished and to nourish others. They physically manifest an ecological existence.

The special role of soil fungi
Between 700-420 million years ago, a special kind of fungal partnership
24

enabled plants to step out of the great swimming pool of life and on to dry land.
25
Soil
fungi still play many similar roles in ecosystems to those they had back then: protecting,
hydrating, feeding, creating the basis for ever-more complex forms of life. Certain
species prevent erosion, decompose dead matter, filter and store water (helping outlast
droughts), redistribute resources, and in doing so they support the flourishing of other
biodiversity.
In his fascinating book, Mycelium Running: How Mushrooms Can Help Save the
World, Paul Stamets introduces readers to a complex and generous underground world
of fungal relationships:
the mycorrhizal, saprophytic, and endophytic mushrooms...benefit [plants] in 3 ways.
These complementary mycological systems help plants survive starvation, dehydration,
and parasitization. The richer the fungus-plant partnerships, the more the organisms the
habitat can support.
26

Mycorrhizal fungi extend from tree roots and through soils like blood vessels, joining
plants together, linking them to other parts of the soil food web, and feeding numerous
organisms throughout the soil. They unite the land into a body, in dendritic patterns of
sensitive, sensate and even perhaps sentient membranes. These membranes detect and
redistribute minerals, sugars and water even responding to disturbance by allocating
resources to that area, and giving extra sugars to trees under canopies that are starved
of sunlight and thus energy.
27
Thus, as Paul Stamets says, the mycelium guards the
forest's overall health, budgeting and multi-directionally allocating nutrients.
28
Most
plants allocate more than 40 percent of their food from photosynthesis through the
roots, feeding a multitude of soil organisms.
29
Mycorrhizal fungi are prime among these
microbial allies, with almost 80 percent of plants able to associate with them.
30

Mycorrhizal fungi build the architecture that holds healthy soil communities together,
preventing erosion by binding particles together in aggregates. This aggregate
formation is the most reliable biological pathway of sequestering carbon in soils. In this
aggregation process mycorrhizal fungi convert carbon into more stable forms such as
humates and glomalin.
31
A recent study of boreal forest in the journal Science indicates
that 50 to 70 percent of the carbon bound in soil is from tree roots and the fungi that
grow on them.
32
Given that soils globally hold twice the amount of carbon than the
atmosphere,
33
the amount of carbon stabilised by fungi and roots and their potential to
hold still more is mind-boggling.
Central to Stamets' argument is the life-giving impact of saprophytes
(decomposer fungi). A former forester, Stamets worked daily in the presence of forest
fungi, and witnessed their generative activities in enriching, even creating the enabling
conditions for certain forest ecosystems. Each time a tree lies rotting on a forest floor, he
claims, it contributes far more to the ecosystem than it ever did while living. (And that
is no mean feat!) He describes an instance in Oregon in which a single underground
fungal mycelium covered a horizontal area of 1,665 American football fields before the
construction of logging roads restricted its extent through compaction and clearing.
Throughout its life, the organism occasionally manifested pathogenic properties,
kill[ing] the forest above it several times over, and in so doing it has built deeper soil
layers that allow the growth of ever-larger stands of trees
34
. Stamets harnesses the
qualities of saprophytes to prompt ecological restoration models, using inoculated
29
wood chips to grow fibrous mats to improve soil structure and stabilise disused and
eroded logging roads. He sees a special role for humans in this era:
Under ordinary circumstances, nature self-prescribes fungi for its own healing. But since
we have accelerated the forests' natural destruction and renewal cycles, thereby creating
massive debris fields, for instance, through clear-cutting, we ought to help the forests
accelerate the decomposition cycles by introducing mycelium in key areas in essence by
running mycelium.
35

In this era of the Anthropocene, humans regularly curtail the self-propagating,
reproducing, proliferating and recycling capacities of soil fungi. We would do better to
help soil fungi live and reproduce. This could help fungi to deepen agricultural soils,
building long-term stores of soil carbon rather than allowing most of it to be released to
the atmosphere.

Paying attention to soil microbes
I peer down into the lens of the microscope and turn the fine focus knob.
Suddenly a world comes into view. Long translucent filamentous threads extend from a
black sphere. Tiny creatures scurry around, with larger ones occasionally entering the
field of light. With the help of our teacher, the mass of dots and threads begins to
differentiate. I learn to distinguish bodies and functional features. An energetically
moving dot becomes a ciliate. Smaller dots are protozoa. A double line becomes a
sprouted fungal mycelium. It extends across a quarter of the field of view. I scroll across
and follow it until I see the spore it has sprouted from.
It is the second day of the Soil Food Web course held in a cottage beside the
facilities management sheds at Southern Cross University Lismore, Australia. I and my
classmates are observing samples of the aerated compost teas that we have left
overnight bubbling away. Each is a sign of a certain biochemistry that has expressed
itself in the 18 hour period of the brewing, allowing some potentialities to become
actual. Some organisms have multiplied, others have not. Some samples are healthy,
diverse and aerobic, containing fungi, protozoa and adequate bacteria. Others are more
sparse and full of ciliates a sign of anaerobic conditions, enabled by a broken down
motor that left the compost tea to stew. If the brew is anaerobic, bacteria and yeasts will
produce alcohol that is so detrimental to plant growth that roots will bypass the patch of
soil on which the compost tea has been applied. This is the danger of creating anaerobic
conditions (e.g., through compaction) in soils: while some bacteria and invertebrates
will thrive, plant roots and fungi will not, and thus the patch of soil will lose its
connectivity to fungal hyphae and plant roots.
For many of us, this workshop is an initiation to another world. It opens the
black box of soil microbiology for continued engagement and learning. Some have
gained permanent access to microscopes, buying them as businesses or farmer groups
(such as the Mudgee Microscope group and the Hawkesbury Microscope Group). I,
perhaps unwisely, borrowed my late grandfather's super-heavy microscope and lugged
it around in a backpack, copping a bodily beating in the process. Others engage with the
microscope for this workshop only: to reconstitute their black boxes, changing their
everyday practices accordingly. Whether microbes remain in view or not, things will
never be the same again. Our imaginations have been broadened. Plant species
selection, machinery and tool use, planting methods, water provision, fertilising,
composting, pest control, harvesting and dealing with vegetative remains of crops now
are considered in the light of impact on the soil food web.

30
Convivial assemblages
For farmers concerned about the wellbeing of beneficial soil fungi, alternatives
to conventional soil management are becoming more widespread. Alternatives such as
Holistic Management, developed by Allan Savory, mimics African savannah herd
migration and avoids the problem of overgrazing, erosion and compaction by animal
hooves. This technique often uses electric fences to direct movement of large herds
around the land, and encourages fungal growth through abandonment of trampled
(and urinated on) grass fibres for extended periods, allowing grasses to grow much
higher, and the roots much deeper, than in ordinary paddocks.
36
Other alternatives
include Yeomans' Keyline Plough, which makes an incision in the soil without
dramatically disturbing its structure. In the picture below, the modified plough is
attached to a hose that applies compost tea, another way to regenerate soil biodiversity.
Compost tea is also being used as a substitute to chemical sheep dips and cattle
drenches: the increased microbes on animal skins can then out-compete diseases.
37

Figure 2. Keyline plough at Taranaki Farm, Victoria, Australia
38

The keyline plough, the compost pile, the compost tea, the microscope and the
cell grazing fences can be understood as part of convivial assemblages
39
from a
microbial point of view. Such assemblages promote biodiversity and represent clear
alternatives to those assemblages structured to fit the paradigm of the conventional
plough or the overgrazed paddock. Rather than technologies of control that disentangle
and simplify relationships, convivial tools at their best strengthen interdependence. In
his book, Tools for Conviviality, Ivan Illich clarifies what he means by conviviality: I
intend it to mean the autonomous and creative intercourse among persons, and the
intercourse of persons with their environment; and this in contrast with the conditioned
response of persons to the demands made upon them by others, and by a man-made
environment.
40
In other words, it is responsiveness and receptivity between humans
and with earth-others. The technologies listed above do not promote full freedom for
31
the organisms harnessed for agriculture, but they do allow them to express their
ordinary inclinations more freely.
In the same grain-growing Western district of Victoria from which the dust
storm arose, some farmers are learning to use technologies to support the flourishing of
soil microbes. Quoted in the recent Soils for Life report commissioned by Outcomes
Australia, Brian and Sandra Wilson of Briandra in Mingay realised that we did not
know how the basalt plains functioned as an ecosystem and why it was in such poor
condition. We lacked detailed technical information. It was not until we went and talked
to a wide range of experts that we began to understand why the soil condition and the
water logging problems were related.
41
They then changed their use of vehicles: Since
moving to raised-bed farming we no longer drive machinery or vehicles on the beds.
Our own tests have shown that this compacts the soil and reduces biological activity. To
overcome this problem in the long term we have moved to control track farming where
the tractors and harvesters only move in the furrows. To ensure this happens,
machinery is fitted with high spatial precision tracking systems." Furthermore they
initiated no-till practices, with a stubble digestion program applying brewed cellulose-
digesting bacteria and saprophytic fungi through leaving cereal stubbles in the ground.
They now incorporate wheat stubble into the soil. Sandra and Brian emphasised the
importance of experimentation in this effort: "My business model has the philosophy to
use ten per cent of farm gross income in experimentation, starting over small areas, and
the encouraging results are expanded, and may develop into standard practice". This
experimental orientation allows Brian to be receptive and responsive to notice how
certain interventions are received by soil ecosystems, and modify practice accordingly.
In this example, and in many more of the case studies assembled by Outcomes
Australia, we can see strategies adopted by farmers that allow for more convivial
assemblages of technologies, substances and human modes of perception and action.
These increase economic wellbeing, not through increased exploitation, but by scaling
back inputs. Such changes also allow farmers to attend to the wellbeing of other species
on the farm, and share some of the photosynthetic surplus of the system with soil
biodiversity.

Reconstructing agriculture: Towards intimate crafts
Twenty-two years ago, Jack Kloppenburg Jr. argued for a deconstructive and a
reconstructive project to move agricultural technoscience on to new trajectories. He
affirmed a role for science in more grassroots frameworks of knowledge production:
Material resources for a 'successor science' are to be found in the 'local knowledge' that is
continually produced and reproduced by farmers and agricultural workers.
42

Colin Tudge likewise suggests a similar way forward, with science a helpmeet or
helpful partner:
Agriculture is, fundamentally, a craft industry, and the craft must prevail again, with
science relegated to its proper role as helpmeet, and the devices of modern accountancy
employed simply to keep score.
43

In such a relationship, scientists concede some of their privileged expert statuses, and
position themselves as partners to the practical wisdom of farmers. The educators at the
Soil Food Web Institute modelled expert humility, speaking in plain English, helping
students develop their craft and become more sensitive. Scientists have particular skills
for representation that they can bring to this process, which they can share with hybrid
groups. Latour imagines this relationship in a particularly interesting way:
The sciences are going to put into the common basket their skills, their ability to provide
instruments and equipment, their capacity to record and listen to the swarming of
different imperceptible propositions that demand to be taken into account. They will also
32
contribute to the work of consultation...through a competency that has allowed them to
get ahead of all the other callings that of controversy and experimental testing.
44

Scientists regularly debate with each other the reliability of different interpretations of
evidence and Latour sees this as translating the difficult languages of the non-human.
In this way science can help strive towards a right relationship with the species
involved.
The work of caring for soil biodiversity can be understood as part of an
economy of reproduction, like bearing and caring for children and the elderly. In a
recent essay, Kathryn Norlock perceptively brings together Nel Noddings' feminist
ethic of care and Leopold's land ethic. She argues for the importance of receptivity,
direct and personal experience, joy and play as sources of moral motivation in
agriculture.
45
In a similar way, Maria Puig de la Bellacasa argues for non-mastery in
technoscience, and the assembling of neglected things:
Taking responsibility for what and whom we care for doesnt mean being in charge.
Adequate care requires knowledge and curiosity regarding the needs of an other
human or not and these become possible through relating, through refusing
objectification. Such a process inevitably transforms the entangled beings...From this
affective perspective, transforming things into matters of care is a way of relating to
them, of inevitably becoming affected by them, and of modifying their potential to affect
others.
46

This work differs from the ordinary agricultural work of planting, maintaining and
harvesting crops or raising livestock in the way that resources are distributed. The
needs of collaborator species are considered in decisions regarding allocation of surplus
energy, water and other forms of sustenance.
47
These practices of being attentive to the
needs of animals, plants and soil life can enhance agricultural wisdom or phronesis. As
Stamets says:
With every failure, if I have paid attention, I hone my skills and sensitivity to the
mycelium's needs. Every failure is the price of tuition I have paid to learn a new lesson...I
have learned to make the wisest choices by listening to the mycelium.
48

When Stamets writes of listening to the mycelium, he implies a contrast with
speaking, a subject position that assumes mastery, often imposing a ready-made system
of knowledge on the world. Listening involves openness. It helps us learn to be
affected
49
by unfamiliar new concerns. This allows for ordinary practices to be revised
after observing the way the fungi participates in the world and interacts with its
surroundings. This helps us form new body-worlds that are more sensitive.
50

Choosing our tools more carefully, reconfiguring them, redesigning them and
learning to use them sensitively can help us move from atomistic to ecological
understandings of farming. These practices can help to immerse ourselves
imaginatively in the world of the microbes, identifying with them, in the process of
learning how to recognise and respond to their needs. To become more proficient at this
ecological craft we need awareness of the impacts of certain movements and certain
machine processes on the invisible bodies beneath us. Practicing these movements and
viewing their impacts afterwards with tools such as microscopes can help develop a
bodily-felt familiarity with the kinetics and the sensitive parts of these organisms that
we interact with.
Making a new choice to support the flourishing of beneficial soil fungi in
agriculture requires imagination, receptivity and experimental flexibility, as well as
willingness to consult and understand the science regarding the needs of other
species. Tools such as compost, keyline ploughs and microscopes can add to repertoires
of perception and understanding so that the microbial world can emerge beyond
ordinary vision to figure in our minds eye. These convivial technologies help to
reconfigure power relationships from a paradigm of mastery to apprenticeship,
33
working attentively and caringly with the materials and the organisms involved in the
crafts of agriculture. In this way, environmental concerns about land degradation,
biodiversity and climate change can be addressed simultaneously with efforts to
produce an adequate harvest and a surplus for human consumers.

Notes

1
PhD candidate in Political and Social Thought at the School of Humanities and
Communication Arts, University of Western Sydney. Direct correspondence to
a.obrien@uws.edu.au
2
J. Wright (1973), Dust, The Moving Image. Folios of Australian Poetry. The Meanjin
Press, Melbourne, p. 34.
3
T. Ingold (2006), Rethinking the Animate, Reanimating Thought, Ethnos, 71(1), pp. 9-
20.
4
G. Robinson (2009), Dust Storm: Unclear If Climate Change to Blame, Sydney Morning
Herald. September 23. Website:
www.smh.com.au/environment/dust-storm-unclear-if-climate-change-to-blame-
20090923-g28g.html (Accessed 14 April 2013).
5
N. Lim, C. Munday, G. Allison, T. O'Loingsigh, P. De Deckker and N. Tapper (2011),
Microbiological and Meteorological Analysis of Two Australian Dust Storms in April
2009, in Science of the Total Environment [P], vol 412-413, Elsevier BV, Netherlands, pp.
223-231.
6
J. Steinbeck (1995), The Grapes of Wrath. Minerva, Australia, pp. 3-4
7
A. Carson and B. Stone (trans.) (2012), Antigonick, New Directions, New York, p. 20.
8
Sophocles (1982), Antigone, R. Fagles (trans.), Penguin Books, New York, pp. 463-468.
9
T. Morton (2012), The Oedipal Logic of Ecological Awareness, Environmental
Humanities 1, p. 16.
10
J. Wright (1973), p. 33.
11
Collins English Dictionary Online (n.d.), Definition of Cultivate. Website:
www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/cultivate (Accessed 23 June 2013).
12
M. Angelini (2012), Down to the Roots of the Word Culture, E. Addey (trans.),
Philosophy, Activism, Nature 9, pp. 90-94.
13
Online Etymology Dictionary (n.d.), Cult. Website:
www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=cult&searchmode=none
(Accessed 23 June 2013).
14
Healthy Soils Australia (2010), Soil. Website: http://www.healthysoils.com.au/soil.html
(Accessed 15 April 2013).
15
J. Lowenfels, and W. Lewis (2010), Teaming with Microbes: The Organic Gardeners Guide to
the Soil Food Web, Timber Press, Portland, p. 26.
16
A. Tsing (2012), Unruly Edges: Mushrooms as Companion Species, in Environmental
Humanities 1, pp. 141-154.
17
J.Salatin, whose free range forms of agriculture have been demonstrated in
documentaries such as Food, Inc. gave a public lecture entitled Real Food Forum at the
Sydney Town Hall on 16 February 2013.
18
M. Carolan (2006), Do You See What I See? Examining the Epistemic Barriers to
Sustainable Agriculture, Rural Sociology 71(2), pp. 232-260.
19
J. Steinbeck (1995), p. 132.
20
J. Steinbeck (1995), p. 133.
21
I. Illich (1978), Energy and Equity, in Toward a History of Needs. Heyday Books,
Berkeley, p. 110.
22
T. Ingold (2006), p. 17.
23
T. Ingold (2006), p. 18.
24
This partnership was a lichen.
25
ABC (2001), First Land Plants Paved Way For Humans. Website:
www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2001/08/10/344214.htm (Accessed 30 July 2013).
34

26
T. Ingold (2006), p. 34.
27
S. Simard et al. (1997), cited in P. Stamets (2005), Mycelium Running: How Mushrooms Can
Help Save the World, Ten Speed Press, Berkeley, p. 26.
28
P. Stamets (2005), p. 26.
29
M. Amaranthus, L. Simpson, J. Lowenfels (2012), Making the Most of Microbes.
Website:
www.mycorrhizae.com/wpcontent/uploads/2012/09/Oct12_Amaranthusetal.pdf 6 May
2013 (Accessed 30 July 2013).
30
P.V. Sengbusch (n.d.), Mycorrhizas. Website: www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-
online/e33/33b.htm (Accessed 23 June 2013).
31
M. Rillig, S.Wright, V. Eviner (2002), The Role of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi and
Glomalin in Soil Aggregation: Comparing Effects of Five Plant Species, Plant and Soil,
238, pp. 325-333.
32
M. Fischetti (2013), Root Fungus Stores a Surprising Amount of the Carbon Sequestered
in Soil, Scientific American. Website: www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=root-
fungus-stores-a-surprising (Accessed 15 April 2013).
33
J.I. Hedges, G. Eglinton, P.G. Hatcher, D.L. Kirchman, C. Arnosti, S. Derenne, R.P.
Evershed, I. Kogel-Knabner, J.W. de Leeuw, R. Littke, W. Michaelis, J. Rullkotter (2000),
The Molecularly Uncharacterized Component of Nonliving Organic Matter in Natural
Environments, Organic Geochemistry 31, pp. 945-958.
34
P. Stamets (2005), p. 49.
35
P. Stamets (2005), p. 51.
36
A very interesting TED talk given by Allan Savory is available here: A. Savory (2013),
How to Fight Desertification and Reverse Climate Change. Website:
www.ted.com/talks/allan_savory_how_to_green_the_world_s_deserts_and_reverse_cli
mate_change.html (Accessed 30 July 2013).
37
There is anecdotal evidence to support the practice of spraying compost tea on livestock
to reduce skin infection. This was mentioned at the Soil Food Web Institute training
course that I attended in March 2013. See E. Ingham (2010) Spraying Livestock with
Compost Tea. Website: http://tech.groups.yahoo.com/group/compost_tea/message/7159
(Accessed 30 July 2013). Also a company in the UK is selling probiotic animal skin sprays
here: Emvelo (2013), Emvelo Natural Products for Livestock. Website:
www.emvelo.co.uk/livestock.php (Accessed 30 July 2013). I further checked this with W.
Jehne, of Healthy Soils Australia, who said the scientific basis of this practice is sound (23
June 2013 pers.comm.).
38
Photo is from Fusion Farms: http://www.fusionfarms.com/comingup/compost-may2010/
(Accessed October 2011). [No longer on internet]
39
I theorise the notion of the convivial assemblage in other papers for my PhD thesis,
drawing from Latour (2004) and Illich (1973).
40
Illich, I. (1973), Tools for Conviviality, Calder and Boyars, London.
41
Outcomes Australia (2012), Soils for Life Case Study 15: Using Raised Beds and
Beneficial Fungi to Restore Soil Health, in Innovations for Regenerative Landscape
Management: Case Studies of Regenerative Landscape Management in Practice, pp. 166-171.
Website: www.soilsforlife.org.au (Accessed 30 July 2013).
42
J. Kloppenburg Jr. (1991), Social Theory and the De/Reconstruction of Agricultural
Science: Local Knowledge for an Alternative Agriculture, Rural Sociology 56(4), pp. 519-
548.
43
C. Tudge (2005), Feeding People is Easy: But We Have To Re-Think the World From
First Principles, Public Health Nutrition 8(6A), pp. 716-723 (p. 722).
44
B. Latour (2004), Politics of Nature: How To Bring the Sciences into Democracy, Harvard
University Press, Cambridge, pp. 138-139.
45
K. Norlock (2011), Building Receptivity: Leopold's Land Ethic and Critical Feminist
Interpretation, Journal For the Study of Religion, Nature and Culture, 5(4), pp. 491-509.
46
M. de la Bellacasa (2011), Matters of Care in Technoscience: Assembling Neglected
Things, Social Studies of Science, 41, pp. 99-100.
35

47
See the ethical coordinates of J.K. Gibson-Graham (2006), A Postcapitalist Politics,
University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, p. 88.
48
P. Stamets (2005), p. 126.
49
B. Latour (2004), How to Talk About the Body? The Normative Dimension of Science
Studies, Body & Society 10(2-3), pp. 205-229.
50
J.K. Gibson-Graham and G. Roelvink (2009), An Economic Ethics for the
Anthropocene, Antipode 41(S1), pp. 320346.

!"#$ !&'()*)+&,- "./'0'*1- #2/345 6)7 89- :98;

36

"#$%&'()#*( +&,%&-./$/&,*
!"#" %&'()*% %* % $#.,01*2/30/* /34.4-5

'%)*( 6%,/*
7

A normaI human body is lhoughl lo be comosed of over one lriIIion ceIIs, of vhich onIy aboul
10 ercenl are animaI (i.e. human), some of vhich have been shovn lo rofoundIy infIuence human
melaboIism and hysioIogy.
2
Hov do ve undersland human sub|eclivily and idenlily in lhis
cacohony if, as Donna Haravay suggesls, lo be one is aIvays lo <5.)15 ='/& many`
3
This aer
exIores vhal il means lo be human vhen ve recognise our bodies as a muIli-secies ecoIogy. Il
adols Haravay's anaIylicaI melhodoIogy of lhe slring game Cal's CradIe.
5
This aer is Iike a slring
figure such as The CircIe (Iigure 1) vhich allemls lo form allerns, knols and vebs lo unlangIe
and reform lhe comIex cuIluraI discourses, sub|ecl osilions and knovIedge cIaims evidenl in
human reIalions vilh our bodies and lhe olher secies lhal inhabil lhem. Haravay suggesls lhal since
a cradIe beIongs lo no one, lo no 'one' cuIlure or seIf, lo no frozen sub|ecl or ob|ecl, il offers lhe
olenliaI lo Iearn somelhing aboul hov vorIds gel made and unmade, and for vhom".
5
The knolled
veb inilialed in lhis aer forms from lhe inlimale and fraughl conlacl zones of bioIogy, aeslhelics,
cuIlure and care belveen >)1) *2+'56* (humans) and ?26@'@2 2(<'.26* (Candida), lhe singIe-ceIIed
oorlunislic fungaI alhogen commonIy knovn as lhrush. e varned: lhis discussion osilions
humans and lhrush as co-evoIved comanion secies invoIved in a biooIilicaI enlangIemenl lhal is
gendered, sexuaI and oflen rulhIess.

80-#)/ 79 The CircIe slring figure. Image credil: CaroIine Iurness }ayne.
6

A24*& B2/5*- >3126A&43*& C6/26D(5156/*

37
:&4, ;< +&*,(,& &-.(/&*%< =)0/&> 4) =4/?
?26@'@2 2(<'.26* is an organism symbiolic vilh humans. Il is a singIe-ceIIed commensaI fungus
lhal is one of many secies of microorganisms lhal make u lhe inleslinaI and urogenilaI fIora of
humans, vilhoul il ve vouId have difficuIly digesling as il breaks dovn sugars in lhe bIood slream.
7

Iresenl in 80 ercenl of lhe human ouIalion, ve acquire our Candida ouIalion in lhe firsl lhree
lo six monlhs afler birlh. As an oorlunislic alhogen, overgrovlh caused by anlibiolics or
comromised immunily resuIls in Candida infeclions (candidiasis) more commonIy knovn as lhrush
(Iigure 2).
Thoughl lo be a simIe asexuaI, singIe-ceIIed fungus, recenl research has shovn il lo be highIy
adalive bolh genelicaIIy and morhoIogicaIIy.
8
Advances in modern medicine have Ied lo Iarger
ouIalions of immuno-comromised alienls becoming suscelibIe lo candidiasis as il forms
infeclious biofiIms on medicaI equimenl.
9
IormerIy vomen's business, lhe yeasl is nov one of lhe
four mosl common causes of bIoodslream and cardiovascuIar infeclions in hosilaIs and is
arlicuIarIy of concern in neonalaI inlensive care unils.
10
This dramalic conlribulion lo hosilaI
infeclions has increased lhe imorlance of Candida in human heaIlh research and has rovided
imelus for increased scienlific research inlo ils bioIogy and lrealmenl.
11

As a feminisl researcher, I am arlicuIarIy inleresled in Candida. Candida is cuIluraIIy
gendered vilhoul ilseIf having a gender or even a sex as il is an oorlunislic alhogen of vaginaI
lracls in arlicuIar.
12
Many vomen have inlimale, embodied and emolionaI reIalionshis vilh lhis
microscoic crealure, vhich usuaIIy invoIve lrying lo kiII il. Candida signifies lhe Ieaky bodies of
vomen: lhe unruIy, lhe ab|ecl, lhe undisciIined.
13
Through Candida I exIore lhe comIexilies of our
reIalionshi vilh microorganisms as an imorlanl arl of our bodies, of vhal il means lo be human.

80-#)/ @. OraI lhrush infeclion. Image credil: }ames HeiIman
14

:&4, ;;< A/ (%B/ &/B/) C//& !"#" %&'()*%

We have had forbidden conversalion, ve have had oraI
inlercourse, ve are bound in leIIing slory on slory vilh nolhing
bul lhe facls. We are lraining each olher in acls of
communicalion ve bareIy undersland. We are, consliluliveIy,
comanion secies. We make each olher u, in lhe fIesh.
15

!"#$ !&'()*)+&,- "./'0'*1- #2/345 6)7 89- :98;

38
Ten bacleria or fungaI ceIIs Iive in or on a normaI human body for every animaI ceII. These
myriad Iives on our body surfaces, in our bIood, and our digeslive lracls enabIe lhe immune and
digeslive syslems of lhe secies ve caII >)1) *2+'56* lo funclion. The hundreds of microbiaI secies
have co-evoIved vilh lhe animaI ceIIs, making lhem essenliaI lo our exislence. They have aIso been
shovn lo change vuInerabiIily lo slress, affecl memory and may have a roIe in aulism.
16
MoIecuIar
bioIogisl ruce irren suggesls lhal ve can'l reaIIy undersland human heaIlh vilhoul
underslanding hov ve inleracl vilh aII lhese microbes.
17

A microbiome is lhe lolaIily of microbes, lheir genelic eIemenls (genomes), and environmenlaI
inleraclions in a arlicuIar environmenl. NobeI Irize vinning moIecuIar bioIogisl }oshua Lederberg,
vho coined lhe lerm in 2001, argued lhal micro-organisms inhabiling lhe human body shouId be
incIuded as arl of lhe human genome, because of lheir infIuence on human hysioIogy.
18
Irior lo
2001 lhe lerms microbiola and microfIora vere used.
A biome is a geoIogicaI lerm describing a geograhicaIIy defined region of lhe Iarlh vilh
simiIar cIimalic condilions, aIso referred lo as an ecosyslem. Adoling lhe lerm microbiome
lherefore imIies lhal lhe human body is an ecosyslem (Iigure 3). Hovever, lhe vaIorisalion of lhe
genome inherenl in lhe recenl omic lurn has caused lhe environmenlaI inleraclions of lhe human
biome lo be seen as secondary lo lhe genomes and resuIled in lhe melonymy of microbiome and
microbiola.
19
Ixaminalion of lhe cuIluraI significance of such shifls in elymoIogy and reIalionaIily
reveaIs imorlanl assumlions and narralives aboul vhal il means lo be human.
Donna Haravay's concelion of comanion secies is lhe firsl serious consideralion of lhe co-
conslilulion/co-evoIulion of human animaIs vilh olher organisms. Haravay has been vilaI lo my
allemls lo reconfigure my underslanding of my human body and ils reIalionshi vilh ils inlernaI
and exlernaI ecoIogies. She says, I lhink ve Iearn lo be vorIdIy from graIing vilh, ralher lhan
generaIizing from, lhe ordinary. I am a crealure of lhe mud, nol lhe sky.
20
?26@'@2 2(<'.26* is one of
lhe many secies viraI, bacleriaI, fungaI and insecl lhal conlribule lo lhe comIex, co-conslilulive
muIlisecies ecoIogy lhal is lhe human body. Candida hoIds a arlicuIarIy evocalive and rich cuIluraI
vaIency for humans, aImosl unique in lhis muddy ecosyslem. ody surveiIIance and disciIine are
cruciaI comonenls of lhis vaIency, necessary in order lo avoid lhe oul-of-conlroI grovlh, Ieakage,
and burning of lhrush.

80-#)/ D9 NASA/NIH Human Microbiome ro|ecl.
NASA IubIic Domain.

21

A24*& B2/5*- >3126A&43*& C6/26D(5156/*

39
:&4, ;;;< E3%./* 4= #$F/.,

Our vorId. elveen us, lhe movemenl from inside lo
oulside, from oulside lo inside, knovs no Iimils. Il is vilhoul
end. These are exchanges lhal no mark, no moulh can ever slo.
elveen us, lhe house has no vaIIs, lhe cIearing no encIosure,
Ianguage no circuIarily.
22

ScaIes of sacelime are cruciaI in lhe reIalionshis belveen >)1) *2+'56* and ?26@'@2 2(<'.26*.
Irom a human erseclive, Candida are inlernaI, microscoic, invisibIe, simuIlaneousIy shorl Iived
(days) and immorlaI. Can ve comrehend hov Candida mighl erceive lime` Is il lhe lime of
inlraceIIuIar communicalions belveen hosl and seIf or lhe lemoraIily of reroduclion and
reIicalion vhen one ceII becomes lvo, idenlicaI, yel searale` If *5(E is conslanlIy reIicaled, vhen
is one born` Does one die` Hov is a Iife measured` Is Candida lime lhe lemoraIily of consumlion,
vhen food aears and reaears` Does il recognise eriodicily as inlervaIs of infeclion, an
exuberanl fecundily, or as Ienglh of myceIiaI grovlh` Much vork is yel lo be done in underslanding
hov olher secies undersland lemoraIily Iel aIone lhose as radicaIIy differenl as Candida.
Irik Svyngedouv argues lhal scaIe is lhe embodimenl of sociaI reIalions of emovermenl
and disemovermenl.
23
Ior such a smaII organism, Candida can have a significanl effecl on our
bodies and our lemeramenls. Il has generaled an economy of harmaceulicaI roducls and scienlific
research yel ve sliII knov very IillIe aboul il. As a commensaI organism il is invisibIe lo us, hidden
vilhin lhe foIds of our bodies, unnoliced unliI an infeclion occurs (Iigure 4). The reIalionshi of
over belveen human and Candida is comIex: a Candida infeclion has no animosily. Driven by ils
environmenl, us, il resonds lo lhe amounl of sugars in lhe bIood slream, lhe olher bacleria in ils
ecoIogy, lhe surface il adheres lo. We on lhe olher hand slrive lo kiII il, lo lame ils invasive excess.

80-#)/ G9 ?26@'@2 2(<'.26* infeclion of human cervix (1970). Image credil: CDC.
24

!"#$ !&'()*)+&,- "./'0'*1- #2/345 6)7 89- :98;

40
:&4, ;H< I0*302.0&0&- ,(/ %.0/& */.=

KalhIeen KaIaf has been lo heII and back in her Iong fighl vilh
syslemic Candida. Today, lhanks lo a nev Candida lrealmenl
lhal is more effeclive lhan even lhe mosl ouIar Candida
remedies, KaIaf is finaIIy free of lhe yeasl overgrovlh lhal sloIe
eighl years of her Iife.
25

The grovlh of Candida is Iimiled by lhe human immune syslem and from comelilion by olher
members of lhe >)1) *2+'56* ecoIogy. Hovever, infeclion occurs vhen lhe human immune syslem is
comromised or vhen lhe ecoIogicaI baIance is dislurbed. SuerficiaI infeclions of skin and mucosaI
membranes, incIuding oraI or vaginaI lhrush, are common and cause infIammalion and miId lo
severe discomforl.
26
These oulbreaks can be caused by lhe exlernaI use of delergenls or douches, or
inlernaI (hormonaI or hysioIogicaI) imbaIances can dislurb lhe normaI microbiola. Candida lakes
advanlage of lhe resuIlanl Iack of comelilion for food and sace lo gorge ilseIf: reIicaling,
changing H, changing shae. CeIIs bud, buds become seudo-hyhae, seudo-hyhae become
hyhae, hyhae embed inlo ceII vaIIs and become viruIenl biofiIms. NormaI, good bacleria have no
room lo relurn.
The ersislenl concelion of an immune syslem as a var zone resuIls in a comIex biooIilics
of viclim and aggressor. IoundalionaI binaries of seIf/non-seIf musl be eslabIished and mainlained in
order lo rolecl a reformed, fragiIe sub|ecl from a voracious, coIonising invader (Iigure 5). odies
are alroIIed, surveiIIed and disciIined. MoraIily is assigned: bad Candida are conlroIIed by
beneficiaI bacleria, and IifeslyIe choices (diel and anli-fungaI lrealmenls) revenl overgrovlh.
UnavoidabIe or ersislenl oulbreaks are kiIIed using robiolics (good bacleria), anlifungaIs
and/or a Iov sugar diel.
AIlhough Candida vas isoIaled from lhe vaginas of onIy 19 ercenl of aarenlIy heaIlhy
vomen in one sludy,
27
75 ercenl of vomen are affecled al some lime in lheir Iives and many
exerience recurrenl and debiIilaling symloms. GIobaI exendilure on lhe ouIar vaginaI lhrush
lrealmenl, Caneslen (roduced by ayer), in 2012 vas C250 miIIion.
28
Hovever, many vomen are
forced lo resorl lo home remedies such as yoghurl, garIic and robiolics lo reIieve heIIish recurrenl
symloms. Syslemic candidiasis is a cIinicaIIy imorlanl robIem in hosilaIised individuaIs, nov lhe
fourlh mosl common infeclious organism in hosilaIs in lhe Uniled Slales of America, and morlaIily
rales vary grealIy belveen 10 and 50 ercenl.
29
AImosl 15 ercenl of eoIe vilh veakened immune
syslems deveIo a syslemic iIIness caused by Candida secies. GoogIe searches for Candida
lrealmenl and lhrush lrealmenl roduce 11 and 6.5 miIIion resuIls resecliveIy. The benefils of
Candida are novhere lo be found.

80-#)/ J9 IIIuslralion from The Candida Crusher Irogram, lhe ermanenl yeasl soIulion. Image credil Dr Iric
akker.
30

A24*& B2/5*- >3126A&43*& C6/26D(5156/*

41
:&4, H< K#//) 0&>/,/)$0&%35

your body, here, lhere, nov. I/you louch you/me, il's quile
enough for us lo feeI aIive. Oen your Iis, bul do nol oen
lhem simIy. I do nol oen lhem simIe. We you/I are never
oen nor cIosed. ecause ve never searale simIy, a singIe
vord can'l be ronounced, roduced by, emilled from our
moulhs. Irom your/my Iis, severaI songs, severaI vays of
saying echo each olher. Ior one is never searabIe from lhe
olher. You/I are aIvays severaI al lhe same lime.Hov couId
one dominale lhe olher` Imose her voice, her lone, her
meaning` They are nol dislincl, vhich does nol mean lhal lhey
are bIurred. You don'l undersland a lhing`
No more lhan lhey undersland you.
31

UnliI recenlIy, Iaboralory sludies of Candida vere erformed by exlracling a samIe of lhe
fungus from a hosl and groving il using a slandard microbioIogicaI lechnique: on lhe surface of a
soIidified agar nulrienl medium in a elri dish incubaled al human body lemeralure in a sleeI box
(lhe incubalor). TyicaI singIe-ceIIed microbiaI coIonies aear during lhe lhree-day incubalion
eriod afler vhich lhe nulrienl suIy is exhausled and a nev Iale is cuIlured. Candida on agar are
benign and asexuaI, reIicaling lhrough budding nol dissimiIar lo F2..&24)1,.5* .5450'*'25, lhe yeasl
secies used in bread or beer making.
Wilhin a hosl body, hovever, Candida are omnisexuaI and oIymorhic, being abIe lo svilch
belveen asexuaI and sexuaI reroduclive slralegies and severaI morhoIogicaI slales.
32
Svilching is
lhe resuIl of a comIex inlerIay of genelic and environmenlaI faclors, incIuding lemeralure, H,
food suIy and moislure. Candida morh belveen various slales: yeasl and hyhaI ceIIs, an oaque
form necessary for sexuaI maling, seudo-hyhaI ceIIs, and chIamydosores (Iigure 6). AII are
dislincl ceII lyes invoIved in differenl modes of alhogenicily and viruIence.
33
Can lhe (aarenlIy)
sexuaIIy dimorhic coaguIalion lhal is lhe human body undersland lhis exlravaganl fecundily`
The disciIined and lidy ?26@'@2 2(<'.26* groving on a elri-dish is considered lo be lhe same
organism as lhe sexuaIIy and morhoIogicaIIy romiscuous arasile exemIifying vhal has come lo
be knovn as lhe secies robIem. The secies robIem describes difficuIlies lhal arise during lhe
cIassificalion of organisms inlo lhe exisling scienlific laxonomic syslem, vhich is rimariIy based on
hov individuaIs reroduce.
34
The incIusion crileria of any such curaloriaI ro|ecl are based on a series
of un/conscious cuIluraI assumlions and biases and inevilabIy resuIl in eIisions and excelions. Hov
does such a syslem cIassify Candida, an organism lhal can engage in severaI reroduclive slralegies`
As described by Iraser and coIIeagues, lhe currenl secies cIassificalion syslem vorks veII for
eukaryolic organisms such as humans and birds bul faiIs in lhe case of rokaryoles as lhey are so
bioIogicaIIy differenl and diverse lhal ve sliII do nol undersland vhal a bacleriaI secies is.
35
?26@'@2 2(<'.26* furlher comIicales lhis syslem by having characlerislics of bolh eukaryolic fungi and
rokaryolic bacleria.
Whal lhis discussion shovs is lhal ?26@'@2 2(<'.26* exisls in vhal hysicisl and hiIosoher
Karen arad describes as a slale of onloIogicaI indelerminacy, lhal is, Candida is insearabIe from
ils environmenl.
36
Any allemls lo observe or exerimenl on Candida imose salio-lemoraI
condilions on ils behaviour and hence ils vorIding. Laboralory raclices cause lhe organism lo
behave in cerlain vays al cerlain limes and hence an organism emerges from arlicuIar maleriaI and
lemoraI circumslances. arad insisls lhal resonsibIe Iaboralory raclices |vhich incIude
eislemoIogicaI rigorj musl lake accounl of lhe agenliaI erformances of lhe organism in making lhe
secific nalure of causaI reIalions evidenl.2* '/542/'05 '6/42G2./'0'/,, or a erformalive emergence.
37

!"#$ !&'()*)+&,- "./'0'*1- #2/345 6)7 89- :98;

42

80-#)/ L. ?26@'@2 2(<'.26* al 200x magnificalion. Image credil: Y. lambe.
38

:&4, H;< ;&,)%1*2/30/* 2/)=4)$%,0B0,5
IoIIoving scienlific care inslruclions, I subcuIlure lhe Candida every lhree lo four days in a
biosafely cabinel in a IC2 Iaboralory lo ensure a ready suIy of nulrienls.
39
I am very conscious of
my embodied reIalionshi vilh lhis seemingIy benign organism and grov fond of lhe smoolh, shiny,
creaminess of lhe coIonies. In lhe riluaIised environmenl of lhe IC2 Iaboralory, vilh my Iab coal,
gIoves and sleriIising elhanoI I become highIy avare of my aclions vhen caring for lhis criller:
fIaming lhe inocuIalion Ioo lo sleriIise il, slroking lhe agar Iale lo remove a coIony, slreaking lhe
coIony onlo a nev Iale in lhe acceled four quadranl slreak melhod, brushing my hair oul of my
eyes vilh lhe back of my gIoved hand, ushing my gIasses back u my nose, vraing lhe slreaked
Iale vilh arafiIm lo revenl conlaminalion, |uming off my chair, oening lhe incubalor, lurning
lhe Iale uside dovn lo revenl condensalion, Iacing lhe Iales on lhe incubalor sheIf, coming in
every day lo check grovlh and conlaminalion. I exerimenl vilh differenl media and reare shee's
bIood agar Iales, samIed from lhe shee of a IocaI farmer (Iigure 7). The bIood is red al 55C and
chocoIale-coIoured al 70C: lhe shee donor is 39C.

80-#)/ M9 CuIluring ?26@'@2 2(<'.26* on shee's bIood agar Iales, '6 0'/54) (2011), Tarsh ales. Image credil:
Megan SchIiaIius.
40

A24*& B2/5*- >3126A&43*& C6/26D(5156/*

43
:&4, H;;< '(/ #&*/,,.0&- /)4* 4= 34&,%3, N4&/*
Iros, for hiIosoher Luce Irigaray, is a sensuaI, affeclive desire for inlerconneclion and
inleraclion. This desire for aIIiance exisls simuIlaneousIy and aradoxicaIIy aIongside ercelion of
olherness and desire for aulonomy.
41
arad's "ileralive inlra-aclion correIales vilh lhis
underslanding of eros as crealive, fIuid vork lhal re/generales sub|ecls. Chrisloher Cohoon
suggesls lhal bodies sub|ecl lo Irigarayan eros exisl as olenliaI energy, in slales of immanenl
becoming vhich resonales vilh arad's underslanding of maller as conslanl generalive
erformalivily.
42
As lhe mosl exlreme exerience of sensalion eros is imalienl and reslIess, in
conslanl fIux.
43
I am inleresled in lhe ossibiIilies lhal Irigaray's formalion of eros as lhe molor of
becoming belveen lvo humans offers for lhe very maleriaI conlacl zones belveen human and
Candida.
44
The onloIogicaI indelerminacy of humanlhrush enlangIemenls is a reslIess, sIiery
vorIding (Iigure 8). An imalienl, inlra-secific eros emerges from caresses belveen human and
Candida.

comuIsive co-exislence
inlangibIe irresislibIe reuIsion
/body/body/body/body/body/body/body/body/body/body/body/body/body/body/body/body/
rolein insinualion

a lhird from lvo
a myriad lhird
risky allachmenl
reslIess caress

enfIamed fecundily
limeIess minule allenlion
imalienl unconlroI
ilchscralchilchscralchilchscralchilchscralchilchscralchilchscralchilchscralchilchscralchilchilch
unconscious desire sIi burn

80-#)/ O9 SeIf-orlrail vilh ?26@'@2 2(<'.26*, 2011, Tarsh ales
!"#$ !&'()*)+&,- "./'0'*1- #2/345 6)7 89- :98;

44
:&4, H;;;< ;&>/,/)$0&%,/ P/=4)$%,04&
The knols of lhe enlangIemenls belveen humans and Candida are comIex, maleriaI,
embodied and cuIluraI. A Cal's CradIe requires helerogeneous Iayers, vho cannol aII be members
of any one calegory.
45
The Iayers voven in lhis CradIe, shovn here in a momenl of resl, anliciale
nev movemenls and ermulalions (Iigure 9).

80-#)/ Q9 The CircIe slring game incIuding maleriaIsemiolic framevorks. Adaled from C. Iurness }yne.

R4,/*
1. SymbiolicA, SchooI of Analomy, IhysioIogy and Human ioIogy, Universily of Weslern AuslraIia, larshbales+gmaiI.com.
2. D.C. Savage (1977), "MicrobiaI IcoIogy of lhe GaslroinleslinaI Tracl", "6632( H50'5= )E I'.4)<')()D,, 31.
3. D. Haravay (2008), J&56 F+5.'5* I55/, MinneaoIis, Universily of MinneaoIis Iress, . 4.
4. D. Haravay (1994), A Game of Cal's CradIe: Science Sludies, Ieminisl Theory, CuIluraI Sludies, ?)6E'D342/')6*, 2(1).
5. Ibid., . 69.
6. C. Iurness }ayne (1906), F/4'6D K'D345* 26@ >)= /) I2L5 A&51, Nev York, Courier Dover IubIicalions, Websile:
hll://vvv.slringfigures.info (Accessed 8 May 2013).
7. C.L. Sears (2005), "A Dynamic Iarlnershi: CeIebraling Our Gul IIora", "6254)<5, 11(5).
8. M. Whilevay and C. achevich (2007), "Morhogenesis in ?26@'@2 2(<'.26*", "6632( H50'5= )E I'.4)<')()D,, 61(1).
9. C.A. Kumamolo and M.D. Vinces (2005), "AIlernalive ?26@'@2 2(<'.26* LifeslyIes: Grovlh on Surfaces" "6632( H50'5= )E
I'.4)<')()D,, 59(1).
10. Ibid.
11. }. SoulhveII (1996), Suffer and e SliII: ?26@'@2 and lhe Gender IoIilics of MedicaI Research, M3/*L'4/*, 2, Websile:
hll://vvv.chIoe.uva.edu.au/oulskils/archive/voIume2/soulhveII (Accessed 18 }une 2009).
12. }. erman and I.I. Sudbery (2002), "?26@'@2 2(<'.26*: A MoIecuIar RevoIulion uiIl on Lessons from udding Yeasl",
#2/345 H50'5=* N565/'.* 3.
13. Refer lo MargrilShiIdrick and }uIia Krislevain arlicuIar for discussions of Ieaky and ab|ecl femaIe bodies.
14. Image source: Websile: hll://en.vikiedia.org/viki/OraI_candidiasis (Accessed 23 Iebruary 2012).
15. D. Haravay (2003), A&5 ?)1+26')6 F+5.'5* I26'E5*/)$ O)D*- !5)+(5- 26@ F'D6'E'.26/ M/&5465**, Chicago, IrickIy Iaradigm
Iress, . 2-3.
16. K. Weinlraub (12 AriI 2012), Microbiome: Hov ugs May e CruciaI lo Your HeaIlh, BB? #5=* )6('65, Websile:
hll://vvv.bbc.com/fulure/slory/20120412-lhe-beasls-inside-you (Accessed 18 AriI 2013).
17. Ibid.
18. }. Lederberg (2001), "'Ome Sveel 'Omics - A GeneaIogicaI Treasury of Words", A&5 F.'56/'*/, 2 AriI, Websile:
hll://vvv.lhe-scienlisl.com/`arlicIes.viev/arlicIeNo/13313/lilIe/-Ome-Sveel--Omics---A-GeneaIogicaI-Treasury-of-
Words/ (Accessed 15 March 2013).
19. A roIiferalion of lerms ending in "-omic" has occurred over lhe lurn of lhe cenlury, belveen 1990 and 2013. Lederberg
suggesled in 2001 lhal "Genomics and Iroleomics are lhe buzzvords of lhe davning miIIenium" and roceeded lo
anaIyse lhe elymoIogy of lhe "-omic" suffix (Ibid.). He shoved lhal il had enlered common use afler lhe Iaunch of lhe
bioIogy |ournaI N56)15 in 1983. Al Ieasl 40 commonIy used lerms, suffixed by "-ome" vere exlracled from lhree
resligious dalabases, MIDLINI, lhe Web of Science, and lhe Oxford IngIish Diclionary in 2001, and more have arisen in
lhe subsequenl years. The raid and enlhusiaslic adolion of -ome and -omic refIecls a arlicuIar focus by science
A24*& B2/5*- >3126A&43*& C6/26D(5156/*

45
and ouIar cuIlure on lhe imorlance of lhe genome (and olher "-omics") as informalion or "lhe code of Iife" ralher lhan
one asecl of a comIex syslem.
20. D. Haravay (2008), . 3.
21. Image source: Websile: hll://vvv.nasa.gov/mission_ages/slalion/exedilions/exedilion35/briefing_011713.hlmI
(Accessed 17 }une 2013).
22. L. Irigaray and C. urke (1980), "When Our Lis Seak Togelher", F'D6*, 6(1), . 73.
23. I. Svyngedouv (1997), "IxcIuding lhe Olher: The Iroduclion of ScaIe and ScaIed IoIilics", in R. Lee and }. WiIIs (eds),
N5)D42+&'5* )E C.)6)1'5*, London, ArnoId.
24. Image Source: Websile: hll://hiI.cdc.gov/IHIL_Images/20041028/a2da94d94d3542e1aca935f9b30ade09/6381_Iores.|g
25. Anon. (2010), Nev Candida Trealmenl more Iffeclive lhan IouIar Remedies, #5=* I5@'.2(, }anuary 28, Websile:
hll://vvv.nevs-medicaI.nel/nevs/20100128/Nev-Candida-lrealmenl-more-effeclive-lhan-ouIar-remedies.asx
26. I.L. IideI (2002), "Immunily lo Candida", M42( O'*52*5, 8(S2).
27. I.A. Mrdh, N. Novikova and I. SlukaIova (2003), "CoIonisalion of IxlragenilaI Siles by Candida in Women vilh
Recurrenl VuIvovaginaI Candidosis", BPMN, 110(10).
28. ayer (2012), F.'56.5 E)4 2 B5//54 Q'E5$ "6632( H5+)4/ :98:, Websile:
hll://vvv.bayercroscience.us/nevs/Documenls/bayer-annuaI-reorl-2012.df (Accessed 3 May 2013).
29. M.A. IfaIIer and D.}. Diekema (2007), "IidemioIogy of Invasive Candidiasis: A Iersislenl IubIic HeaIlh IrobIem",
?('6'.2( I'.4)<')()D, H50'5=*, 20(1).
30. Image source: Websile: hll://vvv.yeaslinfeclion.org/lhe-candida-crusher-rogram/ (Accessed 10 May 2013).
31. L. Irigaray and C. urke (1980), . 72-73.
32. }. erman and I.I. Sudbery (2002).
33. M. Whilevay and C. achevich (2007).
34. K. de Queiroz (2005), Irnsl Mayr and lhe Modern Concel of Secies, !#"F, 102 (SuI. 1).
35. C. Iraser, I.}. AIm, M.I. IoIz, .G. Srall and W.I. Hanage (2009), The acleriaI Secies ChaIIenge: Making Sense of
Genelic and IcoIogicaI Diversily, F.'56.5, 323(5915), . 741.
36. K. arad (2011), Nalure's Queer Ierformalivily, R3' !24(5, 19(2), . 134.
37. Ibid, .136.
38. Image source: Websile: hlls://en.vikiedia.org/viki/Candida_%28fungus%29 (Accessed 23 }une 2012).
39. A IC2 (or IhysicaI Conlainmenl LeveI 2) Iaboralory is a bioIogicaI Iaboralory lhal aIIovs for lhe sludy of genelicaIIy
modified organisms (GMOs), human lissue or CIass 2 alhogens such as ?26@'@2 2(<'.26*. As suggesled in lhe name lhese
Iaboralories are designed lo hysicaIIy revenl conlaminanls from enlering and comromising an exerimenl, or GMOs
or alhogens escaing from lhe Iaboralory. Irevenlalive measures incIude disinfeclanls, roleclive cIolhing, barriers, and
fiIlralion syslems. Requiremenls for cerlificalion of IC2 Iaboralories are described in lhe Gene TechnoIogy Acl (2000) and
lhe Slandard, AS/NZS 2243.3:2002 Safely in Iaboralories.
40. '60'/54) vas an arl/science research ro|ecl exIoring lhe aeslhelic exeriences of care lhrough roIonged engagemenl
vilh eighl olher secies of Iiving organisms housed in cuslomised gIass vesseIs. The organisms vhich are commonIy used
in reroduclive bioIogy incIuded?26@'@2 2(<'.26*. '60'/54) vas a 7 monlh Iong duralionaI erformance lhal occurred in a
scienlific Iaboralory and a ubIic arl gaIIery.
41. C. Cohoon (2011), Coming Togelher: The Six Modes of Irigarayan Iros, >,+2/'2, 26(3).
42. Ibid.
43. L. Irigaray (1982/1992), C(5156/2( !2**')6*, }. CoIIie and }. SliII, (lrans.), Nev York, RoulIedge, . 27.
44. L. Irigaray (1984/1993), "6 C/&'.* )E F5S32( O'EE5456.5, C. urke and G.C. GiII, Ilhaca, (lrans.), N.Y., CorneII Universily Iress,
. 19.
45. D. Haravay (1994), . 69.

!"#$ !&'()*)+&,- "./'0'*1- #2/345 6)7 89- :98;

46

"#$%#& '()*+ ,+ -(./)(0 1#20(3&4
5+,$36$ 7(6
8

Lavs are sider vebs lhrough vhich lhe big fIies
ass and lhe IillIe ones gel caughl7 <)6)4= >5 ?2(@2.

