Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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INDIA IN
1880.
Sir
RICHARD TEMPLE,
G.C.S.I.,
Bart.,
CLE.,
D.C.L.,
SECOND EDITION.
WITH TWO MAPS.
reserved.
LONDON:
PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND
SONS, LIMITED,
2)S
ALBEET EDWARD,
prince of Ml:iles,
IN
MEMORY OF
AND PEOPLE
OF THAT EMPIRE
THIS BOOK
IS,
HIS
ROYAL HIGHNESS,
THE AUTHOK.
157^503
PREFACE.
It
quiries wliich
to
time addressed to
me by
the
many
knowledge
numerous branches.
explained
in
many
topics
which
mentioned
or
the
following pages.
The
characteristic of
as a whole,
This variety
is
from
my own
that the
demands
of public
Khyber pass
to die city of
Candahar.
my
and
vi
PEEFACE.
some capacity
or other,
to be employed, in
under
all
the depart-
ments of the
to
State.
volume
founded.
I have,
of,
with
trifling
beheld but
made
sketches
described in
these pages.
almost
all
some
error of detail
interests.
nearly every
is
chapter
friend
who
comprises.
The chances
diminished.
of accidental mistakes
I
my
friends
me
and
revision.
Chapters
II.
and
III.,
sports, are
who
An
there
made
to
memory some
who have
perfectly seen
many
places of pilgrimage
" Niobe,
of nations,"
and a
at
;
"
the Taj
mausoleum
where
marble
and the
Hope upon
a death-bed " or as
PREFACE.
vii
The sacred groves near the temples of India might have Wordsworth when he wrote,
"... solemn and capacious groves Of vast circumference and gloom profound, beneath whose sable roof May meet at noontide Fear and trembling Hope Silence and Foresight, Death the skeleton And Time the shadow, there to celebrate
. .
.
United worship."
the
Natives,
on
national
it is
education,
religious
hoped, be of interest
all
who
are
moved by
which Providence
Chapters
of an Eastern population.
student
of
development.
Chapters IV., X., XI., and XII., on the duties of civil
generally, on law,
legislation, crime, police, prisons, the
officers
adminis-
who manage
the
affairs
an empire
consisting
of
many
viii
PREFACE.
which are
Chapters XIV.,
railways,
electric
irrigation,
afford to those
done, and
may
Englishmen how
their
countrymen
in
pursue
many
of the highest
ways
of culture,
and
..." musing
Or wake the
mount where
spirit of
departed time."
Chapters V.,
the conclusion,
reflect
who
patriotically
the strong
arm
mighty heritage
The
effect
of all
the
chapters
in
combination
will,
it
is
elements of security,
its
its
prospects of danger,
its
sources of
weakness,
To European
ness
;
and
Some
notion
may be
gathered
aspect of
and often
fairy-like
W. H.
life
There
is
a vivid freshness
PREFACE.
also in the descriptive passages of
Asia.'
ix
of
mango-sprays
The sun-birds
flashed,
,
Bee-eaters
hawked
. .
butterflies,
The pied fish-tiger hung above the pool, The egrets stalked among the buffaloes, About the painted temple peacocks flew.
.
.
.
The
Goading
The urban
"
where dwell
and grain,
'Jlie
The housewives bearing water from the The weaver at his loom, the cotton-bow
The dyers
well,
Wet
*******
;
.
line of drums and horns, which went With steeds gay painted and silk canopies To bring the young bride home and here a wile
There a long
The marvels
would be
order to be realized
to set
them
forth appropriately in
words
to " describe
the undescribable."
But
sliall
my
story will
be induced to
an affectionate regard
for India
1880.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
I.
Need
men Changeful
1880
Circumstances
To
those coucerned in
Necessity of Therefore survey undertaken India in interesting and sportsmen To missions To the and public To economists and statesmen
of to travellers
science
friends of
affairs
CHAPTER
II.
nowadays
season
Variety of
climatic aspects
Improved Phenomena
facilities
for travelling
of the rainy
the south of
Pleasant mountain European during summer Fine views from mountains looking towards the sea Noble prospect from Himalayas looking towards the plains of India scenes Marble rocks Cascades Mountains clothed with perpetual snow the world peaks yet discovered Lake Scenery of Cashmir valley Features the several
nent
residents
Riv^er
Loftiest
in
region
of
CHAPTER
in.
Interesting views
at
Bombay,
at Cal-
and on
lines of railway
Beauty of Native architectureBuddhist caves, rock-cut temples, Ancient frescoes Sacred mountains of the Jains Hindu Brahmiuical structures Mention the
pagodas and monasteries
or of
finest
European churches
and cathedrals
CONTENTS.
temples
Largest
Mountain
fortresses
Muhammadan
architecture
dome in the world Citj;^ of the dead Mosque, palace and tomb of Akber the Great Grand mosque at Delhi Pearl mosque Matchless beauty of Taj Mehal mausoleum at Agra
Interesting
CHAPTER
Beautiful
palaces
Excellence
many
places
PAGE
of
remains at
...
2^
IV.
competition
Civil
Results of new system of Interesting duties servants Historic names of Servants and the past Military employDistinguished names among them Several engineers covenanted Medical Military and The clergy Eminent prelates Uncovenanted European and EastIndian Europeans Mercantile firms Chambers of commerce Indigo-planters Tea and Coffee-planters The Angloof civil in
officers
in civil
political
classes
of
officers
officers
civil
officers
Indian press
..........
CHAPTER
V.
Non-official
43
NATIVE STATES.
Relations of the Native States with the British
Loyalty of Order of the Star of India Imperial assemblage at Delhi Visit of the Prince of Wales Advantages the empire from the existence of Native States Education of youny; Native Princes Internal administration of Native States The Nizam~i States Their military Mention of of the Deccan Jammu and Cashmir Protected Sikb States Rajput Princes Mahratta Princes, Sindhia, Holkar and the Gaekwar importance of the The Princess of Bhopal Travancorc Deccan Mysore Kingdom of Nepal Khan of Khelat Eminent
Government
Native Sovereigns during the war of the mutinies
to forces
largest
Political
Native Statesmen
.........
CHAPTER
VI.
in itself
59
Expansion of cultivation
Gradual growth of the people numbers Land can yet sustain increasing people India Emigration from India British
to
Sufficiency
of food supply in
India
Her
wealth under
CONTENTS.
xiii
British rule
PAGR
Increase of
nations in wealth
Maintenance of the poor Public opinion regarding material improvements Industrial employments General condition
of the Natives
India W(>alth of former times as Capital largely accumulated by the Western Reasons why India
in
is
inferior to
.........
CHAPTER
VII.
tribes
77
The temper the MubamThe peasantryThe aboriginal madans The Parsis The Native nobility The landlord-class mental The traders The priesthoodThe educated
of classes
Tlieir
Their
lojalty
public service
In other
professions
England State
of the Native
107
CHAPTER
NATIONAL EDUCATION,
Educational policy declared in 1854
sidered relatively to the population
Present
number
of scholars con-
Middle schoolsWant of technical instructionNormal schools Vernacular literature Superior education Universities in India AfBliated colleges Characteristics, m.oral and of Native graduates Instruction in medicine engineering Degrees science Agricultural instruction Schools of art Ethical teaching Female educationZenana missionsEducation of European
intellectual,
-In civil
in
P^ast-Indian children
....
CHAPTER
IX.
...
.and
138
The
State
Church
in India
Maintenance of
religion
CONTENTS.
Eeligious establishments of the PortugueseAttitude of the British Government respecting Christian missions Native States The Eoman Catholic Church in IndiaProtestant missions Unabated Approximate of of High authorities favour of missionsCharacter of Native Christians Prospects of Native Church Special missions from Oxford and Cambridge Moral of missions generally
Government
religion
in
efforts
PAGE
religious
in
societies
statistics
results
effect
162
CHAPTER
LAW AND
Constitution of Indian Government
X.
LEGISLATION.
English law in India Councils in India constituted Law Commission in London of India Their popularity Public confidence courts in the in the High Courts of Judicature Special regarding debtedness of the peasantryArbitration Patriarchal ruleNonregulation system Answer to charges of Need of
Sacred character of
of justice under British rule
for legislation
Civil
interior
legislation
in-
over-legislation
.
continuity in administration
.178
CHAPTER
CRIME, POLICE
General character of crime in India
Thagi,
its
Xr.
PRISONS.
AND
Good
conduct of the
peoj^le
horrid characteristics,
its
repression
Female
Its
Self-sacrifice of
Hindu
infanticide
Regulation
Its
re-
imiwrt of dacoities in the Deccan Occasional occurrence of serious Penal code and former faults criminal procedure Regular police organization Condition of village or rural police General regulaGypsy tribes
riots
tions regarding
arms
ments therein
rule
Recent
improve.
195
The tax
is
Property in land created or recognised by British Government Value of such property Fee-simple estates belonging
Immense work
of field survey
and
CONTENTS.
Europeans
to
Tenures Indebtedness of Antiquity of peasant proprietors in some Tenant-right Privileges of Protection accorded occupancy tenants Tenants at
in
Permanent
village officers
cultivators
..........
will
districts
to
212
CHAPTER
XIII.
REVENUES.
Land revenue
Average rates of incidenceTributes and contributions Excise Assessed taxes CustomsAbolition of tax English import duties on English piece goods The
its
from NativeStates
imported
Opium revenue Objections discussed Stamp contrarevenueTotal general revenues Government and municidistinguished from revenue proper Taxation pal new taxes deprecated
to it
salt
salt
of
receipts as
for local
pxirposes
Projects for
....
230
CHAPTER
XIV.
jacent to India
Canals in Asiatic countries adIrrigation sj'stem of canals from wells Native works of In Hindostan In the PanjabIn BeharIn OrissaIn the of the Godavery and the Kistna In Tanjore From the Tumbadra river From the Indus in Sind Lakes the Madras Presidency In the Bombay Presidency Principal from which canals have been drawn Rivers from which canals remain be takenDifferent plans of constructing canals Proportion of or protected lands the whole cultivated areaCanal water-rent Financial returns from the canals InNavigation of the canals Immense value of canal
for
deltas
in
for irrigation
rivers
to
irrigated
to
direct benefits
........
CHAPTER XV.
Bombay
246
Line from Calcutta to North From Bombay to Madras From Lahore to Karachi Projected extension to Candahar Line
for
railway system
From Calcutta to
CONTENTS.
to Agra In Rohilkhand and Oudh In Behar In In Central IndiaIn Berar and NagpurIn Southern India From Goa southern DeccanIn BurmaRailways of two kinds, Guaranteed and State Advantages of the Guarantee system Passenger EoUing stock State railways Goods railways Broad and narrow Capital furnished by Native States time of war and of famine Introduction of gauges Railways Guaranteed railway Companies telegraph Lines belonging And the GovernmentTelegraphic communication between India and Endand Also between India and other countries
from
Bombay
Bengal
to
traffic
traffic
for
in
electric
to
to
264
CHAPTER
XVI.
Under British rule Principal and character Their noteworthy part superseded features Bridging and metalling Pack-bullocks Carts with draught-bullocks substituted Embankments the Indus Bengal, Behar and Orissa In the valley
rule
lines
Their
value
in
in
.
of
281'
CHAPTER
XVII.
Comparison of Indian products with those of other countries Cinchona Coffee Tobacco Cotton Indigenous staple
Tea Local
past
portance
laws
to forests
Indiistrial
Preservation
products
The
forests
pasturage
Communal
forests
Forest
in relation
stones
Still flourishing
on the whole
Effect
on Native taste
Exhibitions
.
288
CHAPTER
XVIII.
