Piled foundations

Adapted from the Foundation section of the GeotechniCAL Reference Manual Author: David Toll (Durham Univ.)
Piles generally used because adequate bearing capacity can not be found at shallow enough depths to support
the structural loads. It is important to understand that piles get support fromboth end bearing and skin
friction. The proportion of carrying capacity generated by either end bearing or skin friction depends on the
soil conditions. Piles can be used to support various different types of structural loads.
Types of piles
End bearing piles
Friction piles
Settlement reducing piles
Tension piles
Laterally loaded piles
Pile construction
Displacement piles
soil is displaced radially as well as vertically as the pile shaft is
driven or jacked into the ground
Non-displacement (or replacement) piles
soil is removed and the resulting hole filled with concrete or a precast
concrete pile is dropped into the hole and grouted in.
Choice of pile Depends on:
Location and type of structure
Ground conditions
Durability
Cost
Pile groups
1. Piles are frequently installed in groups.
2. A pile group must be considered as a composite block of piles and soil, and not a multiple set of single
piles.
3. The capacity of each pile may be affected by the driving of subsequent piles in close proximity.
4. Compaction of the soil between adjacent piles is likely to lead to higher contact stresses and thus
higher shaft capacities for those piles.
5. The ultimate capacity of a pile group is not always dependent on the individual capacity of each pile.
6. When analysing the capacity of a pile group 3 modes of failure must be considered:
a. Single pile failure.
b. Failure of rows of piles.
c. Block failure.
Ultimate Bearing Capacity
The ultimate bearing capacity may be take as one of three values:
1. the maximumload Q
max
, at which further penetration occurs
without the load increasing
2. a calculated value Q
f
given by the sumof the end-bearing and shaft
resistances
3. or the load at which a settlement of 0.1 diameter occurs (when
Q
max
is not clear).
For large-diameter piles, settlement can be large, therefore a safety factor
of 2-2.5 is usually used on the working load.
A pile loaded axially will carry the load partly by shear stresses, t
s
,
generated along the shaft of the pile and partly by normal stresses, q
b
,
generated at the base.
The ultimate capacity Q
f
of a pile is equal to the base capacity plus the skin friction acting on the shaft.
Q
f
= Q
b
+ Q
s
=
A
b
. q
b
+ (A
s
. t
s
)

whereA
b
is the area of the base
A
s
is the surface area of the shaft within a soil layer.
The Greek letter is used to indicate that it may be appropriate to add together the skin friciton
generated by each layer of soil which the pile enters.
The proportions of capacity contributed by skin friction and end bearing do not depend on the geometry of
the pile alone. The type of construction and the sequence of soil layers are important factors.
Settlement
Full shaft capacity is mobilised at much smaller displacements than those related to full base resistance. This is
important when determining the settlement response of a pile. The same overall bearing capacity may be
achieved with a variety of combinations of pile diameter and length. However, a long slender pile may be
more efficient than a short stubby pile. Longer piles generate a larger proportion of their full capacity by skin
friction and so their full capacity can be mobilised at much lower settlements.
Driven piles in non-cohesive soil
The base resistance, Q
b
can be found fromTerzaghi's equation for bearing capacity,
q
f
= 1.3 c.N
c
+ q
o.
N
q
+ 0.4 .B.N

The 0.4B.N

termmay be ignored, since the diameter is considerably less than the depth of the pile.
The 1.3c.N
c
termis zero, since the soil is non-cohesive(c=0).
The net unit base resistance is thereforeq
nf
= q
f
- q
o
= q
o
(N
q
-1)
and the net total base resistance is Q
b
= q
o
(N
q
-1) A
b
The ultimate unit skin friction (shaft) resistance
q
s
= K
s
.o'
v
. tano

where '
v
=average vertical effective stress in a given layer
=angle of wall friction, based on pile material and
K
s
=earth pressure coefficient
In layered soil the total skin friction resistance is given by the sumof the layer resistances:
Q
s
=(K
s
.'
v
.tan .A
s
)
The self-weight of the pile may be ignored, since the weight of the concrete is almost equal to the weight of
the soil displaced. Therefore, the ultimate pile capacity is:
Q
f
= A
b
q
o
N
q
+ E(K
s
.o'
v
.tano .A
s
)
Calculate N
c
, N
q
and N

Values of K
s
and can be related to the angle of internal friction ()
using the following table according to Broms.
Material

K
s
low densityhigh density
steel 20 0.5 1.0
concrete 1.0 2.0
timber
2
/3;
1.5 4.0
Like much of pile design, this is an empirical relationship.
Fromempirical methods it is clear that Q
s
and Q
b
both reach peak values at a depth of
between 10 and 20 diameters.
It is usually assumed that skin friction never exceeds 110kN/m and base resistance will not
exceed 11000kN/m.
Driven piles in cohesive soil
Driving piles into clays alters the physical characteristics of the soil.
In soft clays, driving piles results in an increase in pore water pressure, u, causing a reduction in effective
stress. Ground heave also occurs. As the pore water pressure dissipates with time and the ground subsides,
the effective stress in the soil will increase. The increase in effective stress (' = - u) leads to an increase in
the bearing capacity of the pile with time. In most cases, 75% of the ultimate bearing capacity is achieved
within 30 days of driving.
For piles driven into stiff clays, a little consolidation takes place, the soil cracks and is heaved up. Lateral
vibration of the shaft fromeach blow of the hammer forms an enlarged hole, which can then fill with
groundwater or extruded porewater. This, and 'strain softening', which occurs due to the large strains in the
clay as the pile is advanced, lead to a considerable reduction in skin friction compared with the undrained
shear strength, s
u
, of the clay. To account for this in design calculations an adhesion factor, o, is introduced.
Values of a can be found fromempirical data previously recorded. A maximumvalue (for stiff clays) of 0.45
is recommended.
The undrained shear strength, s
u
, frequently increases with depth. The value used to calculate the end
bearing capacity, Q
b
, should be that at the base of the pile. The value used to calculate the shaft capacity,
Q
s
, should be the average value, s
u(avg)
, take at mid height.
Q
s
= o .s
u(avg)
.A
s

Q
b
= s
u
.N
c
.A
b
N
c
=9.0 for clays and silty clays.
Bored piles in non-cohesive soil
The design process for bored piles in granular soils is essentially the same as that for driven piles. It must be
assumed that boring loosens the soil and therefore, however dense the soil, the value of the angle of friction
used for calculating N
q
values for end bearing and values for skin friction must be those assumed for loose
soil. However, if rotary drilling is carried out under a bentonite slurry f' can be taken as that for the
undisturbed soil.
Bored piles in cohesive soil
Following research into bored cast-in-place piles in London clay, calculation of the ultimate bearing capacity
for bored piles can be done the same way as for driven piles. The adhesion factor should be taken as 0.45. It
is thought that only half the undisturbed shear strength is mobilised by the pile due to the combined effect of
swelling, and hence softening, of the clay in the walls of the borehole. Softening results fromseepage of water
fromfissures in the clay and fromthe unset concrete, and also from'work softening' during the boring
operation.