',9*+*/%$26: 0(3 ($. ;#$%/
There is a sovereign King and lhere are kingdoms Iike fungi. One day I gol lhe
lvo confused. I vas in lhe middIe of reading lhe IlaIian hiIosoher, Giorgio Agamben,
on sovereignly vhen a mycoIogisl friend, VaI, inviled me inlo lhe foresl behind my
home.
2
Sovereignly is lhe sureme over lo ruIe and make Iavs over lerrilory, so lhe
Iav vas on my mind vhen I Iefl lhe desk. Agamben had been discussing lhe &)1) *2.54,
a figure of ancienl Roman Iav vho uon commilling a cerlain crime is exiIed, his cilizen
righls are aboIished and he becomes lraed in "bare Iife". Sovereignly is lhis over lo
susend Iav and creale a condilion of "lhe slale of excelion" for lhe &)1) *2.54, and
effecliveIy searaling IilicaI Iife (A')*) from bare Iife (bodies and @)5). Sovereign Iogic, lhe
lhinking of lhe omniolenl King vho decides lhe excelion, seemed lo equale, in
ecoIogicaI conlexls, lo lhe innacIe of anlhroocenlrism. Wilh one unaccounlabIe fIick
of lhe regaI hand comes lhe abiIily lo decide vho Iives and dies, vho can be kiIIed bul
nol mourned. are Iife is simuIlaneousIy ovned and abandoned by lhe Iav. Agamben's
lheories are more comIicaled and Roman lhan lhis bul lhe image of a slrung oul
human sub|ecl isoIaled in no-mans Iand vhiIe sub|ecl lo lhe force of Iav, foIIoved me
inlo lhe fungi-infesled foresl.
Once oul of lhe books and under lhe lrees, lhe conlrasl belveen lexl and lhe
vorId vas slark. Agamben's iron-lighl lheories made images of &)1) *2.54 svim
lhrough my head: deracinaled bodies slranded in duslbovIs and in sanilised, conlroIIed
concrele from Guanlanamo ay lo refugee cams, risons, rubbish dums and loxic
deserls. The Iav as one obscure eviI king vaIked vilh me inlo lhe fecund foresl.
Leading lhe vay, VaI navigaled lhrough lhe foIiage and lransIaled lhe fungi Iives lhal
surrounded us. She inlroduced me lo kingdoms vilhoul a sovereign bul omniolenl,
nol vilh force, bul Iife.
WhiIe vaIking, VaI exIained hov fungi are cenlraI lo Iife, dirl, Ianls and by
exlension, humans. They are lhe conneclive lissue, lhe nelvork and veb lhal lransorl
nulrilion and suorl lhroughoul aII lhal vas before my eyes. Ninely ercenl of lhe soiI
benealh my feel vas fungi-infused. She aIso recounled hov fungi are excIuded from
mosl conservalion IegisIalion in our homeIand AuslraIia, vhich is fixaled on fIora and
fauna. Iungi are rimariIy covered by Iav vilhin generaIised ecosyslem and
biodiversily roleclion, ralher lhan as individuaI sub|ecls. The slale of excelion echoed.
WhiIe lhe Iav can decide vho ovns fungi due lo roerly lilIe, il has nol eIevaled lhem
lo lhe slalus of rolecled secies lo lhe exlenl of indigenous Ianls and animaIs. I slood
lhere, freezing in lhe aulumnaI vind, vondering vhy ve humans, as Iavmakers and
cilizens, vere nol abIe lo see or seek lo fuIIy rolecl fungi, on vhich ve deend for Iife.
Is il because lhey are smaII, muIliIe and aear in dark saces vhere lhe human eye,
?4)6B,6 C2,- D36E3* F2.54

47
fIooded by induslriaI Iighl, has deveIoed lerreslriaI gIaucoma` In AuslraIia lhere are
ossibIy a couIe of hundred lhousand secies of fungi bul hardIy any of lhem o u
in anlhroomorhicaIIy recognisabIe bodies Iike marsuiaIs or lrees. The vril of habeas
corus (you have lhe body) is cenlraI lo lhe AuslraIian IegaI syslem and vhiIe animaIs
and humans have bodies recognisabIe lo |udiciaI eyes, fungi run viId under earlh,
above ground, mesh vilh Ianls, and olher organisms. Their shae sIis avay. Are lheir
invisibiIily and enlangIed Iives lhe main barriers lo fuII IegaI conservalion roleclion`
Can ve onIy rolecl vhal rises lo meel our eyes above lhe soiI, being free lo Iunder lhe
resl`
As ve ducked overhanging branches unclualed by raindros, queslions aboul
lhe IegaI slalus of fungi germinaled. Does lhe Iav need lo be conceluaIIy aIlered lo
incIude fungi in lhe fuIIesl sense` Can conlemorary Weslern |urisrudence recognise
lhe vorId in ils enlirely or onIy lhal vhich is arl of lhe anlhroocenlric gaze` Does
Nalure, lhe non-human, lhe more-lhan-human maller` The Iav, nalionaI and
inlernalionaI, reguIales lhe environmenl, bul individuaI sub|eclivily, lhe one cIosed
sub|ecl, remains ils guiding rinciIe. Il seemed lo me lhal fungi have lheir sores in
everylhing and everyvhere. To fuIIy reguIale fungi means lo go under lhe soiI, examine
valer, air and lhe myriad of maller lhal lransfuses lhrough lhese orous bodies. If lhe
Iav soughl lo rolecl fungi fuIIy il vouId require an ecoIogicaI vision beyond lhe
oIilicaI and economic desires of our currenl governance slruclures.
The Iav can serve as roleclor and reguIalor as veII as oressor bul, vhalever
lhe crilique or anaIysis, il remains a significanl agenl in hov our vorId is maleriaIIy
shaed. As }ohn righam argues in G2/54'2( C2B$ H&5 I52( )J K34'*+43>56.5- Iav is
conslilulive il inserls ilseIf inlo lhe vorId, inlo lhe reaI, inlo maleriaI, and aIlers ils
fIov, lra|eclory or direclion by sanclioning or rohibiling human aclion.
3
As lhe
reguIalor of cuIlure, of human behaviour and reIalions, il faciIilales anlhroocenlrism.
Irench Iav bolh rolecls and mainlains lhe nalionaI foresl VaI and I vandered lhrough,
by keeing hunlers, foreslers and olher humans on lheir loes. Lav is nol mereIy lhe
roduclion of symboIs and signs uon maller bul aIso lhe acluaI conslilulive over, of
Iav vilhin, uon and vilh maller. Lav mallers. Wilhoul Iav, lhe foresl, mainlained
according lo lhe cuslomary anceslraI raclices of my feIIov viIIagers, mighl have been
razed years ago. The Iav has a maleriaI reIalionshi vilh lhis foresl, vhich in lurn
resonds and enacls ils Iife due lo Iimilalions and aIIovances given by Iav, by
sovereignly. Here on lhis mounlainside lhe maleriaI (maller) and lhe discursive (Lav)
meel.
4

Under lhe lrees, VaI and I dodged shrubs and lried lo mainlain baIance as lhe
ground became sIiery, lhick and soaked lhrough our shoes. VaI guided me lhrough
lhe lerrain and oinled oul fungi kingdoms disersed across and under lhe foresl fIoor.
ReveIalions vere under my feel. Turning over Ieaf debris, VaI exosed IillIe affinilies,
liny Iives, vee vilaIisms vilh vorIds of lheir ovn, from Iace Iichen lo lhe ueber dirly
lrich. Thoughls of Iav fIooded me vhiIe vaIuabIe maller embedded me. I vas caughl
belveen vel enmeshmenl and bare Iife and, hil vilh a kind of sychic lerror, I couId nol
move. SuddenIy fungi had me surrounded. I feIl Iike AIice in WonderIand vhen she
nibbIed lhe mushroom (erhas a fIy agaric) and became an enormous kIulz. Wherever
I moved, I sleed on civiIisalions, crushed famiIies underfool and I froze for fear of
kiIIing fungi under my GoIialh bools. In lhis susended momenl, coId and immobiIe, I
vas a vioIenl anlhroocenlric monarch lhe sovereign King abIe lo diclale deslruclion
according lo my ovn agenda. WhiIe carefuI nol lo disrul fIora and fauna, my foolsles
and eyes, my body, had decided lhal fungi vere lhe excelion abIe lo be kiIIed bul nol
mourned. I vas aIso avare, mainIy because VaI had exIained, lhal vilhoul fungi lhe
foresl vouId shriveI lo vasleIand bare Iife. IungaI olency vas nol lo be
!"#$ !&'()*)+&,- "./'0'*1- #2/345 6)7 89- :98;

48
undereslimaled. Il couId suck Iife and habilal from my body. The fungi and I vere
Iocked in a slasis of muluaI vuInerabiIily and our over frighlened lhe Iife oul of me. I
have no cIaim lo knov lhe mushrooms' reaclion, bul I have never considered lhe
queslion of senlience as being necessary for elhics. I vished I did lhen I couId slom
avay bul I vas slranded in a kind of King reveIalion vhere I couId kiII kingdoms. I
vas an agenl of cancerous sovereign Iogic and couId nol handIe lhe resonsibiIily. I
relrealed from lhe foresl before any more fungi vere sIaughlered.
"#$%/ <*;,+* 2=* 0(3
Leaving lhe fungi lo lheir big and smaII Iives, il slruck me on lhe vaIk home
lhal, lo arahrase Agamben, ralher lhan "fungus sacer", erhas fungi vere lhe siIenl
radicaI oulsiders` Maybe, if ve vere lo lhink vilh DeIeuze, fungi are rhizomalic
oulIavs` Ior fungi resl on |uridicaI oulskirls, lhe hiie erihery, and maybe if lhey
vere subsumed under our currenl Iav and made visibIe lo lhe hungry manageriaI beasl
of conlemorary governance, lhis mighl acceIerale coyrighl rocesses, ovnershi
cIaims and a Ielhora of IegaI oressive looIs mighl be avaiIabIe lo make lhem sacred
and kee lhem aarl from lhe vorId. Iungi can never be kel aarl, for lhey are
ecoIogicaIIy omniresenl, and IegaI roleclion can somelimes be backhand ovnershi
and conlroI ralher lhan Iiberalion. AIlhough AuslraIian |urisrudence is nol Roman, lhe
sovereign excelion sliII oerales and IegisIalion can suffocale and searale. There vas
somelhing oIilicaIIy allraclive aboul lhe invisibiIily of lhese olenl fungi oulIavs.
IIaying vilh oIilicaI lheory, I asked myseIf a nave queslion as lo vhelher fungi are
sub|ecl lo Agamben's definilion of sovereignly as "he vho decides lhe excelion" or
vere lhey lhe harbingers of a nev ecoIogicaI |urisrudence`
When il comes lo queslions of Weslern |urisrudence, Iranz Kafka is Iike a
nasly, bul necessary, ouIlice. Kafka senl severaI summers in a sanalorium recovering
from his lime sludying Iav. Wilh insider knovIedge and exerience of lhe Iav, Kafka
had no failh in il. Hovever, his vrilings shimmer vilh |uridicaI insighls aboul lhal
vhich is excIuded and dominaled bul one day mighl seak. The vriler vho gave
ob|ecls Iike Odradek characler and broughl lhe body lo lhe cenlre slage of coIoniaI
raclises (H&5 !562( L)()6,) caIIed Roman Iav "disgusling and meaningIess."
5
Kafka's
ficlion is lhe insiralion for vhal is lermed "oulsider |urisrudence", vhich, based uon
lhe shorl slory ?5J)45 /&5 C2B, suggesls an "exansive nolion of oulsider slalus assed on
osilion |in silu and habilalj raising lhe slriking ossibiIily lhal even a vhile maIe
|sooI of collon, Iarge insecl or smaII mushroomj can be an oulsider under cerlain
circumslances.
6
Is oulsider slalus Iiberalion or excIusion` Where do fungi fil` Iungi are
arliaIIy rolecled bul do nol sland on lheir ovn before lhe Iav, so lhey are bolh inside
and oulside lhe Iav. Was lhis a IegaI queslion or a hiIosohicaI one`
7
Where are lhe
Iimils of lhese divisions` I reIayed aII lhis lo my amused mycoIogisl friend. Il vas a
messy aflernoon of queslions. VaI and I drank coious cus of lea lo recover.
When I relurned lo lhe desk afler embodying sovereignly in lhe foresl, lhe
books inviled an ecoIogicaI reading of Kafka's ?5J)45 /&5 C2B.
8
In lhe slory, a counlryman,
resumabIy from an agrarian habilal, lraveIs lo seek enlry inlo lhe Iav, vhich he
beIieves shouId be accessibIe lo everyone. Uon arrivaI al lhe Door of lhe Lav lhe
galekeeer refuses him enlry, vhiIe laking fuliIe bribes, so lhe counlryman vails
alienlIy oulside lhe Door for years lo no avaiI. Silling lhere, communing vilh lhe fIeas
on his |ackel and lhe galekeeer, lhe counlryman slarls lo mislrusl his eyesighl and his
body sliffens. The counlryman is dying.
Afler my lime in lhe foresl, I read ?5J)45 /&5 C2B differenlIy. Why did Kafka
name lhis man a "counlryman"` Did he ossess lhe naively or maleriaI embeddness of
lhose oulside lhe oIis` The counlryman, connecled lo habilal, reached lhe Door of lhe
?4)6B,6 C2,- D36E3* F2.54

49
Lav and died surrounded by maller (vilh lhe excelion of lhe fIeas) lhal vas nol
reveaIed in lhe lexl. The cIosing senlence of lhe slory reveaIs lhal lhe door vas onIy
meanl for lhis arlicuIar man, and il cIoses as lhe counlryman dies. Il is aImosl as if by
vailing for lhe Lav lhe vorId is reduced lo a labuIa rasa invisibiIily and being
before lhe Iav means submilling lo aIienaled individuaI sub|eclivily in no Iace. There
is no muIliIe before lhe Iav. Ierie images of &)1) *2.54 drifled across lhe seia lexl.
Was Kafka's counlryman a Iilerary manifeslalion of Agamben's bare Iife in ecoIogicaI
form` A soIe body lraed in senlences` IoIIoving Kafka's IaceIess loograhies,
vhiIe lhe lexl of ?5J)45 /&5 C2B has fIeas, lhere are no olher vorIds: no ground, no
vorms, no Iandscae, no lrees, no organisms, no omniolenl fungi, as if lo signify lhal
lhe "reaI" vorId does nol exisl or maller, vhich is symlomalic of veslern onloIogy and
IegaI hiIosohy and can aIso be read inlo Agamben's &)1) *2.54 ideoIogy vhere lhe
human form is lheorelicaIIy slranded in "no Iace".
9

Rereading ?5J)45 /&5 C2B lhal morning I vanled lo yeII inlo lhe ages al lhe
counlryman, Slo being an idiol. Have you Iosl your senses` In your vorId lhere is
nolhing before or afler lhe Iav. Gel reaI. Remember you are embedded. Then I vorried
lhal lhe counlryman had nolhing lo eal, urinale uon or louch so I lhoughl aboul
uIIing him from lhe cIulch of senlences and dragging him home lo his famiIy and
friends. I imagined Iacing him in a house, a garden, a rubbish dum, a foresl, a slreel,
in a shanlylovn anylhing lo sel him free from lhal de-vorIded vorId lhal is lhe
uIlimale ficlion.
IIaceIessness, exiIe and aIienalion haunl Kafka's oeuvre for very good reasons.
This exerimenl in ficlion holo-shoing by inserling Iife and affinily inlo lhe lexl vas
nol a refusaI lo hear Kafka, bul ralher a slrike lovards hoe, even if Kafka himseIf
slaled Oh (lhere is) IIenly of hoe, an infinile amounl of hoe bul nol for us. WhiIe
Kafka seaks lo lhe inevilabiIily of defeal, lhe fuliIily of resislance, as Kale Rigby
reminds us, in lhe ibIicaI lradilion lhal haunls Kafka's vork, lhe roIe of lhe rohel is
nol lo redicl lhe fulure, bul lo remind lhe eoIe lhal if lhey carry on as lhey are doing,
lhe fulure viII be exceedingIy bIeak.
10
?5J)45 /&5 C2B vas ubIished in 1915. Since lhen
humans have become as overfuI as leclonic Iales and fears of exlinclion and cIimale
calaslrohe manifesl in lhe vuInerabIe, muIliIe and veb-Iike ecoIogicaI bodies lhal
have began lo desiccale lo dealh in eslicides, vash u on oiIed shores and riIe inlo
our consciousness.
11
A cenlury Ialer il is lime lo give vorIds back lo lhe fulure and
acknovIedge lhe ob|eclive vioIence ve commil againsl lhe vorId by nol "seeing" il. To
brealhe Iife inlo eslabIished lexls is my vee vay of undoing lhe resumlion lhal
Weslern sovereignly has lhe over lo enforce an un-imagining of lhe ecoIogicaI. Il is a
geslure lhal re|ecls bare Iife, lhe cIosed door of lhe Lav, and lurns lovards lhe
imaginalion, and reaIily, of embedded Iife. Ierhas a lurn lovards disersed fungus
kingdom lhinking`
ul do lhe varning shols of vrilers Iike Agamben and Kafka need ecoIogicaI
inlervenlions` A galhering of concerned Ioved ones lo rescue lhe &)1) *2.54 and
counlrymen of lexls lo remind lhal being aIone, being slranded in bare Iife and
individuaI sub|eclivily, is a maleriaI imossibiIily` As a slrike againsl hoeIessness,
againsl lhe fuliIily of resislance lhal booms from lheir lexls, I imagine brealhing Iife inlo
lhe lexluaI fabric of Kafka's slory vhere lhe counlryman vailed for lhe Iav, unliI lhere
is dirl benealh his feel, lrees, concrele and Ianls, and fungi lenlacIes run viId Iike Life
Driving fuses. This imaginalive Iea mighl aIIov lhe counlryman lo vilness numerous
radicaI affinilies, conneclions and bonds and erhas see lhal lhe Door of lhe Lav is
covered in cravIing Iichen and lhe muIliIe (Iike lhe fIeas) are vilh him. The lexluaI
vioIence I read in ?5J)45 /&5 C2B serves lo osil oulsider |urisrudence as ecoIogicaI
|urisrudence bul requires lhe imaginalive slrelch lhal maller mallers more lhan
!"#$ !&'()*)+&,- "./'0'*1- #2/345 6)7 89- :98;

50
dangerous abslraclions. This exercise is a Iay vilh AIaimo's nolion of "lrans-
cororeaIily" vhich naluraIises lhe body by ulling il back inlo a vorId of bioIogicaI
crealures, ecosyslems and xenobiolics, humanIy made subslances
12
bul inslead I Iayed
vilh lhe nolion of ulling back bodies and vorIds inlo lexls. Il requires imagining and
abslracling vhal is reaI lo disrul vhal is imagined and reaI in lexls, symboIs and signs.
We Iive in an imolenl &)1) *2.54 lime of bolh human and lhe non-human: in svams,
refugee cams and cordoned-off backyards, concreled inlo slreels. Therefore lhe
alleml lo inserl Iife inlo lhese labuIa rasa lexls feeIs robIemalic, imossibIe bul
somelimes necessary for survivaI. ul if ve lhink vilh organic melahors, if ve Iayer
dead maller (lexls and Iav) vilh Iive maller (vorIds) in comosling cycIes, il mighl
decay inlo muIliIe beings lhal can sIi lhrough cracks in doors. As fungi do.
>),0,%/)(0 0(34
If ve imagine vilh fungi hov vouId ve conceive of ecoIogicaI Iav` Il vouId be
one lhal nol onIy recognises bul aIso gives IegaI slanding, nol onIy lo lhe more lhan
human, as Chrisloher Slones has argued for lrees, bul aIso lo fungi. If ve are lo lhink
vilh lhe inlense inlerconneclivily of fungi, ve come lo lhe bonds, enlangIemenls,
conneclions and affinilies belveen enlilies as demanding allenlion The IegaI sub|ecl
exisls in reIalion, lherefore, recognilion of a sub|ecl requires recognilion of lhe arlicuIar
bonds, conneclions and inlra-aclions lhal recede and mainlain lhe sub|ecl, and vice
versa. IcoIogicaI |urisrudence vouId acknovIedge lhal bonds are lhe sine qua non of
righls lhal allach lo IegaI sub|ecls.
The Irench hiIosoher MicheI Serres in H&5 #2/342( L)6/42./ iIIuminaled lhe
ob|eclive vioIence humans enacl uon lhe vorId by ignoring maller. WhiIe he used lhe
lerm naluraI, I vouId roose lhal in Iighl of lhe nev maleriaIisms and conleslalions
around lhe rarefied (and lhus sub|ecl lo lhe slale of excelion) concel of nalure a
more incIusive lerm mighl be lhe maleriaI conlracl or maller conlracl. Serres argued
for an anachronislic bul radicaI |urisrudence incIusive of nalure and maller. His
conlracl exlends lhe concel of lhe sociaI conlracl inlo one based on lhe IaleraI,
horizonlaI, verlicaI and enlangIed bonds belveen maller, belveen human and more
lhan human. Serres argues for lhe nonhuman lo become a IegaI sub|ecl vilh conlingenl
righls, and his focus on bonds and a lhird vorId belveen enlilies resonales vilh fungi.
The imolence of lhe 2008 Icuadorian conslilulion, vhich incororaled lhe righls of
nalure, iIIuslrales lhal vilhoul lhe |uridicaI incIusion of bonds and conneclions, lhe
righls discourse slruggIes lo meel lhe chaIIenge of lhe naluraI conlracl. Recognilion of
lhe invoIvemenl of aII arlicianls in bonds and conneclions, incIusive of lhe maleriaI
vorId, is lhe sine qua non of righls, for examIe, lo food and valer and securily. To
recognise lhe bonds belveen enlilies is lo oen a ossibIe over anaIysis, and ils
resuIlanl ob|eclive vioIence (such as ecocide), lhal lhe currenl maleriaIIy myoic
|urisrudence slruggIes lo address. An ecoIogicaI |urisrudence lhal recognises bonds
as veII as sub|ecls musl examine lhe recondilions of righls. Herein Iies ils roleclive
and revenlalive caacily.
IcoIogicaI |urisrudence is a Iav yel lo come. Il is maleriaIIy discursive and
vouId have no reconceived division belveen lhe naluraI and un-naluraI. In ils forum,
maller has IegaI slanding, nol ureIy as an individuaI sub|ecl bul in lhe conlexl of olher
maller. Iungi embody ecoIogicaI |urisrudence for lhey are bolh bodies and non-bodies.
They are conneclive and imossibIe lo uII avay from lhe vider meshes lhey inhabil
and suslain bul, in a manner lhal }ean-Luc Nancy caIIs being singuIar IuraI, are
simuIlaneousIy resenl and recognisabIe as sub|ecls.
Hov ecoIogicaI |urisrudence manifesls behind lhe doors of lhe Iav is sub|ecl
lo numerous agencies and evenls yel lo emerge, bul as oulsider |urisrudence before lhe
?4)6B,6 C2,- D36E3* F2.54

51
Iav, il is aIready here. The vorId exisls. Il is a sace of inlense enlangIemenl. IcoIogicaI
|urisrudence vouId la inlo lhese silualed knovIedges nol mereIy as a melhod of
hearing lhe resenlalion of evidence bul by incororaling lhe vorId inlo ils reason and
over lo Iimil harm uon lhose il affecls human and nonhuman.
13
IcoIogicaI
|urisrudence does nol ignore lhe vorId bul ralher mighl use looIs Iike forensic ecoIogy
lo "hear" maller, ils reIalionaIily and lhen ad|udicale on subsequenl obIigalions.
IcoIogicaI |urisrudence seeks lo lrace lhe movemenl and inlra-aclions of maller, ralher
lhan sever bodies from lhe vorId inlo isoIaled IegaI sub|ecls, vhich Ieads lo lhe crealion
of bare Iife and bio oIilicaI governance.
One source of ecoIogicaI |urisrudence is lhal lhe bonds and affinilies lhal Iie in-
belveen sub|ecls, enlilies and bodies maller as much as lhe enlilies lhemseIves. They
have meaning. These enlilies are nol slrung oul in slasis, as veslern sovereignly vouId
erceive lhe vorId lo be, bul, even if suffering, vuInerabIe and sub|ecl lo lhe King's
IelhaI finger, ersisl in reIalionshis. OnloIogy vilhoul affinilies is lhe sovereign king's
fanlasy. Therefore ecoIogicaI |urisrudence has no one sovereign bul by acknovIedging
Iav's maleriaI conslilulive caacily moves inlo muIliIe forums and rocedures.
Imagine a bush courl nol for lhe hearing of criminaI mallers, bul ralher lo hear
ecoIogicaI screams of deserls, scrubIands and mineraIs. Imagine if lhe vril of habeas
corus (lo have lhe body) aIlered lo lhe IuraI )A('E2/3* .)4+)42 (obIigalions of bodies,
incIusive of lhe courl). Imagine an ecoIogicaI |urisrudence lhal does nol guaranlee
edenic ad|udicalion or elernaI Iife for aII Iife, bul remains Iav lhal reguIales over and
lhus acknovIedges Iimilalions of aclion. Imagine a |urisrudence lhal is refIeclive of
conlemorary science and ancienl cuslomary visdom, vhose eislemoIogy resls vilhin
lhe agency and oflen inevilabIe exlinguishmenl lhal occurs belveen affinilies,
conneclions and bonds lhal are nol soIeIy human or rorieloriaI over maller.
IcoIogicaI |urisrudence is a recondilion of a sovereignly lhal sees, hears and
ad|udicales in con|unclion vilh reIalionaI elhics and lhe recognilion of IegaI sub|ecls
human and non-human. Wilh Kafka's counlryman, ecoIogicaI |urisrudence is refused
enlry lo lhe Iav, bul unIike lhe counlryman il is nol soIeIy reIianl uon individuaI
sub|eclivily and lhus can sneak lhrough cracks, Iike fungi sellIing inlo gas.
So lo relurn lo lhe counlryman in silu vhere lhe scene skelched by Kafka
rendered lhe vorId invisibIe, lhe geslure of reimaginalion "Iaced" lhe counlryman's
body on dirl, vhere famiIies, ecoIogies, organisms and vorIds vere vilh him as he
vailed. Ilhics reveaIs a vorId beyond aearances bul in Iace. Wilhoul lhis as a
recursor lo a differenl |urisrudence, ve remain reIianl uon Iav (and dead) vilh a
singIe sub|eclive door lhal de-vorIds vorIds. If lhe counlryman "sav/feIl/Iived" lhese
affinilies lhal coexisl vilh him before lhe Iav (sine qua non) erhas he vouId sliII be
vilh us and dancing around lhe age lo lhe beal of a nev ecoIogicaI |urisrudence
based nol onIy uon maller, bul lhe conneclions belveen a fungi kind of Iav and
maleriaI elhics, of vhich he is a arl. This osils an aIlernalive vorId lo lhe cIosed Iav
door and lo ab|ecl bare Iife. Iven if he died lhe counlryman vouId nol be aIone. The
galekeeer never menlioned mushrooms or Iichen or anylhing besides lhe singuIar
human sub|ecl so hov vouId he coe if he had lo face lhe force of maller muIliIe
bonded by a conlracl` Here Iies a olenliaI recie for revoIulion` The Iav can onIy see
lhe one. The muIliIe radicaI oulsider, lhe diffuse numerous veb-Iike fungi, cannol be
seen by galekeeers or sovereign kings.
-*9,0#2/,$(+6 ?#02/@0/)/2/*& <*;,+* 2=* 0(3
To ush fungi as disconnecled singuIar sub|ecls lhrough lhe doors of currenl
Weslern Iav mighl mean lhey are subsumed/ossessed by an anlhroocenlric sovereign
and lheir vebs lhrashed. Do ve vanl lhe king lo gobbIe lhem u` Ierhas lhe king
!"#$ !&'()*)+&,- "./'0'*1- #2/345 6)7 89- :98;

52
shouId remain afraid of dark corners vhere ecoIogicaI |urisrudence Iurks` In lhe
vords of arlIeby lhe Scrivener erhas fungi vouId "refer nol" lo be enelraled by
human reason and conlroI` As many oels, vrilers, hiIosohers and Iovers allesl, lo
exisl beyond lhe oIis vaIIs, doors and Iavs, is lo discover |uridicaI ossibiIilies more
akin lo lhe naluraI conlracl vhere recirocily and symbiosis are resecled. Ierhas fear
of dealh, a foundalion of sovereignly, is nol a robIem for fungi bul ralher a
regeneralive rocess` My anlhroomorhic ro|eclions aboul maller mighl lhen aIIov
me lo run free lhrough lhe foresl vilhoul fear of sloming on kingdoms. Then again,
hov Iong do ve vail for lhe door of lhe Iav lo oen` Hov Iong do ve vail before our
muIliIe energies dissoIve il` UnliI ve are aII dead`
So hov lo imagine revoIulionary fungi over` There are fungi as IegaI sub|ecls
oulside lhe Iav lhen lhere are fungi as fungaI varriors lhe mycoIogicaI equivaIenl of
lhe Iceni queen oudicca vho, vhen lhe Romans look her Iand and raed her daughlers,
venl on a viId ramage of miIilary kiIIing unliI she razed London. Like oudicca, lhe
fungi kingdom has veaons againsl emire. They are fiIIed vilh lhe ossibiIily of
olenl oisons and insidious sores (bul ve need lhem for lhey are bolh loxic cIeaners
and fundamenlaI arl of earlhIy suslenance for our bodies). Inlenl lo use lhese veaons
due lo rage, fury and revenge has nol been communicaled lo us from fungi for nol
rolecling lhem, for ealing lhem and Ieaving lhem oulside IegisIalion. ul lheir grealesl
veaon mighl be lhal mushrooms (lhe sublerranean, dirly and unseen) are Iinked lo lhe
olency of lhe muIliIe as oosed lo a sovereign one.
AIlhough lhey vere bolh suicidaI molhers, unforlunaleIy SyIvia IIalh never
foIIoved oudicca's revoIulionary lendencies, bul her oem Mushrooms resonales
vilh lhe revoIulion lhal fungi affinilies insire. There are muIliIe vays lo resisl and
conlesl lhe sovereign excelion. Where oudicca chose vioIence and revenge, IIalh's
oem seaks lo lhe ossibiIily of maller coaIilions belveen lhe human and non human
vhere conneclions can chaIIenge Iav by defying lhe sovereign condemnalion lo bare
Iife.

A#&=+,,?&
8B

Overnighl, very
WhileIy, discreelIy,
Very quielIy

Our loes, our noses
Take hoId on lhe Ioam,
Acquire lhe air.

Nobody sees us,
Slos us, belrays us,
The smaII grains make room.

Sofl fisls insisl on
Heaving lhe needIes,
The Ieafy bedding,

Iven lhe aving.
Our hammers, our rams,
IarIess and eyeIess,

?4)6B,6 C2,- D36E3* F2.54

53
IerfeclIy voiceIess,
Widen lhe crannies,
ShouIder lhrough hoIes. We

Diel on valer,
On crumbs of shadov,
Iand-mannered, asking

LillIe or nolhing.
So many of us!
So many of us!

We are sheIves, ve are
TabIes, ve are meek,
We are edibIe,

Nudgers and shovers
In sile of ourseIves.
Our kind muIliIies:

We shaII by morning
Inheril lhe earlh.
Our fool's in lhe door.

We are mushrooms. We are affinilies in darkness vilhoul vilnesses: Overnighl,
very C WhileIy, discreelIy, C Very quielIy C Our loes, our noses C Take hoId of lhe Ioam,
C Acquire lhe air. SiIenl grovlh occurs vilhoul voice, or arlicuIalion bul across lhe
senses from lo lo bollom: "our loes our noses". We lake hoId, nol of lhe Ioam, a
rorieloriaI grab, bul on lhe Ioam in a movemenl lovards being vilh olher
subslances vhose smaII grains, ralher lhan scream, make room and faciIilale our
being.
IungaI over's Sofl fisls insisl on being resenl by heaving lhe needIes
vilh force. Iven lhe aving, lhe buiIl environmenl, oens for us. There is somelhing
lo overcome once ve rise above lhe Ioam, once lhe sovereign can see us. ul lhen come
lhe looIs of revoIulion in our hammers, our rams vhich are inslrumenls of recIaiming
kingdoms. This revoIulion is nol anlhroocenlric for il comes "earIess and eyeIess C
IerfeclIy voiceIess. The absence of Ianguage is erfecl ralher lhan oressive because
sense and movemenl are lhe force lhal lhrough lhe green fuse drives lhe fIover.
Where DyIan Thomas soke of his ovn decay and aging, IIalh seaks of lhe over of
lhe renegade unseen lhal may seem derived (bare Iife) bul diel on valer, on crumbs
of shadovs, and asking IillIe or nolhing make no demand for allenlion or
recognilion, bul connecl vilh each olher and lhe vorId. The mushrooms arrive in lhe
muIliIe. So many of us! C So many of us. This muIliIe over is lhe sub|ecl lurned
ob|ecl by over We are sheIves, ve are C TabIes, ve are meek, C We are edibIe - ve
bIend inlo lhe background, ve are domeslic, ve are consumed. Desile lhis, and "in
sile of ourseIves" ve rebeI ve nudgers and shovers in movemenl become bolh
human and more lhan human vhen lhe aulhor coIIases herseIf inlo lhe mushrooms
and erhas inlo coaIilion vilh lhe non-human so lhal, Our kind muIliIies. The
oressed quiel ecoIogicaI seIves roIiferale. AII lhis occurs overnighl for by morning
mushrooms have inheriled lhe earlh. IIalh Iays vilh lhe meek nol as vuInerabIe
!"#$ !&'()*)+&,- "./'0'*1- #2/345 6)7 89- :98;

54
bodies calured by lhe oression of sovereign slasis, bul by muIliIying overnighl,
unseen and unreguIaled and suddenIy al davn, Our fool's in lhe door.
The Iegilimacy for lhe ruIe of Iav is sovereignly. Irom conneclions ve creale
communilies lhal are more lhan human by forming coaIilions vilh maller. Wilhin lhese
coaIilions maller is arlicialive, agenliaI, recognised and connecled lo lhe human. The
grasing of lhese conneclions can seek lo conlesl sovereignly, and ossibIy aIler Iav. If
ve foIIov IIalh's fungi, lhe door of lhe Iav is dissoIved by ecoIogicaI movemenls lhal
oerale oulside and inside lhe discursive domain - inside and oulside lhe Iav.
Conneclions, bonds and reIalions conslilule oIilics and by engaging, and olenliaIIy
"becoming vilh" maller, ve form communilies lhal resisl and conlesl lhe sovereign
excelion and bare Iife.
Imagine mushrooms creeing lheir mycorrhizaI associalions lhrough lhe door
of lhe Iav. So many of us before lhe Iav. So many of us oulside lhe doors of lhe Iav
connecling and groving. Do ve dare knock` Do ve slorm lhe barricades` Or do ve
lurn lo each olher and dance unliI ve muIliIy and vorIds aear lhe sine qua non of
ecoIogicaI |urisrudence. I am aboul lo Ieave lhe desk and head inlo lhe foresl. There is
more in lhere lhan meels my sovereign eye. This lime I mighl lry lo nibbIe lhe olher side
of AIice's mushroom from WonderIand lhe side lhal shrinks me so I can be vilh
radicaI fungi affinilies and imagine a |urisrudence lhal mallers.

D,2*&
1. ronvyn Lay is a Iavyer, vriler and IhD candidale al lhe Iuroean Graduale SchooI.
2. G. Agamben (1998), <)1) F2.54$ F)0545'E6 !)B54 26> ?245 C'J5, Slanford Universily Iress, Slandford, CA.
3. }. righam (2009), G2/54'2( C2B$ " K34'*+43>56.5 )J M&2/N* I52(, TemIe Universily Iress, IhiIadeIhia.
4. K. arad (2007), G55/'6E /&5 O6'054*5 <2(JB2,$ P326/31 !&,*'.* 26> /&5 Q6/26E(5156/ )J G2//54 26> G526'6E,
Duke Universily Iress, London.
5. D.I. Lilovilz (2002), "Iranz Kafka's Oulsider }urisrudence", C2B R F).'2( S6T3'4,, 27, . 103137. doi:
10.1111/|.1747-4469.2002.lb01109.x, 108.
6. Ibid., 105.
7. T. Morlon (2010), H&5 Q.)()E'.2( H&)3E&/, Harvard Universily Iress, Cambridge.
8. I. Kafka (1995), "efore lhe Lav" in H&5 L)1+(5/5 F/)4'5*, Nahum GIalzer (ed.), Schocken ooks, Nev
York.
9. M. Smilh (2011), "E2'6*/ Q.)()E'.2( F)0545'E6/,, Universily of Minnesola Iress, MinneaoIis.
10. NalionaI Museum of AuslraIia (n.d.), "IcoIogicaI Consciousness." Websile:
hll://vvv.nma.gov.au/hislory/research/conferences_and_seminars/vioIenl_ends2/ecoIogicaI_conscious
ness (Accessed 24 Iebruary 2013).
11. M. Serres (1995), H&5 #2/342( L)6/42./- (lrans), IIizabelh MacArlhur and WiIIiam IauIson. The Universily
of Michigan Iress, Ann Arbor.
12. S. AIaimo (2010), ?)>'(, #2/345*$ F.'56.5- Q60'4)6156/ 26> /&5 G2/54'2( F5(J, Indiana Universily Iress,
Ioominglon.
13. D. Haravay (1988), Silualed KnovIedges: The Science Queslion in Ieminism and lhe IriviIege of IarliaI
Ierseclive, D51'6'*/ F/3>'5* 14(3), . 575-599.
14. S. IIalh (2008), H&5 L)((5./5> !)51*, Harer IerenniaI Modern CIassics, ChurchviIIe, IA, . 139.

55

A Poetic Mycology of the Senses
Four poems on mushrooms

John Charles Ryan
1

If fungi comprise the forgotten kingdom, then poetry that takes fungi and the
discipline of mycology as its subject matter could be by association the forgotten
ecopoetry (or perhaps mycopoetry). As the third f in contemporary biodiversity
conservation, languishing behind fauna and flora,
2
fungi occupy a comparably liminal
and, possibly, marginal position in literary history and ecocritical studies.
3
In particular,
fungi straddle a largely unnavigated terrain between the recent human-animal
studies
4
and its literary counterpart zoocriticism
5
and the emergent critical plant
studies
6
and its budding complement vegetal ecocriticism.
7
As a consequence, even
amongst ecocritics, fungi have been grouped into the latter category, mirroring a
tendency in the history of the biological sciences to aggregate fungi and plants.
8
Yet, as
neither plant nor animal that is, existentially in-between the other two fs fungi lack
the powers of photosynthesis synonymous with green plants, and also proliferate
through radically different mechanisms.
9
I, therefore, suggest that the ecocritical reading
of mycotal poetry should be performed in the context of the unique otherness of these
organisms.
In light (or in the dankness) of this, I ask in this article: What are the diverse ways
in which human beings perceive fungi? What are the common figures of speech used to
express the particular mycotal mode(s) of being? And more precisely: When does poetry
shift away from hackneyed mushroom metaphors towards a curiosity for the complex
lives and cultural meanings of fungi, as well as their irreplaceable ecological and social
roles? In responding, I begin with a broad premise: by virtue of the ecologically and
ontologically articulated modes fungi inhabit, to write of them is to write in a different
way than of animals and plants. Indeed, despite the lack of parity between the
kingdoms, fungi and particularly fleshy macrofungi or mushrooms, appear regularly in
the North American, European, Australian and South African poetic canons.
10
However,
in asking when such a shift occurs in poetry towards a view of fungi as relational and
complex beings, I do not mean to undertake a historically focused analysis of mycotal
writing throughout these traditions; such a project would be entirely out of my present
scope. Instead, I do wish to know what the gestalt label mushroom signifies for these
four somewhat disparate poets; the ways in which Dickinson, Plath, Oliver and Caddy
correspondingly represent mushrooms in language; and some plausible reasons for the
differing qualities they attribute to fungi and the manner in which they do so.
In my analysis of four poems generically (and plurally) titled mushrooms (or in
Dickinsons case, the singular form, mushroom), I will take note of the recurrence of
mycotal tropes, while considering the implications of such ways of regarding fungi for
56
broader cultural perceptions of the kingdom. Indeed, as we will see, in much poetry
about fungi, mushrooms are linked symbolically with danger, decay and death, as well
as stealth, sin and the supernatural. These attributes operate as stock tropes, reinforcing
certain largely negative preconceptions about this much misunderstood, disregarded
and forgotten group of beings. Accordingly, in my readings, I will be on the lookout
for positive representations of human-fungus entanglements sensory intimacies if you
like involving the apprehension of kingdom Fungi as a community of beings through
the speakers direct embodied experience. In these rare instances, the eating, tasting,
smelling and touching of the delectable fruiting bodies of mushrooms leads to what
Michel Serres calls mingled bodies
11
in which physical and intellectual distance
between humans and fungi dissipates along with human mistrust if only fleetingly.
Building on Serres and others, as part of this admittedly brief comparison, I will draw
upon ecopoetic and multispecies theory in order to conceptualise the implications of
these poems more generally for kingdom Fungi.

Theorising a poetic mycology of the senses
Through four poems on mushrooms, the notion of a poetic mycology of the
senses will be forwarded and, to some extent, developed as a constructive lens for
reading mycotally focused environmental writing. In particular, Scott Brysons
elaboration of the three features of ecopoetry, in conjunction with Scott Knickerbockers
productive notion of sensuous poesis, will be used to explore the ecopoetic
foundation for a poetic mycology. Bryson argues that ecopoetry bears three
distinguishing attributes. To begin with, ecopoetry reflects an ecocentric perspective
that recognizes the interdependent nature of the world
12
or, in Timothy Mortons terms,
reflects ecology as thinking how all beings are interconnected, in as deep a way as
possible.
13
Secondly, as Bryson goes on to state, ecopoetry expresses an imperative
toward humility in relationships with both human and nonhuman nature.
14
And
thirdly, ecopoetry reveals an abiding suspicion of hyperrationality and its resultant
overreliance on technology.
15
Here, hyperrationality refers to the preponderance of
deductive logic and analytical reasoning to the exclusion of other modes of knowledge-
making, including sensory embodiment, intuition and interrelationships between
species. The operative term in Brysons analysis is overreliance. Indeed, technological
instruments, such as electron microscopes, can facilitate sensuous human encounters
with fungi and their physiologies that would otherwise be impossible to the naked eye.
However, sensuous poesis is multisensorial, combining the powers of vision with the
nuances of tasting, smelling, touching and hearing.
As the underlying foundation to Brysons three attributes, human sensory
embodiment in the material domain helps to make possible an ecocentric attitude,
commitment to humility and scepticism in the face of hyperrationality. Through the
aurality of contemporary American poetry, Knickerbocker augments Brysons three-fold
position through the term sensuous poesis as the process of rematerialising language
specifically as a response to nonhuman nature.
16
According to Bryson, sensuous poesis
inverts the mirroring of the world in language (as pure representation) and rather
inflects the immanent sensory potential of poetry to enact, rather than merely represent,
the immediate, embodied experience of nonhuman nature.
17
My sensory analysis of
mycopoetry adds another dimension to Knickerbockers notion of sensuous poesis in
language. Moreover, the material exchange between mingled bodies involves human-
mushroom interpenetration that disrupts aesthetic or linguistic distance and stanches
negative moral attachments to mushrooms. In short, the interrogation of language is
essential to understanding mushrooms and redefining human-fungus relationships.
John Ryan, A Poetic Mycology of the Senses
57
In addition to the ecopoetic theory of Bryson and Knickerbocker, multispecies
theory proffers another lens for comprehending what these poems reveal about human-
fungus entanglements. Multispecies theory encompasses a body of writings by
posthumanist scholars that sets out to decentre human subjectivity and to value the
multiple subjectivities animals, plants, insects and mushrooms of the ecocultural
world.
18
Entanglement is an integral notion within multispecies theory one which
implies a degree of sustained material reciprocity between the mingled organisms and
their lifeworlds. The term lifeworld derives from the philosophical writings of
Edmund Husserl and describes a world experienced in common by all living beings:
plants, animals, fungi and humans alike. For a lifeworld to exist and to lead to
knowledge, the multiple senses must be engaged in a sustained way with ones
surroundings. One is necessarily entangled with ones lifeworld; one is ones
lifeworld. Barad stresses that entanglements are not a name for the interconnectedness
of all being as one, but rather specific material relations of the ongoing differentiating of
the world. Entanglements are relations of obligation being bound to the other
enfolded traces of othering.
19
Moreover, Anna Tsings arts of inclusion
20
and Donna
Haraways companion species offer practical means for articulating the multiple
entanglements between humans and nonhumans of significant otherness. Haraway
highlights the co-constitutive sensory dimensions of companion species or the many
tones of regard/respect/seeing each other/looking back at/meeting/optic-haptic
encounter. Species and respect are in optic/haptic/affective/cognitive touch.
21

Foregrounding the etymological linkage between species and respect, Haraways term
allows for the consideration of which categories are in play and shaping one another in
flesh and logic in constitutive encounterings.
22
Indeed, more so than flora and fauna
(especially charismatic furry animals and venerable old trees), non-human otherness is
exemplified in the third f, kingdom Fungi: the slimy, stealthy, secretive, subversive
and sinful. The task of rethinking fungi begins with critically regarding the categories
employed to constitute them and the language used to do so.
In tandem with ecopoetic and multispecies theory, these four poems act as
catalysts for a poetic mycology. Emily Dickinsons Mushroom (1874), Sylvia Plaths
Mushrooms (1960), Mary Olivers Mushrooms (1983) and Australian poet Caroline
Caddys Mushrooms (1989) exhibit different aspects of the notion three of which I
will highlight and develop. The first aspect refers to the representation of fungi in
language through the commonplace tropes such as physical decay and moral
decrepitude that are (often wrongly) applied to express mushroom beingness. The
second articulates the degree to which the ecology of fungi factors into the ecopoem,
demonstrating the interdependent nature of the world, in Brysons terms or
entanglement as specific material relations, in Barads. The third and most prominent
aspect I will touch on specifies how an ecopoem materialises human sensory
embodiment through the interplay of the autocentric (smell, touch and taste) and
allocentric senses (sight and hearing) in language.
23
Indeed, Dickinson, Plath, Oliver and
Caddys poems exhibit differing intensities of bodily interaction with fungi. Their
poems collectively yield a continuum of human-fungus interaction from the distanced
and demonised mushroom of Dickinson to the sensuous edible species of Caddy that
facilitate the reconciliation of a troubled mother-daughter relationship.

The elf of plants: Emily Dickinsons Mushroom
In 1830, Emily Dickinson was born in Amherst, Massachusetts, USA, where she
later died in 1886 at age fifty-five after a notably reclusive life. Ecocritics have observed
the sensitivity to the environment that is integral to her poetic oeuvre,
24
as well as the
revisionist qualities of her nature poetry in contrast to the largely masculinist Romantic
58
and Transcendentalist visions of nature preceding and contemporaneous with her. As
Stein comments, her nature poetry addresses and undermines the prevailing
masculinist assumptions about women and nature espoused by the Romantic and
Transcendentalist writers and by Puritan theologians of her day.
25
Dickinsons
Mushroom (1874) evidences her astute perception of the natural world, evoking fungi
as supernatural beings in its opening stanzas. Yet its conspicuous puritanical themes
overshadow the environmental relationships of the mushroom (of course it is unlikely
that Dickinson would have recognised the word ecology in the first place) and,
furthermore, occlude any form of sensory involvement with the organism. In the poem,
the mushroom is a dangerous Judas-faced entity lacking both moral consideration and
capacity. Written by a middle-aged Dickinson, the version quoted here retains the
idiosyncratic capitalisations of the authors original and includes revealing word choices
that are altered in subsequent published versions.
26
As mycologist Nicholas Money
argues, the majority of mycotal poetry Dickinsons being no exception levies
connotations of danger, death and decay at fungi, linking them to witchcraft and the
divine.
27
Money specifically observes Dickinsons use of the image of Judas in the final
stanza, reiterating everyday negative symbolic associations between mushrooms,
morality and religious institutions.
28
Hence, the poems pejorative tone could directly
reflect the Puritanical mood of nineteenth-century New England or, alternately, could
be interpreted as a slightly veiled acerbic commentary by Dickinson on the moralisation
of nature by American religious institutions of her era.
Associations between the supernatural world and mushrooms appear in the
opening verses: The Mushroom is the Elf of Plants - | At Evening, it is not | At
Morning, in a Truffled Hut | It stop opon [sic] a Spot | As if it tarried always (ll. 15).
An elf is an archetypal otherworldly being, used rather unsurprisingly by Dickinson,
but it is also an ambivalent figure, a shape shifter, a changeling, transmogrifying
through a timescale dramatically different to human temporality: At Evening, it is not.
Whereas the first stanza concerns the mushrooms supernatural qualities, the second
turns to the brevity of the organisms lifespan, the spontaneity and erratic nature of its
growth habits, and the unhuman biorhythm it manifests through its cryptic and furtive
movements: And yet its *sic+ whole Career | Is shorter than a Snakes Delay - | And
fleeter than a Tare - (ll. 68). Following Dickinsons assessment of the mushrooms
occultism, manifested by its inhumanly mannerisms, the poem shifts in the third and
fourth stanzas to a multitude of associations. These primarily serve to connect the
mushroom to sorcery, deception, secrecy and evanescence, relegating it to a
surreptitious Scion or, in other words, a fungus on the sly, an inferior plant or, worse
yet, a biological poser for the vegetal.
Metaphors such as Vegetations Juggler (l. 9), on one hand, characterise the
mushroom as a circus act performer a participant in something not legitimate, not real,
definitely not categorisable. On the other, such a phrase suggests that fungi are
shapeshifters existing outside of the visible decomposing, connecting, transforming or,
in other words, orchestrating the perceivable and familiar ecological forms of shrubs,
trees, animals and soil. Read negatively, however, these tropes also conjure the trickster
figure, the mesmeriser and the sleight-of-hand charlatan. Moreover, the phrase Germ
of Alibi (l. 10) implies the microorganism theory of disease of the late nineteenth
century, perhaps known by Dickinson at the time of writing, which would have
implicated fungi with a multitude of afflictions and adverse states of health. Morally,
the phrase connotes the evasion of responsibility for the committing of evil or criminal
acts. The final stanza is even more condemning than the first four: Had Nature any
supple Face | Or could she one contemn - | Had Nature an Apostate - | That Mushroom
- it is Him! (ll. 1720). An Apostate is someone who abandons his or her religion,
59
who defects from institutions of worship, who converts for the worst. The term is
denoted in a later version of the poem as Iscariot or Judas Iscariot, who betrayed Jesus
with a notorious kiss and therefore became the archetypally deceptive and faithless
persona in Christian doctrine.
While demonstrating canny observation of the natural world around her,
Dickinsons poem unjustifiably excoriates The Mushroom, projecting towards it a
battery of unflattering associations. The mycotal tropes used by Dickinson personify the
mushroom as incontrovertibly deceptive and evil as a being culturally misunderstood
for its perceived secrecy, stealth and sorcery. Additionally and perhaps most
condemningly, the mushroom is not part of nature: Had Nature any supple Face | Or
could she one contemn (ll. 1718). The mushroom is nature possessed, in Dickinsons
terms, much as a cancer is a plague on the body by the body. The tone is distanced the
speakers relationship to the mushroom and also the readers subsequent regard for the
mushroom and its relentless barrage of moral associations obscures the ecological
dynamism of fungi, or in Mortons terms, ecology not as science per se, but rather as the
ongoing consideration of how all beings are interconnected, in as deep a way as
possible. There is merely one multispecies allusion I feel as if the Grass was pleased
| To have it intermit (ll. 1314) hinting at an awareness of the interactions between
the mushroom and its living environment. However, Dickinsons use of surreptitious
Scion (in plant propagation, a living part used for grafting) aggregates fungi and plants,
a conflation that obscures the unique umwelt of mushrooms and relegates them to
imperfect plants, perpetuating a long-standing bias that degrades fungi as failed flora.
An alternate, ecological reading of surreptitious Scion would acknowledge the
mycorrhizal associations between fungi and plants in which fungi symbiotically extend
the reach of the grasses.
Dickinsons poem is representative of the gamut of symbolic meanings
attributed to mushrooms, especially those of the poems historical moment. It falls short
of offering a poetic mycology of the senses in the three interlinked dimensions I propose:
linguistic, ecological and sensorial. In sum, although there are elements of sensuous
poesis, there is little indication of human-fungus entanglement through intimacy and
entanglement of any sort. In the final analysis, Dickinsons mushroom is generic
(although it assumes problematic faces throughout the poem). It is indistinguishable
from the masses, fleeter than a Tare (l. 8) and representative of collusion a defeated
object associated with the figure of Judas as a focus of moralisation and proselytising.
Despite the singular form of the noun, the mushroom is neither an individual (in the
sense that an animal is an individual) nor a collective (in the sense that an individual
fruiting body is part of a vast underground network or mycelium). Hence, what is
missing in Dickinsons rendering of the mycotal is a sensory, ecological and imaginative
interest in mushrooms for their own sake (apart from their religious and supernatural
faces), one which closes the human-fungus yawn wrenched open by continuous
misunderstanding and inappropriate moral attribution. Admittedly, my diachronic
reading, beginning with Dickinsons poem, is not meant to show a progression of bad
to good mycotal poetry but rather to demonstrate the shedding of certain symbolic
attachments and the subsequent re-envisioning of fungi for what they are and for what
they can be.

Earless and eyeless: Sylvia Plaths Mushrooms
Sylvia Plath was born in 1932 in Boston, Massachusetts, USA, and died in 1963
at the age of thirty-one. Although conventionally interpreted by literary critics as an
intensely interior and distraught confessional poet,
29
Plaths poetry has been viewed for
its environmental consciousness in Tracy Brains full-length study of the poets
60
worldliness specifically in response to the pesticide toxicity brought to widespread
attention by Rachel Carsons Silent Spring.
30
Normally thought to exhibit painful
introversion, Plaths verse seen in a different light expresses the relational, multispecies
and corporeal ethos at the core of posthumanism and multispecies theory. Similarly,
Knickerbocker argues that Plath expresses the ecological idea that death is often linked
to alienation from ones environment and fellow creatures, whereas life requires
interaction with ones environment and other beings.
31
However, Knickerbockers
statement suggests a binary between death and life that does not hold well in the
context of fungi. Indeed, as saprophytes, detritivores and decomposers, fungi are
intrinsically linked to death and even thrive under conditions of decay. Fungi allow us
to realise that both life and death require interaction with ones environment and other
beings and that embodiment in the world is a condition of life within death and death
within life. Rather than one-dimensionally death-obsessive, Plaths poetry reflects this
complexity as a desire for sensuous embodiment
32
through direct experience and
acute awareness of nature. Her poetry manifests the notion of sensuous poesis, as
Knickerbocker goes on to say, in that Plaths intense imaginative capacities were not
simply a matter of artistic intention but were also a nearly bodily compulsion.
33

In Mushrooms (1960), she grants an imaginative perspective to fungi,
personifying them, giving them intentionality and allowing them to speak for
themselves as a collective. As Knickerbocker also cogently observes of the interwoven
imaginative and material dimensions of the poem, Plaths use of first-person plural is
not merely a poetic flight of fancy; it expresses an ecological verity
34
the underground
mycelium of mushrooms that constitutes a single organism in its communalism. Unlike
Dickinsons demonised archetypal mushroom with Judas facelessness, Plaths
mushrooms comprise an interconnected being not existing in isolation but rather, to
borrow Jean-Luc Nancys term, as being singular plural.
35
Interpreted through the lens
of environmental embodiment and Knickerbockers sensuous poesis, Plaths
Mushrooms and other poems from her oeuvre narrate a process of human absorption
into nature whereby ones body is subsumed within the materiality of ecology. As
Edward Butscher comments appositely, the poem shoves her consciousness directly
into the eye of nature itself.
36

Plaths poem begins with the human perceptions of mushrooms that are
commonplace to other mycotal writings, including quietness, stealth and sudden
appearance from nowhere or so it seems: Overnight, very | Whitely, discreetly, | Very
quietly (ll. 13).
37
Yet, the fungal form adumbrated by Plath, despite its otherness, is
conspicuously human: Our toes, ours noses | Take hold on the loam, | Acquire the air
(ll. 46). These mushrooms, courtesy of her environmental imagination, have
recognisable appendages as well as an animal-like capacity for respiration. Their
anthropomorphic attributes are reiterated in Soft fists insist on | Heaving the needles, |
The leafy bedding | Even the paving (ll. 1013). As such, the mushrooms corporeality
opens up the possibility of bodily empathy between kingdom fungi and human beings.
That Nobody sees us, | Stops us, betrays us (ll. 78) invokes again the slyness and
abruptness of their arrivalthe particular timescale of their movements that contrasts
starkly to mammalian motion. Despite an incomprehensible temporal rhythm, the
dynamism of the mushrooms is celebrated in the poem as they physically tousle the leaf
litter and subvert the pavement, pushing upward with their Soft fists (l. 10) as Our
hammers, our rams (l. 14).
Navigating without the allocentric senses of hearing and sight indeed they are
Perfectly voiceless (l. 16) the mushrooms dynamism is distinctively tactile as they
heave, shoulder, nudge and shove their way upward. They burst forth, pry open doors,
widen crannies, shoulder through holes and heave the needles active phrases that
61
convey their enervated activities. On the whole, Plaths poem expresses convincingly
the plurality of the mushrooms So many of us! So many of us! (ll. 2324) that In
spite of ourselves. | Our kind multiplies (ll. 2930). From the first-person plural
perspective (indicated by our, us and we), there is a prevailing sense of
mushrooms constituting an ecological community mushrooms as a singular
mushroom in dynamic relation to its plurality, as the collective voice of many heaving
upward bodily together in overwhelming profusion. Furthermore, their dynamism is
also the juxtaposition of hard attributes and forms (We are shelves, we are |
Tables<) (ll. 2526) and soft, malleable qualities (we are meek, | We are edible) (ll. 26
27), the latter importantly signifying the potential for humans to eat these kinds without
consequence.
The enigmatic final tercet recalls Dickinsons biblical reference in Had Nature
an Apostate - | That Mushroom - it is Him!. Plath concludes: We shall by morning |
Inherit the earth. | Our foots in the door (ll. 3133). However, the conspicuous allusion
to the Book of Matthew, Blessed are the meek: for they shall inherit the earth, operates
in a manner that affirms mycotal being and is ultimately undergirded by the tenacious
embodied presence of the mushrooms themselves, animatedly prying open yet another
human-constructed space: Our foots in the door (l. 33). If ever mushrooms were
relegated to a forgotten kingdom, inhabiting a haunted position within the Western
cultural imagination, their meekness, silence and discretion (in the opening tercet)
culminate over the poems timeframe in a dynamic force (in the final two tercets) that
overcomes their merely being overlooked or inadvertently stepped on, as the final line
intimates. Of course, the poems emphasis on multiplicity could have gone the direction
of pathogenic excess, but a feeling of awe and reverence lingers. Although the species
identity is not revealed, we accept that they are mushrooms, maybe the common edible
field variety. It could be that mushrooms, for Plath, is a composite signifier standing
in for different kinds of fungi, both edible and poisonous, subterranean fists and tree-
borne shelves and tables.
The generalisability of the term, therefore, works positively in the poem,
allowing the diversity of kingdom fungi to be voiced imaginatively (and cacophonously)
in chorus. The generic appellation mushrooms, as a gestalt category generated at the
margin of human awareness, on crumbs of shadow (l. 20), becomes, by the poems
end, a vociferous and inescapable concerto. In contrast to Dickinsons mushroom, Plath
distinguishes her perspective on the mycotal world by celebrating mushrooms for their
tenacious qualities or, in Moneys terms, the steady, inconspicuous development of the
fungus before its glorious fruiting as a metaphor for patience and self-possession,
assertiveness, and activism
38
and, I add, intentionality. Indeed, we see in the poem the
overturning of the stock pejorative associations between mushrooms, social parasitism
and rapacious growth towards a poetic mycology of the senses from the mushrooms
point-of-view. In its equating of a certain segment of animal or vegetable *or mycotal+
life with human existence,
39
Mushrooms carries the multispecies momentum towards
decentred human subjectivity rather than pernicious solipsism.