The "Green's"
Suez Canal
ships
Africa, Asia
Direct dealings of India with the Continent of Euroj)e and Australia France Tlie United States Italy
The " East-Indiamen ships The Peninsular and Oriental Company The
"
CONTENTS.
xvii
The Mauritius
for
Particulars of trade United Kingdom Shipping the most part British Coasting trade Balance of trade How India of her export adjusted The Home remittances'Value Internal trade of India trade Food-supply generally Land communication Kiver navigation Eegistration of
witli
PAOB
to
sufficient
it
prices
.....
309
CHAPTER
XIX.
Popular instrucWater- works of towns Sanitary engineering principal Conservancy Utilization of sewage Lodging-houses in towns Dwellings Examination of foodSmall-poxVaccinationContagious Hospitals and dispensaries
hygiene
cities
Purification
Vital
statistics
of water
supply
in
in
villages
diseases
......
321
CHAPTER XX.
Under British ruleIn Behar and Bengal elsewhere in 1877 Public charity 'In India Mortality Advantages of railways in England Calamity in 1874 compared with that of 1877 and 1878 Prepreventing mortality Sanitary department Distressed cautions people to be prevented from wandering Relief works Village spection Relief houses People not demoralized nor pauperized by operations Good-conduct of the peasant proprietors Prospects of material improvement Supply of food by private enterprise
rule in
In Madras,
for
Bombay and
in-
relief
330
CHAPTER
XXI.
LEARNED RESEARCH.
Spirit of research has long existed
and Learned works the In the presentBooks written explain Oriental ideas to Civil and European readers Works of history Ethnological works history Biographies Military in countries beyond the Indus Asiatic Society of Books of Bengal at CalcuttaBombay branch of Royal Asiatic Society Antiquarian remains Archaeological SurveyPreservation of ancient
still exists
in
past
to
historic
fiction
political
travel
ruins and
monuments
........
b
343
xviii
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
XXII.
PHYSICAL SCIENCE.
Great Trigonometrical
at
Astronomical observatory Madras Meteorological observations Botanical Gardens, and Herbaria The Geological Survey Natural History Imperial museum at Calcutta Ornithology Zoological Gardens Death of Basevi and Stoliczka Pisciculture Organization of an agricultural departmentModel farms Popular instruction in agriculture Veterinary
Survey
Topographical
PAGE
Survey
art
......
353
CHAPTER XXm.
WILD ANIMALS AND SPORTS.
Advantages from sport Big game in champaign country and in mountains Season for sport Spearing the wild boar Tiger-shoot-
ing
a man-eater
cheeta
alligator
Wounds from carnivorous animalsThe hunting The bearThe elephant The bisonThe rhinocerosThe The Himalayan ibex and Ovis AmmonAnglo-Indian
......
363
CHAPTER XXIV.
NAVY AND MARINE.
Early naval enterprises
Piracy The Indian Navy Naval arrangement between the Government of India and the Admiralty in London The Persian Gulf Defence of Indian harbours and coasts Steam Navigation Companies The Indian Marine Marine
Surveys Tidal observations ShipwrecksNative passenger ships Port of CalcuttaCyclones the Bay of Bengal on the Hughli Madras Dockyards at Calcutta and BombayWet dock and foreshore at BombayKarachi harbourExamination of harbours Lighthouses
in
Pilots
pier
lesser
.......
374
CHAPTER XXV.
THE ARMY.
Constitution of the armies in India
The European soldier Marked improvement of his condition Short service system Former local European army Strength of European garrison in India The
CONTENTS.
Volunteer movement
xix
FAGB
of
its
The
Native army
Basis
fidelity
Physique and conduct of the Native armyEnlist His pay and allowancesRecent difSculty OiBcering of the Native armyNative in obtaining corps The regular and irregular systemsEuropean The Native cavalryThe ordnance department The commissariat The transport Audit and accountEstablished strength
their quarters
soldiery
Families
Castes and
of Native soldiery in
recruits
officers
officers
staff
service
of military forces
.........
CHAPTER XXVI.
FOREIGN RELATIONS.
straits
384
and west Aden Southern Arabia of MuscatThe Persian GulfMesopotamiaThe MalaccaThe kingdom of Ava Adjacent provinces of China of Eastern Thibet Yarkand and Kashgar North-v^est India Afghanistan Opinion in India regaiding RussiaKokand Bokhara and Khiva Boundaries of Afghan dominionsRussian Caubul Position of Badakshan and BalkhRelations of embassy Persia towards Herat Russian advance on Merv Yarkand Persian province of Khorasan Importance of Herat Freedom of Afghanistan from Russian influence Amir of CaubulKhyber Pass Kurrum Valley The Pishin Value of Candahar
Socotra
frontier
to
frontier
414
CHAPTER XXVII.
Statement of income and expenditure Apprehensions expressed by some authorities regarding Indian finance Want of the revenue Control of expenditure The military expenses Cost of the administration Provincial European and Native agencyCost of material improvements Guaranteed railways State railwaysCanals and works Total outlay on public works during recent famines Recurrence of famine Loss by exchange on mittances by Government of India E^ngland Former proposals regarding gold standard The national debt Equilibrium between ordinary income and expenditure Audit and account Government paper currency Coinage mints Savings-banksPresidency banks Cash balances
elasticity in
civil
services
irrigation
Its results
re-
to
........
at
441
XX
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
XXVIII.
PAGE
STATISTICAL SUMMABY.
Area of India
and Population Several people Agriculture Works of employments Embankments Tenures CrimePrisons Hospitals and Dispensaries Education Universities Literature and telegraph Emigration Railways Roads Foreign sea-borne trade Coasting trade Harbours Shipping Frontier trade Tea and Manufactures cotton and jute Exports wheat and Coal ForestsArmies Finance Revenues and ExpenditureCoinage and paper currency
religions, castes,
professions
of tlie
irrigation
Police
Civil justice
Post-office
electric
Coffee
rice
of
of
receipts
471
Its results
and
lessons
Prosperity of the
Adverse
to
calcu-
by existing
as to
why England
should retain
Hapjjy prospect
Satisfactory answer question possession of India Virtues and Natives Their general contentment
facts
rising before
them
488
DIRECTIONS TO BINDER.
Map Map
of India, showing the
of
Railway in India
......
Mountain Ranges
.
Frontispiece.
At
the end.
INDIA IN
CHAPTER
I.
1880.
on
tlie
part of Englishmen
of observing
Therefore
Necessity
and science
affairs
To those
Circumin public
connected with
The
bilities,
Consequently the
their conscience is
attention
stirred
Englishmen
is
excited,
and
regarded.
dis-
of English
life,
are fitful
Never-
under
is
so in
some
respects.
But
to
many
people.
Some
things
indeed,
such as
the
whom we
B
see
2
to-day.
INDIA IN
But under the
1880.
Chap.
i.
and the
moral
many
changing
fast.
ments
dence.
shall
Wonderful
and
is
in
Men who
it,
tra-
velled in
think that the knowledge acquired at the time and on the spot
will be always valid, that the experience gained under certain
conditions will
be ever applicable.
study and
new
observations.
There
is
danger
lest data,
sound
Hard
task
as
may have
must yet be
occurring.
march abreast
of Indian progress,
and
to
Therefore
it
behoves those
who have
fresh
memories of the
By
steps
Chap.
i.
may
lielp to
shores.
My
work
and compre-
may
the present.
It will not
dicate specially
any
set of opinions.
however,
present
and circumstances,
will not
The exposition
as
as
varied
the
considerations
multiform,
many-sided.
For India
To the
where the
peculiarities of
may
be
effects of
modern
civilization.
offers scenery,
to be seen in
To the
architect
originating
different
and
stirring adventures
and
field,
may
courage
To the
among
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap.
i.
yields, as the
reward of plant-collecting
the
of everlasting snow.
finest
and
To the
species
woods and
forests
together with
many
rare
and
varieties.
To the meteorologist she manifests wondrous and mighty phenomena, which specially invite scientific cognizance, as they
affect the rainfall
mankind, aboriginal or
;
Caucasian or Mongolian,
Scythian or Aryan
languages.
effects
produced on
human
and by Christianity
of
exercised
on
the thoughts
men by
several
systems
of
philosophy.
among
the heathen,
publicist she
originates
discussions
may
may
be
To the
for
politician
exercising the
the
and wishes of
alien races,
Chap.
i.
To the
manner
in
which foreign
may
be considerately administered by
To the
civil
an enormous
area,
reclaiming the
To the
mountainous
nationalities.
manu-
new
may
be indefinitely great.
discloses
sand-encumbered
the periodical
phenomena demand
European sanitation
many
proffers all
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap.
ii.
CHAPTEE
II.
adays
Variety
of climatic aspects
lm}irovcd Phenomena
facilities
for
travelling
now-
summer
for
European residents
Fine
Himalayas Noble prospect looking towards the plains of India Puver scenes Marble rocks Cascades Mountains clothed with perpetual snow Loftiest peaks yet covered in the world Lake region Scenery of Cashmir valley Features of their costumes. of the several Indian races Picturesque
mountains looking towards the sea
diseffect
made
of the beautiful
aud
beauty.
many
ance, to
furnish a parallel.
exist in
The
objects of beauty
and
interest,
which
India
are, in their
that
But they
are
somewhat scattered
far
between.
inattractive,
Such disappointment was more common in the past generation than it is in the
eye, at first sight be disappointed.
may
present.
Some
a traveller to visit
it was impossible for more than a few of the places worth seeing
Chap.
ii.
IMPROVED
FxiCILlTIES FOll
TRAVELLING.
in the country.
lives in
Men who
an empire containing
many
them
all
and
rare.
gems
of scenery or antiquity
spots,
were remote.
and
to the
time spent in
This circumstance
may have
last
many
and quickly approached, and will soon render almost every part
accessible.
of India represents a
tourist.
project
In the
undue fatigue or
he
relieved
imprudent exposure
By
and
facile
is
to the point
whither
and
increasing
not only
those
fixed,
among
among
is
Englishmen whose
cast,
Still,
many
it
to see every-
man
of
whom
is
he has seen
is its
all India, so
extensive
configuration,
and
When
8
it
INDIA IN
must
at the
1880.
Chap.
ii.
of the country
it
much
are
of
is
even
hideous.
Nothing
for instance
Bombay
Satlej.
tlie
denuded of vegetation,
which have
instance
all
African deserts.
in
Bengal,
Behar,
coast,
many
and unprepossessing.
Still,
even
The sunlight
brightens
up rude
shadows,
shade.
most
classes of the
people are variegated in colour, and set off even the dullest
landscape.
Wherever the
and partly
to art,
and are
all affected
by climate.
by tempests, and
of tropical
latitudes.
first
This
is
the
Indian
regions
wliich
became known
originated.
But
in the empire,
now comprised under the territorial name of India, there are many varieties of climate. In some regions, for example
Chap.
ii.
some
months consecutively
hours of morning
the generally prevailing dryness often verging the moisture sufficient during the
first
upon drought
of
months
summer and
Although,
still
it
minds of the
people.
of
the Western Ghat mountains, on the west coast of India, forms a mighty wall 1500 to 2000 feet high, for
miles.
many hundreds
of
and
propelled
by the wind
is
during
the
heat of summer.
condensed on
which
is
encountered, shedding
tearing
up the
hill-sides
cascades.
onwards,
with the
monsoon "
Similar
and dividing
it
on the eastern
of
Bay
of Bengal.
from contact
In the
with the
the backbone
10
river, the
INDIA IN
1880.
Cjiap.
ii.
They
are hindered
by
But with
these,
and perhaps
some
move
to exceptions) the
Satpura
is
in the
Deccan
the
Madras
and Bombay,
but
climate
equable, hot
generally,
may
be described
mid-winter,
when
it
is
when
at
the
North
with,
of the Satpura
met
and
some
their passage across the western desert, rush over the inhabited
plains
smitten with
fire.