Flocks of glitterers: Mary Olivers Mushrooms
Born in 1935 in rural Ohio, USA, Mary Oliver settled in Provincetown,
Massachusetts, later in life where much of her poetry is set. Reflecting her immense
curiosity for the world, many of Olivers essays and poems address themes of ecological
interdependence, intimacy with nonhumans and the immediacy of direct experience. In
his reading of Olivers pragmatic mysticism and the relational attributes of her work,
Laird Christensen observes that traditional distinctions between mortality and
immortality quickly break down in Olivers poems as the material elements of each
62
being are transformed into the elements of other bodies.
40
In terms of human-nature
entanglement, Olivers poetry exhibits a continual reintegration of *the+ individual into
the whole [that] denies any abiding sense of discrete identity,
41
and thereby decentres
human subjectivity by placing the activities of people within a material ecological
community marked by cycles of growth and decay, life and death. Olivers poem opens
with the ecologically founded emergence of mushrooms demystifying their sudden
arrival, attributed as we found in Dickinsons poem, to the workings of the supernatural
rather than habitat processes: Rain, and then | the cool pursed | lips of the wind |
draw them | out of the ground (ll. 15).
42
Instead, in the poem, the convergence of
elements moisture, temperature, wind and earth galvanises the appearance of
mushrooms, nonetheless death-evoking for Oliver. As in many of Olivers ecopoems,
the materiality of the mushrooms in their milieux becomes an ecological force with
considerable physical momentum and apparent dynamism: red and yellow skulls |
pummeling upward | through leaves, | through grasses, | through sand< (ll. 610).
Like Dickinson and Plath before her, Oliver represents the habitus of mycotal
being-in-the-world as closely in synch with time and sound: astonishing | in their
suddenness, | their quietude, | their wetness, they appear | on fall mornings< (ll. 10
14). Yet, unlike Dickinson and Plaths poems, whilst some mushrooms are packed with
poison (l. 17), others are billowing | chunkily, and delicious (l. 1819). In Olivers
work, we are presented with a more equanimous picture of the fungi kingdom, as both
death-dealer and life-giver. Through the physicality of walking amongst the flocks, the
human capacity for discernment (and hence self-preservation) is fostered through close
sensory interaction with mushrooms: those who know | walk out to gather, choosing |
the benign from flocks | of glitterers, sorcerers, | russulas, | panther caps, | shark-white
death angels (ll. 2026). As such, Olivers mushrooms are beyond the categories of
moralisation (of attributing goodness or evil to them) and, instead, exist as corporeal
beings, whether edible or poisonous or in-between; indeed, to skirt death in the field,
one must become one who knows of their physical properties. As a linguistic tactic
employed by other nature writers on fungi, the likening of mushrooms to supernatural
figures glitterers, sorcerers rather than weakening human-fungi entanglements in
Olivers poem, instead exemplifies Haraways linkage between species and respect or
seeing each other/looking back at/meeting/optic-haptic encounter. In contrast to
Dickinsons othering of the mushroom, which brews Judeo-Christian-based contempt
by the poems conclusion, Olivers othering breeds respectful knowing, leading to
secure delectation the discerning between sugar (l. 28) and paralysis (l. 29).
On the whole, an uncanny mixing defines Olivers Mushrooms its
movements polarised by the presence throughout of predictable preternatural tropes on
the one hand (e.g., glitters, sorcerers) and, on the other, a more sophisticated and
specific lexicon (familiar to many field mycologists) with nuanced symbolic meanings
and social resonances (e.g., russulas, | panther caps). In short, Olivers enumeration of
names, such as death angels, narrows the identities of these mushrooms and provides a
basis for differentiating the virulent from the innocuous amidst the plurality. Despite a
somewhat contradictory trajectory through kingdom fungi, the poem resounds a clarion
message that familiarity and intimacy intrinsic to Haraways notion of companion
species are fostered through respectful human-fungi interactions in which the
dangerous potential of some species is recognised, learned and avoided. To state it
differently, the intimate act of eating mushrooms as experienced wild-crafters would
know necessitates the sensible ability to tell poisonous species from delicacies. The
acquisition of knowledge about fungi, although represented in cryptic and cultish terms
in the poem, is, therefore, based more firmly in the experience of the everyday material
domain: the ground, the earth, the fields of rain. In their poisonousness, the russulas,
63
panther caps and death angels themselves are not implicated as morally culpable agents
in fact they are being perfect (l. 33), unlike Dickinsons reprehensible Judas-faceless
mushroom. Instead, they follow the truth of their ecological cadences, receding under
the shining | fields of rain (ll. 3536), leaving the staggering down of humans,
poisoned by the deadly toxic few, to human agency (choice, discretion, intelligence)
alone.

Everywhere they touched us: Caroline Caddys Mushrooms
The only non-American (and non-New Englander at that) poet of the four
featured in this article, Caroline Caddy was born in Western Australia (WA) in 1944, but
lived as a child in the United States and Japan.
43
Her most recent collection, Esperance:
New and Selected Poems (2007), features a variety of ecologically conversant poems, such
as Stirling Ranges and Karri Trees, about the South Coast region near Albany, WA.
Mushrooms from her earlier collection Beach Plastic (1989) is a five-part poem centring
on the troubled relationship between a mother and teenage daughter. As with Plath and
Olivers examples, Caddys poem emphasises embodied human-fungus interaction,
most actualised through eating. There is an evocation of mushrooms as companion
species through, to apply Tsings term, an art of inclusion: the wild-crafting and
preparation of edible species, involving the bringing of the mycotal other into a
domestic setting where its symbolic and material dimensions become manifold, where it
achieves ritualistic and spiritually cleansing status. Dispensing with the stock tropes we
find in Dickinson that denigrate kingdom fungi, Caddys perspective on mushrooms is
compellingly corporeal and touchingly intimate: We made soup | wiped their
photocopies from plates [...] tables | everywhere they touched us (Sect. 3, ll. 3638).
Here, the notion of a poetic mycology of the senses reaches its apotheosis, in which
palpable entanglement between the speaker and the still enigmatic but highly respected
mushrooms occurs on multiple levels.
After evocative depictions of cooking in Section 2, in the poems Section 3, the
speaker commands her daughter out of the house to go mushroom gathering:
Navigating the seas of your boredom | I sent you out to look for mushrooms. | You
returned feet wet skirt held | hem to waist (Sect. 3, ll. 14). The daughters
voluminous fungal findings affect her physical and emotional balance positively: you
leaned back from your impossible burden | grinning your if you believe it it wont be so
| and if you dont | it might not be either grin | I was sure you filled your skirt | with
sticks and litter (Sect. 3, ll. 1015). Through the fecundity of the mushroom harvest and
the season of fungi, the two discover, if only momentarily, a renewed empathy for one
another as the wild mushrooms co-occupy the domestic space. What follows is perhaps
the most compelling example of sensuous poesis specific to the mycotal in which
language enacts the immanent physical sensations of nonhuman nature:

I smelled them before you opened your skirt
not rank that often comes with size
but redolent
our words came out like inspired praise.
They were
bowls for thick-lipped giants shepherd pies
mosques and edible turbans.
They had the feel of gruyere and some
with strips of grass tied over them
were obscure Japanese packages. (Sect. 3, ll. 2635)

64
Gradations of smell fall between rank and redolent, particularising the nuance of
sensory experience. Rather than fearful distance, familiarity (literally in relation to the
speakers family) and human-fungus intimacy inflect the excerpt throughout. Caddys
haptic tropes signify interactions towards the attainment of human nourishment: the
feel of gruyere (l. 33). The making of soup symbolises the reconciliation between
mother and daughter, as well as an embodied entanglement between human beings and
mycotal companion species. The third section of Mushrooms, the most fungally
focused, expresses uninhibited sensory openness to fungi everywhere they touched
us (l. 38) combined exactingly with the practical expertise of a wild-crafter. Caddys
mycological imagination and material poetics conspire to liberate fungi from an
obsolescent language that constrains these organisms with insinuations of the
supernatural, sin, treachery and deceit. Individual mushrooms receive lucid and
imaginative faces Russian domes, photocopies from plates, obscure Japanese
packages that identify them within the plurality of their masses and their appellation:
mushrooms.

Conclusion: The poetry of the forgotten Kingdom
As this brief foray through four mycopoems suggests, the signifier mushrooms
is an ontological gestalt that can belie the sensory complexities and individual nuances
of mushrooms and human-fungus interactions. It is through the autocentric senses of
smell, taste and touch, in conjunction with practical, field-based knowledge of the
Kingdom, that their radical otherness, bewildering diversity and vexing ecologies are
made intimate and immediate. The dynamism of the poems of Plath and Oliver reflects
the unique habitus of mushrooms, whereas Dickinsons earlier attempt appears mired
in its own symbolic detritus and perhaps that of its time. In Oliver and Caddys works
in particular, a poetic mycology of the senses emerges through the striking combination
of ecological sensitivity and bodily invocation both fostered through the intimate act
of eating mushrooms. Indeed, Caddys is an exploration of consuming fungi and its
social/family implications. In her poem, particularly the third section, we find the full
(and exemplary) expression of a poetic mycology of the senses interlinking linguistic
forms, fungal field ecology and sensory experience towards the creation of novel and
surprising modes of language communicating human-fungus interactions in all their
stickiness.
Finally, the criterion of edibility is only one facet of human-fungus relationships.
In this context, Haraways etymological connection between respect and species raises the
notion of deferential regard that has been associated with the former term since the
1540s.
44
Learning to avoid potentially lethal fungi and to harvest edible kinds is both a
matter of respect (for Other and self) and the preservation of ones life. Such learning is
an ongoing pursuit in which respect for the agency of these organisms is tempered with
care for self; it necessitates an entanglement (not necessarily a deference but an ethic of
caution), one that comes as a result of prolonged attention to fungi in the field,
concerted study of taxonomic knowledge and genuine regard for the successful survival
mechanisms of these organisms. As Dickinsons poem implies through its use of the
Judas metaphor, mushrooms wrongly identified or imprudently trusted can kill us
or make us dreadfully sick. Yet, the dangerous properties of a few species should not
negate the complexity and importance of the Kingdom as a whole. Indeed, emerging
ecological knowledge of fungi reveal other horizons for a poetic mycology of the senses:
for example, the multifaceted role fungi play in maintaining habitat processes, such as
the transfer of ions between terrestrial and aquatic habitats.
45
These ecological
perspectives will continue to mark the evolution of sensuous poesis founded in notions
of science, embodiment, entanglement and respect.
65
Notes
1. John Ryan is a Postdoctoral Research Fellow in Communications and Arts at Edith Cowan
University in Perth, Western Australia. He is the author of Green Sense (2012, TrueHeart Press)
and Unbraided Lines (2013, Common Ground Publishing), as well as a book of nature
poetry, Two With Nature (2012, Fremantle Press), with botanical illustrator Ellen Hickman. He
wishes to thank the two anonymous referees for their comments, which have greatly
improved the essay. In particular, Referee #2 offered constructive alternate readings of the
poems.
2. A. Pouliot and T. May (2010), "The Third 'F' - Fungi in Australian Biodiversity Conservation:
Actions, Issues and Initiatives", Mycologia Balcanica 7, pp. 27-34; see also J. Walker (1996), "The
Classification of the Fungi: History, Current Status and Usage in the Fungi of Australia" in A.
Orchard (ed.), Fungi of Australia, Australian Biological Resources Study; CSIRO, Canberra,
ACT, pp. 1-27.
3. See N. Money (2011), Mushroom, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, pp. 134-135, for some
literary discussion of mushrooms in poetry; and J. Ryan (2012), Which to Become?
Encountering Fungi in Australian Poetry, Rupkatha Journal on Interdisciplinary Studies in
Humanities 4(2), pp. 132-143. The work of anthropologist Anna Tsing on matsutake
mushrooms is located in the environmental humanities rather than literary studies or
ecocriticism; see A. Tsing (2011), "Arts of Inclusion, or, How to Love a Mushroom,
Australian Humanities Review 50, pp. 5-21. Website:
http://www.australianhumanitiesreview.org/archive/Issue-May-2011/tsing.html (Accessed 25
April 2013).
4. K. Shapiro and M. DeMello (2010), "The State of Human-Animal Studies", Society &
Animals 18(3), pp. 2-17.
5. G.Huggan and H. Tiffin (2010), Postcolonial Ecocriticism: Literature, Animals, Environment,
Routledge, New York, pp. 133-202.
6. M. Marder (2013), Plant-Thinking: A Philosophy of Vegetal Life, Columbia University Press, New
York.
7. J. Adamson and C. Sandilands (2013), Vegetal Ecocriticism: The Question of The
Plant, Preconference Panel, Changing Nature: ASLE Tenth Biennial Conference, University
of Kansas, Lawrence. Website:
http://asle.ku.edu/Preconference/pdf/Vegetal_Ecocriticism_The_Question_of_ThePlant.pdf
(Accessed 15 May 2013).
8. For example, Adamson and Sandilands (2013) refer to floral, botanical, arboreal, fungal, and
other vegetal discourses [emphasis added].
9. D. Griffin (1994), Fungal Physiology, 2
nd
ed., Wiley-Liss, Inc., New York.
10. For Australia, see J. Ryan (2012). For North America, see J. Millar (2002), Mycological
Studies, Canada Council for the Arts, Ottawa; and R. Roehl and K. Chadwick (eds.) (2010),
Decomposition: An Anthology of Fungi-Inspired Poems, Lost Horse Press, Sandpoint, ID.
11. M. Serres (2008), The Five Senses: A Philosophy of Mingled Bodies, Continuum, London.
12. J. Bryson (2002), Introduction, in J. Bryson (ed.), Ecopoetry: A Critical Introduction, The
University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City, pp. 1-13; qtd from pp. 5-6.
13. T. Morton (2010), The Dark Ecology of Elegy, in K. Weisman (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of
the Elegy, Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 251-271; qtd from p. 255.
14. J. Bryson (2002), p. 6.
15. J. Bryson (2002), p. 7.
16. S. Knickerbocker (2012), Ecopoetics: The Language of Nature, the Nature of Language, University
of Massachusetts Press, Amherst, p. 2.
17. S. Knickerbocker (2012), p. 17.
18. D. Haraway(2008), When Species Meet, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis; T. Morton
(2010); C. Wolfe (2010), What Is Posthumanism?, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis.
19. K. Barad (2010), Quantum Entanglements and Hauntological Relations of Inheritance:
Dis/continuities, SpaceTimeEnfoldings, and Justice-to-Come, Derrida Today, 3(2), pp. 240-268;
qtd. from p. 265.
20. A. Tsing (2011).
21. D. Haraway (2008), p. 164.
22. D. Haraway (2008), p. 164.
23. Although purporting an artificial binary, Porteous differentiates between autocentric (subject-
centred) and allocentric (object-centred) senses. As the primary allocentric senses, vision and
to some extent hearing are associated with cognition, detachment, distance and maturation.
The autocentric senses of smell, touch and taste are physical, primitive, emotive, immediate,
proximal and intrinsic to children. See J.D. Porteous (1996), Environmental Aesthetics: Ideas,
Politics and Planning, Routledge, London, p. 31.
24. J. Felstiner (2009), Can Poetry Save the Earth? A Field Guide to Nature Poems, Yale University
66
Press, New Haven; R. Stein (1997), Shifting the Ground: American Women Writers Revisions of
Nature, Gender, and Race, The University of Virginia Press, Charlottesville; especially chapter
1.
25. R. Stein (1997), p. 25.
26. R.W. Franklin (ed.) (1999), The Poems of Emily Dickinson: Reading Edition, The Belknap Press of
Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, p. 520.
27. N. Money (2011), p. 136.
28. N. Money (2011), p. 134.
29. For example, D. Holbrook (1976), Sylvia Plath: Poetry and Existence, University of London; The
Athlone Press, London. Holbrook offers an existential reading of Mushrooms as a poem
which couldnt, however, have been written without the torment of experiencing a life
without feeling alive (p. 269).
30. T. Brain (2001), The Other Sylvia Plath, Pearson Education, Harlow, UK.
32 S. Knickerbocker (2012), p. 127.
35. J-L. Nancy (2000), Being Singular Plural, R. Richardson (trans.), Stanford University Press,
Stanford.
36. E. Butscher (1976), Sylvia Plath: Method and Madness, The Seabury Press, New York, p. 244.
37. S. Plath (1967), Mushrooms, in The Colossus, Faber and Faber, London, pp. 34-35, originally
published 1960.
38. N. Money (2011), p. 135.
39. E. Butscher (1976), p. 248.
40. L. Christensen (2002), The Pragmatic Mysticism of Mary Oliver, in J. Bryson (ed.), Ecopoetry:
A Critical Introduction, The University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City, pp. 135-152; qtd. from p.
137.
41. L. Christensen (2002), p. 137.
42. M. Oliver (1992), Mushrooms, in New and Selected Poems, Beacon Press, Boston, pp. 144-45;
first published in American Primitive (1983).
43. J. Kinsella (2009), Biographical Notes, in J. Kinsella (ed.), The Penguin Anthology of Australian
Poetry, Penguin Group, Camberwell, pp. 395-435; qtd. from p. 401.
44. D. Harper (2013), Respect in Online Etymology Dictionary. Website:
www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=respect&searchmode=none
(Accessed 15 May 2013).
45. G. Gadd (2000), Heterotrophic Solubilization of Metal-Bearing Minerals by Fungi, in J.
Cotter-Howells, L. Campbell, E. Valsami-Jones and M. Batchelder (eds.), Environmental
Mineralogy: Microbial Interactions, Anthropogenic Influences, Contaminated Land and
Waste Management, Mineralogical Society of Great Britain & Ireland, Middlesex, pp. 57-75.

67

Real Life
Italo Calvinos funghi ecology

Ted Geier
1

Recent work on nonhuman ethnography and cosmopolitical theory explores
nonhumans as coexistent actants in a social and historical community with humans.
Prior work on animals and other nonhumans has sought to identify human chauvinisms
and expand human thought to include the wellbeing of others, ethical consideration of
nonhumans or the equality of all subjects and objects. Multispecies ethnography,
however, presumes some claims of those earlier modes (and resists some others) to
articulate specific interspecies histories in terms attendant to nonhuman life.
2
There have
been several earlier modes of this ethnographic work focusing on mammals, including
Gordon Sayres work on the history of beavers in early colonial North American culture
and James Cliffords Fort Ross Meditations in Routes, and it continues now in
increasingly empirical studies in anthropology tracking nonhuman roles in a variety of
global contexts.
3
Much of this work has focused on fauna and flora, but most, if not all,
of these interspecies ethnographies articulate forms of structuration and communication
that exceed or simply forego linguistic or other human tendencies. As part of this turn,
coherent addresses on the fungal by Anna Tsing and others have begun to pop up.
4
This
turn to explicating nonhuman coexistence acknowledges broad histories and patterns of
communal ecology that also inform multiple literary traditions, including seemingly all
of the twentieth-century Italian author Italo Calvinos oeuvre.
There is a long fungal literary tradition in English including fairies and
toadstools, the night-swollen mushrooms and other insidious fungi that invade the
narrator's flora collecting expeditions in Keats Endymion, and of course Lewis Carrolls
magic mushroom (one side will make you smaller or really, the hallucinogenic
properties will make objects appear smaller and larger to the consumer). Certainly,
there are more, and equally assuredly, the fungal literary tradition spreads far beyond
anglophone realms. In the case of the short story at the heart of this investigation,
Funghi in citt (Mushrooms in the City), Italo Calvino has at least a partial narrative
template in H.G. Wells 1896 The Purple Pileus, a short story in which a man bored
with his urban routine wanders to the woods, eats a pungent fungus, and is
maddened to the point of decisive action leading then to business success and
domestic happiness.
Some literary fungi are benign, even lovely, but few are as actively
interpellative or as frankly insouciant as the surprising mushrooms in the city in
Calvinos story, Funghi in citt from the Marcovaldo, ovvero Le stagioni in citt
(Marcovaldo, or, The Seasons in the City).
5
Mushrooms in the City fits into a broader
ecological thought in Calvinos work that never exactly culminates that is, his oeuvre
68
has rhizomatic outcroppings that accord some chronological and thematic coherence
but that coexist with diverse nodes of maturation, ripeness, fullness, utility, or whatever
else might make it good for chewing over. But Calvinos works exude a gentle, playful
misanthropy that is conventionally environmentalist in its negative evaluation of
anthropocentrism while often subverting its own anti-human impulses through
attentive nonhuman sensibilities. Calvinos nonhuman ecology infiltrates a wide section
of his corpus and condenses in the interspecies, fungal figurings of this short story. A
preliminary evaluation of select works by Calvino amplifies the modes of interspecies
coexistence in his funghi ecology, revealing multiple elisions of human/nonhuman
boundaries alongside subverted social conventions and wholesale iconoclasm that
produce a coherent ecological thought.
Calvinos works literally teem with life and objects, plants and other creatures,
forces and elements, and just about everything else in the universe (or out of it, for that
matter). There are plenty of humans in there, too, and the laundry list of other creatures
properly deemed animals populating his stories would run pages long itself. At times,
these animal inclusions riff on literary precursors. For example, in an early short story,
A Judgment, Calvino invokes Kafkas das Urteil directly in the title and der Prozess
with the storys public execution of a judge that no one attends. The judge dies, of
course, like a dog, punished for abuses of a community he had looked down upon
with the scorn and categorical contempt of Poes Man of the Crowd and punished as
though they were merely animal inmates in a Penal Colony the references cannot be
accidental. Calvinos blunt nods to antecedent literary negotiations of inhumanity and
fractured community are part of his broader critique of taxonomic violence, against
which he still preserves categorical care and wonder, and, ultimately, articulates an
ecological sensibility that both cradles and condemns human hubris while making space
wherever possible for expansive nonhuman participation. But beyond simple literary
histories or concordant classifications of Calvinos nonhumans, Calvinos stories
negotiate a variety of populist interspecies interactions through direct contact, scientific
and mythological iterations, and pervasive coexistences that resist instrumental
articulation.
Marcovaldo, or, The Seasons in the City is one of Calvinos most overtly ecological
works given its repetitious seasonal/annual structure and seemingly conventional
meditations on urban atrophy. Mushrooms in the City first denigrates the fungal,
appropriating it as negative metaphor of human dispersal and infestation as Bram
Stoker does in Dracula, but then seems to envy these withdrawn nonhumans as they
articulate unfamiliar, perhaps lost, community networks.
6
Mushrooms in the City is
not part of the early Calvino struggles to negotiate World War trauma in strongly realist
tones remarkable not for their overt fantasy but for the stark uncertainty and
obfuscation of whatever reality was afoot. In his 1949 volume, Ultimo vieneil corvo,
edited and translated in 1957 as Adam, One Afternoon, Calvinos short story, Andato al
Comando (Gone to Headquarters), for example, proceeds as a disorienting narration
of a wooded trek and conversation between the unarmed man and the armed man,
ending with someone, either fascist or resistor, dead in a sparse wood, mouth full of pine
needles and covered by black ants.
7
But there is an opening gesture in Mushrooms in
the City, in which the narrator wonders from who knows where? these funny spores
come, carried on winds from outside the city perceived only by very sensitive souls.
This who knows? is chiss, translated sometimes, misleadingly, as the colloquial
English god knows. Humans spread menacingly in their cities, Calvino suggests,
whereas fungi in the story spread indeterminately and, often, to no ones knowledge,
even to the point of colloquialised (and thus routine, quotidian and ontological)
abandonments of critical enquiry, and thus the negative fungal mobility is recuperated
Ted Geier, Real Life
69
as part of a nonhuman community in which humans, even in the direst life-and-death
scenarios within their supposedly discrete human social milieu, are precisely
interchangeable and anonymous. Further, any individual corporeal termination is in
fact a boon for the larger interspecies community: humans are good to eat.
Calvino is not precisely a deep ecologist, and it matters whether one is in the
resistance or propelling the status quo (or worse), but Calvinos fascination with the
malleability of human form to become food for ants or fungal receptors shows a
levelling of species difference that retains divisions but does not privilege positions or
hierarchise members. Lucia Re has written on Calvinos neorealism as fables of
estrangement, and like the not-so-masked references to Kafka and Poe in the collection
from which this story is taken, this story and others, highlighted by an interest in
interspecies community in joy and in suffering, work constantly to disorient characters
and narrative perspective. This produces clear hallmarks of magic realism such as
withholding narrative clarity in mysterious yet empirical detail, political critique (to the
point of barrenness), and, later in Calvinos works, overt fantasy and metafictional
experimentation. But Mushrooms in the City really is not fantastic in any sense, and
the slippery insufficiency of the Magical Realist category is likely one Calvino himself
would have quite enjoyed. It seems more effective to simply interrogate the interspecies
ecologies in some of Calvinos works through a broader scope, which in turn valorises
Calvinos own shifty treatment of both negative and positive connotations and
manifestations of the nonhuman and the fungal.
Calvinos quotidian fantastic perhaps better described across his oeuvre as
simply a quotidian surprise and charm fiction ironises a momentary recovery of
weird pastoral unity in Mushrooms in the City. The story, and the whole of
Marcovaldo, openly laments urban life and human construction of environment. The
mushrooms squeeze between cracks in the cement at a bus stop and gradually seem to
be everywhere one turns by the storys end. Marcovaldo, the main character, has an eye
that does not fit in with city life. He notices all life forms besides the human billboards,
traffic signals and various invitations to buy and consume. Another story in the
collection, Marcovaldo at the Supermarket, pushes the radical estrangement of human
from human society and technology to its logical end: even food can become a
horrifying cultural construction, alienated from more natural, authentic milieux. But
Calvino is cagey even on this count: Marcovaldos supposedly talented naturalists eye
ultimately picks a bunch of mushrooms his stomach cannot digest.
On the one hand, this illness is further clarification of the atrophied urban
gourmand; perhaps Marcovaldo is simply a little too hygienic to enjoy real mushrooms,
sprouting right here in the heart of the city!
8
These veri funghi
9
true, real funghi
awaken the entire neighbourhood from a flattened yet vertical, impacted daily life,
thanks largely to Marcovaldos enthusiasm and apparent artisan knowledge of
mushroom cultivation and preparation. The story is a procession of urban agrarianism,
community building and shows of hospitality until its conclusion, when everyone is
sick from eating mushrooms they had not properly identified or recognised but had
greedily collected and taken to their individual homes to consume. The consumption
habits seem, in fact, to be to blame, and Calvino is careful never to write explicitly that
any mushrooms poisoned any humans. And yet the fungal pervades the neighbourhood
in a seeming intoxication. Tellingly, the fungal does not, in and of itself, perform any
violation of the human in the story, and, especially at the olfactory register, is protected
by Calvino:
That night it rained: like peasants who, after months of drought, wake up and leap with
joy at the sound of the first drops, so Marcovaldo, alone in all the city, sat up in bed and
called to his family: Its raining! Its raining! and breathed in the smell of moistened
dust and fresh mold that came from outside.
10

70
Mushrooms drive one of several collecting habits humans enact, and one marked
often by a precise connection to cultured eating habits. Marcovaldo says real or true
mushrooms because they are an unmotivated, wild, nonhuman accident that coexists, in
this story, arbitrarily in the human neighbourhood. Humans luck into real life in this
way. And yet this real life is doubly marked as a heightened, exceptional consumption
pattern that is troubled by a devout authenticity and nostalgic, rustic simplicity that
might really and truly be good for you or, further, good for the world in contrast with
mass agriculture and processed foods and an elitist, superficial, even artificial
consumption performance. The urban or the constructed agrarian modes of
contemporary life can well enough be blamed for any sense of loss or departure in
relation to real life like that. But the innocent city fungus is also co-opted in a categorical,
knowledge-based accumulation that separates humans from each other.
In conjunction with other selections from his interspecies meditations, Calvinos
nonhuman sensibility in Mushrooms in the City might resemble an early version of
posthumanist theory that calls the very grounds of generic (literary or theoretical)
distinctions further into question by unsettling their basic notions of category and
definition at the levels of language and interspecies subjection. His earlier works, in
particular, critically evaluate such categorising rubrics as a dominant theme, and thus
might resist such importations of sense making devices overtly when they do not
explicitly lampoon the critical impulse altogether. Calvinos deep commitments to
humour, irony and anti-authoritarian narratives sustain a nuanced outlook on
ecological coexistence, reflecting his intense interests in life sciences (both parents were
botanists, not incidentally). And when he was not producing ridiculous adults, morally
bankrupt military men and ineffectual zookeepers for untroubled narrative
consumption, Calvinos narrators were defiantly taunting the audiences limited,
human, all-too-human frame of knowledge: To fall in the void as I fell: None of you
knows what that means.
11
Calvino was attuned to a broad range of human-nonhuman
interactions, intermingling flora, fauna or neither without overtly rejecting
anthropomorphic devices such aggressive commitments would have impeded his
subtler articulation of a comprehensively interspecies community. In Calvinos works,
the human is always in question yet intimately cradled among a multispecies
coexistence. Questions of equality, consubstantiality, centrality or hierarchy always
seem like the wrong questions altogether: they have already been answered. This
unsettling confidence in indeterminacy is the heart of Calvinos ecological thought.
In Cosmicomics, Calvino makes perhaps his grandest attempt to level the
ecological playing field on an intergalactic, abstract scale that refuses to hold gods,
science and rationality, or humans sacred on any terms. The two characters in the
story translated as How Much Shall We Bet? are not categorised as species, and are
named Qfwqf and Dean (k)yK. The storys epigram is about cybernetics and physical
determinism, including a sentence on forces and reactions producing life: the universe
is formed by a series of feedbacks, positive and negative, at first through the force of
gravity that concentrates masses of hydrogen in the primitive cloud, then through
nuclear force and centrifugal force which are balanced with the first.
12
Two
unarticulated mega-beings betting on the chance, the throw of dice in life and its bases,
both affirms rational secular science while maintaining an unexamined mythical
narrative. Calvino thus writes his own funny kind of etiology while simultaneously
foregrounding a long joke about etiology. This is generally the Calvino style for other
coexistences within his works.
Calvino satirised human hubris by melding the most sublime scales human
cognition can fathom with the infinitesimally humble subjection such knowledge ought
to effect. This recursive form, at least in part, marks a literary abuse of nonhumans for
71
human ends and, perhaps, idealises an abusive humiliation of humans in the first place.
In his sometimes-fabulous post-war collection, Adam, One Afternoon, Calvino certainly
appropriates animal figures in his reflections on surreal, wartime dehumanisation. But
then again, moments such as a traumatic co-terrorised gathering of species during a
fascist round up in the opening of Animal Wood in the collection suggest a sincere,
elegant interspecies sensitivity mindful of both the risks and benefits of animal
figuration in testimonial negotiations of traumatic life experience.
13
Calvino, like Primo
Levi, negotiated World War horror and inhumanity in writing while also struggling to
preserve a life worth living.
14
Dehumanisation of the brand articulated by Theodor
Adorno and Primo Levi, as well as Levis later commentator Giorgio Agamben, asserts a
boundary figure of non-life in the flesh that Calvino seems to return to time and again in
the post-traumatic residue of urban atrophy and cultural homogeneity in many of his
stories.
15
Critical figures such as infinite, unfathomable nonhumans (ants) that drown out
the human without violence in stories like The Argentine Ant pop up across Calvinos
expansive corpus to expand the community of animals, objects and humans in ways
that revise anthropocentric frameworks and maintain not exactly hopefulness or even
positivity, but, at minimum, unqualified coexistence in some form of life. In The
Argentine Ant, an impossible, pervasive ant population covers every aspect of home,
person and interior space. This pervasive, total coexistence leads to paranoia (theyre
everywhere), which is heightened by a couples anxiety over the safety and wellbeing of
their infant child. The characters cannot stop itching and feeling Ant in stories in which
Calvino includes the Argentine ant body, and yet characters proceed gleefully, almost
surreally unfazed by the seething multiplicity that binds itself radically to rooms and
homes, babys toys and cribs, and the humans themselves.
16
This total pervasiveness of
nonhumans is a riotous entertainment to some characters and a terrible curse to the
more uptight, categorical harbingers of propriety in Calvinos works. Calvino deserves
some criticism on one point: in these early interspecies community meditations, many of
the silliest uptight hysterics are young women and new mothers. But even more often
than that, the ridiculous humans abjected from a fuller interspecies community are
fascists, religious ideologues and municipal employees.
Mel Chens recent work on toxicity and pervasive intimacy in vulnerable states
in Animacies: Biopolitics, Racial Mattering, and Queer Affect proposes a revision of the anti
aspects of toxicity (violation, invasion, unwanted intrusion, foreign threat) in order to
articulate a fuller sense of intoxication. Chen examines U.S. marketplace and racialised
consumer ideologies, focusing primarily on recent lead-poisoning scares to produce her
critical readings of childrens toys produced in China and consumed around the world.
Chen introduces her model of a queer comportment somehow outside capital flows and
yet also decisively tied to those temporal locales and status quo interpellations of
subjectivity.
17
Chens further claim on political engagement of abject states also draws
on disability studies, theories of healing and critiques of damage and correction that
seem naturally in line with the coherent frameworks of exception and suspension laid
out in recent biopolitical philosophy while attempting to resist the aggressive legal
subjections founding those strains of critical theory.
18
But the pervasive intoxication she
notes is close to Timothy Mortons hyperobject and the viscous binding of something
like global warming to every facet of daily life that intensifies all the more against any
attempt to resist the preponderance of objects.
19
The infinite affect invoked seems,
precisely, to be a non-state because it forecloses the anxious indeterminacy between
threat and security human actors mobilise under such classificatory confusion. This
suspended non-state, which is thus not suspended but permanent and ontological, may
simply be an elaborate technical apparatus through which to declare what is, what is.
72
But in another sense, the move to articulate the whateverness of pervasive coexistent
intimacy matches Calvinos literary explorations of frustrated categorical authority,
playful (or anarchic) liberty and the forms of radical estrangement dominating life in, at
the least, Calvinos twentieth-century Europe.
In the short story entitled Un pomeriggio, Adamo (Adam, One Afternoon)
a woman named Maria-nunziata is frustrated, shocked and wholly intoxicated by the
matter-of-factness of a young boys intimate sense of interspecies community. The boy,
Libereso, is the new gardeners assistant at a large estate. Maria-nunziata repeats
Liberesos name and laughs when she first meets him, remarking on the funny sound of
the familiar yet foreign name. Libereso clarifies matters: Its a name in Esperanto<in
Esperanto it means liberty. Maria-nunziata is quickly confused, and calls him
Esperanto. He corrects her. The joke is about the language itself; as Esperanto became
more widely known, it was called Esperanto after the pseudonym under which Ludwig
Zamenhof had published his lingvo internacia, Doktoro Esperanto (hopeful). Maria-
nunziata calls liberty hopeful and The Language Esperanto, reinscribing precisely
the violence Zamenhof worked against in a utopian house of language that could
ameliorate the Babel din of incompatible, individuated, territorial cultural and linguistic
singularities. Like Zamenhof, Libereso pursues understanding but is not married to the
chauvinistic identity and categorical distinctions produced by some forms of knowledge.
He happily corrects Maria-nunziata, suggesting some authoritative structure, but then
returns her Why Libereso? with his own Why Maria-nunziata? (she is named after
the Madonna). Libereso, an anarchist in his free time as it turns out, plays all sides. By
the end of the story, it will seem that the fifteen-year-old boy is simply mischievous,
tormenting a fourteen-year-old girl and possible object of affection with creepy-crawlies
and slimy critters.
20
But Calvinos mischief is usually deeply, ecologically political.
Fascist Italy, incidentally, was one of the few totalitarian regimes that permitted
and even promoted use of Esperanto during the World War period. The language itself,
originally conceived as a vehicle for intercultural peace and free communication, in fact
bears strikingly close resemblances to Italian, more so than many other languages, and
could well have been about the least funny sounding language possible for an Italian
like Maria-nunziata. The creator of the language, Ludwig Zamenhof, was a Polish Jew
whose family was targeted by Hitler and the Nazis. Hitler wrote disparagingly about
Esperanto in Mein Kampf, seeing it as a potential tool of an international Jewish
conspiracy, and Esperanto was outlawed in Germany in 1937. But within the camps,
those who knew it taught it to others and, as one widely circulated anecdote goes, told
guards that they were learning Italian if any questions were asked.
21
Calvinos inclusion
of general misunderstanding and seeming misidentifications in collaboration with
Esperanto, a utopian and resistant language, reveals both the incredible facility and
potential of human identifying and classificatory attunements while simultaneously
testifying to the flattened insufficiency, even ridiculous hopelessness, of ossified human
linguistic and cognitive frameworks. Very little makes sense, even when things make
perfect sense.
In Adam, One Afternoon, the boy Libereso slowly and carefully waters plants
as though serving the plants like a house servant would pour coffee and milk. Libereso,
a vegetarian, is throughout the story wholly servile yet joyfully defiant and contrarian
(answering questions with questions, for example) while completely unfettered in his
relationality across plant and animal species lines. He also has an encyclopaedic
command of Latin species names Adam categorises the world as instructed. This is the
basis for one of Calvinos clearest paradoxical jokes in the story. Liberesos orderly,
categorical knowledge of flora first comes out when Maria-nunziata begins to question
his arrival at the manor they both work at: This plants called Mesembryanthemum in
73
Latin. All flowers have Latin names.
22
Marias rejoinder is that the Catholic mass is also
in Latin. Libereso says only, I dont know about that.
23
This gentle acknowledgment
of religious epistemologies both marks interpellative identity Liberesos Adamic
simplicity is called upon again and again by Marias sense of order and propriety and
foregrounds the religious joke Calvino has planted in the title itself.
In Italian, pomo is the Adams apple. Pomology is of course apple system/culture,
and a pome is an apple by another name. Sliding a bit on phonemics, rigiro is trick in
Italian, and Libereso seems to be playing nothing but tricks on the nave, religiously-
programmed house servant Maria-nunziata. Calvinos fast wordplay, an apple-trick,
Adam pits the free, mischievous but undogmatic garden variety naturalist, Libereso,
against the Catholic Calabrese named after the Virgin Mother (she screams
Mammamia! throughout the story) but also named after the announcement: she bears
Christ. Nunzio also means ambassador of the faith (nuncio), but this ambassadorship
may also mark colonial hierarchies and their spaces of authoritarian control. And there
is no opposition in the story, only an apparent opening to youthful romance through
taunting, teasing and Marias faux scolding of Libereso.
Calvino punctuates Liberesos earthy sensibility, in which slimy snails and wet
toads are the best presents a boy can give to show his bemused compassion and
admiration for the sweet, though naively ideological woman, with another version of
the nonhuman chiss of Mushrooms in the City. In Funghi in citt, Marcovaldos
arch rival is Amadigi, a street sweeper. Marcovaldo has disliked Amadigi since before
the plot of Mushrooms in the City begins, perhaps because of *his+ eyeglasses that
examined the pavement of the streets, seeking any trace of nature, to be eradicated by
his broom.
24
It is telling that Amadigi can identify and classify nature in this way in
order to maintain a hard culture/nature division, yet cannot recognise classes of
mushroom any better than Marcovaldo, who in fact is not so special in his attunements
after all: he only recognised real funghi, but in precisely the same manner in which
Amadigi can identify an invasive species of life in order to remove it, to clean the city up.
Marcovaldos primary distinguishing characteristic, then, is his hopefulness and his
comportment toward some form of life besides the atrophied, pre-packaged, sterile
urban life. Likewise, the garden boy Libereso is thoroughly captivated by domestic life
he is a house servant for a wealthy landowner but still resists the categorical
eradication of nonhumans Maria-nunziata succumbs to over and over again in the story.
Libereso can let ants climb up his arm, creeping toward his face, while Maria-nunziata
loses her cool. He can also brush them off (laughing them off at the same time) as
though nothing were there, in order to appease the girl. But in fact, Libereso is
protecting the girl while tormenting her with his real sense of the world; never is
Libereso outside the garden in the story. Calvinos target here is unmistakable: there
is no shame in the human and some measure of articulated wisdom per se, and
nonhuman traffic circulates unbeknownst at all points, but it may yet be possible to
sterilise human sensibilities beyond repair. This may be Maria-nunziatas fate, a fate
that the unskilled mushroom consumers surely suffer, and this damage to ecological
thought is what Calvino strives to articulate and guard against.
Carrie Rohman has written about Calvinos later work, Mr. Palomar, with
particular focus on zoo exhibition and theories of the posthuman and the animal drawn
from Derrida, Levinas, Heidegger, Wolfe, Lacan and Haraway.
25
As she puts these
theorists in communication with one another, Rohman draws out the connection
between a zoo-logic (not her term) that aggressively categorises and segregates species
to assert a permanent categorical mindset she then evaluates in the character Mr.
Palomar. Rohman gathers some of the key voices on posthumanism on the issue of
interspecies ethical consideration and perspective and negotiates a figure of interspecies
74
exchange: The animal who responds, who has a face, clearly moves us into a
posthumanist framework in which the signifying human is no longer radically distinct
or morally superior.
26
It seems the animal gazes also into you. One of these primary
posthuman voices is Jacques Derrida, whose increasingly invoked work on the animal
from his later years has at least helped to open up the equal consideration gamut a bit
on the continental side of philosophy even if he fails, according to Donna Haraway, to
take the next step in recognising how nonhumans subject humans. Rohman, referring
precisely to Donna Haraways critique of Derrida and his cat, then suggests that Calvino
is quite aware of these intricacies in thinking nonhumans through:
Mr. Palomars anguish at the complexity of the universe and at his inability to ultimately
calculate human and animal being might provide a model for an engagement with the
animal that takes us beyond even the most recent theoretical emphasis on alterity in
animal theory. If we need a more vigilant practice that allows for oscillation between
sameness and difference in our relation to the nonhuman other, Calvino may offer a
prototype. Mr. Palomar, while he finds any number of coordinates and mechanisms of
producing meaning, is never able to reduce them.
27

Marcovaldos primary error in Mushrooms in the City is, then, this reduction and the
rigid classification of fungal nonhumans for human use.
This consumptive relation to nonhumans, as well as the teasing iterations of
pervasive fungal infestation and spreading through winds and rains, together fail to
revise atrophied modes of thinking nonhumans. Marcovaldos urban malaise seems to
be the primary culprit, and in this way, Calvino opts for a conventional pastoral
amelioration of a town/country estrangement. But Calvinos committed irreverence and
jubilant silliness ultimately work through that seeming convention, as well. Across his
works, no sturdy sense of the non-urban takes root. His later works experiment with
fantasy the way his earlier works negotiated inhuman alienation while often retaining
that earlier biopolitical project. Humans escape and recover in the woods (or atop the
trees), in impossible garden hideaways, wherever, but in conjunction with his multiple
engagements of the urban, Calvinos critique of humans and the varying insufficiencies
of their programs and ideals refuses easy categories such as pastoral recuperative.
Humans like Marcovaldo stumble upon opportunities to cultivate more meaningful,
real lives, but while characters may want to return to the earth in some way, Calvino
seems convinced that cultivation and categorisation themselves already spoil such an
ideal. Sometimes Calvino plants characters into forest or garden spaces, but neither
solves the human anxieties Calvino returns to again and again in his works. For
example two young explorers in The Enchanted Garden, also from the Adam, One
Afternoon collection, escape an oncoming train and find a hidden garden paradise with a
fantastic house, but are troubled by the sense that they are not entitled to any of this and
that their young, serene enjoyment will end. They save themselves, for at least one
afternoon, by running away from the cultivated, edenic space to a beach to throw
seaweed at each other. But the damage is already done: the power of play outdoors is a
wonderful but temporary condition, and the notion of restoring an original human
condition proved to be, already, far too strong a plan based on far too strong a
diagnosis.
Fungal coexistence seeps into life by the particular sneakiness of spore.
Sneaky tricksters are frequent heroes in a Calvino story, even when they might be more
than a little hormonal and childish, as in the case of Libereso. Marcovaldos adamant
post-pastoral authenticity, though a failure, is an impulse that founds an ecological life
that is both wise and nave, and one that is susceptible to all of the worlds coexistence,
for better or worse. Calvino seems especially fascinated by the mobile, liminal,
opportunistic pervasiveness of the fungal, and even stories not expressly fungal in
content draw out the intense, inescapable permeation of coexistent objects like mass
75
critters (ants). Funghi are funky earthy, unconventional, mouldy by definition,
possibly unsettling, but also hybrid and uncomplicated in a natural and a campy manner
and this unorthodox environmental form resists the usual pitfalls of the conceited
human actant. The strange mix of barren darkness in Calvinos post-War thought and
an almost obstinate, playful whateverness of his gentle, compassionate presentation
of alternately suffering and revelling communities constitutes a further strange, funky
ecology that pays proper respect to damaged life while attempting to maintain it
without submitting to the defeat that requires determinate recuperation. That is to say,
Calvino resists prescriptive critical theories in his ecological thought by constantly
refusing narrative closures that permit clear rest or successful mediation of the human
conditions plaguing/blessing his characters. Yet, in stories such as his short city tales in
Marcovaldo, urban population density and human manipulation of environment are
clear problems both for the nonhuman and the human world. Calvino seems to be
working out modes of recognising and engaging real things without overstating the
human grasp of the objects in the world, suggesting a relatively simple focus on
comportment and thought instead of aggressive, practical action, that may not satisfy
every version of environmental concern, and Calvino seems to be betting on precisely
this dissatisfaction in his well known later work, If on a Winters Night a Traveller: You
could tell him it didnt matter, this isnt the novel you were looking for, but partly
because you rather like its opening, and partly because Mr. Cavedagna, more and more
worried, has been swept away by the whirlwind of his publishing activities, there is
nothing for you to do but start reading.
28
Ultimately, Calvinos sense of humour, cagey
openness, and sincere evacuation of humanist conceit accomplish a revision of
anthropocentrism attuned as well as any elaborate theoretical argument to the demands
of properly ecological thought in the Anthropocene.

Notes
1. Ted Geier is a doctoral candidate in Comparative Literature at the University of California, Davis and
Co-founder and Coordinator of the Davis Humanities Institute Interdisciplinary Animal Studies
Research Cluster.
2. For example, see S. Eben Kirksey and S. Helreich (eds.) (2010), Cultural Anthropology 25(4), Special Issue
on Multispecies Ethnography. I am also thinking here of E. Kohn (forthcoming), How Forests Think:
Toward an Anthropology Beyond the Human, UC Press, Berkeley.
3. J. Clifford (1997), Routes: Travel and Translation in the Late Twentieth Century, Harvard U. Press, Cambridge,
MA ; G. Sayre (1997), Les Sauvages Amricains: Representations of Native Americans in French and English
Colonial Literature, UNC Press, Chapel Hill.
4. For example, A. Tsing (2012), Unruly Edges: Mushrooms as Companion Species, Environmental
Humanities 1, pp. 141-154.
5. I. Calvino (1983), Marcovaldo, or, The Seasons in the City, W. Weaver (trans.), Secker & Warburg, London.
In Italian, I. Calvino (1963), Marcovaldo, ovvero Le stagioni in citt, Einaudi, Torino.
6. B. Stoker (1997), Dracula, N. Auerbach and D.J. Skal (eds.), Norton, New York.
7. I. Calvino (1949), Ultimovieneilcorvo, Einaudi, Torino. Translated as I. Calvino (1957), Adam, One Afternoon,
A. Colquhoun and P. Wright (trans.), Secker & Warburg, London.
8. I. Calvino (1983), Marcovaldo, p. 2.
11. I. Calvino (1968), The Form of Space, in Cosmicomics, W. Weaver (trans.), Harcourt, New York, p. 115.
12. I. Calvino (1968), p. 85.
13. I. Calvino (1957), Animal Wood, in Adam, One Afternoon, p. 83.
14. P. Levi (2005), Se questo unuomo, Einaudi, Torino. In English, P. Levi (2008), Survival in Auschwitz: If This
is a Man, S. Woolf (trans.), Orion Press, New York.
15. On dehumanisation, World Wars and Vietnam, see in particular T. Adorno (2002), Metaphysics: Concept
and Problems, R. Tiedemann (ed.) and E. Jephcott (trans.), Stanford U Press, Stanford. On Levi, Auschwitz
and dehumanised bare life, see G. Agamben (2002), Remnants of Auschwitz: The Witness and the Archive, D.
76
Heller-Roazen (trans.), Zone, New York; G. Agamben (1998), Homo Sacer: Sovereign Power and Bare Life, D.
Heller-Roazen (trans.), Stanford U. Press, Stanford.
16. I. Calvino (1957), The Argentine Ant, in Adam, One Afternoon, pp. 155-190.
17. M. Chen (2012), Animacies: Biopolitics, Racial Mattering, and Queer Affect, Duke U. Press, Durham. In
particular, I am gathering this partial synopsis from chapters 5 (Leads Racial Matters) and 6
(Following Mercurial Affect), and base some of these conclusions on seminar conversations with Dr.
Chen as part of her recent UC Davis Environments and Societies Mellon Research Initiative workshop.
18. R. Esposito (2008), Bios: Biopolitics and Philosophy, T. Campbell (trans.), U. Minnesota Press, Minneapolis.
19. T. Morton (2013), Hyperobjects: Philosophy and Ecology After the End of the World, U. Minnesota Press,
Minneapolis.
20. I. Calvino (1957), pp. 7-18.
21. For further information on the history of Esperanto, see for example P. Forster (1982), The Esperanto
Movement, Mouton Publishers, The Hague.
22. I. Calvino (1983), Adam, One Afternoon, in Adam, One Afternoon, p. 14
23. I. Calvino (1983), p. 14.
25. C. Rohman (2009), On Singularity and the Symbolic: The Threshold of the Human in Calvinos Mr.
Palomar, in Criticism 51(1), pp. 63-78.
26. C. Rohman (2009), p. 69.
27. C. Rohman (2009), p. 76.
28. I. Calvino (1993), If On A Winters Night a Traveller, W. Weaver (trans.), Knopf, New York, p. 99. In Italian,
I. Calvino (1979), Se una note dinvernounviaggioatore, Einaudi, Torino.

77

Leisure on the Recreational Fringe
Naturework and the place of amateur mycology and
entomology

Raynald Harvey Lemelin
1
and Gary Alan Fine
2

Modern civilisation has spent great effort to control and sometimes exterminate
insects
3
and fungi often perceived as sources of danger. Yet, perhaps because of their
threat, insects and mushrooms fascinate and intrigue, leading to attempts to analyse,
categorise and even interact with these objects.
4
How can these natural domains
simultaneously generate loathing and love, and in the latter case how does their appeal
translate into a form of voluntary leisure activity an activity that we describe as
Naturework. Currently hundreds of recreational mycology and recreational entomology
clubs are spread throughout North America and internationally, suggesting bonds of
communal engagement in these leisure activities. In both domains, there exists a
scientific community as well as a general public that along with amateur enthusiasts
constitutes what Stebbins
5
terms a Professional/Amateur/Public system, communities
that intersect with each other in various leisure settings, but with distinct traditions and
interests.
We utilise the term amateur mycology to denote recreational interactions
between mushrooms and people, also known as mushroomers, in leisure settings. We
follow the argument of Latour
6
and his colleagues in Actor Network Theory (ACT) in that
we see fungi (and insects as well) as active participants in the creation of shared
meaning with their human collectors. While it has been conventional to see nature and
natural objects as things that are acted upon, Latour argues that, even without
conscious intention, objects shape meaning. People do not simply act upon objects, but
objects act upon them. In this, the objects are, in effect, creating meanings that would
not be possible without the interaction between person and thing. The meaning of the
natural world cannot be developed without recognising that it results from mutual
responses. Latour is not calling for a misleading anthropomorphism, but rather for a
recognition that things in their thingness shape readings of the natural world. In
recreational mycology, participants are focused on learning, identifying and ingesting
mushrooms (in this latter case they are labeled as pot hunters in that they hunt for the
cooking pot).
7
PAN: Philosophy, Activism, Nature no.10, 2013
78

However, as engagement increases, some hobbyists become interested in the
ecology of mushrooms, photography, developing dyes from mushrooms or ingesting
them as hallucinogens.
8
But it is not simply the examination of passive objects;
mushroomers routinely see themselves as fundamentally in a game or contest with
these objects that appear or disappear according to whim.
9
Accordingly, there is a
growing body of evidence in entomology
10
and botany
11
that increasingly recognises the
capacity of insects and plants to assess, perceive, and act on their environment.
12
Since
we cannot justify the exclusion of fauna, flora and fungi on the uncertain basis of their
sentience,
13
we should incorporate this uncertainty into our management approaches
and codes of conduct.
14
By doing so we will instil a precautionary principle which
addresses the limits of our understandings of sentience while also acknowledging that
we have duties to non-human organisms whether they be fauna, flora or fungi.
15
It is in
this sense that we can speak of mushrooms and insects as constituting active objects
involved in interactions with human actors.
We use the term amateur entomology to define human-insect encounters in
leisure settings and, more specifically, human encounters with Odonata (i.e., dragonflies
and damselflies) for recreational purposes (e.g., symposiums, citizen science, festivals
and touring conservation areas).
16
Following their conventional practice, these Odonata
enthusiasts are labeled dragon-hunters. We build upon the parallels and differences
between mycology and entomology and between mushroom foragers and insect
enthusiasts by means of the concept of Naturework, grounded in a comparative
ethnography of these social worlds.
17
Naturework argues that the interaction between
humans and those objects they define as natural is fundamentally cultural and is
dependent upon how humans interpret the actions, growth, appearance and
disappearance of plants and animals. In other words, responding to the environmental
surround is inevitably an act of cultural contemplation. Making this argument, we treat
human engagement in natural domains as a form of performance, addressing the
similarities and differences of mushrooming and dragon hunting. Leisure pursuits such
as those sought out by recreational entomologists and mycologists can bring these
activities into conflict with conservation principles and, on occasion, with self-
proclaimed environmentalists. How should conservation be defined, and what should
be permitted in protected areas? Proponents in both activities advocate that a greater
awareness of fungi and insects through outreach strategies is essential for situating
humans as actors within an environmental surrounding. Yet, these strategies, as we
discuss below, create their own challenges.
Naturework as cultural engagement
Naturework builds on an interpretivist analysis of what individuals do and say
when interacting with animals and plants and how these interactions are perceived and
interpreted.
18
Environmental problems, like other social problems, do not simply exist
but must be elaborated and understood within interactional domains, characterised by
local group cultures.
19
In other words, Naturework is inevitably situated within an
interaction order.
20
This does not deny the independent causal powers of nature but
asserts that behavioural, emotional and cognitive interpretations of these meaning
worlds depend upon the needs and meaning-making structures of communities.
21
Fine
Raynald Harvey Lemelin and Gary Alan Fine, Leisure
79
specifies these forms of meaning construction and their ensuing values and
relationships as linked to three ideal strategies of conceptualising nature.
a) Humanist vision: Often defined under the rubrics of the wise use movement
or sustainable development, the ethic of balance or conservation of natural resources
for future human generations is popular with utilitarian and scientific interpretations of
humanist ideals. The moral divide defined by intelligence, language and sentience,
between nature and humanity, and such anthropocentric notions that nature is
provided for humanity, ensures that, from this perspective, human interest will always
take precedence over other concerns (e.g., fauna, flora or fungi).
22

b) Protectionist vision: Challenging practices of sustainable management and
conservation philosophies espoused by humanists, this vision emphasises the protection
of certain ecosystems and/or wildlife from encroachment, exploitation and other
anthropogenic harm through policies and legislations.
23
Under this vision, certain
systems such as ecosystems or species (e.g., those that are threatened or endangered)
may have certain rights that individuals do not.
c) Organic vision: Unlike the previous two visions, where culture and nature are
separate entities, the organic vision presupposes that no firm line divides human life
and natural life. Hence, humanity is simply one component of an organic whole with no
particular privilege.
24
The basic premise of the organic perspective is that all entities
have a moral and ethical status based upon their existence. Not to recognise the moral
worth of non-humans from this perspective is to commit a moral offence, often labeled
speciesism.
25

Each of these approaches presumes and specifies natural objects as having an
active role in the creation of ties between the cultural and the natural, even if humans,
with greater immediate power and resources, often override these roles, acting from
their own self-interest. All three perspectives are evaluated through the lens of human
morals and ethics. Indeed, whether one seeks to use, protect or embrace nature, the
response in every case is mediated through both idealised images of the environment
and personal desires.
26
All leisurely pursuits whether they occur in the recreational
fringe (activities that lie outside of the leisure commonplace, but are nevertheless
practiced by a number of communities and are organised through associations,
newsletters, websites and social media) or in the cultural mainstream, are
conceptualised and managed by humans for their own interest.
As noted, both Fine and Lemelin conducted ethnographic studies,
complemented by interviews, surveys and document analysis on mushroomers and
dragon-hunters in the United States and Canada.
27
Apart from the analysis of
mushroomers and dragon-hunters, Naturework has been applied to other nature
domains such as the cultural position of sparrows in North America
28
or tourists
perceptions of authenticity and natural places.
29

Mushrooms, Odonata and their people
At first glance, a study building on the links between insects and mushrooms
may appear peculiar since insects are affiliated with the Animalia kingdom while
mushrooms are members of the kingdom Fungi. Putting aside phylogenetic differences
80
and the occasional parasitical relationship, several commonalities connect insects and
mushrooms. For instance, both are abundant and notable in our lives. According to the
Xerces Society (a not-for profit organisation dedicated to the conservation of insects and
other invertebrates), some estimates suggest that 94 percent of the animals in the world
are invertebrates.
30
The estimated 1.5 million species of fungi are second only to insects
in number and diversity and many of them have yet to be identified.
31
Animals and
fungi share 80 to 85 percent of the same ribosomal RNA (where proteins are
manufactured inside the cell).
32
Cases of symbiosis between fungi and insects (e.g.,
fungi-growing beetles, wood wasp, leafcutter ants and termite colonies) have been
documented.
33
In contrast, it is also true that fungi like Cordyceps, a genus of ascomycete
fungi, have been known to parasitise the ghost moth caterpillar and bullet ants,
eventually killing their hosts.
34

From a social perspective, humans have referred to insects and mushrooms in
myths and lore, introduced them in the culinary arts, incorporated them in scientific
studies, described them in books and guides and produced documentaries detailing
their habits and habitats. In contemporary times in some European countries like
Russia, Finland, France and the Czech Republic mushroom hunting is a national
sport.
35
With ponds, specialised trails, conservation areas and festivals dedicated to
dragonflies, Japans fascination with Odonata is comparable.
36

According to both Bone and Fine, there are thousands, if not millions, of
mushroom enthusiasts in North America alone. The hobby can be traced back as far as
the 1880s.
37
The more passionate and organisationally-inclined belong to at least 95
mycological societies *<+, three regional clubs, and one national club. There is also a
professional organisation, the Mycology Society of America that organises conferences
and sponsors the popular scientific journal Mycologica.
38
In addition, for more activist
hobbyists, the North American Mycological Association sponsors forays and other
events.
Similar to mycology, in which America lags behind Europe, fascination with
insects in North America is limited when compared to Japan, yet today, a number of
entomological societies, symposiums and festivals, citizen science projects, websites,
insectariums, butterfly pavilions and educational outings are available throughout
North America.
39
Many zoos have established butterfly houses for their visitors to
engage with the bright and colourful insects. Associations like the Xerxes Society (est.
1971) and Buglife, The Invertebrate Conservation Trust (est. 2002), have been
established to protect and educate the public on the benefits of invertebrates.
40
With
regard to dragonflies, conservative estimates place the number of individuals
belonging to odonate associations at over 4,500 worldwide.
41
The number of
individuals who examine Odonata in recreational settings increases dramatically if
participation in dragonfly symposiums and citizen science projects are included.
42
While
this public interest trails mycology, it is still impressive, given that insect leisure rarely
reaches public consciousness.
Researchers have also documented the human fascination with fungi and
insects throughout history in the form of ethnomycology
43
and cultural entomology.
44

Ethnographic studies
45
describe how societies draw upon fungi and insects to provide a
sense of the world. For example, the studies by Fine describe how participants seek out
81
the activities of mushrooming because these experiences provide opportunities to hike
through forest and fields, the thrill of discovery, the exhilaration of capture, and, on
occasion, the delight of consumption of natural objects.
46
Lemelin in his study of dragon-
hunting reached similar conclusions. Facilitating the growth of both of these
recreational activities is the availability of books and field guides, videos and
DVDs, and festivals,
47
creating an economic penumbra around the activity and
permitting enthusiasts to profit from their avocations.
Some researchers, recognising the emotional economy of leisure, have focused
on the fears (mycophobia/entomophobia) and affection (mycophilia/entomophilia)
associated with fungi and insects. Each has its own structure of sentiment. For example,
many citizens of Continental Europe and Asian countries like China, Japan and South
Korea are mycophilic.
48
North Americans of English and Spanish descent are generally
mycophobic and entomophobic.
49
Mycophobia and entomophobia in North America
have been associated with generalised fears of nature and a desire to control the wild
within an urban society, backed by supportive media narratives.
50

Certain studies suggest that increasing interactions with nature can prove
beneficial in increasing mycophilia and entomophilia.
51
The more contact with corners of
nature, the greater the level of interpersonal and group comfort. In his analysis of
recreational mycologists, Fine noted that, despite their expressed affection for all things
fungal, collectors awarded different values to species depending on their colour, shape,
and edibility. As a result, morels and truffles are highly prized and sought out, while
other species like the little brown mushrooms of indeterminate species go unnoticed
or are scorned humorously. Lemelin found similar patterns in the Odonata world with
hobbyists preferring larger lively dragonflies over the smaller, more delicate damselflies.
Lemelin suggests that these encounters, whether based upon love or hate, are cultural,
contextual and dynamic.
52
Further, a lack of critical reflexivity regarding the broad
presence of these phobias and philias and the acceptance of these concepts by some
researchers as natural, resembles what Macnaghten and Urry have labeled as the quest
for a single unfolding understanding of human-animal or human-plant interactions.
53
This quest for dichotomy has resulted in the exclusion of insects and mushrooms from
leisure and recreation as their imagined danger and disgust places them outside normal
boundaries of aesthetics and satisfaction.

The moral challenge of collection
We turn to one of the most contentious areas in both hobbies: the gathering and
capture of objects by hobbyists for their own collections. In a culture that accepts many
claims of the environmental movement, picking mushrooms and capturing insects
removing them from the wild seems contrary to the mantra: take nothing but
photographs, leave nothing but footprints. To take something becomes especially
troubling when it can be defined as to harass, harm, pursue, hunt, shoot, wound, kill,
trap, capture, or collect, or attempt to engage in any such conduct.
54
Yet, these hobbies
often depend, for motivated engagement, on hunting and gathering. In Morel Tales, Fine
examined the contentious debate around overpicking. Titling this tension as
constituting mushroom wars, Fine illustrates how concerns regarding the regulation
82
of this activity were voiced by amateurs and professional pickers alike. In some
instances, these activities polarise participants, creating division, while in other
situations members have opted for a live-and-let-live mentality. Participants agree to
disagree, hiding their distinctive philosophical stances about the relationship of self-
interest and being an environmental steward. Often the debate was localised as the issue
of picking in some locales like Minnesota was not perceived as a problem, whereas in
California the debate was fierce and focused on private entrepreneurs naturalists
themselves who pick mushrooms and sell them to restaurants and gourmet shops.
55

In the Pacific Northwest even despite the growth of alternative mushroom picking
areas (i.e., Asia) that have driven down the price of wild mushrooms, the tensions
regarding picking remain high.
56
The debate about the commercial harvesting of wild
mushrooms and the resultant overpick can be understood in light of the three ideal
types (i.e., using, protecting and embracing nature) previously described.
57

Proponents of the utilitarian perspective argue that they have a fundamental
right to use nature, particularly since the research regarding overpicking is inconclusive.
As a consequence, these activities are seen as providing an essential benefit to human
participants. Nature from the utilitarian perspective belongs to everyone. Critics of the
ethos of collecting, they argue, are motivated by selfish interest
58
since they want their
private mushroom preserves (often located on government lands) funded and protected
by public money.
Nature from a protectionist perspective is especially vulnerable to
anthropogenic activities (e.g., harvesting) that compromise a natural balance. From
this view, humans must minimise such impacts through protection and conservation
strategies. Any compromise implicitly promotes species extinction.
59
By embracing what
they define as the common good, protecting species that would otherwise be collected,
proponents of the organic perspective argue for cherishing instead of defiling,
sustaining instead of exploiting and re-creating our bonds with nature instead of
commercialising these interactions. Collecting for personal or commercial gain depicts
the excesses of those who care little about the moral effects of their actions.
60

At the heart of these conversations is not whether humanity has the right to
pick mushrooms, for this debate pertains solely to where, when and how many
mushrooms can be picked and by whom. The question is one of interests and resources
in that collecting mushrooms represents a typical instance of the construction of a social
problem with all sides using preferred narratives to define and justify their use of
nature.
61

In recreational entomology, the collection of insect specimens, separate and
apart from institutionally legitimated scientific purposes, has emerged as one of the
most controversial aspects of dragon-hunting with some participants, especially those
espousing organic philosophies, suggesting that the collection of specimens for
recreational purposes violates the requirement to do no harm, and demonstrates an
antiquated philosophy of showcasing ones dominance of nature. Since much
entomological leisure is predicated on the collection and systematic identification of
specimens through taxonomy and binomial nomenclature processes established by
Linnaeus in the 18th century
62
these challenges to collecting were frequently met with
scepticism, with some utilitarians suggesting that these notions carry-over from
83
recreational activities involving vertebrates (e.g., birds or fish) to invertebrate animals
and with protectionists suggesting that the arguments have no place in the insect
world.
63
Entomological criticism aside, specimen collection, as Lemelin noted, is a
concern recognised by current participants and will likely continue to arise as new
individuals are attracted to dragon-hunting.
64
Therefore, group leaders and
entomologists would be well-served to discuss collecting and why specimen collecting
is, in some cases, necessary.
65
In some situations, the incorporation of catch and release
assisted by digital photography could and does help address this issue.
66

The challenge of Naturework
Ethnographic studies relying on Naturework document the appeal of insects
and fungi and provide opportunities to understand leisure activities occurring on the
recreational fringe. Cloaked in morality and beliefs about rights, these debates typically
take the form of being more about the protection of certain types of mushrooms and
Odonata, and less about the conservation and protection of fungi and insects in general.
It is essentially about the continuation of ones leisure activity within a local action
domain. Self-interest merges with ethical claims.
Some researchers postulate that mushrooming and dragon-hunting reflect a
growing empathy for natural objects.
67
However, it is questionable whether these trends
in leisure and tourism activities are indicative of sympathy for nature or a decline of
entomophobia/mycophilia. Indeed, it may simply mean that leisure today is
indissolubly mixed up with the twin global ethical imperative of care for the self and
care for the other.
68
Further, as Kuentzel has suggested, leisure participation may be
less a question of achievement and skill perfection, and more about the growing
diversity of recreational opportunities and the commercialisation of leisure
experiences.
69

That mushrooms and dragonflies have been incorporated in leisure and
conservation strategies suggest that some fungi and insects are effective and compelling
subjects for conservation claims, nature interpretation and public education. The
promotion of these recreational activities through outreach strategies like festivals and
citizen science has been successful in attracting new participants to these activities.
70

The arrival of these novices with various levels of commitment and from different socio-
cultural backgrounds brings new challenges and opportunities to leisure organisers,
since some of these new actors challenge picking and insect collections; avoiding these
critiques or dismissing them outright will simply compound the issue and may deter
some from further engagement. It is also suggested that picking and collecting be
addressed through the establishment of consensually endorsed codes of conduct.
If activities in other jurisdictions (e.g., Europe) and within similar recreational
activities (i.e., hunting, fishing) are any indication, the management of recreational
mycology and entomology will likely increase and may lead public venues to restrict
the collection of fungi or insect specimens. For protectionists, management strategies
and endangered species listing are welcomed. However, these regulations are, in
practice, only sporadically enforced and threats to mushrooms and insects are
underplayed.
71
While there is evidence that the rate of extinction is the same for fauna,
84
flora and fungi, insects and mushrooms are drastically underrepresented in endangered
species legislation, whether at the state, provincial or federal levels in Canada and the
United States.
72
According to the 2012 International Union for the Conservation of
Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened species, there are 776 insects and 1 mushroom
listed as threatened species in 2012.
73

In his analysis of animal studies, Lemelin observed that insects and other
invertebrates are often overlooked in favour of vertebrates (e.g., pets, domestic animals
and charismatic macro-fauna).
74
Although insects are earths most abundant animals,
there are many more biologists and ornithologists than entomologists, suggesting that
what we study and the resources allocated to these studies are largely predicated on
social perspectives. Critiques of these management strategies also point out that few
agencies have any trained mycologists or entomologists on staff who can understand,
describe and manage these leisure activities.
75
Therefore, it is crucial that recreational
mycologists and entomologists (like hunters and fishers before them) shape the
management decisions that affect their leisure activities. As Fine noted, the fact that
nature is perceived through cultural lenses:
does not diminish our policy choices. We cannot and must not rely on scientists [or
politicians] to control our decisions, even though we learn from their insights. To
recognise that nature is cultural is to accept our responsibility as beings whose impact on
the world will be great, whatever choices we make. Each perspective on nature
recognises the fateful quality of human decisions. Because we are cultural beings, we
must recognise the inescapable necessity to make collective choices, for these choices are
what environmental ethics entail.
76

While we begin by examining a pair of seemingly disconnected leisure worlds on the
edge of recognition, the concerns of these participants matter. As in so many other cases
of leisure, those who participate voluntarily in a social world may be seen as having the
greatest amount of expertise and knowledge that can be drawn on to determine how
societies should shape their environmental policies. In this way mushrooming and
mushroomers and insect enthusiasts and their dragons serve not only as isolated
domains of local action, but as resources by which societies can structure larger choices
of the relationship between the human and the environment.

Notes
1. Associate Professor, School of Outdoor Recreation, Parks and Tourism, Lakehead University, Thunder
Bay, ON, email: harvey.lemelin@lakeheadu.ca.
2. Director of Graduate Studies, Department of Sociology and John Evans Professor of Sociology,
Northwestern University, email: g-fine@northwestern.edu.
3. E. Russell (2001), War and Nature, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
4. E. Bone (2011), Mycophilia, Rodale, New York; G.A. Fine (1997), Naturework and the Taming of the Wild:
The Problem of Overpick in the Culture of Mushroomers, Social Problems, 44(1), pp. 68-88; G.A. Fine
(1998), Morel Tales: The Culture of Mushrooming, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA; R.H. Lemelin
(2007), Finding Beauty in the Dragon: The Role of Dragonflies in Recreation, Tourism, and
Conservation, Journal of Ecotourism, 6(2), pp. 139-145; R.H. Lemelin (2009), Goodwill Hunting? Dragon
Hunters, Dragonflies & Leisure, Current Issues in Tourism, 12(3), pp. 235-253; R.H Lemelin (ed.) (2013),
The Role of Insects in Recreation and Tourism, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK; H. Raffles
(2010), Insectopedia, Pantheon Books, New York.
5. R. Stebbins (2006), Serious Leisure: A Perspective for our Time, Transaction, New Brunswick, NJ.
6. B. Latour (2007), Reassembling the Social: An Introduction to Actor-Network Theory, Oxford University Press,
New York.
7. G.A. Fine (1998).
8. G.A. Fine (1998); E. Bone (2011).
85
9. G.A. Fine (1998).
10. J. A. Lockwood (1987), The Moral Standing of Insects and the Ethics of Extinction, The Florida
Entomologist, 70(1), pp. 70-89.
11. M. Marder (2012), Plant Intentionality and The Phenomenological Framework of Plant Intelligence,
Plant Signaling and Behavior, 7(11), pp. 1365-1372.
12. M. Hall (2009), Plant Autonomy and Human-Plant Ethics, Environmental Ethics, 32(2), p. 169.
13. K. Chan (2011), Ethical Extensionism Under Uncertainty of Sentience: Duties to Non-Human Organisms
without Drawing a Line, Environmental Values, 20(3), pp. 323-346.
14. S. Pouteau (2013), Beyond Second Animals: Making Sense of Plant Ethics, Journal of Agricultural and
Environmental Ethics; 10.1007/s10806-013-9439-x.
15. K. Chan (2011), M. Hall (2009), M. Marder (2012), Pouteau (2013).
16. R.H. Lemelin and G. Williams (2012), Blossoms & Butterflies, Waterfalls and Dragonflies: Integrating
Insects in the Hospitality and Tourism Industries through Swarm Supposition, in P. Sloan, C. Simons-
Kaufmann and W. Legrand (eds.), Sustainable Hospitality and Tourism as Motors for Development: Case
Studies from Developing Regions of the World, Routledge, New York, pp. 198-212.
17. G. A. Fine (1998).
18. G. A. Fine (1998).
19. A. Franklin (2005), Animals and Modern Cultures, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA; G.A. Fine (1997).
20. E. Goffman (1983), The Interaction Order, American Sociological Review, 48, pp. 1-17.
21. H. Tovey (2003), Theorising Nature and Society in Sociology: The Invisibility of Animals,
SociologiaRuralis, 43(3), pp. 196-215.
22. A. Holden (2003), In Need of New Environmental Ethics for Tourism?, Annals of Tourism Research, 30(1),
pp. 94-108.
23. G.A. Fine (1998).
24. G.A. Fine (1998).
25. B. Noske (1997), Speciesism, Anthropocentrism, and Non-Western Cultures, Anthrozoos 10(4), pp. 183-
190.
26. G.A. Fine (1998), p. 219.
27. G.A. Fine (1997),p. 70.
28. G.A. Fine and L. Christophorides (1991), Dirty Birds, Filthy Immigrants, and the English Sparrow War:
Metaphorical Linkage in Constructing Social Problems, Symbolic Interaction, 14 (4), pp. 375-393.
29. G.A Fine (1992), Wildlife: Authenticity and the Human Experience of Natural Places, in C. Ellis and
M.G. Flaherty (eds.), Investigating Subjective: Research on Lived Experience, Sage Publications, Newbury
Park, CA, pp. 156-175.
30. The Xerces Society (2002), Endangered Invertebrates: A Case for Attention to Invertebrate Conservation.
Website: http://www.xerces.org/2002/09/27/endangered-invertebrates-a-case-for-attention-to-
invertebrate-conservation/ (Accessed 20 July 2013).
31. E. Bone (2011), p. xv.
32. E. Bone (2011), p. 42.
33. U.G. Mueller and N. Gerardo (2002), Fungus-farming Insects: Multiple Origins and Diverse
Evolutionary History, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 99(24),
pp. 15247-15249.
34. E. Bone (2011).
35. Batra, L.R. (ed.) (1979), Insect-Fungus Symbiosis: Nutrition, Mutualism, and Commensalism, Allanheld,
Osmun & Co., Montclair; G.H. Lincoff (2010), The Complete Mushroom Hunter: An Illustrated Guide to
Finding, Harvesting, and Enjoying Wild Mushrooms, Quarry Books, Beverly, MA, p. 8.
36. R.H. Lemelin (2007).
37. E. Bone (2011), p. 4.
38. E. Bone (2011), p. 5.
39. R.H. Lemelin (2013).
40. S. Black (2013), Insect Conservation and the Endangered Species Act: A History, in T. R. New (ed.),
Insect Conservation: Past, Present and Prospect, Springer, New York, pp. 171-192; M. Shardlow (2013), The
Institutionalization of Insects Welfare: The Cultural Aspects of Establishing A New Organization
Dedicated to Conserving Invertebrates in R.H. Lemelin (ed.), The Management of Insects in Recreation and
Tourism, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 274-288.
41. R.H. Lemelin (2009).
42. R.H. Lemelin (2007).
43. R.G. Wasson, S. Kramrisch, J. Ott and C.A.R. Ruck (1992), Persephones Quest: Entheogens and the Origins of
Religion, New Haven: Yale University Press; W.P.K. Findlay (2000), Fungi: Folklore, Fiction and Fact, The
Richmond Publishing Company Ltd., Surrey.
44. C. Hogue (1987), Cultural Entomology, The Annual Review of Entomology, 32, pp. 181-199.
45. G.A. Fine (1997); R.H. Lemelin (2013); H. Raffles (2010).
46. G.A. Fine (1997); R.H. Lemelin (2007).
47. G.A. Fine (1997); R.H. Lemelin (2013).
86
48. Lincoff (2010), pp. 11-12.
49. G.H. Lincoff (2010); R.H. Lemelin (2013).
50. S.R. Kellert (1993), Values and Perceptions of Invertebrates, Conservation Biology 7, pp. 845-855; R. Louv
(2005), Last Child in the Woods: Saving our Children from Nature-Deficit Disorder, Algonquin Books of Chapel
Hill, Chapel Hill, NC.
51. R.H. Lemelin (2013), To Bee or Not to Bee: Whether Tis Nobler to Revere or to Revile Those Six-Legged
Creatures During Ones Leisure, Leisure Studies, 32(2), pp. 153-172.
52. R.H. Lemelin (2013).
53. P. Macnaghten and J. Urry (1998), Contested Natures, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA.
54. S. Black (2013), p. 173.
55. G.A. Fine (1998), p. 213.
56. E. Bone (2011).
57. G.A. Fine (1998).
58. G.A. Fine (1998), p. 218.
59. G.A. Fine (1998).
60. G.A. Fine (1998), p. 216.
61. G.A. Fine (1998).
62. W. Leach (2013), Butterfly People: An American Encounter with the Beauty of the World, Pantheon Books,
New York.
63. R.H. Lemelin (2009); R.H. Lemelin (2013).
64. R.H. Lemelin (2009).
65. R.H. Lemelin (2009).
66. R.H. Lemelin (2013).
67. A. Franklin (2005); M. Samways (2005), Insect Diversity Conservation, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, UK.
68. C. Rojek (2005), Leisure Theory: Principles and Practices, Palgrave Macmillan, New York, p. 12.
69. W.F. Kuentzel (2001), How Specialized is Specialization Research?, Journal of Leisure Research, 33(1), pp.
351-356.
70. K. Johansen and A. Auger (2013), Citizen Science and Insect Conservation, in R. H. Lemelin (ed.), The
Role of Insects in Recreation and Tourism, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 252-273; G.T.
Hvenegaard, T.A. Delamere, R.H. Lemelin, K. Brager, and A. Auger (2013), Insect Festivals: Celebrating
and Fostering Human-Insect Encounters, in R. H. Lemelin (ed.), The Role of Insects in Recreation and
Tourism, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 198-217.
71. G.A. Fine (1998), pp. 213-14
72. S. Black (2013); E. Lugo (2006-2007), Insect Conservation Under the Endangered Species Act 25, UCLA
Journal of Environmental Law & Policy, 97, available at: http://works.bepress.com/ezequiel_lugo/3.
73. IUCN (2012), Table 1: Numbers of Threatened Species by Major Groups of Organisms (1996-2012)
Version 2012.1, available at:
http://www.iucnredlist.org/documents/summarystatistics/2012_1_RL_Stats_Table_1.pdf.
74. R.H. Lemelin (in press).
75. G.A. Fine (1998).
76. G.A. Fine (1998), p. 261.

87

Citizen Science in Mycology

Ray Kearney
1

The label science is normally restricted to scientific knowledge that is
produced by paid credentialed professionals using sophisticated equipment. Other
forms of knowledge are relegated to the status of unscientific and often ignored by
professionals.
2
This trend has changed in mycology and elsewhere. Amateur
mycologists and other grassroots scientists have challenged this conventional image.
Whilst amateur scientists are far less dependent on formal training, they can and do, as
educational ambassadors, create a vital nexus between science and the public.
I am a First Class Honours graduate trained classically in the field of Infectious
Diseases and Immunology. I was appointed Head of the Department of Infectious
Diseases at the University of Sydney from 19932000. My major teaching commitments
to medical, dental and science students are undertaken at both undergraduate and
postgraduate levels. During my extended seven-year period as Head of the Department,
I also devoted much of my academic time to designing the new Graduate Medical
Program at the Sydney University. I was personally responsible for the template on
which the program today is based. I retired from the University of Sydney in December,
2006. My wife, Elma, and I, as amateur mycologists and executive members of the
Sydney Fungal Studies Group, Inc., (SFSGI) for over 20 years, were responsible, for
example, for the listing, under the Conservation & Endangered Species Act of NSW, of a
community of fungi for the first time in Australia. The habitat - the Lane Cove Bushland
Park (LCBP) - was gazetted with its listing on the Register of the National Estate. From
the view of a mycology enthusiast, this essay is an insiders perspective of citizen
science.
This article comments briefly on the history of citizen science in Australian
mycology giving examples of specific groups and individuals who, in their spare time,
have made outstanding contributions. Some have achieved landmark legislations in
fungal conservation. What is an expert? Should science not be occupied by paid
scientists only? How might citizen scientists become active in social movements to bring
about change for a sustainable world? What factors limit citizen mycology, and what are
the future challenges in closing the gap between mycology and the general public? The
paper argues for the importance of citizen-based Australian mycology and
conservation.

Citizen science: what is it?
Pre-twentieth century, mycology in Australia began when expert fungal
enthusiasts sent their collections to taxonomic mycologists in the UK.
3
Such
inconvenience soon became an impetus to produce our home-grown taxonomic
88
mycologists whose amateur fungal curiosity blossomed into expertise of international
standing. Such luminaries came from different educational and occupational
backgrounds and included John Cleland (medical pathologist), Leonard Rodway
(botanist), Gordon Beaton (motor mechanic), Curtis Lloyd (pharmacist), Gordon
Cunningham (various jobs including in charge of camel trains) and many more.
John Burton Cleland (18781971) studied medicine and in 1920 became
Professor of Pathology at Adelaide University, a position he held until 1948. He had a
lifelong interest in anthropology, ornithology and botany. Cleland collected widely and
published numerous papers. As a mycology enthusiast, he made outstanding
contributions to the study of Australian fungi and described over 200 new species. In
1934 and 1935 Cleland published his two-part monograph Toadstools and Mushrooms and
other Larger Fungi of South Australia, which remained the only major Australian
mycological work for several decades. His records, based on observations in the field,
gave authenticity to his descriptions of species. In his spare time, as a passionate field
naturalist, he collected nearly 30,000 plants including almost 60 new species. As an
amateur ornithologist he collected over 1,000 bird skins of which a number became type
specimens. He was a key instigator of the founding of the Flora and Fauna Handbooks
Committee of South Australia and became its chairman.
4
His research into Australian
Aboriginal people led to activism and strong general comments about the negativity of
colonisation by European Australians.
5
Sir John Cleland is an outstanding example of
how a motivated person can contribute, with distinction, as a part-time citizen scientist
and collector outside his occupation or particular professional field.
Citizen science is an old method of integrating community outreach and
scientific data collection, locally, regionally and often across large geographic scales.
Fungimap, Inc., is a non-profit organisation of mainly citizen scientists and is another
example of community-based science in action, dependent on amateur mycologists to
supply data of macrofungi from across Australia.
6
Over 700 citizen collectors contribute
to the National Australian Fungimap Database providing information for research,
conservation and policy. In SFSGI, volunteers of all ages use hand lenses and
professional descriptive keys to identify common fungi. Though amateur mycologists
play a role in data collection, citizen science can be, is and should be, much more than
that.
Such gathering of field data is not new. The worlds longest-running
uninterrupted bird census, the Audubons Christmas Bird Count, has depended upon
citizen scientists who are vital to conservation.
7
Others include Waterwatch an
Australian national community water monitoring program to protect waterways.
8
Frogwatch is an example of community-based group in contact with scientists to protect
amphibians and their habitats.
9
Native orchid societies are dedicated to the study of
native orchids.
10
Such volunteer organisations aim to create a diverse, engaged and
dynamic community of curious learners, collectors and mentors. In SFSGI, citizen
mycologists allow a few taxonomic mycologists to be in many places at one time.
Expertly collecting and classifying fungi are among the extraordinary things citizen
mycologists do. They provide a much larger workforce than by any academic
department.

How do citizen scientists advance knowledge?
For over 20 years many truly skillful and dedicated amateur mycologists in
SFSGI have voluntarily worked in the shadows. Occasionally they gain a glint of notice
from their professional peers but, for the most part, they do remarkable and often
distinguished work in obscurity. Their efforts are done without recourse to institutional
resources that professional mycologists, an endangered species, often take for granted.
Ray Kearney, Citizen Science
89
They are our volunteer citizen scientists or field mycologists who help monitor
conditions and trends, detect early indicators of change and provide information and
advice to resource managers. The future of citizen science lies in the resistance to
professionalisation.
Within SFSGI, experienced volunteer citizen scientists, with passion and
enthusiasm, continue to generate new knowledge of fungal species and biodiversity
generally. Not all members of the SFSGI are interested in taxonomy but are satisfied to
learn to recognise specific species and enjoy the memberships camaraderie. Expanding
the number of citizen mycologists significantly improves the publics understanding of
the kingdom Fungi.
Much of the recording work essential for conservation is done by citizen
scientists. For instance, SFSGIs website is managed by a voluntary citizen scientist.
11
This hugely important contribution has been emphasised in recent articles.
12,13
In
addition, dedicated SFSGI citizen scientists conduct a series of public educational talks
and walks annually fulfilling an aim of SFSGI to educate people at all stages of skill
and knowledge in the science of mycology. By acting as mycology ambassadors, they
help the public to understand the vital importance of fungi in our ecosystems and their
conservation. Such mentoring fulfills another of SFSGIs aims to interact with groups
and societies having mycological or closely related interests including the popular
Fungi Festival at Mt. Tomah Botanic Gardens. Some of the groups amateur mycologists
are the sole sources of critical information pertaining to listed endangered fungi.
14

By integrating community outreach and scientific data-collection protocols,
amateur mycologists do improve the publics mycology literacy, keenness of
observation and originality of ideas to create new frontiers in sustainability. These
citizen mycologists commonly have local knowledge of particular ecosystems to help
bushland managers to understand the broader social, economic and political context of
changes occurring in ecosystems. For example, one of the most controversial changes to
the threatened species laws of NSW is the introduction of biodiversity banking
(Biobanking).
15,16

SFSGI citizen scientists have made successful representation to NSW
Government to ensure biobanking does not allow a developer to build on a site near a
habitat of an endangered ecological fungal community.
17
If a development threatens a
species in need of protection, construction can go ahead if the developer can find
another area of land a biobank supporting the same species or ecological
community. The developer looks after that land or pays someone else to do it. The
conservation work is turned into credits and traded between developers.
Such advocacy by mycology enthusiasts and the dissemination of information
have broadened public engagement in bushland management and fungal ecosystem
stewardship. Effective fungi conservation requires better information about changing
habitat character. Citizen volunteers can help monitor conditions and trends, detect
early indicators of change and advise resource managers accordingly. For example,
Lane Cove Council (LCC) and Hunters Hill Council (HCC) have taken such advice and
implemented measures so that bush regenerators do not disturb sites of endangered
fungi.
18
Such measures have included installing fencing to protect sensitive fungal sites
from trampling. Dogs are prohibited from being off a leash whilst in LCBP. Bush
regenerators are given specific instructions of sites of endangered fungi and to
undertake care in weeding. Special walkways have been installed to ensure walkers
stay on the tracks. LCC has successfully imposed on-the-spot fines for unlawful
behaviour and has prosecuted offenders in the NSW Land and Environment Court.

90
Specific achievements of citizen scientists in the SFSGI
In May, 2011, the SFSGI was the joint recipient of the Innovation Award by the
Sydney Metropolitan Catchment Management Authority. Based wholly or partly on
contributions to fungi conservation, member amateur mycologists have been recipients
of such awards as citizenship awards, Citizen of the Year award, Prime Ministers
Centenary Medal, a NSW finalist in Australian of the Year award and Order of
Australia Day award.
The listing of a Hygrocybeae community and its holotype species under NSW
State and Federal Legislations is another achievement of SFSGI. Lane Cove Bushland
Park (LCBP) is a warm-temperate wet sclerophyll forest and measures approximately
800 metres long and about 300 metres wide. It joins Osborne Park (OP). LCBP is
evergreen, hygrophilous in character in the upper portion and rich in lianes. Epiphytes
are relatively common on tree trunks, especially in the upper tributary of Gore Creek,
which empties into Sydney Harbour. LCBP/OP is the location of at least 35 species
(previously 27) in the tribe Hygrocybeae (Waxcaps). Arising from the Application by
SFSGI members, Ray and Elma Kearney, this ecological Hygrocybeae Community has
been legislated (March, 2000) under the NSW Threatened Species Conservation Act,
1995 as endangered along with nine holotype taxa as either endangered or vulnerable.
Because of its mycological assemblage, LCBP/OP has been listed on the Register of the
National Estate by the Commonwealth Heritage Commission. This endangered fungal
community is now ranked of International Significance (Ralds Classification).
19

These successful prototype initiatives have depended upon the collaborative
efforts involving amateur mycology enthusiasts and a professional taxonomic
mycologist Dr. Tony Young as well as LCC.
20
This synergy of initiative, originality of
ideas and keenness of observation achieved landmark decisions for legislative
conservation of fungi in Australia.
21
On 23
rd
July, 1999, a precedent was set in the NSW
Land and Environment Court where a developer/company ($8750) and foreman ($1750)
on site were fined for allowing building spoil to enter the Gore Creek tributary of LCBP.
This successful case by LCC was based upon a Preliminary Determination to list the
community of fungi as endangered and set a precedent in law-enforced fungal
conservation in NSW.
SFSGI has also contributed to the Atlas of NSW Wildlife and the Atlas of Living
Australia. Rigorous records of fungi field studies, in the greater Sydney Region, by
SFSGI are used for conservation purposes by various Municipal Councils. Such lists also
accompany the Groups application for renewal of the Scientific Licence(s) by the NSW
Parks and Wildlife Service (NPWS). The licence is issued under section 132C of the
NSW National Parks and Wildlife Act to authorise the collection of fungi for scientific,
educational or conservation purposes. NPWS through NSW Office of Environment and
Heritage pass the species-data to Atlas of Living Australia and Atlas of NSW Wildlife.
22, 23

Citizen scientists contribute to an understanding of the interdependency of
species involving truffles. The SFSGI citizen mycologists offer their expertise freely. Two
amateur mycologists recently discovered three species of truffles and a bandicoots
truffle midden or cache, after a bushfire in Lane Cove National Park (LCNP). This led to
a collaborative partnership with visiting Professor Jim Trappe an international truffle
expert. These findings were reported to the Area Manager and Environmental Officers
of LCNP. Truffles in Sydneys bushland are rarely recorded. These observations relate
to the complexity of the general ecology involving mycorrhizal truffles and dispersal of
truffle spores by forager-bandicoots. Fox baiting was found to lead to an increase in
numbers of ticks which parasitise bandicoots and are correlated to increased incidence
of tick allergies confirmed by clinical allergists. Management decisions (e.g., fox baiting),
regarding natural resources are enhanced by this collaborative teamwork. Also
91
noteworthy is a new species of beetle which feeds on truffles. The beetle was discovered
in the LCNP by these amateur mycologists who isolated, from the beetles gut, two new
species of yeast and a bacterial species with amazing communication mechanisms akin
to quorum sensing.
24

Citizen scientists promote conservation education. Amateur mycologists have
implemented many diverse outreach programs to expand public awareness of fungi and
their conservation by good stewardship. For example, Fungimap, Inc., and its citizen
scientists have a deep concern for our natural environments. Talented members
continue to conduct many fungi ecology workshops and seminars across Victoria.
25

Photographs of fungi, by SFSGI citizen scientists, in the Sydney Region were compiled
into a CD and distributed to public libraries to educate people at all stages of skill
and knowledge in the science of mycology.
26

Limitations experienced by citizen scientists
Whilst disconnects do occasionally exist between citizens and scientists, all
taxonomic mycologists will concede their research has benefited directly from amateur
mycologists. However, within the labyrinth of conservation politics and the bias
towards stasis or do nothing, citizen scientists do encounter the in-built professional
self-interests, the regional and state jealousies, personal fiefdoms and the immense
power of special-interest lobbyists (e.g., developers, mining corporations and land-
grabbers).
27,28
Occasionally, professionals have sought to increase their status by
strategically playing down amateur science as superficial, unacademic, provincial in
short, inferior to the work of professional scientists in every respect. Such petty
antagonism was common in the 19th century.
29
An amateur in science came to mean a
lower status, more often a mere oddity to be kept at a distance from serious science.
This was basically the narrative told by authors such as Dorothy Stimson in her 1948
book on the history of the Royal Society, aptly called Scientists and Amateurs.
30

Observer reliability has been raised as an issue but taxonomic mycologists are
not faultless. Names of species in the Northern and Southern Hemisphere do not always
correspond. Closing the gap between mycology and the general public for mutual
benefit is the only way to rapidly unlock the data and information that mycology
desperately needs. Excellent photographic field guides help to dispel the mystery and
fear as well as extol the beauty and importance of fungi even though many remain
unnamed. The rise of public participation in field studies does increase the publics
scientific literacy. Such outcomes are conditional upon maintenance of ethics, scientific
standards and credible mycological experience being sustainable. Several other factors
may limit citizen scientists in Australian mycology.
Responsibility for research, teaching and post-graduate training in mycology
should be embedded in the academic, tertiary universities and associated biological
institutes. However, Australian universities are in decline and mycology is a Cinderella
discipline for many reasons.
31
There is reported to be only one taxonomic mycologist
in Queensland, suggesting that expert knowledge in identification of higher fungi, is
scarce.
32
Yet the membership of the active Queensland Mycological Society that is open
to anyone with an interest in macro-fungi highlights the importance of citizen
mycologists.
33

While amateurs can be involved in co-producing science with professionals, the
latter still might resist and protect their independence. For most university staff
members, research is a profession and publishing papers is a means for personal and
professional development and advancement. Some do feel having citizen scientists as
scientific collaborators weakens the professionals contribution and status.
Conversely, for voluntary amateur scientists, practicing science is largely a leisure
92
activity while professionals spend working time, for example, in the field, although
these boundaries are not always clear.
34

Among amateur scientific collaborators there are people from all kinds of
backgrounds: a clinical allergist interested in collecting fungi and plants; a school
teacher, such as Edith Coleman (18741951), interested in native orchids and their
pollination by pseudo-copulating wasps.
35
Science in most museums originates from a
close cooperation between specialised people and laypersons but usually sees the latter
as marginal to proper science. For example, Edith Colemans original observation of
pseudo-copulation by male wasps of certain species of ground orchids was rejected by
an august Royal Society in London. Her subsequent series of papers in the Victorian
Naturalist from 1927 to 1933 created enormous world interest to this day.
36

Amateur and professional scientists do similar things: they publish articles, do
fieldwork and present talks and posters at conferences. Some come to belong at least
partially to the world of the professional. Lay scientists are not always welcome
members of some professional societies. Years ago the general public was prohibited to
enter medical libraries. Today open access to the internet allows easy connection to
much knowledge. However, many journals are subscription only thereby limiting access
to the lay person. There now seems agreement that science has to occupy more open
space and not by scientists only.
37

This may challenge the notions of expertise. What is it about our modern
world that celebrity-status invites expertise when there is none on so many topics?
The study of expertise needs to be developed.
38
In SFSGI there are lay persons with
extraordinary skills and knowledge in classifying specimens of higher fungi. This co-
production in mycology between amateur and professional can foster new ways of
thinking about and engaging with science. However, what seems commonplace is that
what demarcates science from non-science is a matter of power and authority.
39

Occasionally, on a field study, an unusual mushroom is quickly sequestered by a rival
professional who evidently seeks control over a contested domain. Amateur scientists
are more often than professional scientists, members of different scientific societies and
active in several scientific fields at the same time.
40
A major challenge confronting the
citizen scientist is that the partial connections with the professional are commonly
fragile but can also exhibit certain strengths. How to motivate citizen scientists and to
keep them going can involve nursing and caring of the collaborators. These
connections are often neither permanent nor strong, but rather partial and fragile. These
are among the challenges of the citizen scientist in mycology which currently lacks
transforming academic leadership in Australia. The principal limit for volunteers is the
difficulty of finding time. When they do science, where they do science, how they do
science and with what tools they do science seems to differentiate amateurs from
professionals.
41

The coupling of citizen science with philosophy and activism
An activist is a person who feels strongly about a cause and who is also willing
to dedicate time and energy towards advancing and realising this cause. Activism
consists of efforts to bring about change and can take a wide range of forms. Activism,
at least in some contexts (e.g., conservation and anti-war), is a moral responsibility.
There is nothing wrong with differences of opinion except when diversity becomes
polarising and groups compete with or reject each other causing the entire project to
lose its original value.
42

Serious activism, like history itself, is ongoing. It cannot be worn and then
conveniently removed like a pair of shoes. Today it would seem some have been
programmed to disconnect from others and the Earth. Physical possessions and the
93
accumulation of wealth and power appear more important than humanity itself and its
life-support systems. Thus the essence of our humanity and the living planet are
pillaged and lost. Citizen scientists tend not to lose sight of our intrinsic human value
and of the living art of nature. Many citizen activists refuse to be shaped into various
forms and figures by those whose aim in life is to kill as they pillage and destroy our
precious earth. The serious activist understands that she or he is a part of an ongoing,
often strenuous struggle seeking to find creative ways to collectively save ourselves,
each other and this planet without giving up.
43

The media seldom reports objectively on the exemplary activism taking place all
around the country, for example, opposition to fracking for coal seam gas. Social
movements typically have a core of activists (professionals, volunteers or both), a wider
group of occasional participants and passive supporters. Social movements are natural
homes to grassroots or citizen science, especially when a movement challenges an
establishment (e.g., on environmental and health issues) with backing of professional
science.
44
We all desire cleaner air, healthier food, safer water and greener parks. Real
solutions do not generally involve corporations or governments but rather involves real
public education.
According to new information by teams of citizen scientists and experts, the
Earth is now entering the sixth mass extinction event in its four billion-year history. This
die-off is the only such event precipitated by human beings. Data by over 10,000
amateur scientists and professionals in the International Union for Conservation of
Nature show that currently 51 percent of known reptiles, 52 percent of known insects
and 73 percent of known flowering plants are in danger.
45,46
So too are species of fungi
already listed as protected under NSW State legislation.
SFSGI mycology enthusiasts, Elma and Ray Kearney, recently brought to the
attention of LCC an alarming malformation referred to as rosecomb (abnormal gills
caused by diesel toxicity) in protected Hygrocybe reesiae and other endangered fungi.
47

This new mushroom, originally found in LCBP by the Kearneys, was listed (2000) under
the NSW Threatened Species Conservation Act of 1995. For the first time, rosecomb in
protected waxcaps (Hygrocybe fungi) in LCBP was recorded. H. reesiae rosecomb is not
a genetic mutation but rather genetic instability coupled with an exogenous factor (e.g.,
diesel fumes to induce abnormal morphogenesis of gills), late in development of the
fruiting structure. The analogy is thalidomide teratology. Thalidomide was a widely
used drug in the late 1950s and early 1960s for the treatment of nausea in pregnant
women. It became apparent in the 1960s that thalidomide treatment resulted in severe
birth defects (teratology) in thousands of children. Extinction may occur if threats
remain, especially at 16C. What is also relevant is that the World Health Organization
(WHO) declared in June 2012 that diesel fumes are a Level-1 human carcinogen (i.e.,
proven evidence of carcinogenicity in human beings).
48
Is H. reesiae rosecomb a wake-up
call as another marker of an environmental epigenetic toxin harmful to people?
On the basis of these observations, an application made to the NSW Scientific
Committee, appointed under the NSW Threatened Species and Conservation Act, have
made a Preliminary Determination to raise the level of threat to the LCBP ecological
fungal community from Endangered to Critically Endangered. The observation of
rosecomb has also been reported to the 2013 Federal Senate Committee Inquiry into
The Impacts on Health of Air Quality in Australia in an effort to bring about change to
make the world a healthier place.
49

A motivating force behind this activism is that the preamble to the WHOs
constitution declares that it is one of the fundamental rights of every human being to
enjoy the highest attainable standard of health.
50,51
However, Australia continues to
breach The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 25) by allowing its citizens to
94
be exposed to the carcinogenic fumes of diesel, despite the government knowing the
dangers.
52
The United Nations further defined the right to health in Article 12 of the
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights in 1966.
53
The Covenant
guarantees the right of everyone to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of
health. Article 12.2(b) comprises for example, the prevention and reduction of the
population's exposure to harmful substances such as radiation and harmful chemicals or
other detrimental environmental conditions that directly or indirectly impact upon
human health. Petroleum may power our cars and heat our homes, but it also
contributes to birth defects and disorders like asthma, emphysema and cancer as well as
deformities in other species including protected fungi. Why is this so? Terry Tamminen
claims: Oil and car industries have acted again and again to deceive regulators about
the hazards of their products and have used their wealth to hamstring attempts by state
and federal legislators to make laws that address such threats/hazards.
54

Indeed, the 2009 documentary The Idiot Cycle claims that certain chemical
manufacturers, including oil cartels, are profiting from the production of cancer-causing
products and then some of the same companies are investing in profitable cancer
treatments making pollution itself a cash cow. Public health experts fear global trade
agreements and powerful transnational companies continue to create a boom industry
in death and disease.
Globalisation is too often confused with a beneficial notion of genuine mutual
interdependence and cooperation between nation states but in reality it clearly is not.
In an effort to maintain profit margins, here and abroad public assets are plundered,
human life trampled upon and the environment destroyed. In secret negotiations
behind closed doors, the Trans-Pacific Partnership will allow corporations to sue
nations if laws such as those protecting the environment interfere with corporate profits.
Activism will not see our biodiversity hollowed out. National and international
regulatory mechanisms, based on evidence, must be put in place. Enter the citizen
scientist.
Data collected by citizen scientists clearly show that extinction rates have
dramatically increased several hundred times beyond historical levels over the last few
decades. The causes of such biocide are human environmental poisons. Are there ways
to help prevent what many experts believe is a coming worldwide bio-collapse? It
begins with citizen scientists holding meetings, educating others and developing plans
to reduce the defined threats. As with so many other issues, people must both protest
what they oppose and build new systems of replacement. It all begins at the grassroots
level involving mainly the citizen scientists.
At the time of Rachel Carsons seminal work Silent Spring, published in 1962,
there was virtually no environmental movement in Australia. Conservation was not
taken seriously by governments or the public. However, Silent Spring changed public
and government awareness of a serious threat to both human beings and the
environment. Her impassioned plea arose from her understanding of the fragile
relationship of the ecosystem that we, and all other living things, rely upon. Here was
individual activism in operation.
Today, when ordinary citizen scientists and others rise up in anger and hope,
they have power to defy governments and focus debate by politicians. Such moments
are upon us now to bring change for good. In the words of Max Ehrmann who in 1927
wrote Desiderata (Latin for desired things): You are a child of the universe no less
than the trees and the stars; you have a right to live.
55
The poem is a list of things
desirable in life technically, things considered necessary or highly desirable or
something lacking and wanted. The poem's simplicity and affirmation of life resonate
more than ever. Applied to activism, such wisdom coupled with collective defiance and
95
its subsequent disruption, has always been essential to the preservation of democracy
and of our life-support systems.

The future and what further steps to be taken
Whilst species lists (with photos) in grassroots mycology are of some value in
mapping occurrence, such lists do not provide sufficient scientific evidence for most
species in a prescribed location. It is now imperative that the annual, two-hour
collections must be linked to basic ecological data-sets to include grid/satellite location
and habitat substrate. This ecological approach to conservation seems missing today.
Preservation of specimens provides an archival record for future reference as
classification will change with evolving concepts of species. Such preservations will
place demands on limited funding and resources to maintain such herbaria.
The application of nucleic acid sequencing is now obligatory for meaningful
taxonomy. In a field study, undertaken by members of SFSGI, eleven specimens of fungi
in one genus were classified as one species by a specialist taxonomic mycologist but,
when subjected to molecular analysis by citizen scientists and a specialist
pharmacologist, three distinct species were identified. Objective analysis of such
complex mimics by sequence analysis has only just begun.
Citizen science does need a home preferably within a university or research
institute. Restricted access to scientific journals limits the taxonomic treatments by
citizen scientists, who in some cases are daunted by the complex process of describing a
new species, often requiring examining material on loan from herbaria. Such taxonomic
pursuits require an affiliation with a university or similar institution. Today, however,
with little or no funding for mycology and when taxonomic mycologists are critically
endangered, much of the collecting and identifications are made by experienced citizen
scientists. Attempts must be undertaken to improve the connections between the
remnant professional mycologists and enthusiastic citizen scientists. Without such
collaboration, the work of field studies, voucher collections and sequencing will cease.

Notes
1. Chairman, Sydney Fungal Studies Group Inc.
2. B. Martin (2005), Grassroots Science, in Science, Technology, & Society: An Encyclopedia,
Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 175-181. Website: www.bmartin.cc/pubs/05Restivo.html
(Accessed 16 July 2013).
3. H. Lepp (2013), The Study of Australian Fungi: Before the Twentieth Century. Website:
www.anbg.gov.au/fungi/history-pre-20-cent.html (Accessed 16 July 2013).
4. Encyclopedia of Australian Science (2012), Cleland, John Burton (1878-1971). Website:
www.eoas.info/biogs/P000313b.htm (Accessed 16 July 2013).
5. D. Thomas (2003), What Professor Cleland Did in His Holidays: History and Indigenous
Health Research. Website: www.aiatsis.gov.au/research/docs/pdfs2003/Thomas.pdf
6. Fungimap Inc. (n.d.), Fungimap. Website: http://fungimap.org.au/ (Accessed 16 July 2013).
7. National Audubon Society (2013),News Coverage of the 113th Christmas Bird Count.
Website: http://birds.audubon.org/christmas-bird-count (Accessed 16 July 2013).
8. ACT Waterwatch (2009), Upper Murrumbidgee Waterwatch Newsletter, Waterwatch
Newsletter, 11(3). Website:
www.molonglocatchment.com.au/Documents/News%20Page/ACT%20Waterwatch%20News
letter%20Winter09.pdf (Accessed 16 July 2013).
9. The Amphibian Research Centre (2013), The Frogs of Australia. Website:
http://frogs.org.au/ (Accessed 16 July 2013).
10. Australian Native Orchid Society (2013). Homepage. Website: http://www.anos.org.au/
96
11. Sydney Fungal Studies Group, Inc. (2013), What is the Sydney Fungal Studies Group, Inc.
Website: www.sydneyfungalstudies.org.au/Intro.html (Accessed 16 July 2013).
12. L. Boddy and M. Coleman (2010), From Another Kingdom: The Amazing World of Fungi, Royal Botanic
Gardens, Edinburgh, p. 152.
13. H. Rosner (2013), Public Participation in Research Back in Vogue with Ascent of Citizen
Science, Scientific American, 13 February, 63. Website:
www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=public-participation-research-back-in-vogue-
ascent-citizen-science (Accessed 16 July 2013).
14. R. Kearney and E. Kearney (2000), Significance of the Hygrophoraceae Community of Lane
Cove Bushland Park in Listings Under the N.S.W. Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995
and Under the Australian Heritage Commission Act 1975, Australasian Mycologist, 19, pp. 64-
70.
15. NSW Department of Environment and Climate Change (2007), BioBanking: Biodiversity
Banking and Offsets Scheme. Website:
www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/biobanking/biobankingoverview07528.pdf
16. NSW Office of Heritage and Environment (2012), Biobanking. Website:
www.environment.nsw.gov.au/biobanking/ (Accessed 16 July 2013).
17. NSW Office of Heritage and Environment (2012), BioBanking Review: A Summary of
Themes and Issues. Website:
www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/biobanking/20120061bbrevsum.pdf (Accessed 16
July 2013).
18. R. Kearney and E. Kearney (2011), The Listing of an Australian Hygrocybeae Community and
its New Species under State and Commonwealth Legislations, Fungal Conservation, 1, pp. 13-
28. Website: www.fungal-conservation.org/newsletter/vol_1_part_1_2011_low_resolution.pdf
19. R. Kearney and E. Kearney (2011), p. 24.
20. A. M. Young (1999), The Hygrocybeae (Fungi, Basidiomycota, Agaricales, Hygrophoraceae) of the
Lane Cove Bushland Park, New South Wales, Austrobaileya, 5, pp. 535-564.
21. NSW Office of Heritage and Environment (2012), NSW Threatened Species. Website:
www.environment.nsw.gov.au/threatenedspecies/ (Accessed 16 July 2013).
22. Atlas of Living Australia (2013), Fungi. Website: http://bie.ala.org.au/search?q=Fungi
23. NSW Office of Heritage and Environment (2013), Atlas of NSW Wildlife. Website:
www.environment.nsw.gov.au/atlaspublicapp/UI_Modules/ATLAS_/AtlasSearch.aspx
24. R. Kearney and E. Kearney (2008), Microbial Flocking, Quorums and Anti-Quorums.
Website:
www.sydneyfungalstudies.org.au/articles/Microbial%20Quorums%20etc%20_SFSG_.pdf
25. A. Pouliot Photography (2013), 2013 Autumn Fungi Ecology Workshops and Seminars.
Website: www.alisonpouliot.com/projects_fungi_ecology.php (Accessed 16 July 2013).
26. Sydney Fungal Studies Group, Inc. (2013), Mission Statement. Website:
www.sydneyfungalstudies.org.au/Intro.html (Accessed 16 July 2013).
27. D. Spiegel (2013), Modern Colonialism: Foreign Investors Buy Up Vast Amounts of
Developing World Farmland. Website: www.globalresearch.ca/modern-colonialism-foreign-
investors-buy-up-vast-amounts-of-developing-world-farmland/5324116 (Accessed 16 July
2013).
28. A. Marshall (2011), Arab Farm Investment Push. Website:
www.theland.com.au/news/agriculture/agribusiness/general-news/arab-farm-investment-
push/2072071.aspx (Accessed 16 July 2013).
29. G. Vanpaemel (2006), Science Communication Strategies of Amateurs and Professional
Scientists in Nineteenth Century Belgium, in The Global and the Local: The History of Science
and the Cultural Integration of Europe, M. Kokowski (ed.), Proceedings of the 2nd ICESHS,
Cracow, Poland, September 69, 2006, pp. 819-824. Website:
www.2iceshs.cyfronet.pl/2ICESHS_Proceedings/Chapter_26/R-18_Vanpaemel.pdf (Accessed
16 July 2013).
97
30. D. Stimson (1948) qtd. in G. Vanpaemel (2006), p. 819.
31. D. Meyers (2012), Australian Universities: A Portrait of Decline.Website:
www.australianuniversities.id.au/ (Accessed 16 July 2013).
32. The University of Queensland (1996), Fungi Research Being Neglected: Researcher.
Website: www.uq.edu.au/news/index.html?article=1344 (Accessed 16 July 2013).
33 Queensland Mycological Society (2011), Welcome to the QMS Website. Website:
http://qldfungi.org.au/ (Accessed 16 July 2013).
34. M. Meyer (2008), On the Boundaries and Partial Connections Between Amateurs and
Professionals, Museum and Society, 6(1), pp. 38-53. Website:
www.knowing.soc.cas.cz/static/forum/msg521/boundaries_and_connections.pdf (Accessed
16 July 2013).
35. Wikipedia (2013), Australian Natural History Medallion: Edith Coleman (18741951).
Website: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edith_Coleman (Accessed 16 July 2013).
36. A. McEvey (1993), Coleman, Edith (18741951). Website:
http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/coleman-edith-9784 (Accessed 16 July 2013).
37. Queensland Mycological Society (2011).
38. H. M. Collins and R. Evans (2002), The Third Wave of Science Studies: Studies of Expertise
and Experience, Social Studies of Science, 32(2), pp. 235-296.
39. R. Evans (2005), Demarcation Socialized: Constructing Boundaries and Recognizing
Difference, Science, Technology and Human Values, 30(1), pp. 3-16.
40. G. Vanpaemel (2006).
41. M. Meyer (2008).
42. R. Baroud (2010), Activism is Change, Not Academic Squabbles and Bickering. Website:
www.globalresearch.ca/activism-is-change-not-academic-squabbles-and-bickering/18177
43. L. Pinkney (2013), Serious Political Activism is a Lifelong Endeavor. Website:
www.globalresearch.ca/serious-political-activism-is-a-lifelong-endeavor/5322986 (Accessed
16 July 2013).
44. B. Martin (2005).
45. International Union for Conservation of Nature (2013). Home. Website: http://iucn.org/
46. C. Kazan and R. Sato (2008), The Earths 6
th
Great Mass Extinction as You Read This, The
Daily Galaxy.
Website: www.dailygalaxy.com/my_weblog/2008/02/the-6th-great-m.html (Accessed 16 July
2013).
47. P. B. Flegg (1983), Response of the Sporophores of the Cultivated Mushroom (Agaricus
bisporus) to Volatile Substances, Scientia Horticulturae, 21, pp. 301-310.
48. World Health Organization, International Agency for Research on Cancer (2012), IARC:
Diesel Engine Exhaust Carcinogenic. Website: www.iarc.fr/en/media-
centre/pr/2012/pdfs/pr213_E.pdf (Accessed 16 July 2013).
49. Parliament of Australia, Senate Committees (2013), Impacts on Health of Air Quality in
Australia. Website:
www.aph.gov.au/parliamentary_business/committees/senate_committees?url=clac_ctte/air_q
uality/submissions.htm (Accessed 16 July, 2013).
50. World Health Organization (2003), WHO Definition of Health. Website:
www.who.int/about/definition/en/print.html (Accessed 16 July, 2013).
51. F.P. Grad (2002), The Preamble of the Constitution of the World Health Organization.
Website: www.who.int/bulletin/archives/80%2812%29981.pdf (Accessed 16 July, 2013)
52. The United Nations (1948), The Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Website:
www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/index.shtml (Accessed 16 July, 2013).
53. The United Nations (1966), International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights. Website: www.un-documents.net/icescr.htm (Accessed 16 July, 2013).
54. T. Tamminen (2006), Lives Per Gallon, Island Press, Washington, DC.
55. Poet Seers (n.d.), Desiderata Max Ehrmann. Website: www.poetseers.org/the-great-
poets/american-poets/max-ehrmann/desid/ (Accessed 16 July, 2013).

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suorl foresl lrees and shrubs, decomose vood and misl lhe air vilh microscoic
sores. IiIamenlous fungi and yeasls muIliIy in Iakes and rivers, grov in lhe mud of
esluaries and coIonise sunken gaIIeons in lhe sea. As agenls of disease, fungi are
unmalched as kiIIers of Ianls, and fungaI alhogens of animaIs are vieved as
indicalors of imending Ianelary doom. They remain, hovever, lhe Ieasl sludied and
mosl misunderslood kingdom of organisms.
In ouIar cuIlure fungi are lrealed as inlangibIe, sIimy, smeIIy and generaIIy
disagreeabIe enlilies lhal hide in dam basemenls, soiI our food and make us ilch and
sneeze. In <452/ =>+5./2/')6*, fungi garnished Miss Havisham's dereIicl vedding
banquel, and Ioe described minule fungi...hanging in a fine langIed veb-vork from
lhe eaves of Usher's mansion. The associalion of fungi vilh inaclivily is a sIanderous
accusalion lhal misreads lheir bioIogy and behaviour. Conlrary lo lhis common
misimression, lhe mobiIily of lhese organisms vas evidenl from lhe firsl microscoic
sludies on fungi in lhe sevenleenlh cenlury. Invesligalors vere calivaled by slreams of
fIuid lrickIing lhrough lhe lubuIar ceIIs of mouIds groving on food scras and lhey
lrealed lhese microbes as curiosilies aIIied lo lhe animaI kingdom. The subsequenl
adolion of fungi by bolanisls accorded vilh lhe unvrillen oIicy of assigning anylhing
re|ecled by zooIogisls lo lhe Ianl sciences: by defauIl, bolanisls aIso assumed
resonsibiIily for aII manner of holosynlhelic rolisls (aIgae) and cyanobacleria, as
veII as lhe non-holosynlhelic sIime mouIds and Ianl-kiIIing valer mouIds.
I have invesled a good deaI of energy ceIebraling lhe vonders of fungaI
bioIogy.
3
In resenlalions lo diverse audiences grous of eIderIy eoIe in Iibraries
more oflen lhan bookslores fiIIed vilh lhe youlhfuI enlhusiasls video cIis of sores
bIasling across lhe screen have roved lhe besl vay lo kee eoIe engaged. RheloricaI
skiIIs are a boon for seIIing a sub|ecl as oslensibIy ledious as lhe bioIogy of lhe fungi, bul
lhe visuaI demonslralion of fungaI movemenls is lhe onIy vay guaranleed lo slimuIale
a more nuanced inquiry inlo lhis sIice of Iife. This effecl is reIaled, resumabIy, lo lhe
#'.&)(2* !7 ?)65,- @'4.3* A36B)431
99
facl lhal humans are mobiIe rimales rogrammed lo be vary of moving ob|ecls. This is
a Iace vhere lhe IoverIoinl resenlalion can shine.
eaulifuI fIighls have evoIved in Circus Iungorum. Scienlisls had a relly good
idea aboul hov lhese vorked before lhey vere calured vilh high-seed cameras, bul
ve had IillIe rearalion for hov beaulifuI lhey vouId aear. Microscoic mouIds
oke above lhe surface of decaying Ieaves and roeI lheir sores inlo lhe air by
choreograhing lhe exIosion of gas bubbIes in lheir suorling ceIIs, mushrooms use a
molor energised by surface lension lo calauIl 30,000 sores er second from lheir giIIs,
moreIs, cu fungi, Iichens and lens of lhousands of reIaled secies have maslered lhe
baIIislic device of a ressure-gun lo squirl lheir sores inlo lhe air al fanlaslic seeds,
and, slrangesl of aII, lhe arliIIery fungus forms a liny rubbery Iunger lhal bIasls a
casuIe conlaining 10 miIIion sores over a dislance of 6 melres. If your hearing is acule
mine vas deslroyed by Molorhead concerls in lhe 1970s I am loId lhal you can hear
a oing vhen lhe Iungers of lhe arliIIery fungus everl and a inging of lhe casuIes
hilling lhe Iids of cuIlure dishes. My descrilion suggesls somelhing of lhe IIea Circus
lo aII lhis aclivily, or lhe Mouse Tra Game vhere lhe succession of seemingIy
incongruous movemenls cIimaxes vilh lhe skinny guy |uming inlo a lub. The
difference is lhal lhe fungi, unIike lhe ficlionaI circus fIeas (I vas fooIed as a boy), are
doing lhis for reaI and erform vilh unrivaIIed grace.