Even through
its
course.
Then
is
that the earth becomes like iron, and the heaven looks
like brass.
lies
the historic
city of Agra,
which
is for
the
habitable globe;
though
at these
is
in this respect.
But
during the
new
year's
day there
is frost at night.
is
intense heat
longer and
Chap.
ii.
colder.
is
From
the proximity
becomes scorching.
darkened houses
at
night,
when
sleepless,
they sometimes
They
are,
short, winter.
the climate
milder
and
cold.
the
Natives
is
decidedly superior.
Their stature
is
taller, their
Their character
to violence.
is
more
and
robust,
and
of lesser build,
moral
some other
seldom
hill
tribes,
surpassed.
In Bengal,
disposition
is
milder,
of
The drought
cognomen
nutrix
of
leonum,"
Singh
of
life,
in
allusion
to
the
Sikhs
whose
has
leonine
significance.
The
the
harder
conditions
considerable
nourish
sturdier
races
of
men.
offers
specific
of
To persons
more favourable.
But
in northern India,
is
stronger and
12
healthier,
INDIA IN
more able
1880.
Chap. n.
which he originally
If a comparison in respect of
it
to
be
remembered
that,
from
all
the
first,
resort
to
the
for
very
in
from the
nocturnal
setting
still
damp from
Europeans,
the
time when
It
all
who
can,
escape
to
the
mountains.
may
But in northern
Ijy
who have
rapidly
the heat
of
summer
are
Opinion
Many Europeans
of
will be found
longest,
least.
and
It is well that
they should
all
cast.
They generally
possess
The
may
be exemplified by the
retreats,
different
of the
mountain
where the
Simla
Government
the summer.
of India
with
the
its
oaks,
its
distant view of
its irrigated
snowy range
Dharmsala with
snowy
with
its tree-
creepers
cloud-effects,
; ;
Chap.
ii.
13
and
for
its
with pine
and
its
Brahmaputra
its
Pachmari with
sandstone
;
unfathomable
rifts,
and
summer
cascades
for
Rajputana, majestic
for Beluchistan,
Abu
with
its
its
Quetta with
aloft,
panorama
;
tions
towering
Bombay, Maha-
bleshwar with
steep
scarps,
;
its
and
ocean
for
rolling plateaux
and
rounded summits,
intelKgible,
when
remembrance.
In southern India, the western horizon of the sea
is
seen from
feet
high.
towards his couch in the ocean, casts a sheet of light over the
waters,
which
is
visible
off,
For instance,
The summits
tower in the distance, with their violet hues which have given
the
name
of
the range.
verdant coffee-plantations,
factories, in the
and
and
the
Prom Wynaad
In the early
lifted
filled
flat
14
surface.
INDIA IN
The ridges
1880.
Chap,
ii,
up dark,
as if islanded in a
sea of clouds.
Beyond them
of
Bombay, be considered.
rocks, bold
consists
rivers, creeks
and
the city of
bright,
Bombay
is built.
is
and
so
on
the imagination.
Beyond
it
all,
Then the
of the
spectators realize
sun
setting,
Not as in northern climes obscurely bright. But one unclouded blaze of living light."
effect is
produced in an-
The mountains
rise
The
five
traveller
may
feet.
see a grand
thousand
He will behold
better
by retreating
inside
or twelve thousand
The prospect
monotony
when winds
have
is
and
mists,
when
the atmosphere
transparent, and
when
all
have been
intensified
by moisture.
forests,
tlie
among which
fleecy
In the middle
Chap.
ii.
lUVER SCENES.
flat as
15
and intersected by
it,
like
is
the
on
earth.
The imagination
is
Satlej.
clefts of the
The Ganges debouches picturesquely Hardwar, the holiest of all the places
after passing
Hindu
pilgrimage.
The Godavery
through a
is
dammed up by
a great
dyke, whence
The Mahanaddi
upon the
x^lains of Orissa.
Of the many
river
country, two
may
Nerbadda wanders
of marble, from
cliffs
and
bluffs
fifty
hundred
feet high,
confined, has
an
of mingled green
it
and
blue.
receives perfect
The
with the reflections from the marble on either side almost joining each other in the blue water,
either
when viewed
in perspective
description.
by sun-light
or
by moon-light, transcends
with the
Nerbadda
On
Mysore plateau,
16
fifty feet,
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. n.
to
during
flood, it is said
thunder, and
its
its
spray.
When
seen at
best during
falls,
from
its
play of
its
Dame
The
movement.
wending
his
way through
by the weird unearthly moaning of the waters as they fall. Emerging from the forest before sunrise, and facing the waterfalls,
which he
is lifted,
and the
falling
variety of motion.
rises,
As
the sun
displays, as
so
much
are so
They behold
sights, in
grandeur
much
higher.
It is doubtful whether,
when range
after
upon the
not re-
as seen
from Simla
its
itself are
Chore summit, the sacred sources of the Ganges and the Jamna
Chap.
ii.
SNOW-CLAD MOUNTAINS.
and Janinotri, can be
Simla
17
called Gangotri
station
of
itself
present a
striking
architecture,
crown
to the cedar-clad
mountain.
mountains 26,000
less
surpassingly beautiful.
The middle
distance
able weather,
so clear,
and so
little
soaring summits and the tortuous glaciers are close to his eye.
The view
valleys, not
of
feet high, as
of Darjiling, is
finer
still.
The low
same
down
the
snowy summits.
that at the
He
happens,
too,
moment
when
fine
the
summits are
brightest,
gloomiest.
To say
that,
and are
would be
the
manner
in
which
mind
of the beholder
is
impressed.
weather,
is
so
among this eastern section of the Himalayas, which much more wet and verdure-clothed than the western, the
movements and
in fascinating
clouds gather round about the mountains, and play over the
vast landscape with graceful
forms.
18
INDIA IN
1880.
is
CuAP.
ii.
applicable to these
still finer
view
is
obtained
by-
his right
Mount
In
known
in the world.
on the
six in
number and
near together) four are situated above the line within whicli
The prevalence
of
tem-
surroundings
is
sublime
the
In each
in one
murky, in
hills
of Thibet,
effect of the
of aerial pink.
up the pyramid
of
cone,
all,
From
Jhelum
which valley
is
off
many
Alpine only.
fraught with
is
and
liistoric associations,
famed
for
Still,
these lakes
may
Chap.
Italy,
ir.
19
and with
compared.
interest,
elements of
by snowy mountains on
river,
all sides
and
permeated by a navigable
an object of desire
to all
one of them
collectively,
may be matched
elsewhere.
But
if
they be regarded
analysis.
The fountain
shape.
from azure,
catching
reflections
from
and
The
foil to
autumnal
umbrageous
trees
around make a
From
the temple-crowned
summit
of the Takht-i-Suleman, or
panoramic view
is
Far beneath
the eye, lies the city of Sirinagar, like Venice founded amidst
Jhelum
main thorough-
On
one flank
stretch the
poplar avenues where the national games and races are held.
Hard by
above.
is
reflections of the
On
its
20
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap.
ii.
tlie lily
and the
lotus, issued
to
Caubul and
a
silver
to Dellii.
Beyond
Jhelum looks
like
streak, pursuing a
till it
joins a line
lake.
Along
snowy
ranges,
bounding
the valley on the north, east and west, towards the Himalayas,
it
from India.
At
the end of
summer,
in the long
snowy
line.
At
all
other seasons
the
circle
of
uninterrupted snow.
Whether
and valleys of
Many
districts,
characterized
forests,
by sylvan beauty.
Among
the
foliage,
make
human
stature, loves to
grow out
precipice.
leaflets,
of the
The
fir,
with
its
in
shadowy
lofty
magnolia bursting
with white
blossoms seems
up with an arrowy trunk, and a head crowned in summer flowers. The " coronetted " palmyra, the orange-coloured with
feathery date-palm, the tapering bamboo, cluster in the
or
fields,
around
the
homesteads.
agitated
The
casuariva
whispers
and
inter-
murmurs when
twines
its roots
by the
sea-breeze.
till
The pipal
The banyan,
;;
Chap.
ii.
21
in
and a leafy
ceiling.
The
and
races
effect of
is
much enhanced
by the aspect
their
is
surroundings.
or
less
The complexion
dark and
is,
more
of head
and
extraall
the rough
refined
handsome Telugu from the dwellers in the Ganges valley Muhammadan on the Indus from his weaker but more
and gracefully shaped brethren of Madras.
Opinions
may
Among
Sikhs will
madans.
often
worthy of the
brush or pencil.
many
specific varieties.
ment may be
by
visitors
generally wliite;
though even
with
Among
to
memory
mediteval Europe.
though
florid,
Nowadays
in the costumes,
the Ijrightest fabrics of the west are tastefully mingled with the
22
rich dyes
INDIA IN
and
stuffs of the east.
1880.
CiiAP.
ii.
in chro-
which renders
of admiration,
even
among accomplished
still
persons.
This
talent
of
theirs
displays itself
chiefs or princes
hold
civil
and
celebration of marriages
and curious
pomp and gold will fall short reality. Much of the show will be
precious metals shining, and
still
and substantially
real,
glittering.
Much
Yet the
of the
effect of
tawdriness will be
of colour, under
harmony
or
sun,
in
torch-lights.
The embellishment
of the
The
on any
numbers
noble spectacle
presented.
When
they really
of the Native
though perhaps
these troops
Nowadays
drill in imitation of
effect is lost
Still,
without an equivalent
sovereign
when a Native
parades his state and dignity through his capital, scenes arise
The gladdened
for
beaming
forth,
-faces
of the people, on
beholding
their
king issue
may
afford scope
the
reflections of moralists
and
politicians.
23
CHAPTER
III.
Interesting
caves,
and on
lines of railway
Native architecture
monasteries
Buddhist
frescoes
European
Beauty
of
temples,
pagodas and
Sacred mountains of the Jains Hindu Mention of the temples Mountain Beautiful palacesExcellence of Muhammadan architecture Interesting remains at many places Largest dome the world City of the dead Mosque, palace and tomb of Akber the Great Grand mosque Delhi Pearl Mosque at AgraMatchless beauty of Taj Mehal
or Brahmiuical structures
tresses
finest
Ancient
for-
in
ac
mausoleum.
The
those
in
nature, like
setting.
gems
set in gold,
little
Indeed,
the style of
fective as to
many
British structures
was
to
so erroneous or de-
exercise a debasing
influence on
the minds
of
it
those Natives,
admire or imitate
Most of the early buildings erected under and many of the recent buildings still are, of a plain and uncouth fashion architecturally, however useful or commodious they may be practically. Of late years the Government has moved in an esthetic direction, and at
British rule were,
Calcutta,
fine edifices
have sprung up
styles
and Saracenic
have been
of the
adapted with
east.
much
taste
and
24
wliicli
INDIA IN
the
1880.
Chap. hi.
artistic
At Bombay, along
tlie
the
there
is
a long
any country of
with the blue
world,
some
of
from Malabar
Hill,
harbour behind
in
ranges of Concan
hills
the distance,
probably
would
rival
the
Neapolitan
scenery,
if
only
Mediterranean.
view of the
State buildings.
tall
masts of the
shipping in the river close by, the moving crowd of horses and
equipages thronging the strand, the guns of Fort William overlooking the whole like sentinels, combined with the ceaseless
hum of voices, make up a marvellous effect. Many of the largest public works under
not designed for artistic
a very
effect,
with
interest.
between
Bombay and
to
rainy season,
away by the wind and display the precipitous and wooded mountain-sides,
the thunderclouds are blown
when
many
series of cascades
precipices.