(#*&$/ <9 The fruil body, or basidiome, of lhe bird's nesl fungus. (a) Iholograh of air of fruil
bodies of @,2/&3* */4'2/3* shoving eridioIes gIislening vilh surrounding fIuid al lhe bollom of
lhe fruil body. (b) Diagram of seclioned fruil body shoving slruclure of eridioIes before
discharge and singIe eridioIe foIIoving sIash discharge.
4

One of lhe mosl eIeganl mechanisms of sore discharge omilled from lhis Iisl is
lhe use of sIash cus by lhe bird's nesl fungi (Iigure 1). Thanks lo high-seed video
lhis is beller underslood loday lhan ever before. ird's nesl fungi grov on a variely of
maleriaIs, ranging from lhe dung of herbivores, lo faIIen lvigs and vood chis used for
Iandscaing and sread under lrees and shrubs. The food common lo aII of lhese
maleriaIs is lhe eIaborale comosile of Iignin and ceIIuIose manufaclured by Ianls.
CoIonies of lhe fiIamenlous ceIIs, or hyhae, of lhe bird's nesl fungi secrele enzymes
lhal digesl lhese resiIienl maleriaIs and absorb sugars and olher smaII moIecuIes
reIeased by lhis biochemislry. The formalion of lhe characlerislic cu-shaed sex organs
begins vhen lhe food begins lo run oul. SexuaI reroduclion in lhese fungi invoIves lhe
!"#$ !&'()*)+&,- "./'0'*1- #2/345 6)7 89- :98;

100
fusion of airs of comalibIe coIonies and successfuI unions aIIov lhe resuIling
chimeras lo generale sores inside cus. The fruil bodies range in size from a fev
miIIimelres in diameler lo aboul one cenlimelre and serve as e|eclion devices for lhe
sore-fiIIed ackels, caIIed eridioIes, vhich deveIo in lhe cenlre (Iigure 1). Iach
eridioIe veighs one miIIigram (0.001 gram) and conlains 100 miIIion sores. When lhe
fruil body is malure il oens and Iooks Iike a liny nesl cradIing a cIulch of minuscuIe
eggs. I vonder if a chiId has ever discovered lhese exquisile gobIels and vondered vhal
bird couId be so smaII`
The bird's nesl fruil body las lhe kinelic energy in faIIing raindros lo roeI
ils eridioIes inlo lhe air. Raindros offer a free and readiIy avaiIabIe energy source for
disersaI and many fungi and Ianls make use of lhem. The Iargesl raindros are 10 lo
100 limes heavier lhan lhe eridioIes, slimuIaling me lo roose lhe uselling lhoughl
exerimenl of being cIobbered by a shover of free-faIIing buII eIehanls vhiIe you read
lhis essay. Iar from being damaged by raindros, lhe bird's nesl fungus emIoys a liny
sIiver of lhis over |usl lvo ercenl of lhe energy in a raindro lo e|ecl ils eggs. This
may seem inefficienl, bul il has enabIed lhese fungi lo lransmil lheir bird's nesl genes
dovn lhe greal river of lime for lens of miIIions of years. The beauly of lhe mechanism
is reveaIed vilh a high-seed camera running al lhe reIaliveIy sedale seed of 6,000
frames er second. (Camera seeds of u lo one miIIion frames er second are needed
lo calure lhe squirl gun mechanisms of sore discharge.) Al lhe reIay seeds besl
suiled for generaI vieving, dros of valer descend from lhe lo of lhe video frame and
hil lhe cu afler a second or lvo of free-faII.
5
Dros lhal imacl lhe cenlre of lhe cu
deeen lhe liny ooI of valer surrounding lhe eggs and fIuid is shed off lhe rim vilhoul
|ellisoning a eridioIe. Dros lhal hil lhe rim are carved inlo a orlion lhal is shed from
lhe erimeler of lhe cu and a orlion lhal fIovs inlo lhe cu. The Ialler merges vilh
lhe valer in lhe ooI and roeIs fIuid from lhe cu lhal fragmenls inlo droIels. One
of lhese droIels carries a eridioIe in a araboIic arc avay lhrough lhe air (Iigure 2,
firsl lvo frames).

(#*&$/ =9 Diagram shoving sIash discharge of eridioIe and ils mechanism of allachmenl lo
vegelalion. The funicuIar cord is acked vilhin lhe urse before discharge. The force of lhe
raindro fraclures lhe urse Ieaving lhe slicky end of lhe cord exosed during lhe fIighl of lhe
eridioIe. DeIoymenl of lhe funicuIar cord occurs vhen lhe haleron conlacls an obslacIe. The
rocess is comIeled in Iess lhan 200 miIIiseconds.
6

The vilaI slalislics are inleresling, beaulifuI even, vhen vieved beside lhe
famiIiarilies of our macroscoic vorId. IeridioIes are sIashed from lheir nesls al
#'.&)(2* !7 ?)65,- @'4.3* A36B)431
101
seeds of 1 lo 5 melres er second, or u lo 18 kiIomelres er hour, and can cover a
dislance of 1 melre in 200 miIIiseconds. An eye bIink Iasls from 40 lo 200 miIIiseconds.
The sIash cu is a reIaliveIy sedale Iaunch ad comared vilh olher fungaI devices.
Some of lhe squirl guns of ascomycele fungi shool singIe sores al 115 kiIomelres er
hour. The bird's nesl fungi ursue a differenl reroduclive slralegy, discharging 100
miIIion sores inside a eridioIe vilh each shol. SingIe squirl-gun sores veigh 1
nanogram, eridoIes are one miIIion limes heavier. The baIIislic mismalch is comarabIe
lo lhroving a ea versus a icku lruck, and lhe lruck vouId be shol over Manhallan if
ils fIighl vere comarabIe vilh lhe eridioIe!
The sIash discharge conlroIIed by lhe bird's nesl fungus is an imressive feal
of naluraI engineering, bul lhere is much more lo lhe fale of lhe eridioIes lhal, al Ieasl
al firsl, boggIes lhe mind. Iach eridioIe is equied vilh a harness lhal oerales Iike
lhe laiIhook and arresling cabIes lhal brake navaI aircrafl Ianding on lhe deck of a
carrier (Iigure 2, second air of frames). The harness is acked vilhin a urse allached
lo lhe eridioIe: one end is fixed lo lhe eridoIe, lhe olher is exosed al lhe bollom of
lhe urse and is slicky. If lhe eridioIe grazes a Ianl slem afler discharge, lhe slicky
end faslens lo lhe vegelalion and lhe harness unraveIs as lhe eridoIe conlinues ils
fIighl. The harness can slrelch lo a Ienglh of 12 cenlimelres before il haIls lhe eridoIe in
mid-air, lhe momenlum of lhe lelhered eridioIe carries il in a vide arc, lhen a gyre,
vraing lhe harness around lhe slem. The vhoIe rocess is comIeled in Iess lhan one
second and lhe sores of lhe bird's nesl fungus are in lhe erfecl Iocalion for grazing by
herbivores. Afler consumlion, lhe eridioIes ass lhrough lhe herbivore gul and are re-
exosed lo air in manure deosiled some dislance from lhe arenl coIonies. The |ob of
disersaI is comIele. Sores lhal germinale in lhe manure find a convenienl voIume of
Ianl carbohydrales lo suslain lhem. The resuIling fungaI coIonies digesl Ianl debris in
lhe dung lo lhe oinl of exhauslion before embarking uon lhe nexl round of maling
and sIash-cu deveIomenl. And so on.
Theirs is a suremeIy beaulifuI reroduclive mechanism. The genelics of bird's
nesl fungi roves lheir reIalionshi lo fungi lhal roduce convenlionaI giIIed
mushrooms. This is a bil uzzIing. CoIonies of bolh kinds of organism oerale in lhe
same fashion, bul lheir differences in sore discharge mechanism are rofound. There is
no fossiI record lhal can heI here, vhich Ieaves lhe bioIogisl in lhe osilion of
conlemIaling lhe evoIulionary asl vilh IillIe guidance from ob|eclive dala. AII of lhe
comonenls of lhe bird's nesl fungus are found in giIIed mushrooms, bul lhey are
arranged in radicaIIy differenl vays lo creale lhe differenl kinds of fruil body. Al lhis
oinl, based on lhe avaiIabIe evidence, ve can do IillIe bul make educaled guesses
aboul lhe evoIulionary alhvays lhal Iink lhese fungi. Anyone vho cIaims lhal lheir arl
has grealer oorlunily for crealivily lhan lhe vork of a scienlisl does nol undersland
lhe olenliaI for ave and medilalion in lhe face of nalure. The bioIogisl vorks vilh facls
and emIoys greal svees of imaginalion lo arrive al ideas lhal may be lesled by
exerimenlalion. There is nolhing frivoIous in lhis ursuil, lhere is, as CharIes
Darvin vrole in 1859, grandeur in lhis viev of Iife.

!"#$ !&'()*)+&,- "./'0'*1- #2/345 6)7 89- :98;

102
7+1/'
1. Weslern Irogram and Dearlmenl of ioIogy, Miami Universily, Oxford, Ohio 45056, USA
(moneyn+miamioh.edu).
2. Iukaryoles are organisms vhose ceIIs have a comIex slruclure lhal incIudes a nucIeus. Iungi and
animaIs are examIes of eukaryoles. The ceIIs of rokaryoles, incIuding lhe bacleria, have a simIer
organisalion lhal Iacks a nucIeus.
3. NichoIas Money has aulhored four non-seciaIisl books on fungaI bioIogy incIuding, ?47 C())1D'5(EF*
G4.&24E$ H&5 ?,*/54')3* I)4(E )D ?3*&4))1*, ?)(E*- 26E ?,.)()B'*/*, Oxford Universily Iress, Nev York,
ubIished in 2002, and ?3*&4))1, Oxford Universily Iress, Nev York, ubIished in 2011.
4. IIIuslralion by Maribelh Hassell, Dearlmenl of ioIogy, Miami Universily, Oxford, Ohio 45056, USA.
(hasselmo+miamioh.edu) and Mark Iischer, CoIIege of Mounl Sl. }oseh, Cincinnali, Ohio 45233, USA.
(mark_fischer+maiI.ms|.edu).
5. YouTube (2011), "IvoIulionary Maslerieces: The irds Nesl Iungi." Websile:
hll://vvv.youlube.com/valch`vIGIaQhDi5ls (Accessed 02 Augusl 2013).
6. Iigure 2 by Maribelh Hassell and Mark Iischer (see nole 4).

PAN. Pni|cscpnq, Aciitisn, Naiurc nc. 10, 2013

103

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9: ;

Al OaI Creek Ancienl Ioresl Cenler in Oregon, I scrae from a Iarge rock,
driing vel vilh sring and covered in mosses, Iivervorls, and Iichens, a cIum of
free-Iiving Ncsicc cyanobacleria, a gIob of gray goo. I squish il belveen my fingers and
lhink of lhe geIIed conlenls of a discarded ice ack. RoIIing il around, I discover,
vhoos, a IillIe vriggIing vorm. Gray goo is a aradise lo some of earlh's crealures, bul
I lend lo areciale somelhing more organised. On lhe same driing rock, I find an
inlricaleIy branched Iichen, cIear and gray Iike lhe goo, bul sarkIing Iike moulh-bIovn
gIass, deIicaleIy vroughl inlo a shae resembIing a nelvork of rivers on a ma, shrunk
dovn lo aIm-size. This IillIe lhing of beauly, caIIed |eIIy Iichen, consisls of Ncsicc
cyanobacleria loo, bul in combinalion vilh a Icpicgiun fungus vhose hyhae have Ienl
allern, slruclure and slabiIily lo lhe rav holosynlhesising over of lhe cyanobacleria.
The form emerges from lhe reIalionshi belveen lhe fungus and lhe cyanobacleria.
This reIalionshi forms lhe Iichen, Iichen is embodied reIalionshi.
AIong lhe alh, anolher Ncsicc-conlaining Iichen, caIIed Ic|aria pu|ncnaria, or
lree Iungvorl, adorns lhe oId-grovlh lrees. This dark green, Ieaf-shaed Iichen vas
lhoughl in medievaI limes lo cure uImonary diseases because ils illed surface
resembIes a human Iung. Ic|aria had lhe dislincl honour of being one of lhe firsl Iichens
lo aear in rinled iIIuslralions for earIy herbaI books, such as lhe Orius Saniiaius (1491)
and lhe herbaI by L'ObeI (1576). Il is a lriarlile Iichen, conlaining aII lhree: fungus,
cyanobacleria and aIga. AIlhough ve knov loday lhal Ic|aria does nol cure Iung
robIems, il does share somelhing in common vilh human Iungs: lhe need for ure air.
Ic|aria Iives onIy in unoIIuled regions (Iigure 1).
A Iichen is a fineIy luned communily vorking logelher for lhe benefil of lhe
vhoIe. Whal lhe fungus Iacks lhe abiIily lo roduce food for ilseIf an aIga or
cyanobaclerium (or somelimes bolh) rovides. The Ialler lvo are remarkabIe chefs, abIe
lo cook u a fine meaI oul of mere sunIighl and reare a feasl fil for lhe vhoIe Iichen.
In lurn, lhal vhich lhe cyanobaclerium and lhe aIga Iack, lhe fungus rovides. Wilhoul
fungi, some of lhese, such as Ncsicc, exisl as formIess gIobs of geI. Olhers, vilhoul lheir
fungi, are found nol lo exisl al aII. Trc|cuxia, lhe mosl common holobionl in Iichen, has
never been observed oulside of Iichen in nalure. Whal lhe fungus rovides, lhen, is a
Iace lo Iive, a dveIIing, a residence. Iorm. Organisalion. Home.

Anna Maria jcnnscn an! jcnn Vi||c||a, |n Praisc cj Iicncns

104

<'21%) 6= Ic|aria crcgana al OaI Creek Ancienl Ioresl Cenler

An ecosyslem in minialure, Iichen is comosed of many differenl Iiving secies,
aII Iaying lheir arl lo suorl lhe coIony: fungus, green aIga and/or cyanobaclerium,
vilh accomanying arasilic fungi and symbiolic bacleria. Lichen is an inlimale
symbiosis belveen severaI discrele organisms individuaIIy knovn as bionls, each arl
erforming a unique and essenliaI funclion. In coIIaboralion, in an ongoing
conversalion, lhe coIIeclive erforms ils funclions: holosynlhesis, moislure reguIalion,
nulrienl cycIing, seIf-organisalion.
Lichens are aII around, aIvays resenl, yel bareIy noliced even as lhey sIovIy
obIilerale lhe Iandscae's surfaces. Look cIoseIy al nearIy anylhing oulside rocks, lree
lrunks and branches, slone and vooden buiIdings, sidevaIks, slained gIass vindovs,
graveslones, abandoned cars, |unkyard scras and you viII see lhe sublIe forms of
Iichens, oflen in lvo-dimensionaI aIe orbs, or irreguIar dusky alches. In Iaces vilh
imeccabIe air quaIily, macro-Iichens grov in lhree-dimensionaI shaes Iike Ieaves
(Iigure 1), urighl slaIks (Iigure 2), hairy fesloons (Iigure 3), or in aIm-sized shrubby
slruclures (Iigure 4).

<'21%) 9= C|a!cnia grovs in urighl slaIks

105
AII fungi are helerolrohic organisms. Like human beings and olher animaIs,
lhey cannol roduce lheir ovn food and inslead musl exlracl il from lheir surroundings.
Lichenised fungi have found a cIever vay lo derive nulrienls by arlnering vilh a
singIe-ceIIed holosynlhelic arlner knovn as a holobionl. Iholobionls can be green
aIgae or holosynlhelic cyanobacleria, vhich bolh rovide carbon lo lhe fungus. The
cyanobacleria aIso rovide nilrogen. AIlhough lhere are nol as many holobionls
comared lo lhe number of mycobionls (fungi), lhey do form geograhicaIIy dislincl
cIades, anaIogous lo a variely of corn or vheal lhal has been deveIoed for a arlicuIar
cIimale regime. This unique Iichenised arlnershi has aIIoved bolh fungi and aIgae lo
exisl in microcIimales lhal vouId be inhosilabIe lo eilher of lhem on lheir ovn vilh
exlreme lemeralures, exlreme fIuclualions in moislure, and in some cases, exlreme
loxins. Lichens lhrive on rock surfaces from Anlarclica lo lhe Sahara. In lemerale
cIimales lhey range from lhe lo of lhe soiI lo lhe lo of lhe laIIesl lree. There are even
Iichens lhal can grov in lhe moulhs of aclive voIcanoes, lhese brighl orange crusls have
adaled lo oIIuled urban environmenls such as oslon, Massachusells.
Lichens have been under-arecialed, and misunderslood. The Greek vord
|icncn means varl, or erulion, and vas used lo describe grovlhs of various kinds
found on lrees and on skin. Iven lhe venerabIe CaroIus Linnaeus, vho crealed lhe
binomiaI syslem, caIIed Iichens lhe rusiici paupcrrini, lhe oor lrash of vegelalion,
4

and Iumed lhem aII inlo one genus, aIlhough IichenoIogisls have nov described over
10,000 secies in severaI hundred genera.
This is nol lo say lhal Iichens have gone enlireIy unnoliced aII lhis lime.
HisloricaIIy, various cuIlures have used Iichens as food, and for making cIolhing,
naluraI dyes, erfume, soas, deodoranls, medicines and hoIiday decoralions. In
Iuroe, cerlain Iichens vere used lo kiII voIves and, in Igyl, Iichens vere invoIved in
lhe embaIming rocess.

<'21%) ;= Tvig communily incIuding Vu|pici!a cana!cnsis, Icinaria tu|pina and Nc!c|rqcria

Once I began nolicing lhese IillIe consorliums of organisms, I vondered hov I
had never seen lhem before. Iaying more allenlion vhen I vaIk, I nov observe bils of
Iichen quielIy Iiving on nearIy every sidevaIk, aImosl imercelibIy breaking dovn lhe
concrele inlo food vilh ils melaboIic rocesses. SIovIy il grovs oulvard from lhe iniliaI
coIonisalion oinl lo cover inches over a hundred years. Mosl IikeIy, a Iucky fungaI
sore hilchhiking on lhe shoe soIe of some unsusecling edeslrian vas disIodged in
lhe roximily of a once free-Iiving aIgaI ceII. Their marriage Iong ago forms lhe Iichen
coIony lhal endures, nov quielIy lurning sidevaIk inlo soiI.

106
As I vaIk in lhe Cascade-Siskiyou NalionaI Monumenl of soulhern Oregon, I
nolice slray cIums of Iichen on lhe grass aIong lhe creek, erhas bIovn from lhe
nearby |uniers and onderosa ines. MoslIy voIf Iichen, bul a fev olher, aIer
macroIichen secies as veII, in shaes Iike minialure kaIe. Vu|pici!a cana!cnsis, caIIed by
some brovn-eyed sunshine (Iigure 4). Their brighl yeIIov-green coIour indicales lhe
resence of vuIinic acid.

<'21%) >= Vu|pici!a cana!cnsis

If valching grass grov is loo fasl-aced an aclivily, one mighl lry valching
Iichens grov, referabIy under a hand Iens. Here, a rock covered vilh a scabby crusl of
many varielies: ash-vhile fIaky Iichen Iike lhe cryslaIs kids grov al home on charcoaI
bricks, brighl orange-yeIIov-green, bIack, gray, brovn, moss green. AIso some
bIackened moss, Iooking as if il had been burned, bul lhis is hov moss somelimes Iooks
in vinler, desiccaled and hoeIess. Tiny sorohyles slick u from lhe gray-bIack moss,
lheir resence a reminder lhal Iife conlinues.
U sIoe, I find an aged, gnarIed |unier adorned vilh many kinds of Iichen as
if il has been decked oul for Chrislmas. Abundanl lufls of oison green voIf Iichen, and
brovn, hairy slrands of Brqcria, Iike somelhing svel u from benealh a barber's chair,
adorn some of ils branches, vhiIe olher Iimbs, bare and vealher-vhilened, aear
sliIed vilh brick red dols, decoraled vilh lrace amounls of lhal orange-yeIIov
scabby-Iooking Iichen oflen found on rocks. Uon cIoser observalion, I see lhal lhe red
dols are groving as arl of a greyish-vhile, veIvely crusl Iichen. There is aIso a aIe
green kind of branching Iichen, in lufls lhe size of lhe voIf Iichen, bul vilh sIighlIy
vider, fIaller branches.
I see creneIIaled Iichen vilh a grey-vhile uer side and a bIack-brovn
underside: bone Iichen. There is gracefuI, aIe green Usnca cascading over branches Iike
a grandmolher's Iace shavI over her arms, and lufls of brovn coyole's hair. I have read
lhal lhis Brqcria is edibIe, SaIish oraI hislory exIains lhal il came from lhe lricksler
Coyole vho, vhiIe hunling svans, somehov gol his hair langIed in lree branches. He
cul himseIf free, decIaring, May my hair nol go lo vasle, Iel il serve my eoIe as food
in limes of scarcily.
5
Since lhen, some SaIish eoIes have ealen lhe bIack-brovn hair-
Iike Iichen, caIIed ui|a, as a normaI arl of lhe diel. IxIorer David DougIas, in 1826,

107
recorded lhe melhod by vhich a Sokane voman reared lree Iichen cakes: firsl,
soaking lhe Iichen in coId valer unliI sofl, lhen baking overnighl in an earlh oven. Nexl
morning, lhey shaed lhe slicky goo inlo cakes. According lo DougIas' |ournaI, eoIe
he mel frequenlIy venl on Iichen-galhering forays in lheir carved canoes.
6

I am nol aboul lo conslrucl an earlh oven and bake Iichens inlo goo, bul I vouId
Iike lhe reassurance lhal I couId survive if Iosl in lhe voods for a fev days, so I ick a
smaII Iock of Iichen lo lasle. AIlhough il is hair-Iike in shae, lhe lexlure is brillIe, so il is
ossibIe lo bile off a smaII iece and chev il. I lhink of dried corn siIk. I am surrised al
lhe IeasanlIy cris lexlure. The lasle ilseIf is nol bad, somelhing Iike lhe mineraI
fIavour of rainvaler, bul slronger. I couId eal lhis if I vere slarving. Good lo knov.
Thank you, Coyole.
I muse a momenl on vhal il vouId be Iike lo have Iess food in reserve lhan
vhal I am accuslomed lo. Whal vouId il be Iike lo knov lhal if lhe nexl hunling
exedilion vere nol successfuI, ve vouId be forced lo resorl lo foraging and earlh
ovens` orn an American in lhe Iale 1970s, I bIilheIy reIy on grocery slores and gianl
varehouses, slock monlhs' vorlh of canned goods vhen lhey are on saIe bul never
vorry if I run oul, kee a fev veeks' vorlh of vegelabIes in a freezer. Sludying edibIe
viId Ianls is a mark of my eccenlricily, never a maller of survivaI. My 1980s chiIdhood
vas senl in lhe cornfieIds and hog Iols of Iova, vhere food is grovn on a nalionaI
scaIe, nol a bioregionaI one. In Iova, one of lhe mosl dramalicaIIy aIlered ecosyslems on
lhe Ianel, fev of ils once-IenlifuI Iichens remain.
Lichens, incIuding lhe Brqcria I nibbIed |usl nov, are indicalors of oIIulion,
arlIy because lhey relain lhe chemicaI comounds resenl in oIIuled air Iead,
mercury, cadmium and so forlh al a much higher concenlralion lhan olher Iife forms
can lyicaIIy suslain. Lichens are aIso abIe lo absorb aslonishing amounls of radioaclive
isoloes, such as slronlium-90 and cesium-137. A 1965 sludy reveaIed lhal lhe bodies of
Arclic eoIe had much higher concenlralions of lhese isoloes lhan any olher eoIe
grou because lhey ale lhe caribou lhal ale lhe Iichen lhal ale lhe radialion from nucIear
lesling lhal had been revaIenl rior lo lhal lime. This smaII amounl of Iichen I have
ingesled, I leII myseIf, is nol enough lo harm, bul I vouId beller nol make vhoIe meaIs
of il. Save il for lhe fIying squirreIs, vho use il as bolh nesling maleriaI and anlry
rovision.
There are seciaIised fungi lhal Iive onIy on secific Iichens: IichenicoIous fungi,
a IoveIy and fun vord lo say (Iichen-nickeI-us). Some are benign, vhiIe olhers are
arasilic lo lheir Iichen hosls, sucking nulrienls unliI lhe hosl dies. Whalever lheir effecl,
lhe vasl ma|orily of lhe IichenicoIous secies are obIigales vilh lheir Iichen, vhich
means lhey are found novhere eIse in nalure.
Lel us imagine vhal lhis is Iike. Think of an oId married couIe, |oined five
decades or more, lhe sorl of couIe vho, if one dies, lhe olher is sure vilhin lhree
monlhs lo die aIso or eIse sviflIy remarry. Once I heard a minisler cheerfuIIy ronounce
a nevIy vedded couIe, Nov you no Ionger indeendenl, bul co-deendenl! This
minisler robabIy meanl lo say inlerdeendenl, bul in lhe case ve are imagining nov,
lhis oId, married, Iichenised couIe, il is lruIy a case of co-deendence, one of lhem is
unabIe lo even make loasl, vhiIe lhe olher arlner's aclivilies vouId dvindIe avay lo
nolhing vilhoul lhe firsl's rodding demands. Today il is common lo disarage such a
marriage, lo erhas urge each member lo lry lheray in order lo become more seIf-
acluaIised and indeendenl, bul in lhis Iichenised marriage, Iel us simIy observe lhem
for vhal lhey are, vilh a measure of humiIily.
Imagine lhal lhe somevhal dominaling oId man is lhe fungus, and lhe elernaIIy
kilchen-bound oId Iady is lhe aIga.

108
Nov enlers a slray erson vho comes lo Iive al lheir house and benefil from
lheir hosilaIily. Irelend lhal inlerIoer is you, a lye of IichenicoIous fungi. Ierhas
you mov lheir Iavn for lhem and drive lhem lo lheir medicaI aoinlmenls, bul moslIy
you en|oy lhe home-baked cookies and lhe free cabIe leIevision. Deending on vhal
lye of fungus you are, erhas you even go so far as lo eal lhem oul of house and
home. (I am nol here lo |udge.) ul for lhe sake of reserving lhe comacl belveen
aulhor and reader, ve shaII assume you are nol inai sorl of fungus, bul ralher lhe sorl
lhal eals |usl vhal lhe oId couIe can afford lo sare, lhen kindIy vashes lhe dishes
aflervard. Resl assured, you vouId nol find such an easy arrangemenl eIsevhere, so
you are obIiged lo slay. Thal is hov you earn lhe lilIe, obIigale IichenicoIous fungus.
There are lhose vho accuse human beings of becoming a arasile lo our hosl
Ianel, Iike a arasilic IichenicoIous fungus, bul I hoId oul hoe lhal ve mighl adal lo
be lhe sorl of IichenicoIous fungi lhal does nol harm our hosl. ecause ve cannol
erform holosynlhesis ourseIves, ve musl derive our nulrienls from somevhere, bul
ve can slrive lo be obIigale IichenicoIous fungi vilhoul being arasilic.
If I die firsl, I say lo my comanion, do nol Iel me be embaImed. Lel me be
cIaimed inslead by lhe earlh, by bacleria, by Iichen, by fungi. Lel my body nourish
anolher round of Iife, Iel me Ieave no lrace. Icatc nc iracc: lhe credo of good viIderness
backackers. ul uon furlher refIeclion, I recognise lhal lhe manlra, Ieave no lrace, is
counler lo lhe generaI human lendency lo vish lo make a mark on hislory, lo Ieave a
Iegacy. I may say I vish lo Ieave no lrace, lo fade back inlo lhe naluraI rogression of
ceIIs being recycIed inlo olher organisms, bul vilh every vord I record in my nolebook,
my aclions embody lhe oosile senlimenl: I make marks, creale form. Words are lhe
lraces I Ieave. Iorm resisls formIessness, my ovn form is no excelion. The Ncsicc
baclerium, once Iichenised, does nol readiIy |um shi and relurn lo goo. The Iifesan
of Iichenised Ncsicc is much grealer lhan lhal of ils free-Iiving counlerarls. (SimiIarIy,
slalislicaIIy-seaking, lhe Iifesan of married eoIe is grealer lhan lhal of free-Iiving
singIes.) Sharing Ianguage is a Iegacy I vanl lo Ieave behind. Sharing a Iove for Iichens
is anolher.
Grapnis scripia, lhe scril Iichen, aears vhile vilh bIack markings as if made
by enciI in an obscure Ianguage. There are olher marks I make, vords lhal I carve, if
nol on a lomb, lhen on arlicuIar human hearls. One vay or anolher, I Ieave lraces on
lhese eoIe vho share my Iife. WIII AND MOTHIR or HUSAND AND IATHIR,
for inslance: vords I deem vorlhvhiIe lo inscribe. The hrase caIIs lo my mind a
headslone, vhich Ieads my lhoughls back lo Iichen, since headslones become subslrales
for many Iichens. This is convenienl for Iichenomelry, lhe science of caIcuIaling age by
lhe grovlh rales of Iichens: lhe daled headslones rovide a reIiabIe marker. Does aII
dealh Iead inevilabIy back lo Iichen, lo fungi, one vay or anolher`
A suile of Iichens grovs on oId bones. During medievaI limes, Iichens grovn on
human skuIIs vere used in medicine and vere vorlh lheir veighl in goId. Igylians
used a lye of Iichen, Pscu!ctcrnia jurjuracca, lo ack inside dead bodies during lhe
embaIming rocess. Ils absorbenl and anlibiolic roerlies vere bolh aids lo
reservalion. In Arclic lundra, bone and anlIers ersisl for many years, accumuIaling
Iichen over lime.
Lichens survive in many condilions ve vouId find difficuIl. When dry, Iichens
can hibernale", or remain in a slale of susended animalion, lhrough exlreme
lemeralures bolh high and Iov. Then, vhen re-velled, lhey ick u vhere lhey Iefl off,
holosynlhesising and melaboIising. They loIerale high concenlralions of heavy melaIs,
mineraIs and even radialion. ul lhey have lheir Iimils: suIhur dioxide and olher
oIIulanls have lransformed some urban areas inlo virluaI Iichen deserls, Iaces vhere
onIy a fev seciaIIy adaled Iichen secies lhrive. None of lhe Iarge, Ieaf-shaed foIiose

109
secies or drooing frulicose Iichens lhal fesloon oId-grovlh foresl branches can
vilhsland mosl urban environmenls. This is a Ioss, aeslhelicaIIy as veII as bioIogicaIIy.
Deserl soiIs, Iike lhose found in arid arls of AuslraIia and Norlh America, bear
a hard crusl of Iichen communilies, rolecling againsl run-off and erosion in areas
vhere fev rooled Ianls survive. When damaged, lhe crusl requires hundreds of years
lo grov back. Iioneer vagon lrains, vhen assing vesl across Norlh America, vore
ruls in lhis bioIogicaI soiI crusl sliII visibIe loday. IcoIogicaI havoc in slraighl, araIIeI
Iines. Tvin lracks of microscoic ecoIogicaI aocaIyse.
Near a creek, I sravI on a bank, my bIack rubber bools dangIing, and Iean back,
back, slraining my focus u asl lhe lis of onderosa ines, slraighl u inlo bIue sky,
lexlured vilh slrialions of cIouds in lhe shae of lyre lracks. Smack in lhe middIe of my
viev, a Iane conlraiI mars lhe sky Iike a scar. CIouds are, afler lhe creek valer, lhe
faslesl lhings here. I valch cIouds drifl unliI lhe scar breaks aarl, and Ieaves no lrace. I
am fiIIed vilh hoe lhal, given lime and enough revoIulions of lhe earlh, olher human-
made scars viII shifl, heaI, fade. Iioneer lracks, cIearculs. Il viII lake Iols of lime. ul
geoIogy and IichenoIogy, loo reveaI nolhing if nol lhe facl lhal lime is indeed
abundanl. Arclic environmenls incIude Iichens eslimaled lo be 4,000 years oId. The
Iichen reIalionshi ilseIf, lhal symbiosis of fungus and holobionl, is ancienl, much
more ancienl lhan us. Lichens some, lhough nol aII viII sureIy oulIive our ovn
secies' reign on earlh. I find lhis a comforl.
David Richardson vriles in Vanisning Iicncns, lhe recIining figure by Henry
Moore in lhe gardens of Darlinglon HaII, Devon, IngIand, is a fascinaling sludy of
ecoIogicaI niches. The head and knee of lhe slalue are covered by a dislinclive nilrogen-
Ioving communily of Iichens lhal grov because lhese arls are used as erches by viId
birds vhich deosil quanlilies of droings. In addilion, severaI secies requiring
moislure are lo be found in lhe dam armil, vhiIe lhe day-shaded back of lhe slalue
exhibils a lhird communily of Iichens.
7

Cross lhe creek, cIimb a slee sIoe u lo a rock ridge Iike a slone relaining vaII,
formed by naluraIIy occurring voIcanic rock. On lo of lhis rock sine, I ause lo
examine vhal grovs on il: a sring green Iichen lhal grovs in mounds as if imilaling
moss is dolled in bIack India ink, a minl green fungus in lhe shae of liny Ieaves is
inlersersed vilh beige bubbIes, a ully-coIored alch is fIecked vilh bIue-grey, brovns
Iike chocoIale, mocha, carameI, coffee. A fIaky gray alch sIoughs off al lhe meresl
fingernaiI scralch. Iack crusl, malle and faded, conlrasls vilh vivid, dark orange-
yeIIov Iike encauslic ainl. Shades of gray fiII lhe emly saces so lhal I do nol beIieve I
delecl lhe acluaI rock surface visibIe anyvhere.
These cruslose Iichens (Iigure 5), groving allached lo lhe surface on vhich lhey
are found, require secific condilions, bul given enough lime viII coIonise aImosl
anylhing. Ior inslance, cruslose Iichens have been found groving on lhe surface of
medievaI slained gIass, sIovIy illing lhe bIues and reds of calhedraI Iighl. There are
cruslose Iichens lhal grov on nevIy exosed rock vhere gIaciers relreal. The grovlh
rales and size aIIov scienlisls lo caIcuIale lhe aroximale age of lhe gIaciers. David
Richardson vriles, vhiIe in mosl cases a freshIy exosed rock surface is comIeleIy
covered vilh a mosaic of Iichen lhaIIi afler 100-300 years, lhe Iargesl lhaIIi in lhe mosaic
conlinue lo grov al a sleady rale reIacing and oulgroving smaIIer lhaIIi. Hov lhis
comes aboul has nol been salisfacloriIy exIained.
8
I Iove an admission such as lhis,
vhen knovIedge faIIs avay in deference lo myslery, lo vonder.


110

<'21%) ?= Rock dveIIing secies incIuding Iccancra and Xanincria

Lichen serves vilaI roIes lo animaIs olher lhan ourseIves, lhough erhas ve
knov onIy a smaII degree of lhe exlenl. In addilion lo making lhe erfecl nesling
maleriaI for goIden Iovers and many hummingbirds, comIele vilh anlibiolic
roerlies lo aid lhe offsring, Iichens make fine camoufIage (Iigure 6). In Nev Guinea,
gianl lree beelIes grov a kind of Iichen on lheir backs, lhey are Iike lhe vaIking-shrub
disguises deicled in carloons. (MaIe GaIaagos lorloises grov Iichen on arl of lheir
sheIIs, aIso, lhough lhey are hardIy in ccgniic.) A veeviI in Nev Guinea dresses ilseIf in
Ieaf Iiller and lhe soredia of Iichens, so lhal il resembIes a Iichen vaIking aboul on sliIls.
Iighleenlh cenlury Scolsmen vore vooI cIolhing dyed in crollIe, a lye of Iichen, vhich
roduced a rich goIden-brovn lhal bIended in vilh lhe healher and bracken on lhe
ground. Laceving Iarvae and Iong-laiIed siIky fIycalchers in Cosla Rica and in veslern
Ianama seciaIise in Iichen-made camoufIage for lhemseIves or for lheir nesls. The Ioss
of any one comonenl couId resuIl in calaslrohe vilh a domino effecl for lhe various
ecoIogicaI vebs lhese animaIs reside in aIlhough lhe Scolsmen seem lo have adaled.

<'21%) @= Long-loed SaIamander and Can!c||aria

Lichenisalion makes a vorlhy melahor for human civiIisalion. ComIex
socielies deveIo under a division of Iabour: you be lhe buiIders, you be lhe farmers.

111
GreleI IhrIich, in Tnis Cc|! Hcatcn, quoles an unnamed arclic bioIogisl as saying: A
Iichen is a fungus lhal grovs ils vegelabIes inside ilseIf.
9
This slalemenl araIIeIs one
by IichenoIogisl Trevor Govard: Lichen are fungi lhal have discovered agricuIlure.
10

Over a decade Ialer, Govard nov beIieves his former viev is overIy reduclionisl,
reducing lhe fungi lo farmers and lhe aIgae lo domeslicaled cros or Iiveslock vhen in
reaIily, lhe reIalionshi is more Iike a vhoIe feedback syslem, or cybernelics. Inslead of
lhinking of Iichens excIusiveIy in lerms of lheir arls, he nov lhinks of Iichens as a
vhoIe as being emergenl, a nev organism buiIl of smaIIer organisms, somevhal Iike
human beings vho are individuaIs even lhough nine oul of every len ceIIs inside of us
are bacleria. Ierhas ve are more akin lo lhe oor lrash of vegelalion lhan Linnaeus
vouId have Iiked lo beIieve.
If conlemorary human beings had a differenl erseclive, erhas ve vouId
be buiIding lemIes vhere ve vouId assembIe lo conlemIale and exress gralilude lo
lhe microorganisms fungi, cyanobacleria, aIgae, bacleria running lhe ecosyslems lhal
ve deend on for Iife. Ierhas ve vouId moulh lhank you every lime ve cIolhed
ourseIves in Iichen or Iichen-dyed garmenls, each lime ve ale Iichen baked inlo bread,
vhenever ve look il in linclure lo heaI us, or vhiIe acking il inlo lhe bodiIy remains of
our dead.
On our vaIks, vhelher lhrough urban-scaes or foresled hiIIs, Iel us nolice lhe
Iichens, free-Iiving fungi and aIgae, conlemIale lhe secrel bacleria, and brealhe a IillIe
deeer, knoving lhal lhe earlh is doing vhal she can lo cIean our air, lo absorb our
oIIulion and radialion, lo heaI us from ourseIves, lo leach us lhe vay of symbiosis.
WhiIe ve nov knov lhal lhe Ic|aria Iichen, aIlhough shaed Iike our Iungs, viII nol
cure uImonary disease vhen ingesled (as lhe medievaI doclrine of signalures
cIaimed), ve do veII lo remember lhal ils fale is inexlricabIy Iinked lo our ovn, for ve
are more simiIar lo IichenicoIous fungi lhan ve dreamed.

A*B)(
1. Anna Maria }ohnson is a vriler and visuaI arlisl.
2. }ohn ViIIeIIa is a IichenoIogisl from soulhern Oregon vho conducls Ianl surveys lhroughoul
lhe Iacific Norlhvesl of America.
3. AIlhough lhe aulhors are lvo individuaIs, ve've chosen lo vrile in one voice vilhoul
dislinguishing belveen us, in imilalion of Iichen vhose fungaI, aIgaI, and/or cyanobacleriaI
comonenls are difficuIl lo searale oul. Through lhis oIyvocaIily, ve inlend lhal
lhe form of lhis essay foIIov ils conlenl.
4. D. M. Richardson (1975), Vanisning Iicncns. Tncir Hisicrq, Bic|cgq an! |npcriancc, Hafner Iress,
RoyaI Oak, Michigan.
5. N. Turner (2005), Tnc |arins B|ankci. Tra!iiicna| Tcacnings jcr Susiaina||c Iiting, DougIas &
McInlyre Lld., Vancouver, . 62, quoling Mourning Dove's 1933 book of Okanagan-CoIviIIe
slories.
6. }. Nisbel (2009), Tnc Cc||ccicr. Oati! Ocug|as an! inc Naiura| Hisicrq cj inc Ncrinucsi, Sasqualch
ooks, SeallIe.
7. D. M. Richardson (1975).
8. Ibid.
9. G. IhrIich (2001), Tnis Cc|! Hcatcn, Ianlheon ooks, Nev York, . 104.
10. T. Govard (2008), TveIve Readings of lhe Lichen ThaIIus: I. Iace in lhe Mirror, |tansia voI.
25(2), . 23-25.

Iholo credils: Sleven David }ohnson
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112

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7$.+,5#8.&,$
We aII knov lhal Ianls are lhe "over slalions" of lhe naluraI vorId lhey fix
energy from sunIighl vhich fueIs mosl olher organisms incIuding us. Whal many
eoIe do nol reaIise is lhal fungi are equaIIy imorlanl, and lhal vilhoul lhem lhe
Ianls and, hence, lhe ecosyslems of our Ianel vouId nol vork. If number of secies is
anylhing lo go by lhen vilh an eslimaled five miIIion, fungi are significanl. Ior
comarison lhere are eslimaled lo be u lo 400,000 secies of fIovering Ianls, 11,000
secies of ferns and 12,000 secies of moss.
There is a lendency for eoIe lo lhink of fungi onIy as organisms lhal kiII our
Ianls, rol our food and even have lhe lemerily lo grov on us and somelimes kiII us,
erhas aIso somelimes remembering lhal some are good lo eal. CerlainIy, fungaI
diseases do cause annuaI cro Iosses of around US$ 140 biIIion vorIdvide, and Iosses of
ma|or cros can somelimes be over 50 ercenl. Cro Iosses do nol slo lhere. SoiIage in
slorage somelimes accounls for as much as a furlher 2530 ercenl Ioss. Iungi aIso grov
on animaIs, incIuding humans. WhiIe many infeclions are suerficiaI, irrilaling and
inconvenienl, such as alhIele's fool and vaginaI and oraI lhrush, and can be reIaliveIy
easiIy conlroIIed, il is a differenl slory vhen lhey coIonise dee vilhin our bodies.
WorIdvide, aboul lvo miIIion eoIe die from fungaI infeclions annuaIIy, arlicuIarIy
if lhe alienls have immune syslems lhal are aIready comromised, for examIe, lhose
suffering from AIDS or surgicaI lrauma, or undergoing cancer lheray or organ
lransIanls. Some animaI secies have even been driven lo exlinclion by morlaIily
resuIling from fungaI infeclion incIuding al Ieasl lhree secies of frog: lhe AuslraIian
gaslric brooding frog (:&5);2/42.&3* s.), lhe Ianamanian goIden frog ("/5()+3* <5/5=')
and lhe shar-snouled day frog (>23?2./,(3* 2.3/'4)*/4'*) kiIIed by lhe chylrid
@2/42.&).&,/4'31 ?5A?4);2/'?'* (commonIy knovn as d).
2

My firsl encounler vilh fungi vas on lhe negalive side, al Ieasl from a human
erseclive. I vas an undergraduale Iiving vilh olher sludenls in renled
accommodalion in lhe basemenl of a house al lhe end of a Georgian lerrace. One day I
lried lo oen a vooden draver and onIy succeeded by aIying considerabIe force. The
draver had become allached lo lhe back of lhe unil by a fungus. In facl, lhe unil vas
allached lo lhe vaII by a fungus. We discovered, in a cuboard under lhe slairs, a vafl
of fungaI lissue occuying haIf a cubic melre. Laler fungaI brackels emerged and
roduced miIIions of rusl coIoured sores. Il vas lhe dreaded dry rol fungus B54+3(2
(2.4'12A*, vhich has lhe abiIily lo grov lhrough Iasler, concrele and brickvork,
lransIocaling valer and nulrienls so lhal il can grov from dam regions inlo dryC I nov
D,AA5 @)??,- E3AF' G /&5 3A*3AF &54)5* )H /&5 +(2A5/

113
vonder vhelher il grev inlo lhe olher houses in lhe Georgian lerrace. Il is difficuIl and
exensive lo eradicale bul, of course, I onIy Iearned aII of lhis much Ialer. My firsl
formaI encounler vilh fungi, and lhe beginning of my arecialion of lheir uniqueness
and imorlance, look Iace during a soiI ecoIogy course al aboul lhe same lime. This
dry rol fungus vas nol menlioned since il does nol grov oulside of buiIdings in mosl
arls of lhe vorId.

9(1. 1+) -#$%& 1$5 :(3 1+) .()3 &;/,+.1$.<
efore exIaining vhy fungi are cruciaI lo lhe funclioning of Iarlh's ecosyslems,
il is vorlh considering vhal a fungus is.
3
The image lhal oflen srings lo mind firsl is
lhal of a mushroom or loadslooI (lhe vords are inlerchangeabIe in meaning). Hovever,
a mushroom is simIy lhe sexuaI reroduclive slruclure of one ma|or grouing of fungi
asidiomycola, vhich aear fairIy infrequenlIy in lhe Iife of a fungus. Il is equivaIenl
lo lhe fIovers or fruils of fIovering Ianls. Though some fungi exisl as singIe ceIIs (e.g.,
yeasls), lhe main body of mosl fungi is lhe myceIium (Iigure 1). This slruclure
comrises an inlerconnecled nelvork of fine fiIamenls (or lubes lermed hyhae), vhich
grov from lheir lis, and feed on lhe organic maller in vhich or uon vhich lhey are
groving. They feed by exuding enzymes lhal break dovn (digesl) Iarge moIecuIes inlo
smaII ones lhal lhey can absorb lhrough lhe vaIIs and membranes surrounding lheir
hyhae. Taken as a vhoIe, kingdom Iungi can robabIy breakdovn aII naluraIIy
roduced organic moIecuIes, lhough individuaI secies have narrover abiIilies. Il is lhis
vasl enzymalic abiIily and fiIamenlous body form, aIIoving fungi lo enelrale inlo
buIky ob|ecls, vhich make fungi so imorlanl in lhe naluraI vorId. Iungi oblain lheir
nulrilion in lhree main, bul nol muluaIIy excIusive, vays: firslIy, by feeding on lhe
remains of dead Ianls, animaIs and olher organisms lermed sarolrohy, secondIy,
by kiIIing ceIIs and lissues and lhen feeding on lhem necrolrohy, and, lhirdIy, from
Iiving ceIIs biolrohy. Il is lhe necrolrohs and biolrohic arasiles lhal give lhe
suerficiaI imression lhal fungi are bad nevs for humans.

"&%#+) 6= IungaI myceIium. IungaI hyhae are microscoic, bul in some fungi hyhae aggregale
logelher lo form Iarger myceIiaI slruclures visibIe lo lhe naked eye. Here myceIium of lhe
slinkhorn fungus (!&2((3* '1+3?'.3*) is groving from a vood bIock (sides 2 cm) across lhe surface
of soiI from a voodIand. AIaa AIavi
!"#$ !&'()*)+&,- "./'0'*1- #2/345 67- 8769
114
The sarolrohic fungi are lhe Ianel's ma|or recycIers lhe garbage disosaI
agenls of lhe naluraI vorId.
4
The significance of lhese fungi is immedialeIy cIear, vhen
you consider lhal 150 biIIion lonnes of organic maller are roduced each year in foresl
ecosyslems vorIdvide.
5
Mosl of lhis organic maller is IignoceIIuIose, vhich comrises
comIex, recaIcilranl moIecuIes lhal can onIy be broken dovn by a narrov range of
seciaIisl basidiomycele and xyIariaceous ascomycele fungi.
6
Il is nol |usl lhal ve vouId
be u lo our roverbiaI armils in dead organic maller if il vere nol for decomoser
fungi. "Locked u" in lhis dead organic maller are mineraI nulrienls, such as nilrogen
and hoshorous vhich are essenliaI for Ianl grovlh. If lhese vere nol reIeased from
dead organic maller lhe suIy of avaiIabIe mineraI nulrienls vouId run oul in a fev
years, and Ianls vouId nol be abIe lo grov. Though lhe Iarlh's almoshere conlains
aImosl 80 ercenl of nilrogen gas, il cannol be used in lhis form and lhe amounl
converled by nilrogen-fixing bacleria inlo a form lhal can be used by Ianls is
insufficienl for lheir needs. Rocks conlain insoIubIe hoshale, bul again lhis is in a
form lhal is unavaiIabIe lo mosl organisms.
Though some of lhe fungi lhal oblain nulrilion as biolrohs from Iiving ceIIs
and lissues of olher organisms are arasiles, many olhers are muluaIisls benefiling lheir
arlners as veII. Lichens are one such grou. They are inlimale associalions belveen
fungi and holosynlhelic arlners, eilher cyanobacleria or green aIgae. The basis of lhe
muluaIism is lhal lhe holosynlhelic arlner rovides carbon comounds from
holosynlhesis vhiIe lhe fungus oblains nulrienls and valer from lhe air or surface on
vhich il is groving. Lichens are among lhe mosl slress-loIeranl organisms on lhe Ianel.
WhiIe lheir roIe as fixers of carbon in mosl ecosyslems is smaII, lhey dominale in many
exlreme environmenls incIuding on rocks and in hol, dry deserls and lhe coId deserls of
Anlarclica, and aIine and arclic lundra. In lhe Ialler lhey cover vasl lracls of Iand
vhere lhey are vilhoul doubl lhe mosl imorlanl conlribulors lo holosynlhesis.
7

iolrohic fungi aIso form muluaIislic associalions vilh lhe rools of fIovering
Ianls and conifers, and vilh ferns and mosses. Such an associalion is lermed a
"mycorrhiza" from lhe Greek 1,=5* meaning fungus and 4&'<2 meaning rool. Over 90
ercenl of Ianls in nalure form lhis inlimale associalion in vhich, as vilh Iichens, lhe
holosynlhesiser rovides carbon comounds lo lhe fungus, vhiIe lhe fungus rovides
valer and mineraI nulrienls and aIso roleclion againsl soiI-borne rool alhogens.
8
AIso,
some mycorrhizaI fungi aIIov some Ianls lo coIonise loxic or oIIuled siles, and can be
used lo heI in Iand recIamalion. In lhe absence of lhe fungaI arlner, nulrienls in lhe
vicinily of rool hairs lhe absorlive arl of rool ceIIs are soon comIeleIy deIeled.
Hyhae, vhich are much more "cosl-effeclive" lo roduce, exlend beyond lhese zones of
nulrienl deIelion lo absorb nulrienls (Iigure 2). To give some idea of lhe exlenl of lhe
absorlive surface roduced by fungi, il has been eslimaled lhal lhe coIumn of soiI
benealh one square melre conlains a lolaI Ienglh of 16,000 kiIomelres of hyhae. The
fungaI arlners oflen have some sarolrohic abiIilies, and eclomycorrhizaI fungi (so
caIIed because lhey lyicaIIy form a shealh of fungaI lissue around lhe oulside of
absorlive rools, groving belveen lhe ouler Iayers of rools ceIIs bul nol vilhin lhem)
associaled vilh lrees can oflen shorl-circuil lhe nilrogen cycIe by oblaining nulrienls by
decomosing dead organic maller, vhiIe olhers (lermed arbuscuIar mycorrhizaI fungi
by dinl of lhe facl lhal lhey roduce much branched, dvarf lree-Iike slruclures for
exchange of moIecuIes vilhin Ianl ceIIs) can addilionaIIy reIease insoIubIe hoshale
from rocks.
9
ArbuscuIar mycorrhizaI associalions are lhe mosl videIy dislribuled bolh
geograhicaIIy and in lerms of hosl range, incIuding imorlanl cro secies such as
maize (I52 12,*), rice (J4,<2 *2/'02), soybean (K(,.'A5 12L) and vheal (>4'/'.31
25*/'031). IclomycorrizaI associalions are lhe nexl mosl abundanl on foresl lrees, lhen
lhe associalion vilh ericaceous Ianls. In some reIalionshis "chealers" have evoIved.
D,AA5 @)??,- E3AF' G /&5 3A*3AF &54)5* )H /&5 +(2A5/

115
Orchids, for examIe, vilh lheir minule seeds musl quickIy form a mycorrhizaI
associalion vhen lhey germinale olhervise lhey viII nol survive. IniliaIIy lhe fungaI
arlner nol onIy rovides valer and mineraI nulrienls bul aIso sugars, vhich lhey
oblain from olher sources, for examIe, as sarolrohs from vood decomosilion or
from lrees vilh vhich lhey are simuIlaneousIy mycorrhizaI. When lhe orchids slarl lo
holosynlhesise lhe normaI "sharing" reIalionshi begins. Hovever, some orchid
secies do nol roduce chIorohyII and are unabIe lo holosynlhesise, and are
effecliveIy arasiles. Olher Ianls are "chealers" in a simiIar vay, for examIe, lhe
yeIIov bird's-nesl (M)A)/4)+2 &,+)+'/,*).

"&%#+) >= MycorrhizaI associalions belveen fungi and Ianls are essenliaI lo lhe success of mosl
Ianls in lhe naluraI environmenl. The yeIIov lhreads are myceIium of a !'()?5412 secies
exlending from a lree rool. Andy TayIor
Nol onIy are mycorrhizaI fungi inlegraI lo lhe success of Ianls on Iand
novadays, bul il vas aIso fungi lhal aIIoved Ianls lo coIonise Iand 400-500 miIIion
years ago.
10
IossiIised fungi have been found vilhin ceIIs of lhe rhizomes of earIy Iand
Ianls elrified in rocks Iaid dovn 460 miIIion years ago in lhe Ordovician eriod.
These are idenlifiabIe as beIonging lo arbuscuIar mycorrhizaI fungi, and redale
vascuIar Ianls vilh rools. WhiIe Ianls evoIving in valer vouId have had IillIe
difficuIly in absorbing nulrienls from lhe soIulion in vhich lhey vere balhed, lhe move
lo Iand vouId have been hugeIy robIemalic because of exlremeIy sIov diffusion of
nulrienls lhrough soiI. Associalion vilh fiIamenlous fungi soIved lhis.
IIanls associale vilh fungi in olher vays loo. AII have symlomIess
endohyles
11
vilhin bolh lheir above-ground and beIov-ground lissues.
12
There is a
vide diversily of fungi invoIved, and lhese have differenl vays of sreading belveen
Ianls and a range of differenl funclions vilhin Ianls. Though lanlaIisingIy IillIe is yel
knovn aboul lhese reIalions, some cerlainIy confer benefils lo lhe Ianl, incIuding
herbivore delerrenls and slress loIerance. They can aIso infIuence Ianl communily
comosilion and roduclivily, and lhe redalors or arasiles of lhe grazers lhal feed
uon lhem.
13
Iungi aIso have olher roIes in soiI. In arlicuIar lhey conlribule significanlIy lo
soiI microbiaI biomass, carbon and nulrienl slorage.
14
Their hyhae and exudales
slabiIise soiI arlicIes inlo aggregales and lhey converl organic comounds inlo humus
vhich imroves soiI slruclure, and nulrienl and valer hoIding caacilies.
15
When fungi
decomose dead organic maller, effecliveIy lhey burn off carbon and hence concenlrale
mineraI nulrienls. Their myceIium and fruil bodies are, lherefore, highIy nulrilious,
!"#$ !&'()*)+&,- "./'0'*1- #2/345 67- 8769
116
much more so lhan Ianl maleriaI. Il comes as no surrise, lherefore, lhal a vide range
of inverlebrales and verlebrales feed on lhem.
16, 17
In facl, many muluaIisms have
evoIved belveen fungi and animaIs, some of lhe besl knovn being lhose vilh fungus-
gardening anls and lermiles.
18
The basis of lhe muluaIism is lhal lhe fungus breaks
dovn organic maller, and arl of lhe nulrienl rich fungus is ealen, lhe inverlebrales
bring organic maller lo lhe fungus in lhe nesl, conlroI cIimale and olenliaIIy invasive
microbes. In conlrasl, fungaI alhogens of inverlebrales can acl as naluraI bioconlroI
agenls.
19

In addilion fungi are used as or used in lhe roduclion of a vide variely of
human food. Ialing edibIe fungi and lhe reIiance on yeasl for lhe roduclion of beer,
vine and bread are obvious examIes. Less obvious is lhal Quorn, a meal subslilule, is
fungus. As veII as roviding lhe fIavour and lexlure of bIue cheeses, lhe fungaI enzyme
chymosin is nov used in mosl commerciaI cheese roduclion. Cilric acid, used in many
food roducls, incIuding mosl sofl drinks is roduced commerciaIIy by fungi. Iungi
aIso roduce imorlanl medicines, anlibiolics such as eniciIIin, being mosl obvious.
Slalins for conlroI of choIesleroI are anolher fungaI roducl.
20

'() -1*8&$1.&,$ ,- *.#53&$% -#$%&
In viev of lhe foregoing, lhe need for underslanding hov fungi funclion and
behave is seIf-evidenl. Aside from lhis, I sludy lhem because lheir behaviour is
fascinaling. The basidiomyceles, many of vhich roduce lhe famiIiar mushroom-
shaed fruil body, oerale aggressive slralegies for caluring lerrilory, vhich can be
Iikened lo varfare (Iigure 3).
21, 22
They emIoy a variely of differenl aggressive
mechanisms. Some are combalive onIy afler conlacl, erhas anaIogous lo hand-lo-
hand combal. Olhers are anlagonislic al a dislance roducing voIaliIe and diffusibIe
comounds lhal harm lheir oonenl chemicaI varfare. The overaII oulcome belveen
lvo combalive fungi can be: firslIy, deadIock, vhere neilher fungus gains lerrilory from
lhe oonenl, secondIy, reIacemenl, vhere one fungus vresls lerrilory from lhe olher,
lhirdIy, arliaI reIacemenl, vhere one of lhe fungi lakes some of lhe lerrilory of lhe
olher, bul lhen rogress ceases, erhas because lhe oonenl look a vhiIe lo assembIe
ils defences or because condilions changed aIlering "lhe baIance of over", finaIIy,
muluaI reIacemenl, vhere one fungus reIaces lhe olher in one region and lhe
oosile occurs in anolher area, akin lo lhe movemenl of cavaIry Iines in ballIes of
earIier eras. Some secies are good al allack, some al defence, some al bolh, and olhers
al neilher. They have a hierarchy of combalive abiIily in vhich, Iike in a sorls Ieague,
lhose al lhe lo usuaIIy beal lhose al lhe bollom of lhe Ieague, bul on occasions lhere are
surrises. The viclor aIso deends on cIimalic condilions and vhere lhe encounler is
laking Iace. Ior examIe, vilh some of lhe decay fungi lhal can grov oul of vood
across lhe surface of soiI, viclory againsl a secific comelilor may occur vhen lhey
meel in soiI, bul nol vhen lhey meel in vood. When a slrong combalanl meels severaI
veaker combalanls simuIlaneousIy, lhe veakesl is usuaIIy allacked firsl in lhe human
vorId lhis is lhe lyicaI behaviour of buIIies!

D,AA5 @)??,- E3AF' G /&5 3A*3AF &54)5* )H /&5 +(2A5/

117

"&%#+) ?= Iungi are aggressive combalanls. The oulcome of confronlalions can vary, for examIe
deending on lhe environmenl. The suIhur lufl fungus (N,+&)()12 H2*.'.3(245) (Iefl) is groving
from a beech (E2F3* *,(02/'.2) vood bIock (vilh sides 2 cm) across lhe surface of voodIand soiI
comressed inlo a 24 x 24 cm dish. Il has encounlered lhe myceIium of lhe slinkhorn fungus
(!&2((3* '1+3?'.3*) groving from lhe vood bIock on lhe lo righl. In lhe Iefl image, suIhur lufl
myceIium is reIacing lhal of lhe slinkhorn fungus. In lhe righl image, lhe oosile is occurring.
Those fungi lhal grov oul of resources in search of nev food sources exhibil
behaviour somevhal anaIogous lo animaIs.
23
When lhey successfuIIy Iocale a nev
resource lhe myceIium inlerconnecling lhe lvo lhickens inlo a cord-Iike slruclure, and
myceIium from areas nol successfuI in searching oul nev resources dies back, and lhe
ceIIuIar conlenls are reused (Iigure 4). These myceIia cords are "mycoIogicaI
molorvays" or, conlinuing our varfare anaIogy, are lhe suIy roules or ieIines from
lhe slorage deols lo lhe fronl. Nulrienls are raidIy lransIocaled from lhe slorage siles
lo Iocalions vhere lhey are needed, for examIe, lo enabIe lhe fungus lo make
myceIium and enzymes so lhal il can coIonise nev, unexIored lerrilory or for invasion
inlo resources aIready occuied by anolher fungus.

"&%#+) @= Iungi resond lo nev resources. !&2A54).&25/5 05(3/'A2 has grovn from a vood beech
bIock across lhe surface of voodIand soiI comressed inlo a 50 x 50 cm lray and encounlered four
uncoIonised vood bIocks al lhe comass oinls N, I, S and W. (Nole lhal lhe Iersex bIocks in
lhe corners of lhe lrays vere simIy lo suorl olher lrays in a slack). Lefl image: Ioraging
myceIium has encounlered nev resources and coIonisalion is beginning. Cenlre image: One
monlh afler encounlering nev resources lhe myceIium is beginning lo lhin oul, and cords
inlerconnecling resources are lhickening. Righl image: Tvo monlhs afler encounlering nev
resources, onIy lhick cords remain, mosl of lhem inlerconnecling vood resources. Iholos by }on
Woods.

A,$80#*&,$*
In concIusion, fungi have a muIlilude of roIes in naluraI ecosyslems. Hovever,
il is lheir roIe as nulrienl recycIers and Ianl feeders, vhich is of aramounl imorlance
lo lhe conlinued heaIlh and funclioning of naluraI ecosyslems. Wilh a vorId ouIalion
!"#$ !&'()*)+&,- "./'0'*1- #2/345 67- 8769
118
redicled lo rise from lhe currenl 6.3 biIIion lo 9 biIIion by 2050, our need for increasing
food suIies is obvious. This requires underslanding lhe roIes of fungi in ecosyslems
so lhal ve can maniuIale agricuIluraI syslems lo besl effecl, underslanding
mechanisms of fungaI sread, evoIulion and alhogenesis of Ianls is aIso essenliaI for
reduclion of cro Iosses and osl harvesl soiIage. Iurlhermore, fungi are aIso one of
lhe mosl IikeIy sources of nev anlibiolics and olher medicines.

B,.)*
1. Cardiff SchooI of ioscience, Cardiff Universily, Museum Avenue, Cardiff CI10 3AX, UK.
2. M.C. Iisher, D.A. Henk, C.}. riggs, }.S. rovnslein, L.C. Madoff, S.L. McCrav and S.}. Gurr (2012),
Imerging IungaI Threals lo AnimaI, IIanl and Icosyslem HeaIlh, #2/345- 484, . 186-194.
3. N.D. Read and L. oddy (2010), Inlroducing lhe Iungi, in L. oddy and M. CoIeman (eds.), E4)1
"A)/&54 O'AF?)1$ /&5 "12<'AF P)4(? )H E3AF', RoyaI olanic Garden Idinburgh, . 7-21.
4. L. oddy, G. Robson and N. Magan (2010), RecycIing lhe WorId, in L. oddy & M. CoIeman (eds.),
E4)1 "A)/&54 O'AF?)1$ /&5 "12<'AF P)4(? )H E3AF'), RoyaI olanic Garden Idinburgh, . 35-49.
5. }.D. Ovinglon (1965), "Organic Maller Iroduclion, Turnover and MineraI CycIing in WoodIands",
@')()F'.2( :50ievs, 40, . 295-336.
6. asidiomycele fungi and xyIariaceous ascomycele fungi are among lhe evoIulionary mosl advanced
fungi. asidiomycele fungi form macroscoic fruil bodies such as mushrooms and loadslooIs.
XyIariaceous ascomycele fungi aIso roduce macroscoic fruil bodies lhough oflen smaIIer lhan lhose of
basidiomyceles, and are oflen hard crusls or aImosl shericaI Iums.
7. G.R. Shaver and I.S. Chain III (1991), Iroduclion: iomass ReIalionshis and IIemenl CycIing in
Conlrasling Arclic Vegelalion Tye, Q.)()F'.2( M)A)F42+&*- 61, . 1-31.
8. S.I. Smilh and D.}. Read (2008), M,.)44&'<2( B,1;')*'*- 3rd edilion, Academic Iress, Amslerdam.
9. }.R. Leake, D. }ohnson, D. DonneIIy, G MuckIe, L. oddy and D.}. Read (2004), Nelvorks of Iover and
InfIuence: The RoIe of MycorrhizaI MyceIium in ConlroIIoing IIanl Communilies and Agro-Icosyslem
Iunclioning, R2A2?'2A S)34A2( )H @)/2A, 82, . 1016-1045.
10. M.I. idarlondo, D.}. Read, }.M. Trae, V. Merckx, R. Ligrone, and }.G. Duckell (2011), The Davn of
Symbiosis elveen IIanls and Iungi, @')()F, D5//54*- T, .574-577.
11. SymlomIess endohyles are microbes lhal Iive inside Ianls bul shov no obvious exlernaI effecls on lhe
lissues.
12. R.}. Rodriguez, }.I. While }r., A.I. ArnoId and R.S. Redman (2009), IungaI Indohyles: Diversily and
IunclionaI RoIes, #5U !&,/)()F'*/- 182, . 314-330.
13. A. Raman, W. WhealIey and A. Ioay (2012), Indohylic Iungus-VascuIar IIanl-Insecl Inleraclions,
QA0'4)A15A/2( QA/)1)()F,- 41(3), . 433-447.
14. K.I. CIemmensen, A. ahr, O. Ovaskainen, A. DahIberg, A. IkbIad, H. WaIIander, }. SlenIid, R.D. IinIay,
D.A. WardIe and .D. LindahI (2013), Rools and Associaled Iungi Drive Long-Term Carbon
Sequeslralion in oreaI Ioresl, B.'5A.5- 339, . 1615-1618.
15. T.C. Caesar-Tonlhal (2002), SoiI inding Iroerlies of MuciIage Iroduced by a asidiomycele Iungus in
a ModeI Syslem, M,.)()F'.2( :5*524.&- 106, . 930-937.
16. A.W. CIaridge and T.W. May (1994), Mycohagy among AuslraIian MammaIs, "3*/42('2A S)34A2( )H
Q.)()F,- 19, . 251275.
17. L. oddy and T.H. }ones (2008), Inleraclions belveen asidiomycola and Inverlebrales, in L. oddy,
}.C. IrankIand and I.}. van Wesl (eds.), Q.)()F, )H B2+4)/4)+&'. @2*'?')1,.5/5* IIsevier, Amslerdam, .
153177.
18. D.K. Aanen and }.}. oomsma (2006), SociaI-Insecl Iungus Iarming, R3445A/ @')()F, 16 R1014-R1016.
19. H.C. Ivans and L. oddy (2010), AnimaI SIayers, Saviours And SociaIisls, in L. oddy and M. CoIeman
(eds.), E4)1 "A)/&54 O'AF?)1$ /&5 "12<'AF P)4(? )H E3AF', RoyaI olanic Garden Idinburgh, . 51-65.
20. M. Wainvrighl (2010), Amazing Chemisls , in L. oddy & M. CoIeman (eds.), E4)1 "A)/&54 O'AF?)1$
/&5 "12<'AF P)4(? )H E3AF', RoyaI olanic Garden Idinburgh, . 84-91.
21. L. oddy (1993), Cord-Iorming Iungi: Warfare Slralegies and Olher IcoIogicaI Asecls, M,.)()F'.2(
:5*524.&- 97, . 641-655.
22. L. oddy (2000), Inlersecific Combalive Inleraclions elveen Wood-Decaying asidiomyceles A
Reviev, EQMB M'.4);')()F, Q.)()F,- 31, . 185-194.
23. L. oddy and T.H. }ones (2007), MyceIiaI Resonses in Helerogeneous Invironmenls: IaraIIeIs Wilh
Macroorganisms, in G. M. Gadd, S.C. Walkinson and I. Dyer (eds.), E3AF' 'A /&5 QA0'4)A15A/,
(Cambridge Universily Iress, Cambridge, . 112-140.
!"#$ !&'()*)+&,- "./'0'*1- #2/345 6)7 89- :98;

119

"#$%& '()#*+
,- &./)$+$0& (1+&++$(-

"2324 5#(6*
7

Iev naluraIisls are forlunale enough lo Iive in a Iace vhere lhey can immerse
lhemseIves in lhe sludy of lheir IifeIong assion, vhich in my case is birds.
In 1988 my arlner and I eslabIished our home in lhe middIe of a eucaIyl foresl
in cenlraI norlh Tasmania. The foresl had been Iogged by lhe revious ovner, bul ils
recovery vas remarkabIe. Our move coincided vilh lhe slarl of lhe AuslraIian ird
Counl, a ro|ecl run by irds AuslraIia (nov irdIife AuslraIia
2
) lhal caIIed on
voIunleers lo survey lhe birds in lheir area. This vas my firsl exerience of a "cilizen
science" aclivily. As veII as conlribuling dala lo a ro|ecl I considered vorlhvhiIe,
counling birds every lvo veeks for five years vas a greal vay lo Iearn more aboul
birds, lheir habils, ecoIogicaI niches and exlensive vocaI reerloires. Iurlher informalion
lhal couId infIuence lhe occurrence of birds during each survey incIuding lhe names of
fIovering Ianls or revaIence of inverlebrales vas aIso requesled and I began lo Iearn
lheir names assisled by fieId guides and my fieId naluraIisl coIIeagues.
IoIIoving lhe bird counl I allemled lo documenl aII lhe secies around home.
Some of my earIy holograhs indicale lhal I had nol comIeleIy overIooked lhe fungi
bul I did nol slarl seriousIy lo Iisl lhem unliI I embarked on anolher foray inlo a cilizen
science ro|ecl, lhis lime by conlribuling lo Iungima, AuslraIia's fungi maing
scheme.
3

The dearlh of ouIar fieId guides vhen I began my exIoralion Iefl me
comIeleIy beviIdered by lhe buckel Ioads of fungi I coIIecled every season. GraduaIIy
more resources became avaiIabIe and lheir idenlificalion, aIlhough sliII lricky, became a
IillIe easier. Hovever, il vas researching lheir ecoIogicaI roIes lhal changed my viev of
lhe vorId.
In lhe forgollen zone benealh lhe soiI's surface, fungi have a cruciaI ecoIogicaI
roIe. They exchange nulrienls vilh Ianls via lheir microscoic hyhae, and lheir
cocklaiI of overfuI enzymes heIs lo break dovn organic maleriaI and converl il lo
forms lhal can be used by olher organisms. The services of fungi heI lo ensure lhal
vegelalion communilies are more resiIienl and beller abIe lo vilhsland veed invasion
and droughl.
SeveraI sIime mouId secies are Iungima largels (i.e. arlicuIar secies being
maed) and one, <3('=) *5+/'.2- lhe evocaliveIy named dog's vomil or scrambIed
egg sIime mouId (Iigure 1) aears reguIarIy near home.
The sighl of lhree fruiling bodies one morning on Iogs 50 melres aarl gol me
vondering aboul lhe slimuIus for lheir sudden aearance. If Iearning aboul fungi
changed my viev of lhe vorId, il vas inlriguing lo Iearn lhal a sIime mouId sends
some of ils Iife as an animaI-Iike organism, and some as a fungus-Iike slruclure.

>242& ?(),@- >('15 A)3(@*

120

8$9)3& 7: Dog's vomil or scrambIed egg sIime mouId <3('=) *5+/'.2

;&$04&3 +#$%6 -(3 %()#*6
Ixcel al a cerlain slage of lheir Iives sIime mouIds are neilher sIimy nor mouIdy
or even smeIIy. Ralher, lhey have quaIilies of bolh animaIs and fungi. During lheir
lvo lrohic (feeding) slages lhe organisms Iive in lhe soiI and dead organic maller
vhere lhey move aboul lo feed in a manner akin lo animaIs, lhen lhey lransform inlo
sore-bearing fruiling bodies more akin lo fungi. This duaIily has befuddIed cIassifiers
for cenluries. SIime mouIds have al differenl limes been Iaced aIongside Ianls,
animaIs and fungi, bul lhey nov reside vilh amoebae and olher singIe-ceIIed organisms
in lhe kingdom Irolisla.
4

If lheir duaI Iife modes are nol remarkabIe enough, consider lheir oflen very
beaulifuI fruiling bodies. These range in size from Iarge amorhous bIobs such as lhose
of lhe aforemenlioned <3('=) *5+/'.2 lhal may conlain biIIions of sores, lo liny sheres
Iess lhan 0.5 miIIimelre laII vilh as fev as one or lvo sores. Some of lhe miniscuIe
sheres are sessiIe (slaIkIess), bul mosl sil alo slaIks lhal vary from lhread-Iike lo
chunky granuIar. The ouler coverings lhal encase lhe sores caIIed eridia (singIe:
eridium) lake exquisileIy differenl forms: some are vhile and cryslaIIine, some have
nels of fine lhreads, olhers are vraed in iridescenl membranes lhal shine Iike
Chrislmas baubIes (Iigure 2), some are fine Iike orceIain, some are fIuffy brovn lufls.
Wilhin lhese fruiling bodies are sores and lhreads (caIIed caiIIilia) inlricaleIy
decoraled vilh sines, ridges, cogs, rings, varls or siraI bands.

!"#$ !&'()*)+&,- "./'0'*1- #2/345 6)7 89- :98;

121
8$9)3& <: ?21+4)@5412 secies have iridescenl eridia.

"#$%& %()#* 93()=+
To avoid confusion il is imorlanl lo kee in mind lhal modern cIassificalion
recognises lhree grous of sIime mouIds. There are lhe microscoic DiclyosleIids, aIso
knovn as ceIIuIar sIime mouIds, lhe very obscure and IillIe-sludied IrolosleIids and lhe
aceIIuIar sIime mouIds. Il is lhis Iasl grou, lhe aceIIuIar sIime mouIds aIso knovn as
IasmodiaI or lrue sIime mouIds or myxomyceles, lhal are lhe sub|ecl of lhis essay.
Myxomyceles slarl Iife vhen microscoic sores reIeased from lheir fruiling
bodies germinale inlo one or severaI amoebae. The amoebae lake one of lvo differenl
forms: myxamoebae or fIageIIaled amoebae caIIed svarm ceIIs. The Ialler have lvo
lhread-Iike slruclures (one shorl and one Iong) caIIed fIageIIa lhal assisl in Iocomolion.
Iach form is caabIe of converling lo lhe olher deending on condilions: lhey are
fIageIIaled svarm ceIIs vhen il is vel and myxamoebae vhen il is dry.
5
The
myxamoebae and fIageIIaled svarm ceIIs feed by enguIfing olher micro-organisms such
as bacleria, yeasls and smaII rolozoans.
6
They muIliIy by division and lheir
ouIalions can reach belveen 10 and 1000 and somelimes more lhan 10000 er gram of
soiI.
7
They require moislure lo funclion bul shouId lhe subslrale become loo dry lhey
can change lo a dormanl slage caIIed a microcysl, and reverl lo funclion normaIIy vhen
favourabIe condilions relurn.

"#$%& %()#* =#2+%(*$2
Tvo or more comalibIe myxamoebae combine lo form lhe second lrohic slage
caIIed a Iasmodium. IIasmodia are a mass of roloIasm vilh numerous nucIei
somelimes numbering in lhe lhousands. They have a fan-shaed feeding fronl edge
ahead of a nelvork of veins, and are conslanlIy changing shae as lhey undergo
rhylhmic reversibIe slreaming. Some Iasmodia are encIosed in a sIime shealh, a
membrane beIieved lo revenl desiccalion. Il is lhis IasmodiaI slage lhal eriodicaIIy
receives allenlion-grabbing headIines such as scienlisls may use sIime lo design
lransorl nelvork
8
or sIime moId uses an exlernaIised saliaI 'memory' lo navigale in
comIex environmenls.
9
The research described is underlaken in lhe Iaboralory vhere
lhal Iab ral of sIime mouIds, !&,*2431 +)(,.5+&2(31, moves aboul in a Ielri dish
searching for rovided suslenance usuaIIy ieces of oalmeaI or a gIucose soIulion. In
naluraI silualions Iasmodia move lhrough Iabyrinlhine microhabilals in lhe soiI and
decaying organic maleriaI vhere lhey feed on various kinds of bacleria, fungaI hyhae,
fruiling bodies and sores, aIgae (vhich may remain aIive and imarl a greenish linge
lo a Iasmodium) and ossibIy Iichens. They are aIso knovn lo arasilise and redale
Iasmodia of olher myxomyceles.
10
They are generaIIy regarded as scavengers or
redalors, bul some secies are knovn lo roduce amyIase and ceIIuIase
11
lhal break
dovn comonenls in animaI and Ianls resecliveIy.
There are lhree main lyes of Iasmodia found in lhe five myxomycele orders
(IchinosleIiaIes, LiceaIes, TrichiaIes, SlemonilaIes and IhysaraIes). The mosl rimilive
and smaIIesl, lhe roloIasmodia, characlerislic of lhe orders LiceaIes and
IchinosleIiaIes, are liny slruclures 100-300 microns in diameler lhal give rise lo one or
severaI minule fruiling bodies.
The mosl common lye is lhe Iarge and oflen consicuous haneroIasmodium
vhose exlernaI aearance beIies a comIex inlernaI slruclure vilh alhvays for
ingeslion, inlraceIIuIar digeslion and defecalion vacuoIes.
12
IhaneroIasmodia can
allain sizes of u lo one melre. They sIovIy advance over Iogs, lree lrunks and Ieaf
Iiller, somelimes lraveIIing severaI melres vilhin days,
13
a lruIy aIarming sighl for
eoIe unacquainled vilh sIime mouIds. They evenluaIIy roduce severaI lo severaI
>242& ?(),@- >('15 A)3(@*

122
lhousand liny, usuaIIy slaIked fruiling bodies, oflen dolled equidislanlIy aIong a Iog or
olher subslrale. IhaneroIasmodia occur in lhe order IhysaraIes and some TrichiaIes.
The lhird lye of Iasmodia, characlerislic of lhe SlemonilaIes, is lhe Iarge aImosl
invisibIe ahanoIasmodia (ahano invisibIe) vhose lhin slrands can negoliale lhe
microores in rock-hard vood. Some ahanoIasmodia become igmenled vhen lhey
are aboul lo fruil. Hence, immalure >/51)6'/'* secies can be yeIIov, ink or vhile
vhen lhey firsl aear
14
and before lhey change lo fIuffy brovn lufls. A lye of
Iasmodium inlermediale belveen ahanoIasmodia and haneroIasmodia has been
found in lhe TrichiaIes and il is IikeIy lhal olher inlermediale forms may be found.
15

Like lhe firsl lrohic slage, Iasmodia can reverl lo a dormanl slruclure caIIed a
scIerolium and reaclivale vhen suilabIe condilions relurn.
TheorelicaIIy, if Iasmodia are veII fed and fruiling is inhibiled lhey are
immorlaI. Hovever, Iike animaIs, some sIime mouIds cuIlured in lhe Iaboralory have a
six monlh eriod of youlhfuI vigour and Iuxurianl grovlh foIIoved by lvo years of
decIining middIe age and IaslIy a eriod of senescence and oId age.
16

83)$0$-9 1(*$&+
IvenluaIIy Iasmodia lransform inlo lhe sore-bearing slage, aIso knovn as
fruiling bodies or fruclificalions. In lhe Iaboralory, changes in ambienl condilions such
as H, moislure and lemeralure or exhauslion of lhe food suIy have been roosed
as lriggers. In lhe fieId, lhe slimuIi are more difficuIl lo delermine. My observalions
indicale lhal fruiling bodies of al Ieasl some secies viII aear as Iong as lhere has
been enough reciilalion lo salurale lhe subslrale.
Iruiling bodies lake a number of differenl forms. The Iasmodiocar is lhe
simIesl and resembIes lhe veins in lhe Iasmodium. Sorangium (IuraI sorangia),
lhe mosl common lye found in aroximaleIy 75 ercenl of secies, is slaIked or
sessiIe and usuaIIy belveen 0.5 miIIimelre and 3 miIIimelres laII (Iigure 3). Ils sore
mass (sorolheca) is encased in a membrane, lhe eridium, vhich can be muIliIayered,
iridescenl, Iime encrusled, vhoIIy or arlIy ersislenl or evanescenl deending on lhe
genera or secies.
Less common bul more consicuous are lhe Iarge amorhous bIobs (e.g. Bdog's
vomil") caIIed eilher aelhaIium (IuraI aelhaIia) or seudoaelhaIium. Their Iasmodia
migrale lo lhe lo of lree slums or Iogs vhere lheir sores are moslIy disersed by
valer droIels or, inadverlenlIy, by lhe severaI beelIe secies lhal become dusled vilh
sores vhen lhey feed on lhis rolein-rich food (Iigure 4). (Sores from olher
Iasmodia are moslIy vind disersed.) IseudoaelhaIia resembIe aelhaIia, bul lhey are
acluaIIy comosed of individuaI cIoseIy acked sorangia.

8$9)3& >: A5/2/4'.&'2 C()4'C)41'* has slaIked sorangia aroximaleIy 2 mm laII.
!"#$ !&'()*)+&,- "./'0'*1- #2/345 6)7 89- :98;

123

8$9)3& ?: Some beelIes become dusled vilh sores as lhey feed on lhe rolein-rich food.

"#$%& %()#* 3&+&23@4
The duaI Iife mode of myxomyceles nol onIy makes lhem among lhe mosl
unusuaI organisms on Iarlh, il aIso means lhey are exlremeIy difficuIl lo sludy under
naluraI condilions. Hovever, lhey are considered lo be one of lhe mosl imorlanl
reguIalors of bacleria and lhey conlain a cocklaiI of comounds vilh anli-bacleriaI, anli-
fungaI and anli-cancer roerlies aIlhough lhere are yel lo be raclicaI aIicalions for
lhese chemicaIs.
17

AIlhough ever resenl and oflen abundanl in lerreslriaI ecosyslems, lhey are
usuaIIy undeleclabIe during lheir lrohic slages so lheir ecoIogicaI requiremenls and
imacl on olher biola are aImosl imossibIe lo discern. Mosl of vhal is knovn aboul
sIime mouIds has been discovered lhrough research on lhe reIaliveIy fev secies lhal
survive in lhe Iaboralory on a Iimiled diel of oalmeaI or bacleria. Il is IikeIy lhal lhe
hundreds of secies lhal do nol survive under Iaboralory condilions fiII differenl
ecoIogicaI niches and have videIy varying diels. Iurlher difficuIlies in research arise
because idenlificalion of lhe lrohic slages is currenlIy nol ossibIe, so assigning a
secies name deends enlireIy on lhe idenlificalion of lheir oflen liny, ehemeraI
reroduclive slruclures.
ecause myxomyceles have a sore-bearing reroduclive slage, surveys are
usuaIIy underlaken by mycoIogisls. Any sludy of a region invoIves al Ieasl one visil
and, ideaIIy, reealed visils over successive seasons lo coIIecl malure fruiling bodies.
UnIike fungi, vhose visibIe fealures such as size, shae and coIour musl be described
soon afler coIIeclion because lhey raidIy deleriorale, malure fruiling bodies of
myxomyceles dry vilhin hours and if slored roerIy relain indefinileIy aII fealures
necessary for idenlificalion.
An ad|uncl lo fieId surveys is lhe cuIluring of coIIecled subslrale (Ieaf Iiller,
vood, bark of Iiving lrees and herbivore dung) Iaced on moislened lissue in a Ielri
dish or simiIar in lhe Iaboralory. This lechnique is eseciaIIy usefuI for minule sIime
mouIds lhal are IikeIy lo be overIooked in lhe fieId and il viII oflen augmenl fieId
coIIeclions by an addilionaI 2060 ercenl.
18
AIlhough effeclive for cerlain famiIies,
some sIime mouIds may never comIele lheir Iife cycIe in moisl chamber cuIlures.
19

A$+03$1)0$(-
SIime mouIds are mosl abundanl in lemerale foresls, bul lhey are aIso found in
lroicaI foresls, deserls, healhIands and aIine areas, in facl anyvhere vhere lhere is
decaying organic maleriaI. There is a rich myxomycele fIora associaled vilh lhe bark of
>242& ?(),@- >('15 A)3(@*

124
Iiving lrees and even one record on a Iiving animaI. Much lo lhe surrise of a
hereloIogisl vho vas coIIecling reliIes in easlern Honduras, a Iizard (D)4,/)+&265*
.4'*/2/3*) vilh a "sil and vail" foraging slralegy sal Iong enough for numerous
sorangia of !&,*2431 +3*'((31 lo aear on ils body.
20

In 1984 lhere vere aboul 450 secies knovn lo occur vorIdvide.
21
In lhe asl
decades lhis number has risen lo aroximaleIy 1000 secies,
22
sliII a Iov number
comared lo lhe 1.5 miIIion or so fungaI secies beIieved lo exisl.
23
InlereslingIy, lhe
number of secies recorded from any vegelalion zone is remarkabIy conslanl vilh 5060
secies found in arclic regions, 3060 in deserls, 60100 in lhe boreaI zone, 80100 in lhe
lroics and 120180 in easlern lemerale Norlh America. Wilhin each region lhere is an
equaIIy conslanl number of abundanl secies and 3040 ercenl considered very rare
i.e. knovn from onIy one or lvo coIIeclions.
24

AIlhough lroicaI ecosyslems are biodiversily holsols for fIora, fauna and fungi,
lhey may nol be rich in myxomyceles. The aucily is allribuled lo severaI faclors
incIuding lhe raid decay of olenliaI habilal lhrough lhe aclivilies of lermiles and
fungi, and lhe reguIar, usuaIIy daiIy, rainfaII lhal eilher vashes avay lhe Iasmodia or
maluring fruiling bodies or creales humid condilions ideaI for lhe roIiferalion of
coIonising fungi. In addilion, lhey are food for lhe myriad inverlebrales lhal inhabil lhe
seelhing lroics.
25
Hovever, recenl surveys have found numerous myxomyceles on lhe
vines and fIovers in lhe uer slrala researchers may have been Iooking in lhe vrong
Iaces.
Once beIieved lo be cosmooIilan in lheir dislribulion, il is nov lhoughl lhal
lhere couId be areas of endemism vilh cerlain secies reslricled lo arlicuIar regions or
foresl lyes. Ior examIe, a recenlIy described nev secies vas found in #)/&)C2=3*
.366'6=&21'' (myrlIe-beech) foresl al lvo Iocalions in Tasmania and a year Ialer lhe
same secies vas found in #7 1))45' foresls al arringlon Tos in Nev Soulh WaIes. Il
couId be lhe case lhal some secies are reslricled lo #)/&)C2=3* foresls in AuslraIia, lhe
secies has nol been found in more lhoroughIy surveyed #)/&)C2=3* foresls in Nev
ZeaIand. Il viII lake many more surveys before lhis can be eslabIished.
26

Scienlific aers describing surveys of far fIung regions of lhe vorId invariabIy
discuss fruiling bodies vilh fealures lhal do nol quile fil lhose of aIready described
secies. ecause of lhe Iack of comrehensive surveys in many Iaces il is ossibIe lhal
lhey are nev lo science. Hovever, in many cases il is more IikeIy lhal lhey are varialions
of aIready described secies. The Iaslicily of fruiling bodies is veII documenled.
InvironmenlaI condilions al lhe lime of lhe lransformalion of lhe Iasmodia can affecl
lheir aearance. Iven fruiling bodies resumabIy arising from lhe same Iasmodium
can be slaIked or sessiIe deending on vhelher lhey aear on lhe under or lhe uer
surface of lhe subslrale.
27
Thus, il is suggesled lhal nevIy described laxa shouId be
knovn from severaI differenl Iocalions and lhal aII descrilions shouId be accomanied
by scanning eIeclron micrograhs. UnforlunaleIy, lhis lakes much research beyond lhe
reaIm of amaleurs.

,)+032#$2 B 04& #&2+0 +0)*$&* 3&9$(- $- 04& C(3#*
AuslraIia's myxomyceles are among lhe Ieasl sludied in lhe vorId. In 1995, 105
secies vere documenled from AuslraIia, incIuding onIy 29 secies from Tasmania.
28

This is a surrisingIy Iov number considering lhey are knovn lo be abundanl in
lemerale foresls vhere al Ieasl 120 secies usuaIIy occur. More recenlIy, lhe number of
secies recorded from AuslraIia has increased lo aroximaleIy 290, bul many regions
of lhe counlry remain undersludied.
29

In 2010 I began lo documenl and coIIecl lhe myxomyceles from an area of
aroximaleIy five heclares lhal encomasses severaI differenl vegelalion communilies,
!"#$ !&'()*)+&,- "./'0'*1- #2/345 6)7 89- :98;

125
broadIy calegorised as vel scIerohyII foresl. Iorly melre high eucaIyls are lhe
dominanl canoy lrees vilh varying assembIages of underslorey Ianls deending on
asecl and drainage. Oen areas have a diversily of smaII lrees and shrubs vilh sedges,
grasses and ferns covering lhe ground, laII lhin aerbark (A5(2(53.2 54'.'C)('2 and A7
*E3244)*2) grov on svamy IeveI ground lhal fIoods inlermillenlIy during vinler. Slee,
shaded hiIIsides and guIIies vilh ehemeraI creeks lhal fIov onIy afler eriods of heavy
rain grov dark-crovned bIackvood (".2.'2 15(26)F,()6) vilh lreeferns (G'.H*)6'2
26/24./'.2) aIong lhe drainage Iines. Dogvood (!)12@544'* 2+5/2(2), lhe dominanl smaII
lree in shady areas, is arlicuIarIy vuInerabIe lo slrong vinds. Once on lhe ground il
quickIy breaks dovn and ils sodden songy lexlure is a rich subslrale for sIime mouIds.
Coious quanlilies of ils broad sofl Ieaves accumuIale lo form a dee carel of Iiller,
vrisl-lhick cIemalis vines (D(512/'* 24'*/2/2) snake lhrough lhe canoy. Ioreslry
aclivilies in lhe 1950s, 60s and 90s Iefl lhe foresl fIoor slrevn vilh faIIen lrees deemed
unsuilabIe for miII Iogs, raiIvay sIeeers or leIegrah oIes robabIy because lhey vere
arliaIIy rollen. They are nov in an advanced slale of decay and covered vilh abundanl
mosses, Ieafy Iivervorls and Iichens.
ecause of my inleresl in lhe associalions belveen differenl organisms, I began
my sludy by documenling lhe inverlebrales feeding on Iasmodia or immalure fruiling
bodies. As il is exlremeIy difficuIl lo idenlify lhe food of smaII crylic inverlebrales, my
series of holograhs deicling lhis behaviour in al Ieasl five secies of coIIemboIa
(sringlaiIs) senl lo researcher IeneIoe GreensIade Iead her lo concIude lhal sIime
mouIds do indeed form an imorlanl food source for lhese animaIs (Iigure 5).
30

8$9)3& D: CoIIemboIa ".26/&26342 s. feeding on immalure sIime mouId.

ComiIing a holograhic record of Iasmodia and malure fruiling bodies in lhe
fieId, ralher lhan coIIecling malure fruiling bodies, vas my nexl focus. This vas because
I lhoughl lhal sIime mouIds, Iike fungi, vouId reaear on lhe same subslrale in
subsequenl years. When il became cIear lhal lhis vas nol necessariIy lhe case, I slarled
coIIecling fruiling bodies. A requesl from Dr Tom May (Senior MycoIogisl al lhe
NalionaI Herbarium of Vicloria) lo coIIecl for lhe herbarium lurned my ralher soradic
coIIecling inlo, dare I say, an obsession.
Il vas lhe eIemenl of surrise and anlicialion lhal reaIIy gol me hooked. There
are fev eoIe in lhe vorId inleresled in myxomyceles and even fever vho are
forlunale enough lo Iive in a Iace vhere lhey can make daiIy or if necessary hourIy
inseclions of lransforming Iasmodia or immalure fruiling bodies. This is reaIIy fun!
Iinding brighlIy coIoured venous Iasmodia uIsaling over decaying vegelalion or
>242& ?(),@- >('15 A)3(@*

126
cIuslers of yeIIov, hol ink, brighl orange or shiny vhile beads of immalure fruiling
bodies is easy, keeing lrack of lheir rogress is lhe difficuIl arl. As lhey malure lheir
coIour and shae graduaIIy change and some lurn invisibIy dark in lhe dam shaded
foresl. Marking lheir Iocalion vilh brighlIy coIoured lae eIiminales lhe fruslralion of
fruilIess searching. Of course, nol aII sIime mouIds are noliced vhen lhey firsl aear
because lhey are nol aII brighlIy coIoured vhen young. Some are |usl dols on vood,
secks of lransarenl |eIIy no Iarger lhan a inhead. These are usuaIIy found vhen
cravIing around on lhe ground equied vilh hand Iens and headIam.

E(##&@0$-9 +#$%& %()#*+ @2- 1& *$FF$@)#0 2-* *2-9&3()+
Il look a vhiIe lo find lhe erfecl looI for delaching smaII bils of vood vilh
deIicale fruiling bodies. Some are easy lo coIIecl: crumbIy rollen vood faIIs aarl al a
louch and sodden subslrale carves Iike cIay. Hovever, recenlIy faIIen Iogs, an
unexecledIy rich subslrale, are oflen coaled in a sIiery aIgaI veneer lhal makes using
shar inslrumenls dangerous. My looI of choice, a ockel knife vilh razor-shar bIade,
is slrong enough lo lake lhe force required lo cul exlremeIy hard vood. As lhis usuaIIy
requires bolh hands and lhe veighl of lhe body, gravily lakes ils loII and I valch in
dismay as some gel Iosl in lhe Iiller.
Timing is crilicaI. CoIIecl loo earIy and lhe sorolheca (sore sacs) go rock hard
and lhe sores do nol malure. Leave lhem in lhe fieId and lhey risk gelling vashed
avay by rain or being covered in a fuzz of fungaI fiIamenls. SuccessfuIIy coIIecled
secimens dry vilhin hours and can be slored indefinileIy by gIuing subslrale lo card
lhal, vilh foIded u ends, fil snugIy inlo lhe lray of a malch box. Once mounled, lhe
deIicale slruclures are remarkabIy robusl, lhey never need lo be handIed bul can be
insecled by maniuIaling lhe card. To dale I have Iodged over 250 coIIeclions
reresenling aroximaleIy 80 secies vilh lhe NalionaI Herbarium of Vicloria (MIL)
lhe Tasmanian Herbarium does nol have a myxomycele coIIeclion.
Any fieId has ils ovn vocabuIary, and idenlifying lhese IillIe-sludied organisms
requires seciaIised lexls, none of vhich are direclIy aIicabIe lo AuslraIian
myxomyceles. A,F)1,.5/5*- " I26@J))H )C >('15 A)(@*
;8
is an exceIIenl book for
beginners vilh a greal inlroduclory seclion covering bioIogy, coIIecling, ecoIogy,
dislribulion and associaled organisms. Il aIso has descrilions vilh iIIuslralions of a
range of common and severaI rarer secies nol IikeIy lo be encounlered by lhe average
coIIeclorvhomever lhal may be.
When il became cIear lhal lhe surrounding foresl vas rich in sIime mouIds, a
more lhorough coverage vas required. K&5 A,F)1,.5/5*
;:
, lhe mosl comrehensive
lome al lhe lime of ils ubIicalion and lhe one crediled vilh sarking much subsequenl
research, incIudes aroximaleIy 400 secies. Ils exlensive inlroduclory seclion oulIines
lhe many difficuIlies lhal arise vhen idenlifying secies.
?5* A,F)1,.L/5*
;;
is a lvo-voIume sel: VoIume 1 is devoled lo keys and brief
descrilions in bolh Irench and IngIish. VoIume 2 has coIour holograhs of 530 of lhe
853 laxa described in lhe keys and Iine dravings of lhe microscoic slruclures. These
books are lruIy insiring, nol onIy because of lhe beaulifuI holograhs, bul aIso
because lhe informalion is based moslIy on lhe rivale coIIeclions of }ean ozonnel and
Marianne Meyer numbering 4,000 and 35,000 secimens resecliveIy. Meyer's
coIIeclion, vhich is Iarger lhan many inslilulionaI herbaria, concenlrales on lhe
nivicoIous (i.e., snovbank) secies lhal are commonIy found in lhe aIine mounlains
of Savoie vhere her vork is concenlraled. As my vork is conducled in a very differenl
habilal, il may be lhe case lhal snovbank secies occur in lhe foresls of Tasmania bul
vilh a differenl ecoIogicaI niche.
!"#$ !&'()*)+&,- "./'0'*1- #2/345 6)7 89- :98;

127
Iven lhe mosl comrehensive books do nol overcome lhe robIems confronling
non-seciaIisls. In many cases, il is reIaliveIy easy lo idenlify lhe differenl genera. Ior
examIe, D4'J424'2 secies have lheir sores enveIoed in an inlricale nel of
anaslomosing lhreads and in lhe fieId even minuscuIe secies bareIy 0.5 miIIimelre high
can be recognised if one is equied vilh a 10x hand Iens. SimiIarIy, lhe eridia of lhe
genus ?21+4)@5412 are beaulifuIIy iridescenl refIecling goIden, siIver, bIue, green and/or
urIe hues. Wilhin lheir sore mass is a slruclure caIIed a coIumeIIa, essenliaIIy an
exlension of lhe slaIk. This can vary in Ienglh and shae even vilhin lhe same secies
and lhe many inlermediale forms make assigning a secies name aImosl imossibIe
vilhoul lhe righl equimenl. UnforlunaleIy my onIine-urchased microscoe vhiIe
adequale for arecialing lhe arlislry in lhe decoralions of siraI bands, cogs, sines
and relicuIalions on lhe brighlIy coIoured sores and fascinaling caiIIilia of some
secies is nol u lo lhe lask required of il. Oh for a beller microscoe!
Olher difficuIlies arise because of laxonomic revisions, name changes, lhe
recognilion of nev famiIies and removaI of olhers, and lhe bIurry Iines lhal differenliale
genera. Iurlhermore, descrilions of norlhern hemishere subslrale references do nol
necessariIy aIy here. Ior inslance, D4'J424'2 secies are nol aImosl aIvays associaled
vilh coniferous vood. In Tasmania enormous oId eucaIyl Iogs vilh a bIankel of
bryohyles and innards decayed lo a mud-Iike consislency seem lo be lo lheir Iiking.
The designalions very rare or lroicaI are aIso misIeading.
Mosl sIime mouId fruiling bodies require microscoic examinalion of sores and
caiIIilia for idenlificalion. ul sureIy lhe dislinclive bicoIoured fruiling bodies of one of
lhe mosl commonIy occurring secies in 2010 vouId be easy lo idenlify` Nol so. Il
remained a myslery unliI coIIeague, IauI George, idenlified il as M(25)1,F2 .54'C542, a
secies described as very rare |and vhosej yeIIov vaxy coIIar is knovn onIy from
}aanese coIIeclions
34
and lhe very rare M(25)1,F2 .54'C542 . |isj onIy knovn from
lerreslriaI bryohyles.
35
My secimens have a dislinclive yeIIov coIIar and aIlhough
common and seen onIy on bryohyles in 2010, il has been Iess revaIenl in subsequenl
years bul has aeared on vood, nol bryohyles.
K3J'C542 J)1J24@2 is lhe onIy sIime mouId vilh sliff brislIes in ils sorolheca. I had
seen images of il vhen Ieafing lhrough books and vas keen lo see lhis lroicaI
secies, unIikeIy as lhal seemed in lemerale Tasmania. I vas relly exciled vhen
going lhrough my earIy holograhs lo discover lhal I had recorded lhe secies severaI
limes on lree lrunks and bryohyle-covered Iogs (Iigure 6). I have subsequenlIy Iodged
severaI coIIeclions al MIL.

8$9)3& G: TroicaI sIime mouId K3J'C542 J)1J24@2

>242& ?(),@- >('15 A)3(@*

128
My sludy, nov in ils fourlh year, has documenled aroximaleIy 100 secies. Il is
IikeIy lhal lhis number viII increase once I slarl cuIluring subslrale in Ielri dishes
indoors. Il is aIso IikeIy lhal equivaIenl numbers viII be found in olher olenliaIIy rich
siles eIsevhere in Tasmania and on lhe AuslraIian mainIand. I have Iearnl so much
and nol onIy aboul sIime mouIds. The sludy has reinforced for me lhe imorlance of
rolling vegelalion. My freshIy coIIecled sIime mouIds invariabIy come vilh an
inverlebrale or lvo, dead vood is fuII of Iife!
irds are aImosl universaIIy arecialed so no-one needs convincing of lheir
vorlh. Iungi have in lheir favour a vonderfuI variely of beaulifuI coIours and forms
and lheir cruciaI ecoIogicaI roIes. ul sIime mouIds are anolher maller enlireIy. Their
common names sIime and mouId do nol con|ure u images of greal beauly and one
can onIy imagine lhe Iooks of indifference and boredom vhen allemling lo define lheir
roer name, myxomyceles. ul shov eoIe some holograhs, or a malchbox fuII of
|eveIs, and lhey are aImosl invariabIy convinced.

;(0&+

1. irraIee, Tasmania. I vouId Iike lo lhank Ron Nagorcka, IauI George and Robin Garnell
for making suggeslions afler reading a drafl of lhis aer.
2. irdIife AuslraIia (2012), "irdIife AuslraIia." Websile: hll://vvv.birdIife.org.au/
(Accessed 25 }uIy 2013).
3. Iungima Inc. (n.d.) "Iungima Inc." Websile: hlls://vvv.fungima.org.au/ (Accessed
25 }uIy 2013).
4. M. SchnillIer (2001), M.)()=, 26@ J')=5)=42+&, )C 1,F)1,.5/5*- DocloraI lhesis, Chaler 1,
. 6.
5. M.I. MadeIin (1984), IresidenliaI Address Myxomycele Dala of IcoIogicaI
Significance. K426*2./')6* )C /&5 N4'/'*& A,.)()='.2( >).'5/,, 83(1), . 1-19: . 3.
6. . Ing (1994), TansIey Reviev No. 62. "The hylosocioIogy of myxomyceles. Nev
IhyloIogisl 126(2), . 175-201.
7. MadeIin (1984), .1.
8. AAI December 29, 2011 4:29 AM
9. NalionaI Academy of Sciences (2012). !4).55@'6=* )C /&5 #2/')62( ".2@51, )C >.'56.5* O6'/5@
>/2/5* )C "154'.2- 109(43) Websile: hll://vvv.nas.org/conlenl/109.43.17490 (Accessed
28 }anuary 2013).
10. MadeIin (1984), .1.
11. Ing (1994), . 176.
12. MadeIin (1984), . 5.
13. SchnillIer (2001), . 10.
14. MadeIin (1994), . 6.
15. Ibid., . 6.
16. Ibid., . 10.
17. H.W. KeIIer and S.I. Iverharl (2010), The Imorlance of Myxomyceles in ioIogicaI
Research and Training, <36=' 3(1), . 21.
18. SchnillIer (2001), . 280.
19. SchnillIer (2001), . 7.
20. }.H. Tovnsend, H.C. AIdrich, L.D. WiIson and }.R. McCranie (2005), Iirsl Reorl of
Sorangia of a Myxomycele (!&,*2431 +3*'((31) on lhe ody of a Living AnimaI, lhe
Iizard D)4,/)+&265* .4'*/2/3*, A,.)()='2, 97(2), . 346-348.
21. MadeIin (1984), . 1.
22. SchnillIer (2001), . 5.

!"#$ !&'()*)+&,- "./'0'*1- #2/345 6)7 89- :98;

129

23. S.L. Slehenson (2010), K&5 P'6=@)1 <36='$ /&5 N')()=, )C A3*&4))1*- A)(@*- 26@ ?'.&56*7
Timber Iress IorlIand, Cambridge, . 24.
24. Schnittler (2001), p. 285.
25. Ing (1994), . 186.
26. S.L. Slehenson and Y.K. NovozhiIov (2012), A Nev Secies of K4'.&'2 from AuslraIia.
A,.)()='2, 104(6), . 1517-1520.
27. G.W. Marlin and C.}. AIexoouIos (1969), K&5 A,F)1,.5/5*, Universily of Iova Iress,
Iova Cily.
28. D.W. MilcheII (1995), The Myxomycola of AuslraIia, #)02 I5@Q'='2 60(1-2), . 269-
295.
29. S.L. Slehenson (2006), Myxomyceles in AuslraIia <36='12+ #5Q*(5//54 29.
30. I. GreensIade, ers.comm., Oclober 2010.
31. S.L. Slehenson and H. Slemen (1994), A,F)1,.5/5*$ " I26@J))H )C >('15 A)3(@*,
Timber Iress, IorlIand, OR.
32. Marlin and AIexoouIos (1969).
33. M. IouIain, M. Meyer and }. ozonnel (2001), ?5* A,F)1,.L/5*- Iederalion MycoIogique
el olanique Dauhine-Savoie, Le Irieure, Sevrier.
34. Marlin and AIexoouIos (1969), . 176.
35. Ing (1994), . 185.
!"#$ !&'()*)+&,- "./'0'*1- #2/345 6)7 89- :98;

130

"#$%&'()(#*

+(,$$- .(//
0

Iungi have fascinaled me since my chiIdhood. I vas inlrigued by lheir
seemingIy magicaI seasonaI manifeslalions in foresl and fieId. I ceIebraled lhem in riluaI,
skiing around a Iarge vooden fIy agaric during rovnies. <36='0)4)3*, my Ialesl
body of arlvorks, is comosed of a series of limber scuIlures deicling coIourfuI
mushroom-Iike forms, accomanied by a sel of dravings lhal evoke lhe sublerranean
myceIiaI aclivily of fungi. We knov lhal in many vays lhe fungus kingdom is IargeIy
overIooked and lhis body of vork serves lo ceIebrale a vondrous vorId lhal is
inlervoven vilh lhe fabric of our exislence.
In crealing lhe dravings and scuIlures in <36='0)4)3*- I drev uon lhe
lranscuIluraI symboIogy of mushrooms as a force lo be reckoned vilh. Their chemicaI
consliluenls give rise lo fungi being simuIlaneousIy fearsome and desirabIe. MagicaI
and inloxicaling, shamans and sychedeIic exIorers have embraced lhe haIIucinogenic
roerlies of fungi lhal offer galevays inlo olher vorIds of ercelion. Iossessing
excelionaI hysicaI over, mushrooms can break lhrough lhick cemenl and bilumen
aving. VaIuabIe and deIicious, fungi incIude many edibIe lyes, lhe mosl rized of aII
being lhe lruffIe. Hovever, human deendence on lhe fungus kingdom is IargeIy
disregarded. Iungi erform numerous funclions vilaI lo humanily from lhe reguIalion
of inleslinaI fIora lo symbioses vilh Ianls. Iven ecoIogicaIIy curalive, cerlain fungi are
caabIe of mycoremedialion, or deloxifying conlaminaled soiI. The muIlifarious
ercelions of fungi exressed in mylhoIogy and lhroughoul hislory are sliII in
exislence loday. SubsequenlIy, lhe discord belveen humanily and fungi may refIecl a
Iack of arecialion for lheir vilaI roIe in ecosyslem funclion.
There is a cerlain abslracl quaIily lhal inhabils fungi lhrough coIour and form,
lhey can be al once famiIiar and foreign. I oflen vork in lhe bush and Iandscae vhere I
encounler many fungi. Some are obvious lo idenlify vhiIe olhers aear aIien and
bizarre in lheir comosilion. In forming lhe carved vooden scuIlures in <36='0)4)3* I
drev arlIy uon lhe morhoIogies of fungaI fruiling bodies. Curves of voIuluous
coIour gyrale and buIge, inlenlionaIIy ambiguous, lhey are inlended lo fIoal belveen
famiIiar and lhe abslracl. The maleriaIily of lhese scuIlures is seIf-referenliaI, vood has
been seIecled secificaIIy for lhese scuIlures as il erlains lo lhe symbiolic
reIalionshis belveen fungi and lrees. Ixeculed using a number of lechniques:
voodlurning, hand finishing and ainling, lhe scuIlures incororale bolh formaI and
organic rocesses. In lhis vay, I seek lo engage lhe dicholomy belveen imosed order
and inherenl organic lendencies by shaing lhe scuIlures vilh hand and machine.

>)2665 ?)//- <36='0)4)3*

131
Woodlurning is lhe eilome of cuIluraIIy defined rocess: il lakes organic maleriaIs and
imoses formaI symmelry uon lhem. Il is sleeed in lhe lradilion of cIassicaI Weslern
decoralive embeIIishmenl. A lye of off-cenlre lurning is emIoyed lo make lhese
scuIlures, lhis de-cenlring subverls lhe symmelricaI rofiIe mosl oflen associaled vilh
voodlurning rocess. The scuIlures are finished by hand: sanded and delaiIed lhen
ainled vilh acryIic igmenls and oIished vilh beesvax. The coIours seIecled are
reresenlalive of lhe broad seclrum found in lhe fungi kingdom. I Iike lhe lerm |eveIs
of lhe foresl lhal has been used lo describe fungi. VibranlIy coIoured mushrooms are
oflen dazzIing and gem-Iike in conlrasl lo lhe dam muled lones of surrounding bush
and foresl Iandscaes.
The dravings in <36='0)4)3* are inlended lo orlray inlerconnecled hidden
reaIms vhere, very quielIy, massive grovlh lakes Iace. Thal fungi are lhe Iargesl Iiving
organisms on lhe Ianel is a vonderfuI lhing lo conlemIale. Transferring energy
lhrough inlricale nelvorks under our feel, in symbiolic concerl vilh Ianls, myceIium is
a beaulifuI demonslralion of inlerconneclivily. A lension is soughl belveen engaging
lhe grace and deIicaleness of lhese nelvorks and lhe olenliaI feeIing of creeiness lhal
roIiferaling sublerranean fungi may induce. The vorks comrise vhile enciI marks
on comosilion board lhal has been reared vilh a ground of bIack gesso ainl
mixed vilh mica ovder giving a sublIe sarkIe lo lhe surface. The images deicl lhe
aclion of myceIiaI grovlh, lhousands of deIicale vhile Iines imIy lhreads of hyhae in
varying roorlions. Iine sidery marks are reealed and overIaid, roducing a sense
of grovlh sreading across lhe surface of lhe images and oulvard. The dravings
disIay lvo ossibIe sublerranean erseclives: framed as eilher frieze-Iike cross-
seclions of exansive syslems or aeriaI vievs radialing sindIy Iine vork, from a cenlraI
circuIar void. The vacanl areas lhe Iines radiale from reresenl sace lhal lhe fruiling
body vouId inhabil. Though lhere is Ianning in lhese dravings, I use a lvisling aclion
vilh lhe enciI lo roduce Iines. This incororales a somevhal random organic quaIily,
vhere lhe eIemenl of unrediclabiIily may suggesl an anxiely belveen unfellered
bioIogicaI rocesses in nalure and lhe human hand's desire lo conlroI lhe environmenl.
This body of arlvorks aims lo increase an arecialion for lhe fungus kingdom.
We are inlernaIIy and exlernaIIy indebled lo fungaI grovlh, underslaled in ils
ubiquilous resence. Nol onIy do fungi Iive above and underground, lhey acl uon us.
We are fungivorous.

1(/-*
1. }oanne Moll is a visuaI arlisl based in MeIbourne. Her raclice incIudes making
sludio-based arlvorks and sile-secific environmenlaI Iand arl. She is reresenled by
MARS GaIIery, MeIbourne.

"&%#)- 02 MyceIioid -10, 2013. IenciI, acryIic, board 2200x60cm
!"#$ !&'()*)+&,- "./'0'*1- #2/345 6)7 89- :98;

132

"&%#)- 32 MyceIioid -4, 2013. IenciI, acryIic, mica, board 60x60cm

"&%#)- 42 Iuniceus curvus, 2013. Wood, acryIic, beesvax 22x48cm
!"#$ !&'()*)+&,- "./'0'*1- #2/345 67- 8769

133

"#$$%&'( )&*$+
, -./%/ $++01

,#&+/' 2/3#&/%
4

"&(35$ 46 Gravily-insired geslures of an unnamed mushroom

Nudging my vay on my slomach benealh lhe lvisled Iimbs of a faIIen bIackvood, I
chance uon fungus. I do nol knov ils name, bul am conlenl for il lo remain nameIess. I edge
nearer for a cIoser Iook. ul nol loo cIose. In lhis frigid davn, exosure lo my healed brealh
couId make ils shorl Iife yel shorler.
I coerce my lriod inlo osilion. DayIighl bareIy brushes lhe canoy and lhe seven-
second exosure lime Iasls an elernily. IinaIIy, vilh lhe genlIe sIa as lhe mirror relurns, I
exhaIe. Image recorded. Iungus sliII slanding.
WhiIe I crave lhe sunIighl's varmlh lo energise me, sunIighl mallers Iess lo lhe
mushroom. Il finds energy in darkness, exlernaIIy digesling organic maller. SunIighl,
hovever, may Iay a roIe in lriggering fruiling or sore roduclion. Ralher, il is gravily lhal
shaes ils form and grovlh. In ils brief Iife, lhe mushroom has a big |ob disersing sores. As
if a fungaI siril-IeveI, ils slie lvisls and lurns, ensuring ils giIIs are Iumb. In doing so, il
maximises lhe chance lo Iiberale each of ils severaI miIIion sores (Iigure 1).
"('*): !)3(')/- ;(55/':< ='05*

134

IungaI fruil bodies somelimes Iasl |usl hours. Such a reroduclive slralegy and lhe riviIege
of vilnessing lhese svifl Iives lug bolh mind and hearl. Irecious lhings are oflen said lo be
smaII. They are aIso fIeeling. The fIicker of lime in vhich lo consider lheir lransienl exislence
inlensifies bolh my curiosily and lheir significance.
I Ieave my nameIess mushroom lo ils lango and conlinue cravIing lhrough lhe foresl.
Tiny shafls of Iighl iIIuminale a langIe of sider vebs. CIoser inseclion reveaIs lhey are nol
vebs, bul rhizomorhs robing rool-Iike exlensions of myceIia feeIing lheir vay across
lhe foresl fIoor. These characlerislic rhizomorhs rovide a cIue lo lhe idenlily of lhe fungus,
as I sidIe u beside >,.5:2 .,*/'?')*2 (Iigure 2).