This spectacle,
all
when seen
to
advantage,
is
admitted by
Chap. hi.
it rises
25
summits on
either
wooded valleys
The
views are striking and sugg&stive, fi'om the pontoons which form
a
floating
passage across
the Hughli at
Sone river near Patna, from the bridges across the Jamna at
Allahaljad and at Delhi, from the lofty structure of iron-work,
Nerbadda
at Broach.
At many
The mementos
Lucknow, where
at
so
much
of genius
and bravery
Englishman.
is
buried, stir
all beholders.
The Portuguese
of
much
time.
the church,
new Goa
occasionally resort,
and
St.
Portuguese
churches
were
ruthlessly
by the
original
Mahrattas for the sake of the timber: but the walls, arches,
columns
and windows
still
bear
witness
to
the
The
ruins, interspersed
amongst
the dense foliage of the place, wear, by moonlight especially, a solemn and melancholy aspect.
or unfavourable, of
26
INDIA IN
1880.
CiiAP. in.
is
at present
centred and
making
The
is
there as
political
it,
as
it
it
in words.
it
naturally,
With
increased
by advantages of
site.
is
prospect,
From
interest.
the
is
only possible
to select those
Buddhism
political
as
religious reformation,
left
and
its
as a social
and
movement,
grand traces of
effaced,
handiwork.
Of
these traces
many,
The
" topes," or
class of remains.
They were
Their shape
originally
religious events.
is
This mighty
mound was
its
origi-
nally constructed in
apex
both
lost.
It is placed
on the
Chap. hi.
27
crest of a ridge of
and when
first
reared
must
liave
tlie
gleamed from
district.
afar, lilce a
its
Around
base
slabs of stone,
Of
is
the
finest.
It is a
is
Immewith
its
grown up,
setting
off,
delineation of
and
but
been prefixed
to Fergusson's
Of
these
features,
little
been.
in the Indian
The fondness
sides
mountain
was a
India.
as at as at
which branch
off
from
the
The
nearly
total
number
of
one
thousand.
holy, recesses.
Turning round
for a
commanded,
as they
of the plains
and valleys
28
INDIA IN
1880.
CiiAP.
iii.
obscure
these times.
is
standing, and
sometimes
colossal, of
The
The bearing
finest
among
the hills
which branch
off
The
valley,
now an
utter
solitude
shut in by
mountain
living
barriers
The
pillars,
capitals,
monks and
Some of the walls were decorated with frescoes, well drawn and richly coloured, representing domestic scenes, secular and
religious
had
Enough,
of decay
life,
period.
The process
is
causing copies to
by
Major
To the Buddhists belong many of the caves at Elura, a- place ^\ hich was signalized by the achievements of the Brahminists
Chap. hi.
after the
29
presently.
is
its
name from
roof arched
of the
its
its
it,
the finest
known specimen
a temple
of a Buddhist excavation,
is
at
Buddh Gya
to Shiva.
It
a tower broad at the base and tapering towards the top, with
flight of
an outer
steps at the
From
fate
the terrace
basement there
tree,
projects
the withered
in
which has
there are
grander fane.
a Buddhist population
Himalayan
scenery, overlooked
by the
shaped
snowy
like
pillars
range,
and surrounded by
forests.
The
roofs are
overshadowing eaves;
the wooden
ijorticoes
and the
At
The
large images of
Buddha assumes
is
the
deity, or abstract
wisdom, in
whom
is
;
on the right
he
sacred apparel
policy,
on the
who promulgated the faith, and who wears a left is he who propagated it by arms and
;
three
'SO
INDIA IN
lif^-size.
1880.
Chap.
hi.
times the
The material
is
terra-cotta of Thibetan
workmanship
the figures
are
highly
and
tastefully coloured,
light of the
chapel, with
some
artistic
the front,
produce an
to the
group
recently, an aged
monk when
;
own
end,
was
figures,
One
of these
is
on an eminence
to
by a
flight of steps.
The
traveller toiling
up the
stairs in the
shade of the
trees, casts
apex of the pyramid, which seems so close above him, and yet
so hard to reach.
.
may
be seen to
fair
ad-
The
forests
The
rich
light,
save the eye from being tired by the infinitude of detail in the
and pinnacles.
grounds, the priests, with their orange and saffron coloured vest-
relief.
At Prome, on
hills,
a cluster of
low wooded
numerous pagodas, rearing their pointed finials somewhat like the masts of shipping and surmounted by tapering structures
cased with gilt copper.
The
arcliitecture is in
At Moulmein
it
may
the plain
At Rangun,
the Shwe-dagong, or
Dagon pagoda,
is
among
the
Chap. hi.
cliief
ol
British Indian
of near
empire.
300
feet
with
its
gilding,
or
umbrella.
it
among
tlie
faith
occupy
tlie
summits of
Bengal, and of
Abu
Aravali range.
is
The numerous
cupolas, obelisks
and
the sky.
The shrines
offerings, sent
from almost
From
is
to be seen
an extensive
cities,
of
being untraceable.
On
Cambay.
The Hindu,
Buddhist;
served.
remains are often, though not always, more recent than the
they are therefore more numerous and better pre-
To them
known
The
Among
paradise)
pre-eminent.
of the
trap formation
hill-side, a
broad passage
first
all
round a
solid
instance a
32
block.
INDIA IN
1880.
CiiAF. in.
out spacious
On
the
a variety of
devices.
pigments.
modern
hnt excavated
excavated niches
sculptures.
its
This
train
of operations
On
the same side of the mountain with the Kailas temple are
of
which the
The island
of Elephanta in the
Bombay harbour
interest.
has some
The
visitor,
while
want
of height, size
ntss.
tation
proportions
sions
is
were
comparatively
This
fault,
grandeur of
details to
and subordination of
main
features.
is
compartments
cloistered
somewhat
ture
and an extensive
enclosure, of
The
Tlie
strucvisitor.
was meant
ravages of time.
Chap. in.
33
observing
struction
which
is
Muhammadan
iconoclasts.
still
in good
preservation.
somewhat
after the
Their
masonry
sistency
baked
to a firm con-
sort of
pink enamel.
Their black-
wood carvings
stories.
resembling shields.
several
Their background
consists
in
part
of
snowy
mountains.
At Brindaban on
of the birth
the river
Jamna near Mathra and A^ra, in Hindu mythology, where the scene
laid, there is
Hindu
fane,
those of a church,
and
stone
The
the
best example of
Hindu
art in
India.
On
called
the
seashore of Orissa,
at sea
stands
it
the
Black Pagoda, so
It is a
by mariners
who
is
regard
as a landmark.
is
now
seen
by some
as
whether the structure was ever completed, or after completion sank from failure of the foundations laid in a sandy soil it probably was completed. If finished in the same proportions
;
and
detail
with wliich
it
was begun,
it
34
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. hi.
does near the beach, with the billowy sands surging round
it,
and within sound of the sea waves. At Mahabalipuram near Madras, masses of rock
selves
littoral
rear
them-
up on the
sea-side,
Upon
laid
Hindu
arcliitects
transforming
hands,
interiors,
The
finest
that of Kailas
at Elura,
already described.
sea,
at
In southern India, in
India, the
Hindu temples
as
is
of recent centuries
have imposing
proportions
well as
The
temple
itself
more
"
Goparums
"
or
gateways, often as
many
as
four.
other,
reflecting
and constituting
some
of the
Such
In one
in the river Cavery near Trichinopoly, and at Madura. of the principal courtyards at Tanjore there
is
the figure of a
men
nowadays marvel how the vast block was carved and transported to
its
present
site.
Chap. in.
as that at
35
and gateways, there are numerous courtyards, corridors and colonnades, replete with figures carved in
fine perspective
stone,
with a beautiful
The precincts
the scene in
its
way
is
where
the
most sacred
city of
The
city, lining
down
when
is
Then
and
cones.
the the
names
dedicated
terraces
of the empire.
all
The structures are manner of religious uses, with on some of which every earnest
after
Hindu prays
body
death
may
be burned to
state.
new and
happier
The
washes away
sin.
to
for
of founders
might
live
in the grateful
memory
The
of posterity.
particular wells,
known by
the
name
of
Enormous
depth of a
hundred
feet or more,
D 2
36
INDIA IN
to the deepest part
1880.
Chap. in.
galleries at various
fall
down
heights all
of
may
be access
The
finest
the tower
placed on
of
some
of the
patriotism.
The
fortresses of
Guty
in the
Madras Presidency,
of
Nandidurg
The picturesque Mahratta hill forts, built on rocky eminences in the Western Ghat range, were the eyries whence Sivaji, like
an
eagle,
he was born
Muhammadans
and assassinated
and controlled
their
envoy
all
western India
The scenery around these places is in unison with the momentous events which occurred in them. Little, save mounds and hillocks and the remnants of structures here and there, remains to mark the extensive site of the
ancient
city
Ghogra.
eloquence
or
theme
of descriptive
in
the
epic
poetry of
the Hindus.
its
And
every
glory as the
Near Bijayanagar,
in
the
Chap. in.
BEAUTIFUL PALACES.
their
final,
37
Hindus made
encroachments of the
Muhammadan
Hindu
art
some
of wliich are
among
and
have
lofty,
though gloomy,
interiors.
The ruins
of the city
is
most
interesting.
Here and
site
hewn and
divine
grotesque figures
of
incarnations.
The
cliffs
of
the
midst of granite
and boulders,
with
river,
with
its
rapids,
its
the
is
monolith
ancient viaducts
still
standing,
place.
in
historic halo
Hindu kings
margin
which are
islets
adorned with
Udeypur
Such, also,
is
the
the Jyepur
city of Jyepur.
is
The
com-
palatial
of
embodies
many
of the finest
and
is
Amongst the old palatial buildings there may be noticed the palace of Mandla near Jaba]pur in central India, specially remarkable as having been constructed by an aboriginal dynasty
of Gonds,
away
to the
East India
is
Company
of the
now
the site
Madras
38
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. hi.
is
and arcades,
and
vaulted roofs and arches lofty as those of a church, combine to excite the admiration of the beholder and to render
A mystery
enshrouds the
some Brahmin
left
conspirators,
who suddenly
and
him
to starve in darkness.
The Muhammadan
architecture
is
attention of Englishmen.
The Muhammadans
secular
many
structures
of size
and beauty,
forts, palaces,
halls of
and marketedifices,
But
much
venerated,
to preserve
example in the
mind
of the faithful.
Though
tionate
was sometimes
life-
which accounts
many tombs
being so magnificent.
Some conquering
more beautiful
monuments
left
none ever
Muhammadans.
art,
and
infinitely excelled it in
artistic sense of
and
the
They
of
colouring.
Some
of their later
CiiAP.
III.
the reigns
of the
shewed
or
its
despite
some crudeness
may
Nor did
later
it
suffer
any
at
deterioration
buildings
edifices,
were,
in
days,
erected
Lucknow.
to
These
however
lofty or imposing,
belong
an
at
Ahmedabad
in
the
may
for special
the Deccan
to the ruins of
Mandu
in central India
to the
cities,
modern
;
to the
to
the ruins of
is,
Gour in
however,
these
much overgrown by
there are
Among
for notice.
At
Bijapur, the
dome
of the
tomb
of king
duomo of Florence.
surpassed
by the mausoleum
At Golconda,
of the kings, at
domed tombs
named
It
somewhat
like
an
40
obelisk,
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. in.
Mogul empire was first consolidated by Akber the Great, are the mosque and palace built by him as a country seat at Fatehpur Sikri, near Agra also his tomb at Sikandra in the same neighbourhood. The design of
Of a
later period,
when
the
these buildings
is
very
fine,
material afforded
by the
brilliant
red sandstone,
recalls
it
is
remarkable.