"&(35$ 76 >,.5:2 .,*/'?')*2 vilh rhizomorhs

Having a name heIs us lo recognise a secies' Iace vilhin lime and sace,
eIucidales ils reIalionshis, erhas even vaIidales ils exislence. Somelimes I am hay lo
lhumb lhrough my fieId guides, searching for a name. OccasionaIIy I viII lry and confirm il
by examining lhe mushroom's microscoic arls. Oflen I simIy observe lhrough my
vievfinder. MoslIy, I am conlenl lo |usl be lhere in lhe foresl, lrying nol lo sil on lhese smaII
fIeeling Iives.
A IillIe furlher on, @,(24'2 &,+)A,(): reaches u from ils Iog Iike mad anlennae
sensing lhe vorId, or erhas lrying lo 12B5 sense of lhe vorId (Iigure 3). I lhen reaIise I am
surrounded by minialure saleIIile dishes lhe "sIash cus" of C,2/&3*, or lhe bird's nesl
fungus (Iigure 4). Groving en masse, lhey vail oorlunislicaIIy for a raindro lo sIash
inlo lheir cus. The force of a raindro fIings oul lhe "eggs", or eridoIes, lhal house lhe
sores, disersing Iife. Suerb design couIed vilh subIime aeslhelics.
I holograh fungi nol because I eseciaIIy en|oy being ravaged by Ieeches, |ammed
benealh Iogs, cIobbered by faIIing branches or finding myseIf habiluaIIy Iosl in lhe delhs of
!"#$ !&'()*)+&,- "./'0'*1- #2/345 67- 8769

135
remole foresls. I holograh fungi because lhey maller. There is a very Iong Iisl of reasons
vhy fungi maller. ul in shorl, fungi maller because vhen lhey die, everylhing dies. Named
or nameIess. Iungi underin our exislence and lhal of lhe bioshere. Ieriod.
Over severaI decades cravIing around foresls, I have coIIecliveIy reresenled |usl a
fev minules of Iife on lhis biIIion-somelhing year oId Ianel. Do lhese fev minules amounl lo
anylhing of vaIue in lhe grealer scheme of lhe Ianel's age or lhe brief inhabilalion by D)1)
*2+'5:*` IrobabIy nol. CouId lhey heI lransIale lhe vorId via anolher medium, lhrough
anolher sense, lo resenl Iess famiIiar Iife-forms in anolher vay` IossibIy. Mighl lhey
conlribule lo biodiversily conservalion by increasing avareness and insiring emalhy` One
can onIy hoe. This requires raclicaI hoe. ResourcefuI hoe.

"&(35$ 86 @,(24'2 &,+)A,():

Iholograhing fungi is inherenlIy aboul lime. ScaIes of geoIogicaI lime lo fraclion-of-a-
second shuller seed lime, lo lhe in-belveen lime of lhe Iife of a mushroom. IhemeraIily.
Transience. Time lo find my vay from lhe foresl before darkness faIIs.
Iungi do nol fossiIise, al Ieasl nol very veII. The archivaI quaIily of digilaI images is
undelermined. Mosl fungi do nol have names. OnIy a handfuI aear on endangered secies
Iisls. Whal lraces viII lhese organisms Ieave`
Ierhas ve need nol vorry, as fungi are IikeIy lo be around, al Ieasl some secies, lo
decomose us Iong afler ve have given u assigning lhem names, oing lhem on Iisls, or
exisling ourseIves on lhe Ianel. Hovever, il vouId be nice if ve vere lo inhabil a
biodiverse Ianel a IillIe Ionger, lo aIIov lhese forms lo fIourish, lo make our Iives more
meaningfuI, and deIay seIf-nominalion for lhal disquieling Iisl.
ConlemIaling an infinile exanse of nolhingness afler dealh is a comeIIing and
comforling nolion. Knoving lhal my bones viII be sIovIy dismanlIed and dissoIved by fungi
adds lo lhal conviclion.
"('*): !)3(')/- ;(55/':< ='05*

136

"&(35$ 9. C,2/&3* s.

:/%$+
1. AIison IouIiol is an ecoIogisl and environmenlaI holograher.

137

At the End of the Day
Elizabeth Schultz

Drought-stricken, the forest is silent
this summer, birdless, its talismanic
Indian pipes dry stalks. The moss,
as always, creeps quietly, while
in stillness the fungus spreads
a gaudy efflorescence around
the rotting oak, and the spiders
weave on with relentless serenity.
A scarlet mushroom calls attention
to itself, blinking gently. Patiently
a slug consumes a poisonous amanita.
Languid lances of light softly slice up
the inner shadows, as dust motes
drift haphazardly across them.
A leaf twists downward, crashing
noiselessly on plush moss below.
At the end of the day, a tree will fall,
and it, too, will be soundless.

138

Claviceps
Amy Cutler

a malformation
of the rye, good for
night pain,

my frilly masses
a flesh drug

from the glumes
of ears,
a life
subject to rancidity:

my heart
an exudation
caused by the puncture of insects

139

Aspergillus in a Well-Loved Pillow
Caroline Hawkridge

All night
you breathe
my hyphae.

Your white blood cells seek,
then eat me; snip, stop
my stitch-up.

You wont face months
of coughing up buttons, dark
mucous plugs.

No x-rays for balls of my silks.
No drugs trying to heal where I left
all my needles.

140

when I was a mushroom
Susan Hawthorne

when I was a mushroom
life was simple
the world was dark and warm
and very safe

around me were fungal rhizomes
sprinklings of spores
the odd hard rock and root
and pliable soil

but I was offered advancement
progress, they said
to human form, and now in the light
I feel lost in darkness

so many troubles, wars, torture
economic collapse
I long for regress, to slip back
into the silence of the mushroom

141

Filamentous Fungi
Caroline Hawkridge

Each nib fine-inks
the unseen

ever-lengthening
corridors of chiton-glucan.

Watch new nibs sharpen,
paths square off and scratch

at tissue: lifes colour-wash,
hint of blood and rust, head

in the clouds and every breaths
two bags full.

142

Unexpected Visitors
Elizabeth Schultz

Unexpected visitors,
they tend to arrive
when you're not looking,
shoving blunt snouts
up from the dark loam,
blossoming into exotic
parasols and chalices.
Then they hang around,
close to the doorstep,
while you wish
you knew their names.

Unlike the tulips
and chrysanthemums
in your tidy garden,
you never plant
or plan for them,
and weeding them
away is fatuous.
It would be like
plucking dreams,
for their life's all
underground in webs.
Best just to welcome
them as you would
any familiar alien.

143

Chaga: An Eclogue in Fragments
John Charles Ryan

I.

strident winter light
cast on benevolents
canker charcoal outside
coffee hued inner

studding paper white
birch canopy sweet
carob bitter coffee stark
amidst cold lucidity

if trees are fount (have
font) is hieroglyph image
inscription of Betula bark
around amoebic conk.

II.

chucking roadside rocks
to dislodge clinkers from tops
in Adirondack autumn
swift missed the mark

smashing my own wind!
screen sighs of dismay resound
(hope the insurance will pay)
blame it on errant asteroids

this is no way to wildcraft
this is chaga and chaga resists
chaga is granite yields itself
only with deft patient tactile

precision breath on tarp grinding
ear of tinder fungus Inonotus
to taste sting of forest grain
infuse seeping spring the same.
144
III.

aggregation of jagged
angles an ironclad Janus
head a shamanic polypore
parasite a whisper: obliquus

not gangrenous stealer
but mycelial healer and
adaptogen ulcer stomach
soother of cancer rot

concrete mass hammered
to chunks to pieces to bits
reduced to dust in mortar
body of stone chaga resists

IV.

syllabus of silent signs heave
of forest then abrupt groaning limbs
under snow weight woof and weft
of barren lines shimmer then none

fire warmed first floor of three
a short-range aura pipes burst
toilet froze a mini skating rink
tho shower coffin steadywarm

stepping out youd turn blue
nose first eyelids lashes brows
spidering ice through capillaries
we wore six layers boots skull caps

even wind choked sauna wood wet
so respite only under covers
and the sparse stars of sleep and
deep dreams that that season knows.

V.

if trees are fonts (give
fount) as hieroglyph image
studding paper white
birch canopy sweet
John Ryan, Chaga
145

inscription of Betula bark
around amoebic conk
canker charcoal outside
coffee hued inner

carob bitter coffee stark
amidst cold lucidity
strident winter light
cast on benevolents.

146

Nature Morte
for Jane
Rachel Nisbet

At noon the painter enters the prison.
As she steps through the metal detector,
her glue, sequins, glitter, chalk, and crayons
drift by, translucent, cold under x-ray.
Her nude eyes and lips no make up today,
betray nothing as a panic buttons
tied around her slim waist. Cameras weigh
down on her; sirens hang overhead, mute.

Nine faces, pale as wood anemones,
wait to collage, to colour-in, and paint.
For one hour, they promise to be good as.
They sprinkle glitter like kids, brightening.

Lustre gleams, they illumine - if light chimed
a cathedral carillon could peel here:
Those eyes, luminous as luciferase
enzymes inside forest jack-o-lanterns
(light born as fungi rot dead wood, oak duff).
After, the men speak of wishes: a flower
from a hilltop; the postcard of an altar
housed below a distant chapel spire. Yes

shell slip a larkspur under the x-ray,
and with dark-adapted eyes search closely
for a glimmer in a tough, locked-down face,
gladdening at a flower, picked on a hill.

Rachel Nisbet, Nature Morte
147

Copy by Jane Le Besque of an anonymous prisoner's drawing

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"#$% "&'()*)+&,- #./'0'*1- $2/345 6)7 89- :98;

151
X,) #'%# Z*/*,2/ &,.)/$ 8$ 7$&1%)$7 ,.) #,#$6/ %),.27 % /6,9+ 5,2-*)$ ,2 %
&,,1 %-#$)2,,2 %# #'$ F,7<$N/ -*)$ &*)&1$= D*27+4 #,,4 8*#' 1,8 &1,.7/ /&.77*2<
5+: #'$ /6,9$ 51$8 $($)+8'$)$4 %27 #'$)$ 8%/ % 1,# ,- *#4 /, 8$ %11 8$2# #, ,.)
2$U# &1%//$/ /6$11*2< 1*9$ 8$N7 5$$2 &%6;*2< %11 8$$9= W'%# +$%) *# #.)2$7 ,.# "
'%7 E%*2\ @,1;'*2\ ^%<.%) K% >$U*&%2 8,6%2 8*#' J.*&',1 ),,#/4 8',/$ 7*/#%2#
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8$1&,6$7 *2#, #'$ &*)&1$=
D$ %1/, '%7 _)$%# C1.$ J$),2= B/ *# '%;;$2$74 8$ '%7 /$$2 % _)$%# C1.$ '$)$
%# #'$ 1%9$ 5$1,8 #'$ F,7<$4 ,2&$4 $%)1+ *2 #'$ #$)6= C.# /'$N7 2$($) 5$$2 5%&94
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"#$% "&'()*)+&,- #./'0'*1- $2/345 6)7 89- :98;

152
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%16,/# .25$%)%51$O

1
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/) ?5@'12A'65 /&5 B)4(C %27 D2.E /) F24/& T %/ 8$11 %/ 6%2+ %)#*&1$/4 6%*21+ ,2
$2(*),26$2#%1 ;'*1,/,;'+4 $#'*&/ %27 &)*#*&%1 #'*29*2<=


153
!" $%& '()$*)"+, -))$./*"$ *" 0%*"12
+"3 4,+5&2
6

7+22*() 8"1&,*"*
9

Ob|ecls, by definilion, usuaIIy are considered
inanimale and inerl: |usl maller, form, coIour and
funclion, vhich do nol conlain emolions even if lhey
can eIicil lhem. In lhemseIves, lhey carry neilher |oy
nor ain. Our gIance leIIs us lhal a hammer is |usl a
hammer, a enciI is grahile and vood and a dress is
cIolh, cul and sevn. Nobody, I lhink, harbours any
doubl lhal lhis is so and lhe maleriaI and
quanlilalive knovIedge of lhings lhal is lhe basis of
science educalion laughl al aII IeveIs of schooI
inlroduced us al a young age lo lhis vay of lhinking.
Anyone vho vouId cIaim lhal a hammer or a dress
carries emolions Iel aIone souI vouId easiIy be
laken for a madman or a |oker, and his vords vouId
be seen as exressions of madness, nonsense or
romanlicism.
Maybe lhis is so, bul lo roose an examIe in
a loy ul logelher by a chiId in Soulh-Iasl Asia, lied
lo a svealsho assembIy Iine in a silualion of dislress
and conslriclion, a loy made for lhe dislraclion and

154
en|oymenl of her veslern eers, does nolhing reaIIy
remain of lhal ain and conslriclion` Nol even a
gIimmer, an emolionaI foolrinl` Can vhal is born
in ain reaIIy offer dislraclion and fun` Lel me ask
once more: can lhis loy, buiIl by chiIdren forced lo
vork in condilions lhal are unaccelabIe lo us, bring
hainess lo lhe chiIdren of lhe richesl counlries
vilhoul carrying any lrace of lhal ain and
exIoilalion`
Again: vhal kind of Iighl can shine from lhe
diamonds mined in Soulh Africa under vioIenl
condilions, oflen by chiIdren vho can mosl easiIy
squeeze inlo lhe narrov mine-shafls` Is lhere a
reIalionshi belveen lhe souIIess, mass-roduced
ob|ecls and lhe rogressive deIelion of our being,
emlier and emlier and more and more encased in
a oIished sheII as il is (and I seak of us vho, in our
lurn, muIliIy images and oses, our behaviour
increasingIy seriaI, Iike Andy WarhoI holos)`
3
Is
lhere reaIIy any areciabIe difference belveen lhe
labIe crafled by my IocaI carenler and lhe one
resumabIy idenlicaI roduced by Ikea and cIoned
for lhe vhoIe vorId` I lhink lhal from lhis oinl of
viev, quile aarl from a socioIogicaI or economicaI
or humanilarian osilion
4
, lhe mass roduclion of
goods lhal is sveeing avay craflmanshi and lhe
reIocalion of lhis roduclion lo areas vhere Iabour is
Iess rolecled mighl encourage us lo relhink our

155
reIalionshi vilh lhe ob|ecls ve encounler and use in
everyday Iife. In Lalin, lhe verb pcn!crarc, "lo lhink"
is "lo veigh": can ve veigh vhal surrounds us`
In lhe Pnac!rus, IIalo suggesls, indicaling lhe
melahysicaI sace of ideas lo vhich everylhing
conforms, as a doubIe, lransIaling lhe essence inlo
exislence lhal ob|ecls are nol as inerl and vilhoul
lhal inlimale onloIogicaI nalure as cenluries of
maleriaIislic lraining have Ied us lo lhink (vilh
heavy reercussions on our sensilivily). And lhere is
amIe Iileralure on lhe souI of lhings, lhe vilaI siril
vilh vhich maller is imbued in lhe animislic
vorIdviev, vherein ob|ecls become lhe home of lhe
anceslors, as in lhe case of lhe sunangc in MaIaysia or
lhe scnangai, ils Indonesian anaIogue
5
.
ul il is nol aboul lhis lhal I vish lo laIk neilher
lhe refIeclion of lhe archelye in lhe henomenaI
vorId nor lhe animislic erseclive on lhe vorId
bul somelhing very differenl: somelhing simiIar lo
sIed lracks in lhe snov, or lhe fossiI casl of lhe
lriIobile in sandslone, or lhe myslerious, devaslaling
moIecuIes of suffering Iefl in lhe air by lhe assage of
animaIs heading for lhe sIaughlerhouse
6
, somelhing
erhas anaIogous vilh lhe hyolhesis ul forvard
by }acques envenisle in 1988 and, in recenl years, by
Luc Monlagnier, on lhe ossibiIily lhal valer kees
lrack of lhe eIemenls vilh vhich il has come inlo
conlacl
7
, or, again, somelhing simiIar lo lhe memory

156
of lhe asl of vhich ve meel lhe lracks in our
coIIeclive dreams
8
.
Is il ossibIe lhal maller in generaI, Iike valer in
lhe lheory roosed by }acques envenisle and,
Ialer, Luc Monlagnier, relains a fingerrinl, an
cnciicna| fingerrinl, of lhe manner and lhe
condilions in vhich il vas roduced, rocessed and
used`
The idea of an emolionaI charge resenl in lhings
has nol been successfuI in lhe hislory of lhoughl as il
has fIourished in our Wesl, erhas lhis idea needs a
IeveI of sensilivily lhal has yel lo be born. MeanvhiIe
lhere is a firsl gIimse of lhe lheme in lhe ages of
Ireya Malhevs, vho refIecled on lhe ob|ecls lhal
have served as erenniaI inslrumenls of lormenl in
our Iives for examIe, lhe falher's slra hanging on
lhe naiI behind lhe door, lhe barbvire fence
surrounding lhe camound, lhe bed of lhe unhay,
abusive marriage
9
. In lhe ansychisl viev she
roosed in |cinna|iiing |ca|iiq, aII ob|ecls, bolh
naluraI and manmade, even lhough lhey may be
damaging or harmfuI, by lhe mere facl of exislence,
have a Iace in our Iives and bring vilh lhem lraces
of feeIings and memories and lhis is enough for lhem
nol lo be considered comIeleIy searale from us or
indifferenl lo our veIfare.
To lreal vhalever exisls, vhelher Iiving or non-
Iiving, animaled or inerl, vilh care, vilh Iove, carries

157
ils siril aIong and creales resonances lhal do nol
disaear or become diIuled over lime and do nol
fade vilh increasing dislance. And lhis allilude can
vibrale chords in our choices and aIIov us lo decide
vhelher lo roduce and buiId lhings vilh care or
vilh indifference, vhelher lo surround ourseIves
vilh ob|ecls lhal leslify lo and communicale
crealivily and harmony or coercion and exIoilalion.
In reIalion lo eoIe, lhe idea of lhe emolionaI
foolrinl is easiIy underslood. Il is vhal conslilules
lhe slrongesl and mosl vilaI feeIings in lhe mind and
body, is vhal echoes from lrauma, from dreams and
fanlasies vhen lhey have Ieave an imacl in lhe
delhs of our being, il is vhal afler a bad frighl or
avesome image couId be read in lhe shae and
aearance of lhe nevborn, as vas acceled in lhe
scienlific vorId unliI lhe nineleenlh cenlury, and is
sliII knovn loday among lhe eoIe vho knov lhal
images enelrale lhe mind and imress lheir
imrinls, guide lhoughls and assions, arouse
emolions and lhal lhe mosl inlense emolions or
vioIence exerienced by molhers during regnancy
can Iead lo falaI consequences for lhe chiId in lhe
vomb
10
. IlhicaI sludies vilhin lhe heaIlh rofessions
and neuroscience begin lo laIk of lhe foolrinl lhal
can be Iefl in lhe synases of our neurons
11
, bul ve
can aIso add lhal lhe same emolionaI lraces form a
cenlraI iIIar in lhe conslruclion of lhe

158
sycholheraeulic reIalionshi. In lhis conneclion,
ve can gIimse lhe lraces of lhe lrauma in lhe
syche, bul never lhe ob|eclive foolrinl. The lraces
of lrauma are lhe means by vhich lhe alienl and lhe
anaIysl have lo lry lo reconslrucl lhe forgollen,
lraumalic asl
12
.
The emolionaI foolrinl al vork dee inside us is
exressed al lhe lhreshoIds vhere ve come inlo
conlacl vilh lhe vorId, so our face, our vrinkIes, bul
aIso our behavior can be read as lhe diary of lhe Iife
ve have knovn: a handshake recounls and reveaIs
more lhan a confession. Seen from lhis erseclive,
suffering seaks lhe Ianguage of lhe vioIence lhal
caused il, and by lhe suffering lhal ve feeI and lhal
ve aIso infIicl, ve exress and bear vilness lo lhe
vioIence ve have knovn and lhal has oisoned us
and vhich surrounds us: fear and aggression bear
vilness lo il. And aII lhal vioIence and suffering,
aIready so difficuIl lo gras consciousIy in olher
eoIe (vere lhis nol so, I Iike lo beIieve lhal ve
vouId shov much grealer allenlion and resecl in
our reIalionshis lhan is currenlIy lhe case), hov
much more difficuIl is il lo see in animaIs, Ianls,
and I ush myseIf lo lhe Iimils of vhal can be said
in ob|ecls` Il is increasingIy difficuIl because our
hearls are no Ionger caabIe of Iislening lo lhe vorId
lhal seaks lo us.
So vhen ve seak of ob|ecls, lhe seIf evidence of

159
lhe maller, aIready fraiI vilh reference lo eoIe,
shinks lo vanishing oinl . In lhe absence of such
evidence, lhe queslion remains vhelher lhere is any
difference belveen an ob|ecl manufaclured vilh a
cerlain resecl for lhe crealivily and ersonaIily of
lhe vorker and for a fair vage and a simiIar ob|ecl
roduced in a cIimale of coercion, anonymily and
exIoilalion, vhich is indeendenl of our ovn
individuaI sensilivily and of lhe informalion vhich
ve have aboul lhem. We can assume lhal, lo an
exlenl unknovn lo us, maller ilseIf is somehov
"aIive", and nol mereIy mulabIe and il is cerlainIy
mulabIe for il is sub|ecl lo erosion, decIine and decay
bul aIive, aIlhough inerl and unabIe lo move, and
somehov manages lo hoId and bear vilness lo lhe
emolions of lhose vilh vhom il came inlo conlacl,
lhose vho roduced il.
These are nol |usl rheloricaI queslions, because lhe
refIeclions behind lhem are nol connecled lo sociaI
oIicies or lo lhe elhics of reIalionshis (in lhal case, I
Iove lo imagine lhal lhe resonse vouId be shared
vilhoul loo much lreidalion) bul ralher lo lhe
onloIogicaI asecl of lhings, lheir inlimale nalure, lhe
vibralion lhal lhings send forlh aarl from lheir
aearance.
I am avare lhal in lhe conlexl of elhics and before
lhe queslion of lhe moraI Iegilimacy of choice in lhe
face of suffering, lhis lheme is a borderIine enquiry.

160

In order lo come cIoser lo lhe idea of lhe emolionaI
foolrinl imrinled in vhal is inerl, I vouId Iike lo
menlion lhe same foolrinl, bul vilh reference lo
Iaces, assuming lhal lhis ercelion is cIoser lo our
common exerience and, lherefore, more easiIy
communicabIe.
A Iace lhal has knovn an excelionaI measure of
suffering, suffering lhal vas nol lo be borne vilh a
Iighl hearl vilhoul laking refuge in desensilizalion
or sychosis, is saluraled in lhal suffering Iike a
songe fuII of valer or lhe smoker's cIolhes
imregnaled vilh smoke, or Iike lhe insuIl of vhich
lhe Ianguage of lhose vho laIk dovn lo eoIe is
redoIenl
13
.
I suose lhal lhis is lhe unsoken reason and nol
onIy for lhe insuIl lo memory vhy ve cannol vilh
imunily buiId an amusemenl ark in Auschvilz or
make a nighlcIub in lhe Ardealine caves. If ve did
nol assume lhe exislence of an emolionaI foolrinl in
lhings lhal Ieads us lo jcc| jcr naiicr, onIy indignalion
or brief memory vouId be lhere lo revenl such
sles. And memory is very shorl, if you Iook al hov
novadays lhe Iaces vhere NaoIeonic massacres
haened are seen as enlerlainmenl arks or Iaces
of lourislic inleresl, and hov ve, Iike chiIdren al a
carnivaI, organise mock reconslruclions of ballIes,
ignoring or forgelling lhal lhose Iaces vere lhe

161
scenes of a huge sIaughler over a frenzy for emire
lhal Ied lo a dealh loII in Iuroe comarabIe lo lhe
Armenian genocide or lhe SlaIin urges. The
memory is sIighl, maniuIabIe and ehemeraI:
somelimes il Iasls no Ionger lhan lhe memory of a
dream uon vaking, somelimes il Iasls Ionger bul
onIy al lhe rice of making a caricalure of vhal ve
vouId Iike lo ass on, |usl Iike lhe memories of our
youlh, correcled and urified by lime.
Or eIse onIy lhe emolion, lhe anger slays vilh us,
vhich, lhrough a Iace or an ob|ecl, makes Iain lhe
ersonaI slance on righl and vrong. ul as Iong as il
is ersonaI and nol shared as a common herilage and
coIIecliveIy refIecled on over lime, lhe osilion on
righl and vrong is ehemeraI, as ehemeraI as
memory, as lhe sub|eclive evaIualion of vhal is
good, lrue and beaulifuI. When emolions are nol
grafled onlo lhe Iasling and common slock of
underslanding, lhey foIIov lhe ebb and fIov of lime,
lhe fashions of lhe momenl, and have no more
veighl lhan an oinion, no more slrenglh lhan a
oinl of viev.


162

1
TransIalion revised by Ilain Addey.
2
Massimo AngeIini hoIds a doclorale in Urban and
RuraI Hislory. His book, Ic Mcratig|ic !c||a Gcncrazicnc.
Vcg|ic Maicrnc, Nasciic Siracr!inairc c |npcsiurc nc||a
Sicria !c||a Cu|iura c !c| Pcnsicrc Mc!icc (sccc|i XV-X|X),
vas ubIished by Mimesis in MiIano, IlaIy in 2012.
3
Wilh reference lo lhe media and enlerlainmenl sociely,
Marc IumaroIi caIIs lhis seriaIily lauloIogy, IabeIIing
il lhe rudderIess hammer of ersuasive markeling
cacohony, a shuddering mechanism Iike a machine
gun, vhich has become lhe vinning lechnique in every
conlemorary miIilary slralegy. See Marc IumaroIi
(2009), Paris - Ncu Ycrk ci rcicur, Iayard, Iaris.
4
The deslruclive side effecls of seriaI roduclion on
conviviaIily are anaIysed by Ivan IIIich (1978), Tcuar!s
a Hisicrq cj Ncc!s, Ianlheon ooks, Nev York.
5
Kirk I. Indicoll (1970), An Ana|qsis cj Ma|aq Magic,
Universily Iress, Oxford: 47, M. Cameron Hay (2004)
|cncn|cring ic |itc. |||ncss ai inc |nicrscciicn cj Anxiciq
an! Kncu|c!gc in |ura| |n!cncsia, Universily of
Michigan Iress, 143-144.
6
Susanna Tamaro (2011), I|sc|a cnc cc. || ncsirc Tcnpc,
||ia|ia, i ncsiri |ig|i, Lindau, Torino, .131-132.
7
}acques envenisle (2005), Ma Vcriic sur |a Mcncirc !c
||au, A. MicheI, Iaris, Luc Monlagnier el aI. (2011),
'DNA Waves and Waler', jcurna| cj Pnqsics,
Conferences Series, 306, 012007.
8
On coIIeclive dreams: HeImul Hark (1985), Ocr Traun
a|s Gciics Vcrgcsscnc Spracnc, WaIler VerIag, OIlen.
Hark's osilions exIicilIy refer lo lhe Iaying dovn of

163

memory in lhe coIIeclive unconscious as lheorised by
CarI G. }ung in CarI G. }ung, Scpicn Scrncncs a!
Mucrics, in Ii|cr Nctus (Tnc |c! Bcck), IhiIemon
Ioundalion and W.W. Norlon & Co. 2009.
9
Ireya Malhevs (2005), |cinna|iiing rca|iiq. Tcuar!s a
rccctcrq cj cu|iurc, SUNY, AIbany, . 210 (nole 12).
10
Massimo AngeIini (2012), Ic Mcratig|ic !c||a
Gcncrazicnc. Vcg|ic Maicrnc, Nasciic Siracr!inairc c
|npcsiurc nc||a Sicria !c||a Cu|iura c !c| Pcnsicrc Mc!icc
(sccc|i XV-X|X), Mimesis, MiIano.
11
Roberlo AIfieri (2010), I|!ijicazicnc !c||a Ccscicnza.
appcrii !c||c Ncurcscicnzc pcr un Scrtizic Saniiaric
|iicancnic |cn!aic, 'RifIessioni Sislemiche', 3: 111-121,
. 117.
12
AIberlo Luchelli (2009), || Trauna c |a sua |nprcnia. Pcr
una |nicrpunzicnc, in Aa. Vv., Iinprcnia !c| irauna. Sui
|iniii !c||a sin|c|izzazicnc, ed. Cenlro IsicoanaIilico di
Roma, I. AngeIi, MiIano.
13
We knov lhal by using aIIusion, one can be vuIgar and
insuIling vilhoul ever using lhe acluaI vords of insuIl
or in|ury.
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<&5 =)0'6> ?)4(@
:
- my mosl recenl book of oems vhich aeared in 2011, is
mainIy focused on lhe exerience of medilalion. This is a fieId of exerience
vhose nalure, and vhose reIalionshi lo olher sheres of human aclivily and
lhoughl is comIex, oflen conlesled, and oflen sub|ecl lo ouIar
misconcelions. In lhis essay I vouId Iike lo cIarify a IillIe my ovn aroach lo
such issues in <&5 =)0'6> ?)4(@. In arlicuIar, I vouId Iike lo commenl on lhe
mind/body dicholomy as seen from a medilalor's erseclive, lhe reIalionshi
belveen medilalion's vay of knoving, via medilalive concenlralion (*212@&'), as
againsl arl's usuaI vay of knoving via lhe imaginalion, lhe robIem of
communicalion and Ianguage in reIalion lo medilalion
exerience, medilalion's erseclive on lhe seIf, and lhe vay lhal lhis reIales lo
dominanl cuIluraI moods and narralives, and finaIIy, lhe vay lhal aII of lhis
secificaIIy reIales lo lhe AuslraIian scene, arlicuIarIy vilh regard lo lhe
lensions belveen Indigenous and sellIer cuIlure.
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165
Il is for olhers, of course, lo seak aboul vhal lhe oems do or do nol achieve.
I can onIy oulIine vhal my rinciIes and asiralions are. And I do so more in
lhe mode of a ersonaI refIeclion lhan an academic essay, in order lo give a sense
of hov exerience, ideas and arlislic raclice converged in my case.
Iurlhermore, I am nol analomizing a rogram lhal I had vhen comosing lhe
oems of <&5 =)0'6> ?)4(@. Ralher, I am making observalions vilh lhe benefil of
hindsighl, and aIso vilh lhe benefil of reading I have done since lhe book vas
finished, arlicuIarIy in lhe areas of ecoIogy, animism and ansychism. The
oems lhemseIves are lhe resuIl, as I lake il mosl oems are, of lhe alleml lo
give exression lo exerience vhich has slruck me vilh exlraordinary force, and
I broughl lo bear vhalever arlislic and inleIIecluaI resources I had al my disosaI
al lhe lime of comosilion.

< =#>&33&$&
The oems in <&5 =)0'6> ?)4(@ are aImosl aII lhe roducl of lhe Iasl len years
of my Iife, since I Iearnl hov lo sil in Viassana medilalion. Viassana is a vord
from lhe IaIi Ianguage meaning insighl. In lhe Viassana medilalion lradilion
(lhe Iineage of U a Khin) il aIso refers secificaIIy lo lhe medilalion lechnique
laughl by Siddallha Golama, vho Ialer became knovn as a uddha, or fuIIy
enIighlened erson, in India around 2,500 years ago. Viassana is lherefore
connecled vilh lhe uddha, bul Viassana raclilioners do nol necessariIy
idenlify as uddhisls. In facl any hinl of seclarianism is analhema lo Viassana
medilalors, vhose concern Iies vilh universaI quaIilies of lhe human mind and
condilion. I loo vouId avoid lhe IabeI uddhisl as far as il carries lhose
reIigious and seclarian overlones, lhough lhe lerm seems aImosl imossibIe lo
avoid, and in many vays nol much lo vorry aboul. This silualion vouId
obviousIy need lo be aroached differenlIy if one vere Iiving in a counlry, such
as India, in vhich lhere vas acluaI confIicl belveen organized uddhism and
olher organized reIigions.
The medilalion lechnique of Viassana invoIves focusing lhe mind on lhe
sensalions, or hysicaI feeIings, conlinuaIIy occurring in lhe body, ordinary
sensalions such as heal, ressure, lingIing, and so on. The aim is lo deveIo one's
concenlralion lo lhe oinl vhere il is so sleady and enelraling, lhal lhe
subslanceIessness of lhe sensalions, lheir conlinuaI slale of arising and assing
avay, becomes evidenl and aIabIe. This invoIves an efforl lo kee lhe mind on
lhe sensalions, and bring il back lo lhem vhenever il vanders avay. Il aIso
invoIves an efforl lo remain equanimous lovards lhe sensalions: if lhey are
Ieasanl, one lries nol lo crave lhem, and if unIeasanl, nol lo hale lhem. The aim
is lo observe, lo exerience, non-|udgmenlaIIy, in order lo gel beyond lhe knee-
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166
|erk reaclions lo and convenlionaI ercelions of sensalions, so lhal lheir more
sublIe quaIily of imermanence can be arehended.
Why lake bodiIy sensalions as lhe medilalion ob|ecl` There are lvo main
ansvers lo lhis, one more secific and one more generaI. IirslIy, according lo
observalions, allribuled lo Golama, aboul lhe causaI Iinks in lhe rocess of
ercelion and cognilion, sensalions Iay lhe roIe of a kind of missing Iink.
Thal is, vhenever our minds encounler an exerience, eilher from vilhin as a
lhoughl or memory, or from oulside as a sensory ercelion, a sensalion arises
somevhere in lhe body A5B)45 ve rocess lhe encounler in any olher vay. We
lhen iniliaIIy reacl lo lhis sensalion, ralher lhan direclIy lo lhe evenl ilseIf. If lhe
sensalion is unIeasanl, ve reacl vilh aversion lovards il and lhe evenl, and
vice-versa. ul ve have robabIy been unavare of lhe roIe lhe sensalion has
Iayed in our reaclion. The sensalions can be very sublIe, ve are nol on lhe
Iookoul for lhem, and yel al a dee and earIy slage our minds have regislered
lhem and ve have reacled accordingIy.
To give a couIe of rudimenlary examIes: if ve miss lhe lram, ve may
exerience a rush of unIeasanl sensalions, such as ressure in lhe head, heal,
and so on. Such sensalions may give us, even if lemorariIy, an over-infIaled
sense of lhe evenl's imorlance. A more serious case mighl be vhen a erson acls
lovards us in a vay vhich ve erceive as vrong, and harmfuI nol onIy lo
ourseIves bul aIso lo olher eoIe cIose lo us. If in lhis case ve reacl slrongIy lo
lhe unIeasanl sensalions, ve may in facl creale more harm aII round, by furlher
exacerbaling and exosing confIicl. eyond lhe ersonaI, sensalions aIso occur,
lhough erhas on a more sublIe IeveI, in reIalion lo ideas. So lhal one's vhoIe
vorId-viev may lo some exlenl be heId in Iace by a comIex of binary,
sensalion-originaled resonses.
The focus on becoming more avare of, and equanimous lovards sensalions,
lhen, is aimed al achieving grealer underslanding and conlroI of our reaclions.
Connecling lhis lo lhe broader buddhislic ro|ecl vilh vhich many have al Ieasl
a assing famiIiarily - lhal of aIIevialing suffering - brings in lhe more generaI
ansver. ObviousIy, having grealer avareness of and conlroI over reaclions viII
heI in avoiding lhe suffering broughl aboul by iII-|udged, or knee-|erk reaclions.
ul beyond lhis, lhe reaIizalion of imermanence, exerienced via lhe sensalions,
is a vay lo lhe reaIizalion of lhe imermanence and subslanceIessness of lhe seIf
as a vhoIe, and of lhe enlire fieId of mind and maller. Once lhe seIf is
exerienced in lhis vay, lhen lhe suffering lo vhich lhe seIf is generaIIy sub|ecl
begins lo be ameIioraled. When lhe seIf conceives of ilseIf as soIid and lhe onIy
ground, il craves exeriences vhich are Ieasanl lo il, and hales lhose vhich are
nol. This uls il in a conslanl slale of craving and aversion a conslanl slale of
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167
discomforl, unsalisfacloriness, suffering, generaIIy knovn as @3CC&2 in IaIi. This
silualion is radicaIIy aIlered vhen one is in ossession of lhe reaIizalion lhal bolh
lhe seIf, and vhal il craves or hales, are ehemeraI and subslanceIess. Suffering
is addressed al ils rool.

? 8"-#(&(#,$
I have given onIy a very brief skelch of Viassana, and have no doubl
rovoked more queslions lhan I have ansvered. A fuIIer accounl can of course
be found eIsevhere. I vouId Iike, hovever, lo eIaborale a IillIe on medilalion in
generaI lerms, and lry lo address some common misconcelions aboul il.
Medilalion is somelimes vieved as being somehov againsl lhe body, againsl
lhe Iife of lhe senses, and againsl a arlicialory orienlalion in generaI. Iven
lhough one of lhe ma|or evenls in lhe slory of Golama is his 45D5./')6 of ascelic
exlremes as an effeclive alh, lhis misconcelion is very lenacious. Il is aided by
lhe slubborn oId duaIism of mind / body. Thal is, if lhere is onIy mind over
againsl body, lhen medilalors, in lheir raclice, musl be lrying lo move from
body inlo mind, since lhere is novhere eIse lo go, lo escae from aII of lhe
hysicaI reaIilies of Iife. y lhis lhinking, medilalive raclice can be disaraged
as uloian and ascelic and nay-saying, and so on. ul if lhe duaIislic remise is
removed, lhe medilalor can be vieved as exIoring conneclions and exansions
of Iife, bolh menlaI and hysicaI. Ralher lhan lhe medilalive ro|ecl being
considered as an alleml lo deny or avoid Iife's maleriaI condilions, il becomes
one of recognizing, acknovIedging and exIoring lhem, of inlegraling one's
conscious being vilh lhe reaIily of lransience, incIuding dealh. Il is in lhis vay
lhal suffering may be aIIevialed - by reducing one's ereluaI deniaI of and
resislance lo hysicaI condilions, and gaining some insighl inlo lhose condilions,
ralher lhan by somehov conlriving lo avoid lhem.
Medilalion, al Ieasl as I knov and raclice il, is nol a |ourney avay from lhe
vorId or olher eoIe or nalure. Il is a |ourney inlo lhe hearl of nalure, and inlo
lhe reaIily and source of one's ovn connecledness. And medilalion is nol a
re|eclion of lhe senses, bul a re-ercelion of sensory exerience (Viassana
medilalion, for examIe, as I have said, concenlrales on lhe sense of louch, as il
allends lo bodiIy sensalion). Nor is medilalion delachmenl from lhe vorId, in
lhe vay lhal a negalive underslanding of lhal vord vouId suggesl, as an
indifference, a coIdness or unresonsiveness. Il is onIy delachmenl from lhe
narrov version of lhe vorId, lhe suerficiaI ercelion, vhich lhe smaII seIf
gives us, of a vorId vhich is comosed of slalic discrele ob|ecls and crealures
vhich are oulside of us, and vhich are lo be |udged according lo hov lhey
gralify or do nol gralify lhe smaII seIf's references. Medilalion enabIes
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168
delachmenl from lhis in order lo aIIov a re-engagemenl on a deeer IeveI, a
deeer sense of being and connecledness. Medilalion is nol a relreal inlo seIf, bul
a vay oul of il via lhis roule of one's ovn conneclivilies. And medilalion is nol
anli-inluilive, going againsl naluraI knovIedge vilh conlrived disciIines of
ercelion: il is, ralher, a raclice lo foreslaII and reslrain reconcelion and
habil lo relurn lo lhe freshness of ercelion ralher lhan ersisl in lhe slaIeness
of habiluaI reaclion.

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The rafl of reconcelions vhich can Iimil and dislorl a erson's viev of lhe
medilalive ro|ecl may aIso be al vork in arlislic arehensions of il. In a recenl
essay deaIing vilh }udilh everidge's oem-sequence aboul lhe uddha's Iife
elveen lhe IaIace and lhe odhi Tree
3
, I argue lhal everidge's lrealmenl of
Golama lends lo inverl his slory, so lhal he becomes a figure vho embodies lhe
eIusiveness and imIausibiIily of lranscendence, ralher lhan ils achievabiIily.
4

This, I argue, occurs because everidge uses lhe imaginalion lo arehend lhe
slory, ralher lhan lhe medilalive facuIly of *212@&', or concenlralion. The
imaginalion oerales vilh lhe fundamenlaI ground of seIf and ils silualion
unrevised by lhe aIlernalive erseclive afforded by *212@&'7 This roduces a
nolion of lranscendence as a uloia conslrucled by lhe imagining seIf's
erfecling of lhe suosedIy given vorId's imerfeclions. The oelic queslion
has lherefore been begged, in lhe sense of resuming vhal one is meanl lo be
eslabIishing. Golama's ursuil of a uloian lranscendence, in everidge's version
of lhe slory, is inlrinsicaIIy fuliIe, and lhe IoyaIlies of lhe narraling seIf imagining
lhe slory remain, on an imIicil IeveI, firmIy vilh lhe imerfecl vorId.
In discussing everidge's oems, my concIuding remarks are lhal imaginalive
orlrayaIs are nol lo be derided or dismissed. They comIemenl lradilionaI,
*212@&'-informed versions, lhough il shouId be recognized lhal by lhemseIves
lhey are radicaIIy inadequale. The vay lhal I viev my ovn, *212@&'-infIuenced
oelry in <&5 =)0'6> ?)4(@ in reIalion lo olher oelry is simiIar. I do feeI lhal lhe
erseclive afforded by *212@&' is vilaI lo a fuIIer iclure of lhe human
condilion, bul lhal lhis does nol devaIue non *212@&'- based oelry: lhey are
comIemenlary. This does nol revenl lhe observalion, hovever, lhal a greal
deaI of oelry, for aII of ils lechnicaI skiII and undeniabIe beauly and insighl,
does adhere lo an onloIogicaI and eislemoIogicaI slory-Iine of sorls very much
simiIar lo everidge's in elveen lhe IaIace and lhe odhi Tree. One knovs
vhal is going haen from lhe oulsel: lhe vorId of lhe senses is going lo vin
oul over vhal is conceived as lhe uIlimaleIy emly, iIIusory allraclions of lhe
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169
mind or siril. Here is Tracy Ryan's descrilion, for examIe, of lhe HeIoise
and AbeIard slory, vhich fealures in her recenl coIIeclion <&5 #4>3156/:
5

I vas reading lhe Iellers of HeIoise and AbeIard, vho vere reaI-Iife Iovers
in lhe 12lh cenlury and horribIy searaled, evenluaIIy becoming a nun
and a monk. He urges her lo renounce lheir former Iove, a very hysicaI
affair, she argues for hanging on lo every delaiI! The argumenl belveen
lhem seemed very much a lussIe belveen an earlhy zesl for Iife and a
resigned, siriluaI dealh-vish.
6

Thal slrange hrase siriluaI dealh-vish is a sign of lhe robIem. If lhe
siriluaI vere crediled vilh any reaIily and vaIidily, lhe hrase vouId become
oxymoronic. ul il isn'l, from lhe oulsel, and so lhe hrase roceeds vilhoul
embarrassmenl. WhiIe lhis famiIiar, binarislic slory is cerlainIy of inleresl and
vaIue on cerlain IeveIs, il does lend lo rehearse lhe slandoinls of a arlicuIar,
dominanl hiIosohicaI / aeslhelic cuIlure, and yel may be heard as cIaiming lo
reresenl a comrehensive, ralher lhan vhal I vouId see as a radicaIIy arliaI,
viev.
The use of medilalive concenlralion ralher lhan imaginalion in <&5 =)0'6>
?)4(@, lhen, as lhe source of ils exerience and ils vay of knoving, I vouId see
as ils mosl imorlanl dislinguishing fealure, and lhe characlerislic vhich mosl
confers lhe olenliaI for ils oems lo be innovalive in a genuineIy radicaI sense. I
lhink lhal one of lhe many debales vhich <&5 =)0'6> ?)4(@ can lhereby be seen
as enlering, is lhal vhich asks vhal is meanl by innovalive and "radicaI. To
vhal exlenl shouId nevness, lhe radicaI, for examIe, be a maller of lechnique,
ideoIogy, or of exerienliaI discovery`
Il may be ob|ecled lhal lhe dislinclion I am draving here belveen imaginalive
insighl and medilalive insighl, or *212@&'- is ilseIf lending lovards lhe duaIislic.
Thal is nol my inlenlion. I don'l cIaim lo knov fuIIy hov lhese lvo facuIlies
oerale and reIale lo each olher. I susecl lhal lhey are on some kind of
conlinuum, as mosl lhings are. My inlenlion is onIy lo drav allenlion lo
*212@&''s arlicuIar alilude for seeing beyond convenlionaI exeriences of lhe
seIf, lhough I don'l necessariIy deny lhal in some cases lhe imaginalion may
share lhis alilude. I cerlainIy do nol, lhen, vish lo creale yel anolher adversariaI
duaIism, or lo disarage lhe imaginalion.
To drav uon medilalive concenlralion, hovever, does mean lhal many
erseclives diclaled by lhe seIf, ils duaIisms and ils reconcelions, are oen lo
revision, and lhal nev exerienliaI ossibiIilies are oened u. Ior examIe, as I
have aIIuded lo earIier, lhe inevilabiIily of lhe lragic viev may be chaIIenged.
ConvenlionaI ideas aboul lhe Iimils and ossibiIilies of lhe human condilion may
break dovn. SimiIarIy, ma|or oelic orienlalions may be invesligaled from a nev
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170
erseclive. Romanlicism, cIassicism and oslmodernism, for examIe, may aII
be lhrovn inlo a differenl reIief. The exIoralion of such issues in delh is lhe
rovince of olher essays lhan lhis. To give a very brief examIe, hovever, ve
couId lake Wordsvorlh's MulabiIily, in vhich he refers lo lhe unimaginabIe
louch of lime. WeII, lime's louch may be un'12>'62A(5, bul is il un+54.5'02A(5`
The oems of <&5 =)0'6> ?)4(@ alleml, reciseIy, lo exress lhe vonder of
having exerienced, via lhe facuIly of samadhi, |usl lhal - lhe rofound slirrings
of imermanence. In facl, in lhe firsl arl of my oem Iresence (18) -
The vay you can feeI your body
lhough il is nol being louched: Iike lhe hand
of exislence resling on you.
lhe hand couId veII be read as a refulalion of Wordsvorlh's asserlion in
"MulabiIily", lhough I did nol have il secificaIIy in mind. Medilalive
concenlralion, lhen, rovides an aIlernale source of oelic exerience. In lhis
vay, lhe oelry of <&5 =)0'6> ?)4(@ does nol exhibil vhal lhe crilic Slehen url
has caIIed, in reIalion lo some oslmodern oelry, lhe alhos of uncerlain
eislemoIogies
7
. WhiIsl nol cIaiming cerlainly, il lends lo ceIebrale
eislemoIogies found, ralher lhan Iamenl lhose Iosl. I viII relurn lo lhe sub|ecl of
oslmodernism a IillIe Ialer.

B 8#$-/ 8&(("6 &$- !"#$%&'#(&(#,$
One of lhe mosl imorlanl revisions afforded by lhe facuIly of samadhi, lhen,
is lhal mind / body duaIism does nol hoId, nor bIock lhe vay lovards an
adequale arehension of lhe human condilion. I am nol asserling lhal
medilalors are lhe onIy ones vho can knov lhis, bul lhal il is a ivolaI and
overfuIIy direcl exerience in Viassana medilalion. I vouId Iike nov lo bring
inlo my discussion lhe vork of Ireya Malhevs, vhose hiIosohicaI vrilings are
focused on lhe imIicalions of overcoming lhe mind / body, or more broadIy, lhe
mind / maller dicholomy. Malhevs's mosl recenl book E5'6&2A'/'6> E52('/,
F

exIores lhe rocess of reinhabilalion, a radicaIIy differenl vay of being in and
reIaling lo one's surroundings, bolh human-made and naluraI. This becomes
ossibIe, according lo Malhevs, vhen lhe greal duaIislic remise of modern
civiIizalion: lhere is nolhing akin lo mind in basic maller is ul aside. Thal is,
vhen ve slo dividing lhe vorId inlo lhe Iiving and lhe non-Iiving. Making such
a move, says Malhevs, is lo re|ecl lhe viev lhal ve and olher beings Iike us in
resecl of ralionaIily or erhas senlience, are lhe soIe Iocus of menlaIily, and
lhal lhe resl of lhe coIorfuI, variegaled, leeming vorId lhal ve see and hear,
lasle and louch around us is nolhing bul emly maller or hysicaIily,
conceluaIIy drained of any meaning-giving rinciIe.
9

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171
The hiIosohicaI lerm vhich Malhevs uses lo name lhe aIlernalive lo lhis
modern duaIislic maleriaIism is ansychism, lhe viev vhich reslores lo
maller a sychisl or menlaIislic dimension.
10
Malhevs exIains lhal aIlhough
such a viev may be caricalured as lhe roosilion lhal maleriaI ob|ecls, such as
chairs and dinner Iales and lennis baIIs, are aIso sub|ecls, or cenlers of
sub|eclivily, in reaIily il ascribe|sj menlaIily lo lhese ob|ecls as an asecl of
lheir maleriaIily er se ralher lhan characlerizing lhese ob|ecls as necessariIy
individuaI sub|ecls in lheir ovn righl.
11
No laIking Iam-osls, lhen, bul a
maleriaI vorId vhose resence and dynamics and overs ve allend lo vilhoul
having aIready disquaIified lhem from lhal henomenon ve caII Iife.
The ansychisl, lhen, exeriences lhe universe as bolh One, a fieId of
sub|eclivily, vhich aIso differenliales inlo a Many, a manifoId of individuaI
sub|ecls. The sub|eclivaI dimension of lhis universe renders il an arena nol
mereIy for causaIily bul for communicalion.
12
Once ansychism is embraced,
one may inhabil lhe vorId in lhe very differenl manner of arlicialing in ils Iife,
ralher lhan being excIuded by lhe assumlion lhal one's menlaI being is isoIaled
in ils olherness from lhe inerl, obIivious maleriaIily of one's surroundings. A
diaIogue vilh hysicaI Iace becomes ossibIe, and lhe reIalionshi vilh Iand
and IocaIe, bolh naluraI and buiIl, is radicaIIy changed, deeened and enIivened.
ImmedialeIy lhal I encounlered Malhevs's vork, a IillIe vhiIe afler lhe
comIelion of <&5 =)0'6> ?)4(@, I recognised a conceluaI exIicalion of my
ovn exerience, and Malhevs' confirmalion of lhis vas |usl as immedialeIy
forlhcoming. Under lhe sleadied observalion of medilalion, lhe mind / body
dicholomy dissoIves, and lhe very move vhich Malhevs orlrays in conceluaI
form occurs on a deeIy exerienliaI IeveI. MaleriaIism is given lhe Iie, and one
begins lo reinhabil lhal cIosesl of maleriaI Iaces, lhe body, vhich is soon
arehended as being far from lhe dead oosile of one's senlienl being, bul
slrangeIy conlinuous vilh il. Il is lhe |ourney lo lhis vondrous reaIizalion lhal
Tim Iarks's book aboul his ovn discovery of Viassana, <52.& G* /) H'/ H/'((
8;
-
aIso recounls.
Iurlhermore, lhe observalion of lhe body in medilalion, in cuIlivaling a
susension of habiluaI reaclions and reconcelions lovards il, lhereby aIIovs
lhe kind of diaIogue lo vhich Malhevs refers, aIIovs an allending vhich is
recelive lo vhal our fIesh begins lo leII us aboul lhe myslerious nalure of our
embodied being. Thus a diaIogue begins vilh our ovn fIesh, |usl as Malhevs
says lhal a diaIogue can begin vilh lhe fIesh of lhe vorId, lo borrov a hrase
from MerIeau-Ionly.
The dissoIulion of lhe mind / maller dicholomy, lhen, in medilalion, is
achieved nol by means of raliocinalion, bul lhrough a hysico-menlaI
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172
exerience, a coming lo knov in vhich one's vhoIe being arliciales. Il is lo
lhis kind of knoving, and lhe radicaI lhough naluraI-seeming aIleralions lo one's
erseclive, lhal lhe oems of <&5 =)0'6> ?)4(@ endeavour lo bear vilness. They
vanl lo affirm, vilh exhiIaralion and gralilude, lhe arlicialion of mind in
maller, or lo use more oelic lerms, and lo invoke lhe image on lhe cover of my
revious book I).3*'6> H2/346- lhe reunion of lhe souI and lhe body (lhough
medilalors, of course, have Ienly of robIems vilh lhal vord 'souI'...)