The
style
in
some respects
tectural
Hindu house
called
in Eajputana.
at Lahore, one built
by imperial
minister,
orders,
and
by a
and called
of the
style.
The body
Padshahi mosque
are of marble.
is
The Muhammadan
The number
of such
men
being
no successors in
structure
their art
the
gem
of that province.
The Muhammadans
in
wliite
also
stones, inserted
marble.
survives
The
"
Jama "
built
by the
mosque on a very
world.
and
lofty arches
Chap. hi.
its
41
steps,
is
effect.
hardly perceived at
is
ad-
miration
its
so riveted
by the grace of
its
component
parts,
this
which, as
its
name
implies,
was
special
or
of
liis
In the palace
mosque, built
It
possesses
of the
It is
Jama mosque
loveliness.
in size, but
superior even to
that
mosque in
It is carefully preserved
by the
gems
of the empire. of
tliis
Pearl
Mosque
mth
the
mosque with
and marble.
As he
up
The
perfect contour
seems
to
have
infinite depth.
broad recesses of the building, there are the cool shades of the
marble, diversified by the play of reflected lights, and affording
grateful relief to the eye fatigued witlt beauty.
edifice for divine
A more
lovely
erected.
The supreme
effort of
Muhammadan
construction of the
mausoleum
erected at
whence the building has acquired the common name of the Taj
42
Mahal.
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. hi.
assisted in the details
Some
Italian artists
may have
of the ornamentation.
But
to the
the peerless
queen of
maintain
all
The
all
its
gardens with
it
con-
stantly during the greater part of their lives, never tire of seeing
it
it
on canvas
There
is
almost equal
diffi-
why
it
appears so exceedingly
is
The marble which, in that dry climate, is but little sullied by the stains of time and at a short distance seems, in the sunlight,
to be pure as
feels
but
among
In support of
view
it
may
original,
lost.
but the
effect
If the edifice
still
more does
transcend description
if
seen by night,
when
the moonlight
rests
When
all
nature
is
hushed, a sentiment
monument,
until
the
liistoric
tion,
43
CHAPTER
IV.
Interesting
names
officers
Eesults
servants
of
Historic
and
of
of of
Distinguished
officers
Military
officers in civil
political
employ
among them
Eminent
engineers The clergy Military and Uncovenanted European and East-Indian Non-official Euroi)eans Mercantile finns Chambers of commerce Indigoplanters Tea and coffee-planters The Anglo-Indian
Medical
Several
civil
classes
covenanted
prelates
officers
press.
The Covenanted
country.
Civil Service
is
It consists of
928
;
officers,
whom
to
of
the Government.
and the
classes
political
and foreign
the
the
these
share.
also
But
Government concerns
for
or
affairs
of the peox^le,
the arbitrament
weal or
woe
rests
with
The members
of this Service,
They
44
eyes of the Natives.
of
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. iv.
England herself
people.
qualities,
interior.
Even
if
some Englishmen
little
But the
and conversation
to millions of
of the
men.
which
it
Civil Servants.
men
to this Service,
by the Directors
so
Company.
much
upon
by competition,
is
Servants
who
change
working successfully.
producing the
benefit
which might
fairly
be expected.
Kingdom. Nor is that combination of ability and energy in unison, which amounts to genius, found more in
in the United
the
new
among
British
be ensured by regulation.
are procured, of
Chap.
iv.
45
inas
Under the
Such
men
regards diligence
sionally.
and capacity crept into the Service occawhich must be specially harmful in a
instances,
country like India, are not found under the system of competition.
Some men
by habit
of
mind
sion
;
work
of their profes-
hazarded to the
that
Eecently
new
by famine and
Its
members
They
have in these
endurance,
Anglo-Indian annals.
Some
of
them
tariat
which
fill
They
of the
seat in
Government
the
of India
Most
of the
ofl&ces
now
them
But
is
at
the
in this
46
wise.
INDIA IN
The young
officers are, for a
1880.
Chap.
all
iv.
employed
become
of the
They
some
some
In
branch
this
distribution, the
aptitudes, acquirements
and
prefer-
much
service.
as possible con-
of the
Though many
judicial line,
is
men from
the
first
bend
their
man
as Magistrate
and
to
two millions.
the
great
and varied
interests
entrusted to his
at the
at the relations which must be maintained with all classes of the Natives in a firm, judicious, considerate and conciliatory manner; he comes to
regard his district almost with the same sort of feelings with
He
learns
industries of the people, in their manufactures, their productions, their trade, their festivals
and
With
many
ship.
individuals
among them, he
must
One
of the faculties he
whom
he comes in contact.
He
by many Natives
and who
who
are themselves
endowed with
Chap.
iv.
47
He
by
flatterers,
and will
who
In seeking
for
and
own view be
;
any sign of a
foregone conclusion
for
any opinion of
their
own to the contrary. If he be not on his when conversing with Natives, he will
are very reserved in communicating
it
As they
is
the inner
mind
and with
whom
they will
Wliile inces-
prone to indulge and which are more dangerous than open accusations.
There
is
who do
their
him by
covert suggestions,
and of
his
mind being
poisoned, as
it
Wliile cautious
make
may
to
48
sanitation,
INDIA IN
examine
material
schools,
1880.
Chap.
iv.
and form
the
plans
for
improvement.
He
will
take
same
His ambition
is
to leave
behind
him some
and a sign
useful work, as a
of his
mark
improving hand.
district.
This
camp
life
under
Ms
Indian career.
He
all
Natives,
central
who can hardly be observed with advantage at the station of the district, and who can be best understood
at their
remote homes.
While he
is
riding
fields,
by the way,
is
on much
more easy and familiar terms with the Natives than he could
possibly be at his headquarters, where he
less
is
surrounded more or
with his
staff
and subordinates.
;
and then he learns many things about and the people which could not otherwise be learnt.
on sights of beauty and
interest
At
every turn his eye glances on picturesque objects, and someit rests
;
times
all
which help
to endear to
him the
district
where
mind
refreshed,
liis
new
Many
of the
he once more
sits
hours of the
close
summer
days.
In the
hum and
Chap.
iv.
4i)
the day to
come round
for
him
to
more
rising crops,
when nature decks herself with the dew that glitters on the and when she is freshened by the health-giving
breezes of an eastern winter.
by Native
of
They
among
the best
men he
ever knew.
The junior
them
for the
in
division of the
empire
to
divisional
is
the
which make up a
division.
Madras).
The Commissioner
and
is
or part of a province,
Government.
He
is
the
made regarding
the Magis-
and
The
Covenanted Civil
Servants.,
form a
and the
liearing
of appeals from
some
The
District
Judge
is
the superior
of the
several
Native
50
INDIA IN
1880.
district,
Chap.
iv.
and the
visitor or
He makes
the
is,
testing
their
procedure,
and learning
popular
He
in short, a
upon
his diligence
suitors,
many
must greatly
Judge.
depend.
men
are selected
High Courts
It is impossible here
district
to
describe
the
work, which
is
many
capacities,
fiscal
as political Eesidents
Native Courts, as
heads of
as Secretaries to
Government,
as
Members
of the Councils, as
There
is
by the
All
the
well-wishers
of India
will
memory
of good
men
departed
may
encourage the
new
Civil
of
Warren Hastings,
of Teignmouth, of
Mount-
Thomason,
may ever
a very imcivil
upon them
to the
in their labours.
Next
political
is
for
and
employ.
These
they are
now taken
or
from the
Staff"
Corps.
Chap.
iv.
EMPLOYMENT OF MILITARY
OFFICERS.
;
51
also
political
many
namely the
and
all that
has been
applicable to
them
also.
;
They
of
efficient
many
Some
of the
best
and
greatest
names
Mark Cubbon, John Low, James Outram, John Jacob, Herbert Edwardes, John Nicholson, Henry Durand. Of these, Munro
became Governor of Madras, Malcolm Governor of Bombay, and
Durand Lieutenant-Governor
of the
Panjab.
Many
of
them
official
ment, having been sent out from England under this condition.
These
classes
grown much
in
members
now
filling places of
con-
sequence in the
officers,
public
service.
Kingdom,
the
whom
practically
is
management
Coopers'
of
Royal College of
Engineering at
Hill.
officers,
from
England.
in part
employed with
E 2
52
the Native
officers.
INDIA IN
1880,
Chap, iv
Army and
its
its
members have
But
largest
civil officers
Government,
medical
One
education
of the
Natives as medical
men and
practitioners.
At the Presidency towns of Calcutta, Madras and Bombay, its members have an extensive private practice, not only among their own countrymen, but also among the Natives.
It furnishes to
Government
contributes
sanitation.
It
largely
to
the
advancement
its
in
;
own work
It has
humbler
by reason of philanthropy
Its
is
scientifically
influence
considerable.
its
By
recent arrange-
ments
it
will
be relieved of
so signally qualified.
The
Company
They contained
as
as high
an average of
many
service,
existed.
The names
of
some
of its
as
members
names
Kennedy
The position
They now
the
larger
Department of Public Works, a In-anch of the service which has grown rapidly of late years owing to the extension of canals and the construction of
number
CiiAi'. IV.
53
striving
civil engineering,
employment
of a large
number
of
Europeans
must remain in
European hands.
The clergy
European
civil
consist
and among
all
and military,
and of Eoman
Catholic priests
who
ments of
They constantly
also visit the
visit
the forces
They
numerous
number
consequently
societies are
formed
for bringing
England.
The Bishops
of the English
number
was found
also
The Bishop
of Calcutta
is
metropolitan in India.
several wdio exerted
Among
the
community.
The memories
Heber, "Wilson,
reverently
Cotton,
are
and
affectionately cherished.
There
is
officials
who
are termed
uncovenanted, to
are not so
tition
They
compe-
numerous
owing
to the
of educated
pointments which
the Government
may
to
be designated as clerkships.
And
in
employ Natives
as
much
as
possible.
employed in several
54
I'olice,
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap.
iv.
Some
of
them
districts in
won
The
the class
itself,
Indians
suffer
or
Their
home
is
in India
and they
more
This disad-
is
quite inevitable
by improved education.
struggle will
They
but
it
is
to be
Many
of
and honour in
classes
some
of
them have
The
European
in India,
would by
itself
Even
as the
failed,
by
climate, such
Nilgiris,
have
fail,
colonization.
The
of his
countrymen in India,
The climate
are, as
is
European parents
unsuitable
education.
The
circumstances
of
India
are
to
non-official
The beginnings of
CiJAP. IV.
NON-OFFICIAL EUROPEANS.
5o
but at
many
been closed long ago, but the three Presidency towns have
of empire
the
world.
It
cities that,
unlike so
many
much
of the
European hands.
under European
Though many
guidance
new and
many
also
are
is
constant.
Not-
and the
rise of the
still
employ Madras
High Courts
and
is
of Judicature.
At
Calcutta,
Some European
to the disasters
succumbed
firms
which appear
to be of periodical recurrence in
part.
Of those
is
con-
happily numerous,
It is
abundant
commonly
merchant princes
diminished, although
the
number
of
The Erench
are not so
numerous
as
56
they once were
;
INDIA IN
1880.
CiiAP. iv.
are
fast
gi'0\\'ing
in
Added to these, the Greeks, the Armenians and the Jews now included in the English-speaking community, all
prise.
enjoy
to the
much mercantile repute and entitle Calcutta and Bombay name they love to claim, that of the hall of all nations.
of
The Chambers
centres,
at these great
are
the
principal
European
non-official
They are represented in the several legislatures by members whom the Government chooses from their body. They express Native as well as European sentiments they are
;
the chief,
sole,
interpreters
of independent
many
their
matters
fiscal,
economic and
financial.
The patriotism of
On
pendent
action,
part.
once
formed
class,
owning broad
possassing large
interests
and dwelling in
fine country-seats.