C DE#$)#$) 5>F
Afler recenlIy reading Deborah ird Rose's very overfuI ?'(@ J)>
J4521'6>
8K
- I became slrongIy dravn lo lhe hrase singing u, as a vay of
describing, in hindsighl, vhal my oems in <&5 =)0'6> ?)4(@ are doing: singing
u lhe body. This is because il seems lo refer lo a caIIing inlo consciousness, an
acknovIedgmenl and reminder of connecledness, a volary, |oyfuI and deeIy
reseclfuI ceIebralion of sacred sources of human exislence and veII-being. I
acknovIedge, of course, lhal my underslanding of lhe lerm is from lhe dislance
of my very differenl cuIluraI background. I aIso recognize lhal my menlioning
lhe lerm is romled by a desire lo voice a recognilion of, and lo decIare a
soIidarily vilh, Indigenous cuIlure. Iurlhermore, lhere is IillIe exIicil reference
in <&5 =)0'6> ?)4(@ lo Indigenous cuIlure (one excelion is IIag 50), because
lhe book is fuIIy occuied in arlicuIaling resonses lo medilalive exerience
ilseIf. In my revious books, Indigenous issues are lhe cenlraI concern of oems
such as The Abos are so HoeIess, The Rainmaker, and AoIogy of lhe Ten
Iound Tourisl from Grimsby, in L)@,MB(215
8N
- and Hanging Rock, In lhe
Shack, Al Ubirr, Iosler, and Al OeneIIi in I).3*'6> H2/346
8O
. Yel lhe
conneclion of lhe vork in <&5 =)0'6> ?)4(@ lo Indigenous cuIlure is, I beIieve,
reaI and imorlanl. This conneclion consisls in lhe vay lhal lhe dissoIulion of lhe
mind / maller dicholomy Ieads direclIy lo lhe orienlalion of animisl and lolemic
cuIlures, such as lhal of indigenous AuslraIians. Once lhe cornerslone, as
Malhevs caIIs il, of modern maleriaIism is removed, lhe vay is oened lo a
radicaI reconslruclion of one's vorId-viev, and a genuine underslanding of
animism. Il becomes ossibIe lo sle oul of a vorId divided inlo crealures and
mere ob|ecls.
The characlers, crealures and evenls of lhe animisl, mylhic vorId have aIvays
exercised a fascinalion over me, yel had neverlheIess remained a IillIe grainy,
shadovy, seen as lhey inevilabIy vere lhrough lhe fiIlers of my emiricisl-
ralionaIisl educalion. I remember Iooking al a recenl ainling of Namarrgon lhe
Iighlning man, for examIe, in a gaIIery in GunbaIanya, before I had Iearned lo
medilale and before I had done much reading aboul animism and ansychism.
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173
I vas slruck by lhe uller aulhenlicily and vilaIily of lhe figure, and I lhoughl: lhis
is nol lhe deiclion of a figure from a asl, dead mylhoIogy, lhis is aIive,
overfuI and significanl: bul hov is such reaIily lo be cIassified and inlegraled,
bolh on a ersonaI and a cuIluraI IeveI` (I refer lo lhis iclure in lhe oem Al
GunbaIanya in I).3*'6> H2/346).
SubsequenlIy, medilalion gave me firsl hand exerience of lhe mind-maller
conlinuum, and overlurned many of my former cuIluraI assumlions. Yel lhese
insighls al firsl seemed al somelhing of a remove, and difficuIl lo reconciIe vilh
olher areas of my inleresl and exerience. IinaIIy, lhe Iucid exIicalions of
vrilers Iike Malhevs, IIumvood and ird-Rose, heIed lo faciIilale a synlhesis
of my various invesligalions and inleresls on lhe conceluaI IeveI.
A IillIe furlher back in AuslraIia's sellIer inleIIecluaI hislory, ve find lhe greal
anlhrooIogisl WIH Slanner vriling as foIIovs:

In our modern underslanding, ve lend lo see mind and body,
body and siril.as in some sense searale, even oosed, enlilies
lhough ve manage lo connecl lhem u in some fashion inlo lhe unily or
oneness of erson or individuaI. The bIackfeIIov does nol seem lo
lhink lhis vay. The dislincliveness ve give lo mind, siril and
body, and our conlrasl of body 054*3* siril are nol lhere, and lhe
vhoIe nolion of lhe erson is enIarged.
17

G E"2H
The enIargemenl of lhe erson, as Slanner uls il, is a cenlraI concern of my
vork. As I say in my refalory remarks in I).3*'6> H2/346, for examIe, lhe
oems aim al faciIilaling a kind of disenlangIemenl vhere lhe ego may be
dislinguished from ils circumslances. The desired oulcome is nol searaleness
bul lhe discIosure of a differenlIy energised arlicialion. NearIy aII of our
cuIlure's concIusions aboul lhe human condilion are redicaled on lhe Iimiled
seIf, lhe individuaI vho has onIy a shorl vhiIe lo Iive, a shorl vhiIe lo ransack
lhe vorId for as much consoIalion for his isoIaled and doomed exislence as
ossibIe. Il is my viev lhal, desile aII of lhe benefils vhich modern civiIizalion
has conferred, aIong vilh lhe comforls has come a greal diminulion, vilhering,
conlraclion of our being inlo lhe smaII seIf. Il is nol my inlenlion, hovever, lo
rehearse lhe lruisms of modern aIienalion - my arlicuIar oinl is lhal medilalion
rovides such an incisive aroach lo il. Yel il is generaIIy an aroach vhich is
igeon-hoIed as nev age, and escaisl in lhe vays I have aIready oulIined.
Recenl scienlific research, chiefIy in lhe fieIds of cognilive science and
neuroscience, are no doubl beginning lo rovide emiricaI evidence lhal
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174
medilalive slales are reaI. Yel on lhe vhoIe, bolh lhe modern mainslream, and
aIso lhe counler-cuIlure vhich is crilicaI of il, remain massiveIy lruncaled:
ignoranl and dismissive of medilalive cuIlure resecliveIy, and lhereby cIosing
off vasl areas of human exerience.
In lhe oems of <&5 =)0'6> ?)4(@ I seek lo seak of hov our everyday
exerience of lhe seIf, vhich so condilions our exerience of ourseIves and our
silualion, is nol nearIy lhe fuII slory. As Deborah ird-Rose uls il, lhe seIf sels
ilseIf vilhin a haII of mirrors, il mislakes ils refIeclion for lhe vorId, sees ils ovn
refIeclions endIessIy, laIks endIessIy lo ilseIf, and, nol surrisingIy, finds
conlinuaI verificalion of ilseIf and ils vorIdviev.
18
And she goes on lo say lhal
lhe consequence of unmaking narcissislic singuIarily is lhal ve embrace noisy
and unruIy rocesses caabIe of finding diaIogue vilh olher eoIe and vilh lhe
vorId ilseIf.
19
Medilalion is nol, on lhe face of il, a noisy rocess! ul il does
exaclIy vhal Rose describes, oening diaIogue vilh lhe noise vhich lhe mind
and body are conslanlIy making. Thereby, vhal one had reviousIy lhoughl lo
be oneseIf suddenIy exands inlo slrange reaIms formerIy conceived of as mereIy
lhe seIf's bodiIy, maleriaI vesseI. Yel nov, lhe seIf does nol end, in lhis vay,
vhere lhe body begins, bul is exerienced as an ever-exanding fieId of
myslerious being, lo vhose seaking, lo vhose slrange ullerances, one is
eager lo allend.
The recognilions of animism and ansychism, il need hardIy be oinled oul,
are discernibIe in many oelic lradilions, eseciaIIy vhere lhey lrace lheir rools
inlo shamanism. Slanner makes lhe commenl lhal vhile AuslraIians have no
adequale lerm lo evoke hov indigenous eoIe feeI lovards lheir Iace of origin,
lheir counlry or lerrilory, saying lhal our vord "Iand" is loo sare and
meagre and lhal ve can nov scarceIy use il excel vilh economic overlones
unIess ve haen lo be oels.
20
Ior myseIf, a oelic redisosilion, logelher
vilh medilalion and lhe radicaI hiIosohicaI cIarily of vrilers Iike Malhevs,
VaI IIumvood
21
and Deborah ird Rose, have enabIed me lo undersland hov
lhe enIargemenl of lhe erson lo vhich Slanner refers is diamelricaIIy oosed lo
lhe coIonizing exansions of lhe smaII seIf, or ego. Iar from being a symlom of
anlhroomorhic ro|eclion, il is, ralher, lhe resuIl of lhe Iucid recognilion lhal
lhe smaII seIf and ils searaleness is ilseIf lhe ro|eclion of a ersonhood
conslrucled by a narrovIy ralionaIislic deIoying of duaIislic mind / maller
reconcelions.
Once lhis concelion and exerience of lhe seIf is breached, and lhe bIinkers
of veslern ralionaIislic emiricism faII avay, lhe vorId becomes infinileIy Iarger,
Iife brims over, fIoods oul of ils former narrov ego confines, a fIov bolh from
and inlo aII lhal is around. Life is no Ionger confined lo lhe smaII human seIf, bul
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175
is conlinuous vilh lhe Iand and ils crealures. One consequence of gaining such
an avareness of animisl cuIlure is lhal lhe alrocily of sellIer deslruclion of
indigenous cuIlures hils home vilh an inlensified imacl, lhis lime even deeer
lhan a recognilion of sheer human crueIly. One is slaggered by lhe recognilion
lhal a vhoIe nexus of conneclion lo cosmic unfoIding has been lramIed on and
in many cases Iosl. And one's desire lo saIvage, and lo bend lhe course of our
cuIlure lovards reconciIialion becomes rimary, urgenl. And nov, on a ersonaI
IeveI, you feeI you musl knov, as fuIIy as ossibIe, vhal il is lo be aIive in lhis
infinileIy richer vay, |usl as lhe beginnings of medilalive insighl resonale vilh
furlher ossibiIily, and insire you lo deeen your raclice, lo |ourney furlher.
In comosing lhis refIeclion, lhen, il has seemed naluraI lhal I Iook lo
indigenous cuIlure for descrilive lerms such as singing u, lhough I
acknovIedge lhal I am using lhe lerm as an oulsider, and as a vay lo describe
my ovn vork, ralher lhan lo rovide an anaIysis of lhe henomenon in ils
originaI conlexl. I cerlainIy don'l, hovever, subscribe lo alliludes vhich vouId
forbid non-indigenous eoIe from inlerreling and arlicialing in Indigenous
cuIlure. Underslanding may be difficuIl, bul degrees of underslanding are
ossibIe, and may be of greal benefil. David Tacey seaks of connecling lo
Indigenous AuslraIian counlry via lhe CeIlic roule. He says il is naluraI lhal
lhe siriluaI resonse of vhile sellIers vouId drav uon lheir ovn dee
cuIluraI memory, so lhal a descendanl of lhe CeIlic vorId is IikeIy lo discover
lhal a version of ancienl CeIlic siriluaIily is avakened and slirred lo nev Iife in
lhis counlry.
22
I agree vilh lhal viev. NeverlheIess, il vouId seem a circuilous
roule for me, as nol onIy a vhile sellIer (vilhoul lhe inlenlion lo sellIe, I mighl
add, since I vas onIy a chiId) bul a migranl, lo aroach AboriginaI cuIlure via
an Indian medilalive lradilion. Yel lhal is my slory.
The oems of <&5 =)0'6> ?)4(@, lhen, in seaking oul of a carefuI
allenliveness lo lhe body, as il reveaIs ilseIf as mind, and vice-versa, alleml
vhal David Abram describes as MerIeau-Ionly's enabIing aroach lo our
invesligalions of our ovn reaIily, vhich is nol lo exIain lhe vorId as if from
oulside, bul lo give voice lo lhe vorId from our exerienced silualion P'/&'6 il,
recaIIing us lo our arlicialion in lhe here-and-nov, re|uvenaling our sense of
vonder al lhe falhomIess lhings, evenls and overs lhal surround us on every
hand.
23
In lhe oems of <&5 =)0'6> ?)4(@ I have lried lo Iel my mind-body
seak, as il vere. The sequence Vedana (28), for examIe, roceeds lhrough a
series of anaIogies for lhe vay lhal sensalions manifesl lo lhe concenlraled
allenliveness of medilalion. Il allemls a microcosmic aroach, in order lo
oen lhe momenl's exerience inlo vider fieIds of underslanding:
The vay aII lhings firsl
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176
louch you.

The fire in lhe engine
of every bIind acl,

core of every mood.
And in Analla (22), lhe mind-body's aIlering ercelion of ilseIf, as lhe
observalion of medilalive concenlralion deveIos, is rendered. I alleml lo
convey bolh lhe myslery, and yel aIso lhe over, of such exerience:
My |av
is exlraordinariIy resenl,
as if I valched
from my lorso:

I do nol knov vhy
lhe lerrain of lhe mindbody
discIoses il from here.

I J,AA5$#1&(#,$
Medilalive exerience is difficuIl for Ianguage lo deaI vilh because mosl
Ianguage has a melahoric base originaling in convenlionaI, or mundane
sensory exerience (lhal is, exerience vhich lhe senses rovide vhen
medilalive concenlralion is nol oeralive) and aIso uliIizes many conceluaI
duaIisms. In medilalion, lhe conlainmenls and Iogics of lhose lvo rocedures
lend nol lo aIy. Ior examIe, lhe hysicaI and menlaI domains, during
medilalion, become more difficuIl lo dislinguish from each olher.
Il is imorlanl lo be avare, hovever, lhal I am nol lrying lo recreale my
medilalive exerience in lhe reader, as lhe refalory oems Seaking and
Lislening make cIear. I say lhal lhis is nol ossibIe. I am, ralher, allemling lo
arlicuIale my ovn 45*+)6*5 lo lhal exerience. This renders lhe Iinguislic
chaIIenge more manageabIe, and is aIso lhe vay in vhich I reconciIe my acl of
vriling vilh lhe rinciIe, vhich I fuIIy endorse, lhal medilalive exerience
musl be had al firsl hand.
Thal being said, I do inevilabIy need lo evoke somelhing of lhe quaIily of
medilalive exerience in exressing a resonse lo il, and so lhe Iinguislic
diIemma is nol enlireIy avoided. Hovever, lo my mind, lhe arlicuIalion of
exerience lo some exlenl beyond conceluaI cIassificalion has aIvays been a
ma|or arl of lhe endeavor of oelry. And so I feeI lhal lhe chaIIenge here is
erhas differenl in degree, bul nol in kind, from lhal vhich mosl oels face. I
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177
aIso beIieve lhal one of lhe mosl vaIuabIe asecls of oelic Ianguage is lo serve as
a reminder lhal our namings are aIvays lo some exlenl rovisionaI and
inadequale, ralher lhan being a sure basis on vhich lo undersland and
maniuIale lhe vorId.
Il is evidenl lhal I have nol chosen, in <&5 =)0'6> ?)4(@, lhose oslmodern
resonses lo lhe robIem of Ianguage vhich invoIve a refusaI of referenliaIily, or
a re|eclion of convenlionaI grammar and synlax, even lhough I oflen symalhize
vilh lhe molivalions of such vriling. These are obviousIy quile comIex issues,
bul here il is erhas mosl aroriale for me lo focus on my arlicuIar urose,
in exIaining my aroach. In <&5 =)0'6> ?)4(@, my aim is lo convey, indeed
45B54 lo, a very secific sel of exeriences (lhose arising from medilalive
concenlralion). In doing so, I hoe lhal I have buiIl in lhe humiIily of Ianguage in
lhe face of ils lask.
Wilh regard lo Ianguage in generaI, I agree vilh David Abram's erseclive,
in <&5 H+5(( )B /&5 H56*3)3*, and in arlicuIar lhe seclion Animism and lhe
AIhabel
24
, lhal lhe invenlion of lhe aIhabel and of vriling served lo disrul
our sense of conlinuily vilh lhe naluraI environmenl, generaling an abslracl,
human-conslrucled vorId inlo vhich ve have vound deeer and deeer, an
arlificiaIized reaIily, an echo-chamber of our ovn ideas and vords. In lhis sense,
I symalhize vilh many of lhe molivalions of oslmodern vriling, vhich seek lo
avoid and chaIIenge comIicily in lhe various ideoIogies and vorId-vievs vhich
cerlain forms of Ianguage can reinforce. Hovever, my ovn soIulion lo lhe
robIem of abslraclion, and of Ianguage in arlicuIar, is aIso consonanl vilh
Abram's viev, lhal lradilionaI eIemenls of oelic Ianguage can be effeclive:
We have forgollen lhe oise, he says, lhal comes from Iiving in sloried
reIalion and recirocily vilh lhe myriad lhings, lhe myriad A5'6>*, lhal
erceluaIIy surround us.
25
OnIy if ve can renev lhal recirocily he goes on,
- grounding our nevfound caacily for Iilerale abslraclion in lhose oIder, oraI
forms of exerience onIy lhen viII lhe abslracl inleIIecl find ils lrue vaIue.
26

Ior me, medilalion is a cruciaI one of lhose oIder forms of exerience, vhich
lradilionaI oelic Ianguage-use, ils musicaIily and imagery, lurned lovards such
exerience, can evoke, and find some Iosl ground beyond abslraclion.
Some of lhe oems in <&5 =)0'6> ?)4(@ seek lo exIicilIy chaIIenge lhe
Ianguage oflen used lo indicale medilalive exerience, and lhe abslracl duaIisms
on vhich such Ianguage is founded. Oflen, lhe lerms vhich are used lo indicale
medilalive exerience are negalions: "emliness", "delachmenl", "non-seIf", and
so on. These lerms are highIy inadequale, misIeading, and of course off-ulling.
They are oflen lhe resuIl of oor lransIalion, and / or a Iack of acluaI medilalive
raclice. In lhis book I am hoing lo brealhe some Iife back inlo such lerms, and
"#$% "&'()*)+&,- #./'0'*1- $2/345 6)7 89- :98;

178
lhereby change lhe Iinguislic image of medilalion: lo shed some acluaI Iighl on
lhe exerience, lhe hrase I use in lhe oem Seaking and vhich forms lhe
lilIe of lhe book's fourlh seclion. The oem Delachmenl (39) for examIe, lries
lo seak of hov delaching, in lhe medilalive sense, is lo embrace, ralher lhan
re|ecl, lhe vorId:
UncIenching
you feeI
lhe slrange embrace
of vhal is.
Anolher frame of reference I couId use lo describe my vork in <=? in lerms
of oelic raclice is Vernon ShelIey's aIicalion of CharIes AIlieri's roosed
dislinclion belveen IyricaI and skelicaI imuIses. ShelIey says lhal

AIlieri uses lhese lerms lo name a ersislenl confIicl in our vays of
underslanding lhe vorId: lhe demyslifying over of InIighlenmenl
reason roduces a division belveen (al Ieasl aarenlIy) ob|eclive,
imersonaI, scienlific discourses vhose goaI is lhe formalion of generaI
Iavs. And sub|eclive, vaIue-Iaden discourses vhich resisl lhe lransIalion
of exerience inlo generaIily or abslraclion. In mosl inleIIecluaI disciIines
lhe InIighlenmenl herilage revaiIs, argumenls from individuaI
exerience are devaIued as anecdolaI or imressionislic, and a rulhIess
skelicism lovards lhe seIf-underslandings of sub|ecls is lhe
norm.Iyricism |on lhe olher handj allemls lo resisl lhe reduclion of
exerience lo generaI Iavs, allemls lo asserl lhe vaIue of lhe ersonaI
and arlicuIar againsl lhe abslraclions of skelicaI consciousness.
27

ShelIey goes on lo roose, in vhal he acknovIedges is a deIiberaleIy reduclive
and simIified scheme, lhal one mighl say lhal Iileralure dearlmenls embody
lhe vaIues of Iucidily, and vriling dearlmenls embody lhe vaIues of Iyricism."
28

I beIieve lhal my vork may lo some exlenl conslilule one ossibIe
lranscendence (un unavoidabIe) of lhis dicholomy, feIl as oressive by
AIlieri
29
belveen lhe Iucid-skelicaI and lhe IyricaI. This is because medilalion is,
in a vay, lhe quinlessenliaI skelicaI raclice. Il sels aside lhe mosl foundalionaI
of received ideas - seIf, emolion, mind and maller - in order lo lry lo valch vilh
a highIy disciIined allenlion vhal is haening. Yel al lhe same lime, lhe fruils
of lhis valching, lhe dynamic and vondrous shiflings and melamorhoses of
being, insire a IyricaI resonse. One vay in vhich I image vhal is vilnessed is
lhe slunning serene dis-inlegralion of dayIighl (Lislening 13). The imIicil
figure here is lhal of lhe rainbov, in vhich ordinary vhile Iighl, dayIighl, dis-
inlegrales inlo lhe coIours of lhe seclrum. Slunning, because vhal had
"#$% "&'()*)+&,- #./'0'*1- $2/345 6)7 89- :98;

179
aeared enlireIy lrue and normaI is aIlered in seclacuIar fashion. Serene
because, |usl as lhe rainbov arches ils vondrous, muIli-coIoured back IaziIy and
naluraIIy in lhe rainy sky, so lhe being-aIlering insighls of medilalion occur as
if lhey loo are enlireIy naluraI. In one arl of lhe sequence Vedana, I image lhe
naluraIness of lhis rocess as ossessing lhe cosmic roriely / of a vaning
season (30) In my viev, lhen, bolh lhe Iucid and lhe IyricaI imuIses are
oeralive in a comIemenlary vay.
Ioelry, medilalion, ansychism: I have lried lo seak of hov aII of lhese
have come logelher in my exerience, and yieIded lhe oems of <&5 =)0'6>
?)4(@. Whelher lhe oems achieve my asiralions musl, as I have said, be Iefl lo
lhe |udgmenl of lhe reader. Whal I have lried lo achieve in lhis essay is nol onIy
lo cIarify my erseclive on medilalion, bul lo exIain hov I see lhis ancienl, and
erhas vilhdravn-seeming raclice, as vilaIIy invoIved in AuslraIia's resenl
cuIluraI momenl. As Deborah ird- Rose says, lhe dismanlIing of lhe varIike
lheory of 'seIf' is a necessary sle in moving lovards decoIonizalion.
30
I vouId
Iike lo see my vork as a vhoIe as making a conlribulion lo lhe decoIonizalion
rocess, lhe rocess vhereby lhe coIonizing cuIlure's revaiIing bIindness lo lhe
Iife beyond lhe smaII seIf, and lherefore lo lhe vonderfuIIy rich and rofound
cuIlure of lhe indigenous eoIe, is graduaIIy reclified. The Iyric, lhough
medilaliveIy-Iucid (I hoe!) excIamalions of <&5 =)0'6> ?)4(@, lherefore,
resonale vilh and have arisen oul of some of lhe fundamenlaI lones of resonse
lo lhe AuslraIian silualion. They can be heard, for examIe, as one moduIalion of
lhe sense of shame and siriluaI smaIIness, and yel aIso lhe concurrenl sense of
ossibiIily, lhal inhabiling lhis conlinenl has evoked. They alleml lo be one
form of lhe reconciIialion of lhese diIemmas: one form, dare I say il, of
lranscending lhem and inching our cuIluraI slory forvard.

1
MichaeI HeaId leaches vilh Trinily CoIIege, Universily of MeIbourne, in ils Ioundalion
Sludies Irogram, and vilh lhe Dearlmenl of CuIlure and Communicalion, Universily
of MeIbourne, in ils A Ixlended Irogram for Indigenous sludenls.
:
M. HeaId (2011), <&5 =)0'6> ?)4(@, IremanlIe Iress, Soulh IremanlIe.
3
}. everidge (2003), ?)(B $)/5*, Giramondo, Arlarmon NSW.
4
M. HeaId (2011), Iulling Words in lhe uddhas Moulh, ?5*/54(, 55:1, . 43-65.
5
T. Ryan (2011), <&5 #4>3156/, IremanlIe Iress, Soulh IremanlIe.
"#$% "&'()*)+&,- #./'0'*1- $2/345 6)7 89- :98;

180

6
See lhe IremanlIe Iress vebsile al hll://vvv.fremanlIeress.com.au/nevs/230
7
See lhe Ioelry Sociely of Americas aneI discussion Ioelry Crilicism: Whal is il
for`, chaired by Susan WheeIer in 2000, reroduced in Q2.C5/:
hll://vvv.|ackelmagazine.com/12/sa-aneI.hlmI
F
I. Malhevs (2005), E5'6&2A'/'6> E52('/,7 <)P24@* 2 E5.)054, )B R3(/345, Slale Universily of
Nev York Iress, AIbany.
9
SA'@- +7F7
10
SA'@- +78K7
11
J'//).
12
J'//).
8;
T. Iarks (2010), <52.& G* /) H'/ H/'((7 # H.5+/'.T* H524.& B)4 U52(/& 26@ U52('6>, HarviII
Secker, London.
8K
D. ird Rose (2011), ?'(@ J)> J4521'6>7 V)05 26@ WX/'6./')6, Universily of Virginia
Iress, CharIollesviIIe and London.
8N
M. HeaId (1999), L)@,MB(215, IremanlIe Iress, Soulh IremanlIe.
8O
M. HeaId (2004), I).3*'6> H2/346, IremanlIe Iress, Soulh IremanlIe.
17
W.I.H. Slanner (2009), <&5 J4521'6> 26@ Y/&54 W**2,*, Iack Inc. IubIishing.
CoIIingvood, 58-9.
18
D. ird Rose (2004), E5+)4/* B4)1 2 ?'(@ R)36/4,7 W/&'.* B)4 J5.)()6'*2/')6, Universily of
Nev Soulh WaIes Iress, Sydney, .20
19
SA'@ .21
20
WIH Slanner (2009), O Cil, 206.
21
See eseciaIIy V. IIumvood (2002), W60'4)6156/2( R3(/3457 <&5 W.)()>'.2( R4'*'* )B
E52*)6,7 RoulIedge, London and Nev York.
22
D. Tacey (2000), E5MW6.&26/156/7 <&5 $5P #3*/42('26 H+'4'/32('/,, Harer CoIIins,
Sydney, .
23
D. Abram (1997), <&5 H+5(( )B /&5 H56*3)3*7 "54.5+/')6 26@ V26>32>5 '6 2 =)45M<&26M
U3126 ?)4(@7 Vinlage ooks, Nev York, .47.
24
Y+ R'/, D. Abram (1997).
25
SA'@- .270.
26
J'//).
27
V. ShelIey (1993), #B/54 /&5 J52/& )B ")5/4,7 ")5/ 26@ #3@'56.5 '6 R)6/51+)424, #154'.27
Duke Universily Iress, Durham and London, .18.
28
J'//)
29
CharIes AIlieri (2006) <&5 #4/ )B <P56/'5/&MR56/34, #154'.26 ")5/4,7 =)@546'*1 26@
#B/547 IackveII IubIishing, MaIden, Oxford and CarIlon, .12.
30
D. ird Rose (2004), Y+ R'/, .21
"#$% "&'()*)+&,- #./'0'*1- $2/345 6)7 89- :98;

182
!"#$%& (%$) *&+,-

."/0 (%$) &1" *&+,2+3 42$%"52$3+, 6$7")"3&

8&+23 9::"-
;

Then aII lhe crealures lhal are nol human viII begin lo scrae,
chev, gnav, eck, scralch, inlo lhe mud, bark, slone, lar roads,
lhe fIanks of leIehone oIes, lhe same vords lhe Ieaves can
onIy urge lhrough vind.

And lhe Iighl of lhe moon viII fiII lhese elchings, |usl one
refrain, vorked inlo earlh, and Iefl everyvhere for us.

<)3 245 6)/ 2()65 &545
<)3 245 6)/ 2()65 &545
<)3 245 6)/ 2()65 &5457=
L.R. erger

>? 36 (36@) (20)4) A' .)6*2+50)(5BB27= In olher vords, il's a Iong, sIov |ob of raising
consciousness. This is lhe reIy I have had many limes from Giusee Morelli, vho is lhe
Iodeslone of lhe IlaIian bioregionaI movemenl. Al limes vhen anic overcomes us because
gIobaI consumer sociely seems lo have laken some greal Iea forvard, lhis is his caIming
resonse.
Giusee is a farmer, his famiIy Iand Iying cIose lo lhe greal Io River and he knovs lhe
vays of lhe river's regime as if il fIoved lhrough his hearl. Indeed, a quiel IillIe book of his
caIIed C2/54*&5A* )D /&5 E'6A (Coyole ooks, 2006) leIIs hov he relurned from a |ourney
lhrough lhe norlh of America in lhe sevenlies and decided lo foIIov Gary Snyder's advice
lhe mosl revoIulionary lhing you can do is slay home.
Nov his smaII farm, vhich Iies soulh of Manlova in lhe greal Iain of Iadania, near lhe
very Iand VirgiI sang of, Iies Iike a |eveI amongsl lhe neighbouring induslriaI farms. In lhe
summer nighls, IillIe lree frogs by lheir hundreds sing in lhe high vhile oIars vhich he
Ianled himseIf lhirly years ago around lhe ond and in lhe sring his oslbox is a nesl
for coaI lils. The veb of Iife for vhich his Iace is lhe malrix nurlures fox, veaseI,
buzzard, hare, hedgehog, grey heron and many olher reIalions and Giusee's ond,
vhich in modern lhinking is mereIy a vasle of vaIuabIe arabIe Iand, is a hymn lo lhe
bioregionaI avareness lhal - F5 245 6)/ 2()65 &545. Giusee Morelli raised a famiIy here
vhiIsl resecling lhe Iimils imosed by lhe facl lhal many olher Iife-forms vere doing |usl
lhe same.
Giusee has aIso ubIished a beaulifuI, sober |ournaI al lhe equinoxes caIIed G2/)
H5(02/'.) (WiId Side) vilh vriling and lhinking on viIderness and righl IiveIihood since
1992 and he has graduaIIy galhered aboul himseIf a grou of eoIe vho recognise some
"#$% "&'()*)+&,- #./'0'*1- $2/345 6)7 89- :98;

183
of lhe same ideaI forebears and conlemoraries vrilers Iike Thoreau, Muir, Slan Rove,
Gary Snyder, WendeII erry, Kale arnes, Mary OIiver, Gary LavIess, }im KoIIer as veII
as our IocaI oels, IeIice CoIacci, Cosella LomeIe, AIessandro Sinazzi: lhe resenl grou
is caIIed <"3&2"%$ 42$%"52$3+,"=
;

The facl lhal bioregionaI lhinking has been arlicuIaled above aII by oels I lhink leIIs us
somelhing very sublIe. In lhe modern vorId, ecoIogicaI lhoughl has oflen been soken of
in lhe Ianguage of science bul acluaIIy behind lhe idea lhal ve shouId lake a more humbIe
Iace in lhe scheme of lhings is lhe idea lhal human beings are nol lhe rimary enlily lhe
rimary enlily, lhe conlainer of aII Iife, is +(2.5 and lo *+52I seriousIy of lhe '6654 nalure of
Iace, erceived I knov by many eoIe in lhe movemenl, is somelhing aImosl laboo in
our cuIlure. Ioels, on lhe olher hand, have oelic Iicense and lhus gel avay vilh
exressing lhe seIves of olher arls of lhe Crealion vilhoul being accused of vooIIy
lhinking. Il has been an advenlure for lhe Senliero ioregionaIe grou lo sludy Ireya
Malhev's vork because, erhas for lhe firsl lime in our exerience, she offers 42/')62(
and exerimenlaIIy oen lhinking aboul lhe hysicaI vorId - lhe cosmos in ils enlirely - in
ils dee, inner asecl. This is very exciling.
Giusee has been vorking on a nev IlaIian coIIeclion of Gary Snyder's essays and lhe
book is due oul in Selember: $5( 1)6A) +)4)*) (Inlo lhe orous vorId) (Mimesis Idizioni,
2013). The bioregionaI movemenl has a considerabIe oulreach for lhe dislribulion of vorks
Iike lhis: ve use lhe oId vord of moulh melhod lo surrising effecl!
IlaIy has numerous smaII bioregions: lhe Medilerranean Sea and lhe AIs surround a
eninsuIa vhich has so many diverse geoIogicaI, cIimalic and bioIogicaI sellings as veII as
many isIands. Thus lhere are slrongIy diverse IocaI cuIlures, shaed and honed over many
miIIennia in resonse lo lhe Iand. SiciIia and Sardegna have lheir ovn Ianguages, cuisine,
agricuIluraI lechniques, slories, IifeslyIe and almoshere bul so have many circumscribed
Iaces here.
Massimo AngeIini, anolher founding member of Senliero ioregionaIe has |usl
ubIished a smaII book caIIed E'6'12 4342('2 (Ienlagora, 2013) in vhich he leIIs some of
lhe slories he heard vhiIsl he vas researching lhe Genovese olalo, lhe J32426/'62 K'26.27
Massimo senl monlhs laIking lo smaII farmers in lhe mounlains behind Genova and
reaIised lhal he had lo go sIovIy, lake lime lo laIk and afler a good Iong chal, lhese eoIe,
having quielIy summed u lhe erson vho aroached lhem, vouId slarl lo reveaI lheir
secrel slores of oId seeds. Yes, I sliII have a fev of lhose oId olaloes and Iook, here are
lhe originaI Genovese arsIey seeds my vife boughl vilh her dovry sixly years ago.
Massimo organised a consorlium of smaII farmers
2
and logelher lhey revived lhe forgollen
IocaI olalo and found smaII reslauranls vho vouId buy from lhem: an unusuaIIy
raclicaI iece of vork for a rofessor of Urban and RuraI Hislory. Il vas a vay for lhese
mounlain farmers lo seII smaII quanlilies of lheir various roduce, lo overcome lheir sense
of lhe vorlhIessness of lhe oId vays and lo ol oul of lhe gIobaI seed markel in vhich
five varielies of seed olalo from HoIIand are soId aII over Iuroe and many, many IocaI
olaloes have been comIeleIy Iosl.

1
vvv.senlierobioregionaIe.org
2
vvv.quaranlina.il
"#$% "&'()*)+&,- #./'0'*1- $2/345 6)7 89- :98;

184
The very secific, IocaI knovIedge is beaulifuI. Here is advice in E'6'12 4342('2 aboul
lhe righl kind of callIe lo kee on lhal mounlain Iand: Remember, our IocaI covs do very
veII on lhe lerraces and lhey are more frugaI and hardier lhan olher breeds: lhe L2M26'62
is good for miIk (Iook for lhem in lhe d'Avenlo vaIIey), lhe red E)6/2@6'62 is good for
meal (you find her al Mounl IoraIe and in lhe vaIIeys of orbera and Slaffora), lhe K4362
does veII on lhese mounlains and is good for bolh miIk and meal. The men and vomen
vho laIked lo Massimo are moslIy eIderIy and lhis knovIedge urgenlIy needs young
reinhabilanls.
This Iasl veekend, lhe eoIe beIonging lo Senliero ioregionaIe vho look arl in lhe
lransIalion of Ireya Malhevs' N5'6&2M'/'6@ N52('/, mel al our smaII hiII farm, IralaIe, in lhe
cenlraI Aennines lo ceIebrale lhe ubIicalion of lhe IlaIian version ON'2M'/245 (2 452(/P,
IioriGiaIIi 2013.) My friend Dave asked, So vhal decisions are you making al lhis
meeling` Me: None, Dave, ve are |usl going lo svim in lhe river Chiascio, valch lhe
dragonfIies, eal a IeisureIy icnic, drink Marlin's vine and leII ourseIves vhal a greal |ob
ve did!
On lhe Sunday morning, ve sal under a muIberry lree in our courlyard and I lhoughl
hov good il vas lo see galhered logelher some of lhe eoIe vho are vorking avay in
lheir ovn Iaces. The grou meels rareIy and ils urose reaIIy is lo offer each olher
suorl in lhe various ro|ecls going on al a IocaI IeveI.
Here is SiIvana MarinieIIo, vho is an aclress: her arlner Igidio vas one of lhe
lransIalors and SiIvana came lo ceIebrale vilh him and lo cIaim some aIause for lhose
vho +3/ 3+ vilh lhe lransIalors! She has recenlIy done a Iay in Rome caIIed Q11'@42/' in
vhich lhe IocaI inleraclion belveen recenl immigranls lo lhe cailaI graduaIIy brings lhem
logelher and makes lhem arl of lheir nev Iace. This is an echo of Gary Snyder's slrong
cIaim lhal- 'D ,)3 ('05 F'/&'6 /&5 +&,*'.2( ('1'/* )D ,)34 +(2.5 26A /2I5 .245 )D '/, il mallers nol al
aII vhere you vere born: you are /&545M, made nalive. This is a very imorlanl and sane
correclion lo lhe vhoIe firsl-vorId conlroversy over immigralion issues. Oflen il is lhe
eoIe vho vere born in MiIan vho behave as if lhe vhoIe vorId vere lheir oysler vhiIe
lhe oor immigranls Iive frugaIIy vilhin lhe confines of MiIanese resources.
AIso under lhe muIberry lree loday are CIara and Yann-Va vho Iive in an anarchisl
communily, II IooIo IIfico, near Iisloia, vhere lhe reinhabilanls Iive by farming and
crafls. Those in lhe mounlainous arl of lhe communily have cheslnul fIour as lheir slaIe
and lhe eoIe in AvaIon have a lhousand oIive lrees. olh cheslnuls and oIives require
lhe concenlraled manuaI vork of many eoIe for shorl eriods of
galhering/runing/manuring/lransforming and lhe communily has vhal lhe oId farming
ouIalion once had and has nov Iosl a Iarge number of viIIing vorkers. The IIves'
chiIdren are homeschooIed and lhey are ioneers in lhis area in IlaIy. CIara's book on lhe
birlh rocess |usl came oul: #..26/) 2((2 E2A45- (Terra Nuova, 2012) and she is on lhe
ediloriaI commillee of lhe aIlernalive magazine R5442 $3)02 vhich has |usl ubIished an
arlicIe on lhe hislory of bioregionaIism in IlaIy and viII shorlIy ubIish an arlicIe by CIara
on Ireya Malhev's book.
Yann-Va laIked aboul lhe IocaI farmers' markel vhich lhey are |usl slarling in lheir
area and Marlin and I feeI good aboul lhis because one of our efforls here in lhe Gubbio
"#$% "&'()*)+&,- #./'0'*1- $2/345 6)7 89- :98;

185
area in lhe Iasl 12 years has been lo organise a IocaI exchange markel so lhal farmers vilh
smaII amounls of roduce can meel and barler and have a arly. The almoshere of lhese
monlhIy meelings is aIvays feslive and varm Ienly lo eal and drink and usuaIIy good
music loo. As you ass by a slaII, you overhear eoIe doing |usl lhe oosile of vhal lhe
gIobaI markel does offering aIvays 1)45 inslead of Iess lhan vhal lhey knov is fair! We
have feIl riviIeged lo see our markel fIourish and knov lhal il has encouraged olher
eoIe aII over lhe counlry lo organise simiIar galherings. One of lhe araIIeI movemenls
here is S563'6) L(26A5*/'6), genuine and cIandesline vhich hoIds markels in cilies and
offers roduce vhich is iIIegaI in lhe sense lhal Iuroean Iav forbids lhe saIe of any food
vhich is nol roduced induslriaIIy. Il is iIIegaI lo be a smaII farmer in Iuroe!
ul desile lhis, in aII lhe bioregions young eoIe are going back lo lhe oId vays. Lasl
vinler, DanieI Tarozzi, vho ubIishes an onIine aIlernalive nevsaer caIIed Q(
L21M'2156/) (Change)
3
, venl on a Iong road lri lo visil aII lhe eoIe he feIl vere
vorking lovards a more IocaI-based IifeslyIe. Nov he is on lhe isIand of Liari, off SiciIy,
vriling a book on his exeriences vilh lhe reinhabilanls he mel.
He visiled IeIice CoIacci, a counlry oel vho aIso organises lhe IocaI farmers' markel in
lhe Marche, across lhe cenlraI Aennines from here, and vho has an exlensive
knovIedge of viId food. We al IralaIe Iearnl our fruil-drying lechniques from IeIice and
ve dislribule lhe IocaI Marche |ournaI, H51'62*)@6', vhich he has ubIished over lhe Iasl
13 years.
DanieI aIso visiled lhree of lhe young founding members of Senliero ioregionaIe,
VaIerio Di Ionzo, vho farms in MoIise and is lransforming his falher's farm by
exerimenling vilh suslainabIe raclices such as soving cereaIs vilhoul Ioughing and
vho is a voIcano of nev ideas and oId slories
4
, and Slefano IeroIari and Laura Viviani,
vho Iive in Tuscany vilh lheir lhree young chiIdren, home-schooIing and dovn-scaIing
by roducing a Iol of lheir ovn food. One of our Sardinian donkey offsring found a nev
home vilh lhem al Iielrasanla Iasl year. On lhe olher side of lhe IralaIe vaIIey here in
Umbria, lvo olher young members have |usl boughl a farm: nov Andrea and Laura Tiberi
have years of vork ahead of lhem cIearing lhe oId fieIds and mending lhe slone house and
barn. They have bolh been invoIved in uhoIding lhe IocaI markel and in lhe vork on lhe
Malhevs lransIalion.
Tvo missing lransIalors al lhe ceIebralion vere Irancesca Mengoni, vhose vomen's
coIIeclive in Maremma, Amazzoni deII'ArcobaIeno
5
, vere hoIding a seminar lhal
veekend, and CarIo SaImoiraghi, vho leaches high schooI in Saronno.
Irancesca Iives vilh her comanion Momo and a comIemenl of goals, hens and horses
and lhe ralher Iarge viId boar vhom lhey found dying as a smaII igIel and vho has |usl
had her firsl IillIe boarIel. She is a vriler and lhe edilor of lhe nexl issue of lhe H56/'54)
K')45@')62(5 |ournaI for Winler SoIslice.
CarIo has inilialed a ro|ecl for crealing a sel of bioregionaI mas and al schooI he has
senl lime laking his uiIs aIong lheir IocaI river, lhe OIona, heIing lhem make mas

3
vvv.iIcambiamenlo.il
4
vvv.rovereIIa.nel
5
vvv.vomen.il/amazzoniarc
"#$% "&'()*)+&,- #./'0'*1- $2/345 6)7 89- :98;

186
vhich do nol lake accounl of human resence onIy, bul incIude lhe vegelalion and animaI
Iife in an alleml lo encourage lhe kids lo lhink ecocenlricaIIy. CarIo aIso has a briIIianl
lechnique for sreading nevs: he gave u using his car and lraveIs by bus. There he has a
ready ubIic and vhen lhe nucIear referendum vas coming u, he vouId laIk
confidenliaIIy inlo his (svilched off) mobiIe hone. His lhealricaI monoIogue vouId go
aIong lhese Iines $)T Whalever are you leIIing me` ul nobody I6)F* aboul lhis! Who
loId ,)3` Oh, you have a cousin in lhe minislry! ul lhis is oulrageous! Al lhis oinl lhe
vhoIe bus vouId be Iislening in, vailing lo hear lhe lerribIe secrel and CarIo vouId
roceed lo oulIine lhe vorrying issues around nucIear over. He even used lhis melhod
lo romole lhe IlaIian version of N5'6&2M'/'6@ N52('/, vhen il vas ubIished, laIking aboul
il enlhusiaslicaIIy lo an invisibIe friend!
On Sunday }uIy 21sl, as ve sal in lhe shade of a fieId maIe lo cIose our galhering, one
of lhe imorlanl friends in lhe movemenl, Renalo IonliroIi, unbeknovn lo aII of us vas
dying. We heard aboul his dealh in lhe foIIoving veek and lhere has been a greal
oulouring of grief and remembering. Renalo and his comanion Iived in a smaII
abandoned viIIage, orgo Cerri, u in lhe mounlains of Liguria vhere lhey Iived frugaIIy
and look care of lheir lerraced gardens and geese. Over lhe Iasl six years, Renalo had aIso
sel u lvo vebsiles vhere lhe bioregionaI nevs converged: a bIog caIIed SeIvalici and lhe
ionieri ruraI nelvork. When ve heId an annuaI meeling of lhe revious bioregionaI
grou, lhe Rele ioregionaIe, lhere in 2008, ve reaIised lhal Renalo and Manu vere a
reference oinl for many young eoIe vho are lrying lo find vays lo reinhabil lheir
Iaces and lhis vork is cerlainIy one of lhe ferliIe seeds for lhe fulure. Renalo is a lrue
forebear for lhe nev generalion.
MeanvhiIe, loday, vhal is going on here al lhe farm` Lucy and }oy have been
barroving shee manure dovn lo lhe Iover oIive grove, Marlino has been scylhing
lhislIes from lhe aslures and leaching lhe nev coIl lo vaIk vilh a haIler and Iead, our son
eniamino is vorking on lhe valer-recycIing syslem in his nev house, I have been in lhe
garden icking a buckel of IillIe green beans and nov Iugenio is silling under lhe
muIberry lree Iaying lhe ie and VaI lhe accordion. The shee are ealing on lhe aslure
nexl lo lhe farmhouse, lhe baby chicks are arguing over haIf a valer-meIon and NeIIo, lhe
maIe donkey ve have borroved from a neighbour, is off vilh his lhree Iadies on lhe Iover
fieId vhere ve hoe he is doing his sluff!
Scallered over lhe eninsuIa, many simiIar scenes are sureIy being Iayed oul in lhis
hol }uIy evening, vilh lhe usuaI veave of deIighl and disasler. We are buiIding on lhe oId
lradilions bul vilh beginner's mind and remembering lhal il is a Iong, sIov |ob.

4+>? +,%"+:-

On lhe freshIy
movn Iavn
lvo bIackbirds
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187
nol nolicing
each olher
or me

aII lhree of us
here logelher
sharing lhis
green and Iuminous sace
righl nov

I vas on my vay
lo go shoing
for lhings I don'l
reaIIy need
I lhink
I'II |usl lurn round
and go quielIy
home.

AIessandro Sinazzi
(lransIaled by Ilain Addey)

9@&1$% .$&"
Ilain Addey has senl lhe Iasl lhirly years Iiving on a smaII farm in lhe foolhiIIs of lhe IlaIian
Aennines vhere she and her famiIy share lhe Iace vilh horses, donkeys, miIk shee and
viIdIife. She is a member of lhe IlaIian bioregionaI grou, Senliero ioregionaIe, and has
ubIished lvo books of slories and refIeclions on day lo day Iife, one of vhich, # H'(56/ U),
(Iyebrighl ooks, 2010), is lransIaled inlo IngIish.

"#$% "&'()*)+&,- #./'0'*1- $2/345 6)7 89- :98;

188
!"#$%& (%$) *"+ ,"-.-/0

1"2$/0 $+/"%345#

6"//"02 7-%/"
8

We are lhis Iand and ve are lhe face of lhe Iand. Wherever lhose
mounlains come from, lhal's vhere ve come from. Wherever lhe misl
emerges from and disaears lo, lhal's vhere ve come from.
Thus soke Tamali Kruger, Iead negolialor for lhe Tuhoe lribe of Aolearoa
Nev ZeaIand, lo lhe Wailangi TribunaI, lhe governmenl-aoinled
commission of inquiry lhal invesligales breaches of lhe 1840 acl belveen
Maori and lhe rilish Crovn: lhe Trealy of Wailangi.
Kruger vas giving evidence aboul his eoIe's sense of conneclion and
kinshi lo a rugged 2000-square-kiIomelre lracl of nalive foresl knovn as Te
Urevera, near lhe cenlre of lhe Norlh IsIand. Te Urevera vas Tuhoe's
homeIand, ils economic base and lhe indisensabIe veIIsring of ils eoIe's
idenlily. AIlhough secured lo lhe lribe by acl of IarIiamenl in 1896 as a seIf-
governing reserve, lhe Iand vas rogressiveIy vresled from Tuhoe conlroI by
haIf a cenlury of raacious governmenl aclion. In 1957 Te Urevera vas
decIared a nalionaI ark, Iacing il forever beyond lhe reach of ils lradilionaI
ovners. The Ioss vas incaIcuIabIe. The eoIe vere Iefl maleriaIIy, cuIluraIIy
and siriluaIIy berefl.
In 2010, somelhing unrecedenled shoved on lhe horizon. Il seemed lhal
lhe governmenl vouId relurn lhe Iand lo Tuhoe as arl of a hisloric
sellIemenl agreemenl. Wilh mounling excilemenl, lhe lribe reared for lhe
day of signing. Iood for a lhousand guesls vas arranged. Cooks vere
slanding by lo Iighl lhe earlh ovens. Commemoralive ens had been
engraved. Seeches vrillen.
Then, on lhe very eve of sellIemenl, lhe governmenl made a U-lurn. Te
Urevera NalionaI Iark, lhe cenlreiece of lhe deaI, vouId nol be relurned lo
lhe lribe afler aII. Ior Irime Minisler }ohn Key's coaIilion governmenl, il vas
a oIilicaI bridge loo far.
Their hoes dashed, Tuhoe Ieaders relurned lo lhe famiIiar Iace of
negolialing an uncomromising demand vilh an imIacabIe governmenla
Iace lhey had been for cIose lo a cenlury. Yel oul of lhe ashes of defeal
somelhing nev began lo emerge. The lribe reaIised lhal lhe slicking oinl for
lhe Irime Minisler vas lhe concel of ovnershi, and lhal lhe soIulion Iay in
moving beyond lhe IexicaI imasse.
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189
I reaIised he vas misunderslanding vhal ve vere on aboul, Tamali
Kruger loId me during an inlerviev. Ovnershi vas his obsession, nol ours.
So ve sloed using lhal vord. Il's nol a Tuhoe concel anyvay.
The Maori vord for Iandvhenuais lhe same as lhe vord for Iacenla.
Ior Tuhoe, lhis sense of a bIood reIalionshi lo lhe Iand is cenlraI. One of
lheir revered anceslors, Ioliki-Tikelike, is said lo have been born from lhe
union of mounlains and misl. He srang direcl from lhe Iand, and because of
him, aII Tuhoe lrace lheir Iineage lo lhe vhenua. Tuhoe see lhemseIves nol
|usl )< lhe Iand bul 2* lhe Iand.
So inlerlvined are Iand and eoIe lhal mounlains have been riluaIIy
married lo mark singuIar momenls of commilmenl belveen lribes. During
my lraveIs in Te Urevera, vhiIe researching a book on Tuhoe, I vas laken lo
a high oinl and shovn lvo mounlains: Kuhalareva and Turi-o-Kahu. In lhe
1820s, lhese lvo eaks vere symboIicaIIy |oined in a lalau ounamu
IileraIIy a greenslone door, a covenanl of eacebelveen Tuhoe and a
neighbouring lribe lo lhe easl. A human marriage belveen lvo members of
lhe lvo lribes araIIeIed lhe union of lhe anceslraI mounlains.
The Iuroean concel of ovnershi seems a aIlry lhing comared lo such
an underslanding. Can you ovn human Iife`
In lhe course of our negolialions I've sludied lhe Iuroean underslanding
of lhal vord 'ovnershi' and vhere il came from, Kruger loId me.
Ovnershi is lhe roof lhal somelhing is yours lo seII. So il is more aboul
hov lo rid yourseIf of somelhing, lo gain maleriaI benefil from il, lhan lo
reserve and kee il.
My feeIing is lhe Iand vas here firsl, so nobody ovns il. If anylhing, il
ovns you. The valer ovns lhe valer, lhe Iand ovns lhe Iand. So our
roosilion lo lhe governmenl vas lhis: 'Lel us agree lhal Te Urevera ovns
ilseIf.'
And lhis, in facl, is hov lhe sellIemenl vilh Tuhoe has lurned oul. Te
Urevera's nalionaI ark slalus is lo be revoked and lhe Iand vesled as an
indeendenl IegaI enlily under ils ovn acl of IarIiamenl. Tuhoe viII be
recognised as guardians and governors of lhe Iand.
When lhe delaiIs of lhe nev sellIemenl vere reveaIed in 2012, il seemed lo
me a miracuIous soIulion vilh videsread imIicalions. Il is increasingIy
aarenl lhal lhe grealesl lhreal lo lhis Ianel is nol oIIulion or disease or
cIimale change, bul lhe human resumlion of sovereignly over lhe naluraI
vorId. The Te Urevera oulcome hinls al a rofound aIlernalive: an
acknovIedgemenl lhal Iand has ils ovn idenlily and inlegrily, and cannol be
anyone's ossession.
Tuhoe signed ils deed of sellIemenl vilh lhe governmenl in 2013. As arl
of lhe sellIemenl IegisIalion, lhe governmenl made a Ienglhy aoIogy lo lhe
lribe, admilling lhal ils reIalionshi, vhich shouId have been defined by
"#$% "&'()*)+&,- #./'0'*1- $2/345 6)7 89- :98;

190
honour and resecl, vas inslead disgraced by many in|uslices, vrongfuI
kiIIings, and years of scorched earlh varfare. The concIuding slalemenl of
lhe aoIogy is a beaulifuI geslure of reconciIialion. Lel lhese vords guide
our vay lo a greenslone doorlalau ounamuvhich Iooks back on lhe
asl and cIoses il, vhich Iooks forvard lo lhe fulure and oens il.
In lhese vords, can ve gIimse a alh lo vider reconciIialion of humans in
lheir eslrangemenl from earlh` An invilalion lo cIose lhe door lo ossession
and oen il lo beIonging`

1
Kennedy Warne co-founded $5= >52(26? @5)A42+&'. magazine in 1988 and
served as ils edilor unliI 2004. He vriles reguIarIy for naluraI hislory magazines and
is lhe aulhor of severaI books, incIuding B3&)5% ")4/42'/ )< 2 $2/')6, vilh holograhy
by Ieler }ames Quinn, vhich viII be ubIished in Oclober 2013 by Ienguin Nev
ZeaIand.

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191
Reorl from raziI

Malaraura Wa|i, Garcia Lima, MuriIo Rocha Seabra
1

The Wa|i youlh onIy vanls lo use shorls. I'm nol ashamed of using Ioin-cIolh,
aduIls are nol ashamed of using Ioin-cIolh. ul lhe Wa|i youlh is ashamed.
}oairia Wa|i

To vrile a lexl vilh four hands is nol aIvays an easy lask. So, vhal aboul a
lexl vrillen by six hands` The soIulion roosed by Garcia Lima, assessor of
lhe Aivala Associalion, crealed rimariIy lo meel lhe Wa|i communily's
urgenl heaIlh robIems, vas lhe foIIoving: he vouId diclale me his lhoughls,
Ieaving lo me lhe resonsibiIily for laking noles and lhen lying lhem u. In
facl, his days are aIvays busy, laking Wa|i eoIe or Waii, according lo
anolher seIIing lhal have had accidenls, have faIIen seriousIy iII or been
billen by snakes lo hosilaIs in Macaa. Malaraura Waii, in lurn, vho
resenls himseIf for Weslerners as Crisliano, found a Iace in his scheduIe lo sil
dovn vilh me so ve couId vrile lhis reorl logelher. Hovever, lhis lime my
scheduIe did nol coincide vilh his. So ve aIso had lo aIy lhe melhod
suggesled by Garcia. ul aIlhough I, MuriIo Seabra, lake resonsibiIily for lhe
vriling of lhis lexl, I musl say lhal lhe ideas exressed here are lhe resuIl of lhe
refIeclions of nol |usl of one bul lhree heads (al Ieasl!).
Where shouId I begin` Ierhas vilh Malaraura Waii's schooI exerience
here in Macaa, lo vhich he vas driven by lhe desire lo knov, in his ovn
vords, hov vas lhe sludy of lhe vhile eoIe. Thal vas in 2009, vhen
Malaraura, aged 17, came lo Iive in Macaa. On his firsl day of cIass, lhe leacher
caIIed his name oul Ioud. The olher sludenls immedialeIy began lo Iaugh. Irom
lhal day on, Malaraura slarled lo suffer buIIying by his schooImales. They
vrole on my nolebook, lhey caIIed me names. They said lhal Indigenous eoIe
vere beasls. As a resuIl, he asked lhe headmasler if he couId be caIIed al
schooI by a normaI vhile name, and he chose Crisliano. And he aIso
varned lhal if measures vere nol laken againsl lhe sludenls vho harassed him,
he vouId end lhe buIIying using his ovn hands. UnforlunaleIy, he had lo use
lhem. ul onIy once. Il vas enough. Since lhen, his schooImales have sloed
bolhering him.
There are nov 55 young Wa|i sludying in Macaa. The number is quile
Iarge, considering lhal Wa|i Indigenous Land has aboul 1,200 inhabilanls.
IossibIy, mosl young Wa|i, if nol aII of lhem, go lhrough silualions simiIar lo
lhose Malaraura Wa|i venl lhrough in schooI. Il is difficuIl lo evaIuale lhe
marks lhal lhis brulaI mockery of Indigenous eoIes by vhile youlhs mighl
Ieave on young Wa|i. Il is aIso difficuIl lo redicl lhe Iong-lerm imacl of lhis
massive exodus of young Wa|i from lheir Iand. Ior inslance, lhere is loday
"#$% "&'()*)+&,- #./'0'*1- $2/345 6)7 89- :98;

192
onIy one shaman in Wa|i Indigenous Land and il is absoIuleIy uncerlain lhal
he viII have successors, because fev of lhe young Wa|i vho Ieave lheir Iand
in order lo sludy relurn. They adol olher names, change lheir hair cul, slarl lo
vear vhile cIolhes and behave Iike vhiles lhey adal lhemseIves, al aII IeveIs,
lo lhe demands of Weslern civiIizalion. When lhey do relurn lo lheir Iand, il is
onIy lo send lhe hoIidays. Their symboIic vaIue becomes connecled lo lhe facl
lhal lhey are Iiving in lhe cily.
To have a son sludying in lhe big cily is somelhing lhal makes Wa|i
arenls roud. Il is somelhing lhal gives a cerlain slalus lo lhe famiIy,
according lo Garcia. Thus, more and more arenls vanl lheir chiIdren lo move
lo Macaa in order lo sludy or lo smaIIer lovns cIoser lo Wa|i Indigenous
Land if lheir income is nol sufficienl lo cover lhe cosl of having a son Iiving in
Macaa. Marriage vilh vhiles is aIso seen as a osilive lhing, lhough nol if lhe
Indigenous erson in queslion is a girI. When a Wa|i man marries a vhile
voman, his famiIy slarls lo en|oy some slalus. ul lhis does nol hoId for
marriages belveen Wa|i vomen and vhile men, exIains Malaraura.
This symboIic asymmelry belveen Indigenous lhings and cily lhings
reroduces ilseIf vilhin Wa|i Indigenous Land. Il is beller lo dveII in Macaa
lhan in lhe foresl. And if one Iives in lhe foresl, il is beller lo Iive aIongside lhe
road lhal crosses lhe cily of Iedra ranca and enlers Wa|i Indigenous Land in
lhe form of a dirl road lhan Iiving in lhe so-caIIed Iimils (lhe remole regions
of Wa|i Indigenous Land). This makes access lo lhe lhings lhal lhe vhile
vorId has lo offer easier. The raziIian governmenl, in an al Ieasl doublfuI
oIicy, in|ecls aboul $1 miIIion er year inlo Wa|i Indigenous Land in lhe
form of vages. NaluraIIy, every monlh Wa|i emIoyees vanl lo go lo lhe cily
lo vilhdrav lhe money lo vhich lhey are enlilIed. The easiesl vay lo do lhis is
nol lo Iive in lhe Iimils, as lhey have done unliI recenlIy, bul lo Iive aIongside
lhe road lhal gives access lo Iedra ranca and Macaa. UnforlunaleIy, lhe
concenlralion of Wa|is aIong lhe road can be used by lhe raziIian aulhorilies
lo slale lhal lhey do nol need lhe enlire area, vhich, by lhe vay, has many
recious mineraIs and has allracled lhe allenlion of mining comanies.
In facl, lhe Wa|i vere oulraged lo discover, al lhe end of 2012, lhal lhere
vere a greal many research inleresls regislered by mining comanies in lheir
Iand al lhe NalionaI Dearlmenl of MineraI Iroduclion (DNIM
Dearlamenlo NacionaI de Iroduo MineraI). They requesled lhe annuImenl
of aII of lhese regislered inleresls. ul lhe facl is lhal lhe raziIian governmenl
is considering changing lhe federaI Indigenous IegisIalion, vhich loday sliII
gives Indigenous eoIes fuII over over lheir Iands. And lhe mining
comanies exerl greal ressure here. There are nov over 5000 mining requesls
on Indigenous Iands soIeIy in lhe Amazon region. The mining comanies are
|usl vailing for lhe green Iighl lo allack.
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193
The raziIian governmenl is doing vhal il can lo heI lhese comanies. Ior
examIe, il is videIy knovn lhal lhe conslruclion of lhe eIo Monle
hydroeIeclric dam oses a serious lhreal lo aII lhe eoIes of lhe Xingu.
Iurlhermore, recenl sludies have shovn lhal lhe dam viII be abIe lo oerale
onIy al sixly ercenl of ils lolaI caacily. So il is a ma|or conslruclion carried oul
vilh huge inveslmenls lhal is very hard lo |uslify. Il viII bring incaIcuIabIe
sociaI and environmenlaI damage and virluaIIy no benefil lo lhe IocaI
ouIalion. And il viII conlribule decisiveIy lo drying u a Iarge area rich in
goId and olher recious mineraIs aIready acquired by eIo Sun Mining
Cororalion. In sile of lhe Uniled Nalion's (overl) oosilion lo lhe
conslruclion of lhis dubious dam, lhe raziIian governmenl has slubbornIy
decided lo go on vilh il. Wilh lhe conslruclion of lhe eIo Monle dam, lhe
inleresls of a Iarge mining cororalion viII be mel. Il seems lhal for lhe
raziIian governmenl lhis is lhe onIy lhing lhal mallers.
CurrenlIy, lhere are aboul 817 lhousand Indians Iiving in 688 Indigenous
Iands vilhin raziIian borders. To lhe deIighl of inlernalionaI cailaI, eseciaIIy
lhe mining comanies, lhey are aII under lhreal. Ierhas lhere is no raziIian
oIilician lhal lhese comanies shouId lhank more lhan Senalor Romero }uca,
vho is lrying lo IegaIize mining bolh on Indigenous Iands and in naluraI
sancluaries and, |usl in case, he is aIso making a big efforl lo criminaIize sociaI
movemenls vilh a rulhIess anli-lerrorism Iav. Among lhe comanies lhal viII
direclIy benefil from lhe senalor's measures is lhe comany oa Visla
Minerao, vhose ma|orily ovner, Marina }uca, lhe senalor's daughler, has
aIready requesled aulhorizalion lo conducl mining aclivilies in nine Indigenous
Iands. ul as lhe senalor exIained, he is nol lrying lo change lhe Iav lo suil his
rivale inleresls. WeII, lhere is some lrulh lo lhal. Ior lhe oa Visla Minerao
viII be neilher lhe onIy comany lhal viII rofil nor lhe comany lhal viII
rofil mosl.

Inlernel sources

hll://vvv.funai.gov.br/
hll://vvv.dnm.gov.br/
hll://vvv.senado.gov.br/senadores/dinamico/aginsl/senador73a.as
hll://vvv.beIosun.com/
hll://vvv.foIhabv.com.br/Nolicia_Imressa.h`id135622
hll://revislaeoca.gIobo.com/rasiI/nolicia/2012/08/or-que-romero-|uca-defende-exIoracao-
de-ouro-em-areas-indigenas.hlmI
hll://vvv.insliluloiee.org.br/2012/10/
hll://vvv.socioambienlaI.org/l-br/o-isa/ubIicacoes/mineracao-em-lerras-indigenas-na-
amazonia-brasiIeira-0
hll://vvv.youlube.com/valch`v091GM9g2|Gk

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194

1
MuriIo Seabra gradualed in hiIosohy al lhe Universily of rasiIia (Un), vhere
he aIso oblained his maslers degree. In 2012 he laughl IhiIosohy al lhe Slale
Universily of Macaa (UIAI).

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