But
In
men have
still
for the
aNvay.
survive
their
busy
factories, exten-
establishments,
picturesque
houses,
gardens
and parks
constitute
in
some
of the
that province.
During the
of
the
famine which
was
as beneficial
it
was honourable
to themselves.
as
tea-planters
and
coffee-planters
that Europeans,
Chap.
IV.
57
India.
chiefly
have
happily
increased
in
They
have now
slopes of the
hills
much
of
of the
Kumaon
some
and
to the south
many
Wynaad and
many
of these plantations,
and many
to
scientific appliances.
They
offer a
good occupation
England,
who
are
prepared to undergo
But experience has shewn that the manageand the preparation of the tea or the
a
difficult profession,
ment
of the plantation,
and demand
knowledge,
a professional training.
It
this
many
is
failures
which
occurred.
Those,
who
would
little
concerns,
how much capital was dissipated in the beginning, how many fortunes were impaired, how many hopes were
wrecked.
Many
have judiciously
profited.
to
many
of the best
civili-
England.
as
an
institution, has
It circulates not
only
58
matters and political
regard to
also.
it,
INDIA IN
afiairs.
1880.
Chap. iv.
also
The Europeans
pay much
It criticizes
no
pains
to
present
all all
from
of
the
the
official
Some
under
Government,
communicate
on the
their thoughts
and
their
knowledge
to the newspapers,
condition that they avoid matters of a confidential or controversial nature, or topics that
may
be otherwise objectionable,
to publish compositions
which may
The
its
much
success to lay
before
readers
the
and
is
of
and
or
of
Smith,
O'B.
Saunders,
Dr.
Buist, Kobert
Knight,
J.
M.
Maclean.
59
CHAl'TEK
V.
NATIVE STATES.
Eelations of the Native States with the British
Imperial
assemblage at Delhi
Visit
of the Prince of
Wales Advan-
Internal administration of Native StatesTheir military forces Mention of largest StatesThe Nizam of the Deccan Jammu and Cashmir Protected Sikh States Eajput Princes Mahi-atta Princes, Sindhia, Holkar and the Gaekwar The Princess Bhopal Travancore importance of the Deccan Mysore Kingdom of Nepal Khan of Khelat Eminent Native Statesmen.
Native Princes
of
Education of young
Political
The Native
tude in
tlie
some magni-
Indian Empire.
and a population of
fifty
millions
of souls.
The sum
total
may
Though sovereigns
own
dominions,
they are all more or less under the control of the British Govern-
In accordance with
some
of
them
much
barons.
relations with
England
in past times.
With some
it
dimmed
or sullied
ning
with others,
With some,
the
all
thankfully remembered.
To
others,
with
English
into
power have
left
ungracious memories
now
lapsing
oblivion.
Whatever
00
tlieir
INDIA IN
past
1880.
CiiAP. v.
circumstances
may have
is
community
in interest, in peril
and in
When
of their States,
were
Had
these
Native
flames
of
revolt,
many
that
districts,
almost
tions
all
the sovereigns personally, together with their relaretainers, displayed a firm allegiance.
and
Herein they
Government
if
it
should
fall.
Nevertheless,
it
must be
to
in
noble and
the
They rendered a
priceless
service
moment
They
bulwarks of imperial
stability,
and
as
conservative
forces
elements
and explosive
may
at
Government
As
des-
of adoption should
male
paramount power.
All fears
Chap.
v.
VISIT OF
01
Government
to the
communicated
was held
be governing his
own
territories.
The creation
a moral effect
will
which time
serve
to
This measure, so
British functionaries, as
members
most
of
The favour
is
of the
higlily
among them
visit of the
and
its
insignia are
The
Duke
of
Edinburgh
States,
to India in
loyally accepted
subjects, as a
by the Native
of favour
mark
shewn
to the nation.
The
fealty
The
visit of the
auspicious,
their subjects.
binding
Tlie
them indissolubly
by them and
to
the
British
Crown and
it,
nation.
will ever be
remembered
and with
Delhi
at the Imperial
Assemblage
at
New
Year's
Day
of 1877,
largest gather-
ing of Native sovereigns, princes and chiefs that has ever been
62
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap.
v.
any meeting
of allies
Probably it was never equalled by and feudatories around the emperor in the
empire.
It left a
Mogul
happy impression
nationalities of
on the minds of
memories.
India,
Its
all present,
many
and
landmark in
the recollections of
many
millions of men.
The appointment
functionaries,
some
body.
had an ennobling influence upon the Chiefs as a The selection of two among them to be honorary
of the Order of the
The creation
Crown
of India, to
which
Native princesses are admitted, will exercise an elevating influence socially, in a country
effect
was peculiarly
felt.
The Native
States supply
some
of a foreign rule,
among
a people with
whom
a versatile fancy, a
predominant.
The
citizens
upon the
glitter of chivalric
pomp
of
eastern royalty.
which constiare, as
felt
which they
as
much by the Natives, who are British who are suljjects of the Native States.
graciousness, on the part of the British
by those
Considerateness and
Government towards
Harsh-
Government
Chap.
v.
G3
an imperial safety-valve to
any vent,
Persons
any scope under a foreign rule, who are too proud to submit to a system fashioned upon modern principles, and are yet too
innately active to remain without
evil,
or
Native
Many
agitated
may
capitals, where,
were,
many
acrid
humours
of the imperial
body are
drawn
States
remoter members.
polity,
many
of the Native
on a patriarchal
system
with
paternal
filial
obedience.
Even
the
Muhammadan
many
manlike administration.
dawn
of British ascendency,
misgovernment.
Out
salient of these
were repressed
yet
much
much
busied,
in reducing their
own
political
administrative shortcomings
of
Of recent
felt
of the
the
been
moved by
are sanctioned
Consequently they
64
respects, for instance,
INDIA IX
the
1880.
Chap.
of the land
v.
management
revenue,
they have followed the English in adapting the results of Western wisdom to the peculiarities of Eastern society. In
arrantring customs unions, accepting
relinquishing
transit
duties,
ways
of imperial
uniformity.
self-
Thus
it
many
Some
as
and by pliilanthropists
diffusion
Government in the
praise, accorded
of popular
The
so good, how,
it
is
its
superiority
In
fact,
however,
it is
the British that the Native rulers have become what they
are.
now
Nevertheless,
if
still
it
many
for
There
are
Ije
its
essence shall
adjusting
territories,
boundaries
dominions, or
in
exchanging
Sometimes
remonstrances have been couched in such language of dismay as implied the sincerest flattery of British rule.
these
Chap.
v.
65
own
auspices,
young Native
in
their
princes.
Several
now
reigning,
have
youth
been
thus
educated.
Some
western India, have been dignified -with a English has been spontaneously chosen by
collegiate status.
These circumstances
amount of revenue, with the least possible trouble the people. The average rate of revenue per head of the
generally
population will
be
found higher
in
the
Native
quality
rigidity
is
often
more
British
profitable
to the exchequer
than the
of the
method.
But
it
should be accepted
British taxation
is
Many
States, States,
of
the
the the
Eajputana Baroda
some
of
the
Central
State,
and
others
have
pass
been
through their
the British
reigns,
demand having been made upon them by Government on that account. Some Native soveno
the Nizam,
as
have furnished
On
66
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap.
v.
made
Government
railways
respecting
the
were connected.
new
In
civil
expenditure,
the
They shew a
of the
festivals.
politic profusion
that relates
to
the
functions
priesthood,
the
religious observances
to
the commonweal.
They
suffice.
number
of untrained
men, where a
much
smaller
number
of well-disciplined
forces at a strength
men would
their
own
Some few of them possess arsenals and magazines, also factories for making guns, powder, arms and ammunition. The armament of the
States as well as to the
paramount power.
Native States
is
is
a very
paramount power
to
approach.
The
British
Government
does, however,
what
it
judiciously can, in
in reducing
their
If such measures
were
ensue.
Still, it
would be well
they actually
are.
are
Jammu
and Cashmir
State,
the Protected Sikh States were loyal, and fought in the field
on the British
siderable
side.
body of these
Native States
Chap.
v.
67
L-
on that
alacrity,
occasion
sent
their
contingents
well.
utmost
political
effect of this
also,
movement was
of
considerable.
The Native
States,
from
at
forces
the disposal
Government on that
occasion.
may
seem,
if
it
would be incomplete
mthout some reference to each of the principal States. The Nizam's dominions have, for nearly a whole generation,
been governed by an eminent
Muhammadan
of the
statesman,
first
in
present Nizam.
The
many
cankers
The
the
Arab
mercenaries,
nominally
the
servants,
but
really
Kich
districts
military chiefs, to
for
whom
arrears
of
pay due
the
troops.
The
Eohillas,
who
The mob
at the capital,
Hyderabad,
and quelled.
class
A regular
fertility
resource
and vigour in
education,
conduct.
Something
sick,
is
effected
public
and
repairs of roads.
its
revenues and tenures, after the British model, has been but
introduced, yet
partially
many
F 2
68
direction,
INDIA IN
especially with
1880.
Chap.
v.
The artificial lakes for irrigation, which equitable and moderate. abound in some parts of the Mzam's dominions, and which
attest the
efficiency.
From
catastrophe
it
minister
and
time
its
finances were
Of
gression,
partly
retained.
beyond the
real
preserved
by a
which
wall.
environed on
all sides
by British
territory as
by a
The Arab
should
always be
watched.
The
chiefs at the
affected.
of importance in the
The sovereign
is
combined State of
Jammu and
Cashmir
who played
wars that caused the annexation of the Panjab, and whose troops were ranged under British command during the memorable
siege
moral
effect
on northenlight-
western India.
He
more
He
but not overgrown, and was raised in 1877 to the honorary rank of a General in the British army. He succeeds well
in
tlie
management
of his
fellow-tribesmen, the
Rajputs of
Chap.
v.
69
the lower
but
is
less
Muhammadan
of Cashmir.
He
facilities
which he
But, alas
!
the
name
of
happy valley
to
so affectionately given to
scenery,
and not
its
inhabitants.
Of
late
years
Seldom
man
in such misery.
The group of
Sikh States,
when he
threatened to
devour
all his
neighbours.
They remembered
their deliverers
who
in
in turn were
at the outburst of
first to
among
the very
appear
They
power
In the
drawn
for fifty
for
that
years.
than that
exhibited
by some
them.
civil
own
territories
greatly intermingled.
forces
abounds.
is
Their situation,
a
commanding
in
70
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap.
v.
In the Himalayan region round Simla there is a group of These suffered grievously under Protected Hindu States.
fifty
They remember their by the British. they were liberators with a gratitude which finds expression even in the
present time.
large congeries
of States
is
Kajputana or Eajasthan, of which the principal are Udeypur, Jyepur and Jodhpur. These Eajput chiefs have, next to the
Brahmins, the purest blood in India.
In antiquity of descent
;
During the
able fame
of
earlier
Muhammadan
won
imperish-
by deeds like those of the defenders of Saragossa, Antwerp or of Londonderry; and in their hill-forts were
heaped up hecatombs of
the advance of the
blished.
men
With
Mogul empire, their autonomy was estaThey sheltered Akber the Great in his infancy some of them gave sultanas to the imperial seraglios, and by marriage mingled their blood with that of succeeding Moslem emperors. The immunities, secured by them, were continuously enjoyed during the wars and treaties which terminated in the establish;
ment
of British supremacy.
They
modern change.
have endured
During recent
and
sacrificed
years, they
some inconvenience
salt
some predilections
from
and customs, in
Sindhia
order to
fulfil
Central India,
and
much
Chap.
v.
MAHRATTA
fair
PRINCES.
71
in
with a
degree
of success.
Central India has but a slight hold on the local Kajput chiefs
tribes.
to be feared,
and
territorial
affairs
managed by
very
able
minister.
He
number
settled
by existing by
him
Holkar
of his
affairs
is
assiduous in
Ms
political
there
is
no Native prince in
all
India more
an aptitude developed by education and training. Both Sindhia and Holkar are much esteemed and respected by the Mahratta subjects of the British Government in the
Deccan.
Khande Eao
the
Gaekwar
of
Baroda, whose loyalty to the British Government was conspicuous, the affairs of the State fell under
mismanagement,
which led
and
to
his
An
adopted son
regent,
was placed on the throne, with the princess Jamna Bai as and a very able minister, one of the best in India, was
appointed to conduct the administration, which
is
accordingly
prospering.
The State
of
Bhopal
is
the head of a
Muhammadan
Among
known
pathies.
as
an enlightened
ruler,
and
as a
for its
man
of broad
Pannah is sym-
His
territory is still
famous
diamond mines.
72
1880.
Chap.
Satlej,
v.
was
full
charge
area,
very
gifts
of coast
of nature and
It
includes
many
by the
late
The State
Bombay
managed by
by the
British
Some
of
them have
at times
been centres of
political
mischief
affected
still
The memory
the
Muhammadans.
sight
popular
imagination, by
of
the
mountains
and
practiat
cable at
time, be
this
first
and successful at
any
made
Traditions of
regions.
disposition of the
of
The British Government should continue to note the Deccan mountaineers,' and mark the features the wild territory where they dwell. The condition of the cluster of States, which form the Kathiaof late years,
and
In some departments,
Cn.M'. V.
73
such as the land revenue, these States adhere to their old ways
but in other branches they adopt
of the time,
all
may
There are
many
others, all in
The Raja
Manipur has
loyally co-operated
and has received a British decoraSikhim has become virtually a dependant of The State of Cuch Behar has been the British Government.
raised
tion.
by the
frontier tribes,
The Raja
of
managed by the
Raja,
British
of the
well educated.
is
The
deter-
good
effect
for
many
who
up a
class of
Native administrators
his country.
It
young Raja
in
managing
contended in 1877 and 1878, zealously and humanely but without adequate success, against a severe famine, which
afflicted this territory
all
precedent
money
to this State
by treaty have
Government, namely
of
74
INDIA IN
1880.
Cha?. v.
Himalayas
to the water-
sheds of perennial
Thibet.
It
memory
The
tales of
bloodshed at
Katmandu
the
on the succession
to the kingship
many
years
a rod
With him
than
discipline
first objects,
rather
equity and
moderation.
his regime
model in
civil
of the Nepalese
to be respectable.
There
is
an
air
Nepalese
officers
of rank,
which
Such a demeanour
is
the natural outcome of the pride with which the limited, yet
dominant, clan
aboriginal
of
Himalayan
But
them
in
art,
industry
and
civilization,
organization.
any
political
political
Eesident
is
versed by visitors of
all nationalities.
is
not to
'J'he
Ije
belield
by European
eyes.
B.ritisli
Khan
Chap.
v.
75
been drawn
dealings
with
his
and
vassals
were unsatisfactory
with destruction
liis
disputes arose
which threatened
his authority
and
his
external relations
satisfactory,
been
have been
happily composed.
co-operation
He and
the
his
chiefs
throughout
recent
Afghan war.
Without
asking for the aid of British troops, they preserved security and
good order for some months in the Bolan Pass, a vitally important point in the British military communications with southern
Afghanistan.
Owing
to
their
any
thefts occurring.
The value of
this service
on the part of
who know
many
From
this
review
it
of India,
members
have
been
already
explained.
one
special
exposition
may
A class
who have
a better
chance of showing originality of talent and force of character than they could possibly have in the territories administered
directly
7(5
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap.
v.
and the part which Natives can fill when thrown on their own Many Native statesmen have been produced of resources.
whom
may
may justly be
proud, and
among whom
Madhava Eao of Baroda, Kirpa Eam of Jammu, Pandit Manphul of Alwar, Faiz Ali Khan of Kotah, Madho Eao
Gwalior,
77
CHAPTER
VI.
Gradual
iu
numbers
Exjmnsion of cultivation
Land
Emigration
Culti-
Outlay of English Reasons Capital largely accumulated by the Natives Increase of why India Western nations wealth Maintenance of the poor Public opinion regarding material improvements Industrial employments General condition of the Natives.
Wealth of former times as
to
Her
is
inferior
in
The
aspect
objects
of interest
therein,
States,
having
becomes necessary
to
approach the
people.
personally
so
cognisant of a
minute in
it,
its
for the
most
age,
to
purpose.
them,
determination that
every effort shall be exerted for the good government, the ad-
civilization
of India
and
this they
do
Such a determination on
the
their
j)art
produces an
itself.
It
powerfully on
disposition
of
the Englishmen
78
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap.
vi.
them
to
makes them
England,
many
to
who
who
listen
may
be reasonably urged,
Tliis belief is
be done.
contentment, settling
its
and establishing
its loyalty.
The thoughts,
Such progress
be considered
uppermost in
It
may
first
The population
any country
resources of
Hence anxiety is often felt lest the India should some day prove unequal to so heavy a
cultivable land, lest pauperism should arise arid
pressure and so severe a strain, lest the people should grow too
thickly on
spread.
tlic
consideration
of
this
problem,
some
knowledge
essential as to
is
it
nineteenth century
centuries,
whether
is
British
rule,
whether
it
and
Unfortunately, statistics of
is thrown upon this fundamental matter by the archives of Native rule. At the
commencement
looked.
of British rule, the primary importance of numbering the people was never perceived or was quite over-
officials
passed
beyond vague
or imperfect
Chap.
vi.
79
to
make a
The
first
steps towards
making
tlien
ago in north-western
India
first
by one province
all British
by
another
first
census of
India was
made.
It
was
effected without
the people.
A retrospect
why so Had
made
and then
to time
and
its results
compared
we should
But in
at
administrator,
fact
results
a view to testing
be taken, and doubtless the operation will be repeated after each succeeding cycle of years.
This census
may show
that in
been arrested by
statistical basis
may
population.
Such a registration
little
80
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap.
vi.
southern
India.
far
In their grand
all
the empire,
the
numbers
excess
exceeded
previous estimates.
The remarkable
may have
people are multiplying to a degree which the resources of the land can hardly bear. This apprehension rose to a pitch almost
of alarm
when
North-eastern Provinces where the census had shown so great The nascent alarm has an excess over former calculations.
the
question,
so
frequently
and
anxiously asked,
is
increasing,
perhaps also
it
Whether
increases
more than the best judges can pronounce. materially increasing, on the whole, but not slightly is It But the correctness or according to the latest information.
incorrectness of this information will not be ascertained until
may
become
less
many
ages.
It
may
rule, increased
somewhat
and recovered
land.
its
many
places.
There
bygone ages
even
On
by authentic
history,
been
re-
memory
On the
now abandoned
CiiAP. VI.
IN NUMBERS.
81
of a remote civilization
flourishing people.
is
up progeny
civilization
is
which western
often
by
religious
dictates,
the
children
be very numerous
in the aggregate.
is
occasionally deplorable,
and the ravages of disease among the young children are almost
constant.
is
higher than
among
European nations.
districts,
months
in
each year,
reduces
human
vitality to a
The
chilly
damps
of
autumnal nights follow days when the pores of the skin have
been kept open by heat.
There are malarious exhalations
is
when
Hence
the
air is
hot,
still
saturated with
the moisture of the rainy season that has but recently ceased.
fevers prevail so largely that scarce a person in the
fevers year
many
people.
Crowds
Though
great
in
some
for
districts
the population
from streams
drinking
in
is
bathing, a
places
their
advantage
many
drinking-water
impure
and
directly
provocative
of disease,
and
their
from time
to time,
or less destructive of
recur periodically.
82
INDIA IN
the
1880.
Chap.
at
vi.
From
tion
want
it is
of agricultural statistics
the
outset
of
British rule,
There
is,
The shrinking
sportsmen to another.
many
parts of the
known
same
effect.
In some
districts the
latest settlement
records
of
The expansion
But
not
may
tricts,
the deterioration
must be very
enough
to affect
of population.
Inasmuch
as,
support a
much
now
contains.
In some parts
;
it is
either
near to overflowing or
is
in other parts
is
recruitment.
would not be a
satisfactory test in
it
so diversified.
If made,
Chap.
vi.
83
the people
were
to migrate
ing to need.
But
to
their disposition,
and certainly beyond the power of any governclasses are migratory, yet the people in
ment.
the
Though some
main
are domestic
and home-abiding.
They
are attached
and cling
to the
The subits
occupancy,
is
though as yet
reasonable endurance.
If,
within the
invasion
of
the
plough.
Some
in
observers,
noting
the
wMch
many
may
tliis
its
when
outlying lands are found, some here and some there, the grand
total of
statisticians
or
surveyors.
British
now
incorporated in the
empire,
Burma
offers
Large numbers
employment
in Ceylon.
During
the crisis of the famine of 1874 in Bengal and Behar, a consideration of the density of the population, subjected to danger,
it
was soon perceived that within two hundred miles the utmost, and often within a few miles, unoccupied land
a large expanse of cultivable waste in the centre of the
There
is
G 2
84
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap.
vi.
Panjab; and similar instances might be readily adduced. If then, any national peril of this nature should begin to threaten,
there
is
itself.
trict or province,
landed property
is
so
then the
and
and untenanted
tracts.
may
be
made
to yield
much more
than at present.
husbandry
admiration.
of
the Natives
sometimes
supposed.
be
better
than
has
been commonly
The
harvests,
by hedgerows, convey the idea of a natural fertility to which some justice has been done by industry and practical knowledge.
The
sight of
tilled
during
many
centuries, yet
Though
origin, yet
many
rising into
prominence.
The
irrigation
men and bullocks ply day and night for many weeks consecutively,
impresses the spectator with a notion that the bounties of nature
are fully applied
by
art to
The canals
for
irrigation in India
are
magnificent, dwarfing
by comparison
and
all
it
may
Chap.
vi.
probably setting
in.
the crop
is
ought to
be.
fre-
yielding crops
Such
in
some
respects, primitive
and imperfect.
defective.
for
much
rain-water, to be
feet, rolls
mere dreaming
to
husbandmen
improve their
of the
soil,
that
new
may be
more people than the teeming millions who now stand upon
and mountainous,
of the colonies
England have
under climatic
and
Thou-
The
West
Indies,
and
to Guiana,
began
many
to 1876.
It subsequently slack-
fluctuations in the
sugar trade.
The
emigrants came
that
is
chiefly
the
enough
to to
enough
on a dense Indian
their
population.
colonial
home, but
circumstances.
facilitating
emigration
for
86
emigrants.
for
INDIA IN
The matter
1880.
Chap.
vi.
demand
and
Indian labour.
That demand
at present too
fitful
the
prospects
of
India.
But
new Indian
provinces in the
regions
Australia.
There
any chance of
Irrespective
anxiety has
been ex-
pressed lest the supply of food for this vast population should
fall
short on
some dire
occasion.
it
seemed
minds
of the authorities.
how-
ever, passed
away.
summer
of 1877
supply
failing,
In 1874,
in
when
severe famine
of people
much
exportation of food-grains
this should be prohibited,
it
of
many
degrees of
is
extremely improb-
When
afflicted in 1874,
Chap.
vi.
87
Under
all
circumstances, the
Burma and
irri-
and
is
beyond
of the country
to
which
;
it
was
and there
but
total
The anxiety
to the
means
of transporting
it,
for the
ment was obliged to despatch grain in vast quantities to north Behar. Even then, however, there was grain within the limits
of the
several generations,
and the
now
collated of
many
longer or shorter.
Strenuous
efforts
Doubtless,
the lives
of large
still
Notwithstanding these
In the face of
these facts, few administrators will affirm that mortality can be,
or will
promise that
it
shall
be,
prevented.
The
strictest
may
stop
the
accession
of
may
yet be
88
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap.
vi.
Even
pointing
is
increasing
or
decreasing
it
under British
is
rule.
Many
acceptance.
his discourse
some
believed.
He would
it
this,
that
the
national wealth
decreasing
partly
because the
is
English draw
away
to
England.
Government and
nations,
nation.
seem
to be held
by some continental
made by the Government of India to that of England. To these payments the misnomer of tribute has been unfortunately applied. Coupled with these are the remittances to England of the savings made by officials from their salaries, and of the profits realized by
merchants, bankers and traders in their business.
The paygrown
to
of late years
growing.
ported into
India
by means
India
of
fructifying
within
itself,
and
of
the
remunera-
tion of services
rendered to India.
Chap.
vi.
INDIA'S
WEALTH UNDER
BRITISH RULE.
89
foreigners, it
Wliereas,
their places
were
filled
by
made
in the
Under Native
officials
where the
congregated, and
many
histories,
and
is
indigenous
articles,
and in encouraging
local
manufactures.
The modern
splendid.
is
Consequently some,
more
delicate description,
have shrunk,
decayed or perished.
enormous
is
numbers of
and dependants,
much
The drawbacks
arise
which
may be
admitted.
Under Native
It
and
It
luxmy
which were
to the
consumed once
production
of
for all,
and
to things
The
90
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap.
vi.
could afford.
many
idlers,
born to do
esta-
Numerous
and
to provide
employment
for those
who
work
in productive industries.
Under
is
pomp
many.
actively engaged in
life.
Expenditure
is
applied
Some Native
and in
States followed,
Government adopts
they were
generally,
much
to be
commended.
notions,
Such difference
is
not necessarily in
many
to
be
Many
of the educated
Natives, however,
who
They
will
very establishments
and
the
Chap.
vi.
INDIA.
91
light of civilization
under British
rule,
the Natives
sell
to
nations
beyond the sea vast quantities of raw produce, and some manufactures, for prices the
sum
of
mediaeval traders.
articles of
In part return
in price
made
locally.
extensive areas
new manufactures
Machinery
imported, multi-
Capital, saved
to
employed
the
amount
hundreds of millions
of soldiers
and
of
minimum
untold
numbers
of
men
are
transferred
to
employments
material
pro-
foreign
in
respect
of
are
compensated by
many
advantages.
Whether the
gain, is a matter
for discrimination.
Thus
it
imder British
rule, is a subject of
among
interest-
some European
countries, such as
augmentation of wealth
deed never has been, and
is
manifest.
many
Her wealth
in-
92 and
to the
INDIA IN
numbers
1880.
Chap.
vi.
One
is
the
most
effectively.
The
historical
political
realised
after
military or
may seem
exaggeration.
was
so
much
India.
Hence the
ideas
of eastern
wealth have
these
central
indefinitely
exceeded
the
reality.
Besides
much wealth
craft
No
economist
was
plunder with
unparalleled
Here
of collecting,
of accumulated wealth
at Delhi,
Lucknow,
Kirwi and
during
the war
of
the mutinies.
During
the
many
years
past,
even up to
this
same
tale of
many
by Government
is
paper currency.
rising.
At the modern
capitals.
Chap.
vi.
DIFFUSION OF
WEALTH
IN INDIA.
93
much
capitals of historic
It is
renown,
partly
is
much more
plant,
devoted
mechanism and machinery, instead of the brilliant trappings and luxurious articles of other days, and thus it may appear by comparison to be less than it really is. But if the wealth of India be less concentrated now than
to
much more
diffused.
is
for earthen-
cottages
by
tiling
to
of
the
employment
the
agriculture
of wheeled
instead
of pack
animals
The be-
man
with
Ms
cart
rides
market as he
obtained
only by penetrating
deserves,
statistician
and
marized thus.
Natives
the
is
The outcome of these complex considerations may be sumThe growth of material prosperity among the
not so great as might at
of
first
statistics
trade
and production,
if
a comparison be
real
and expanding,
is less
much
more
diffused.
is
the question
as
much
might
94
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap.
vi.
Some
authorities
much
that
would be worthy
of the
name
of capital.
It is
the
Doubt
it
expressed whether
is
by them
alleged,
as great
objects,
formerly was.
There
are,
is
few
directed.
The peasantry
Such apprehen-
to misgivings in regard
the Natives
see, or
must be admitted that the accumulation of capital among is far from being what economists would desire to
what statesmen might expect,
after
two generations of
Never-
the introduction of so
theless, there is
many
material improvements.
some saving and accretion in progress throughout the country, and there exists an accumulated store, which is absolutely great, though small relatively to the numbers
of the
people.
of the
held by shareholders
held by Europeans.
is
But
termed, which
held largely,
In
may
be set
down
at
138
by Natives.
the
Tliis
proportion
still
amount
In
of
Chap.
vi.
CAPITxVL
95
is
materially less
it
probably
is less,
however.
But inasmuch
thirty millions,
debt,
it is
The reasons
for
have
for
raised in
England
many
tures, issued
is
Some considerable portion of the municipal debenby corporations on the security of town revenues, held by Natives. Some of the capital of the Presidency
have special relations with the
banks, which
Government,
can
find
belongs to
them.
The
fact
is
that
the
Natives
many
cent,
it
which yield more than the 4 or 4^ per obtainable from the public securities. In former times,
safe investments
to
was hard
find
to
put their
money
are
many such
to
it.
investments.
in
the
money market
resorted
Had
Natives, in the
to
do,
same manner
Company used
of
higher rates
interest.
time of the
Even now,
this
to
three
millions
sterling
96
in this
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap.
interest.
vi.
manner
at comparatively
cheap rates of
More
offered.
if higher
rates of interest
were
Up
cated by
rate of interest
England
herself.
One
reason,
market furnished
resources
interest,
others,
was
this,
that the
London
of the
resources.
Without these
Government must have paid a higher rate of and according to this standard its credit would have
the
capital
Meanwhile the
increase,
of
the
Natives
has
continued
to
is
and questions
In the
which
in the
it
applied.
first place,
is
is
partly in the
hands of Native
capitalists,
hands
amount
of capital.
here again
much
capital
is
employed.
In visible proof of
this,
it
unoccupied.
There
numbers of
carts
The
The
silver
reckoned at
many millions
specie
Natives.
The
The hoarded
many millions
ment notes
or secreted,
to Natives.
to
The deposits
State savings-banks
of
amount
to
Native depositors.
capital
To the Natives
the
local
pertains
dustries
the
employed in
in-
of cotton
fashion.
and
jute,
after the
European
Chap.
vt.
97
of a
Native capital has been lent out on landed security to landliolders great
and small.
classes
The moneyed
servable
society.
among
the
made
of Indian
country
money
as they lay
it out.
These
even 25 per
justified
by the
since
want
was
the
of security,
offered.
They
of
become
rule,
lower
and
lower
to
introduction
owing partly
the
im-
provement of
talists,
securities,
and partly
great
They
are
even
now comparatively
Native merchants
now
lend
money
The
among
the Natives,
may
perhaps be
by some
as
that the material welfare of the country has not been promoted,
as
much
as
settled
Government.
On
to 7
and even
6 per cent.,
may
be ac-
cepted as a proof not only that security of investment has improved, but also that the quantity of Native capital has increased.
It is
this
view
would hardly
Labour
98
obtained
;
INDIA IN
it is
1880.
Chap.
vi.
when domestic
hi<7hly.
work
is
slack.
It is
becoming
more
obtain
Even
becoming
difficult to
is
of the difficulty
this,
that the
men
It has
more
difficult
statistics of the
settlement
to
Deccan
of western India.
These particular
statistics in
the
on the
spot,
and
their result is
opposed to
known
which point
to a decided increase.
expanded
consequently the cattle both for plougliing and for drawing carts
in an equal degree.
especially to
it
is
highly
have
largely
increased
almost everywhere.
Similarly,
the
number
of draught cattle
districts,
must have
risen in
most
it
districts,
while in some
declined, their
may have
the
rail.
Trustworthy
cured,
not believe that any decrease on the whole can possibly have
occurred, but on the contrary will expect to find an increase.
Of
late there
cattle being
of
1874
Chap.
vi.
INCREASE OF CATTLE.
99
there were
weeks in
tlie
and Bengal,
the
About for the transport of grain by Government. same time 10,000 draught bullocks were purchased for
a fortnight in the North-western Provinces
Government within
bought in Sind
and
number
that might
be required.
Regret was
felt in
made
Whenever animals
are
wanted
shall
fail,
there
is
Such expectation of
the
serviceable
cattle.
Among
Hindu
population, averse
many thousand
for their
and bones.
working
The
cattle,
loss of
which
ordinary extent.
is far
from being
there
is
all
From July
to
December
the country.
During the
in those provinces to
and
it is
raise special
crops, as they might, for fodder, but the stalks of several of the
is
carefully stored
100
for
INDIA IN
feeding the
cattle
1880.
Chap.
vi.
But
in
the
many
provinces where
to
must be admitted that the increase of cattle is checked and the pastoral wealth, which naturally should belong to the country, is diminished by
the valleys for grazing.
destructive murrains
and epidemics.
is
The labour
exerted,
and
man
less
work in a
is
Human employment
held
cheap, and has heretofore been abundant, so the wages are low
generally, though they have of late years risen in
many
In
and,
places,
at
some centres
still
of industry.
rural
however,
they are
very
small
less
where
in
received in kind,
may
even be relatively
The average
quantity
of food
is
somewhat small
;
under
diet.
are simple
and easily
The
does
not,
by augmenting
the
necessities
of
clothing, lodging
and
firing,
but feeble.
Con-
narrow.
means and
as yet
scientific
resources.
But
such
appliances
are
wanting
for the
most part
to the
Indians,
who have
It
fifty
millions
men
in
India work
make
less,
produce
less,
indeed
Chap.
vr.
MAINTENANCE OF THE
less,
POOR.
101
very
much
accom-
of India.
Certainly half,
number
is
of Europeans
would
accomplish as
much
felt.
But a consideration
must be
enough
having
have yet enough for their slight and modest In that view of the matter, the
first
sight be supposed.
many
of
them
There
is
no poor-law, no poor-rate, no
legally
tute,
for the
community being
is
compelled to
of the
slow-wasting penury, the cankering care, the sense of pinching insufficiency, which, irrespective of absolute
are
so
destitution,
civilized
often mentioned
;
in
and
countries
of
a mouthful
is
somehow found
Some
classes
indigent
beggars
by profession
exist,
quite
apart from
religious
class.
among
the villages, in
to the population of
the stream never runs dry in ordinary times, and which the
villagers afford
known
to
to receive support
102
INDIA IN
all tlieir little
1880.
Chap.
vi.
who need
the
first to
means
for themselves.
relief.
But
immediately thrown back on their villages or parishes, and Here, then, receive the same voluntary sustenance as before.
is
symptom
is
in respect
iDroof of the
afforded
by
were levied in the same manner as the English income-tax, touching the same sort of incomes in India as those touched in
England, with as near an approximation as can be had relatively
to the different circumstances of the
two
would
not
exceed
one
million
sterling.
assessable
income-tax,
at
sterling.
But the corresponding income of the United Kingdom is several times as much, notwithstanding that its population is only But as Great Britain is one-fifth of the Indian population. abnormally rich, let a comparison be instituted on the same
assumed data with any European country, and the comparative
poverty of India will be apparent.
The
craftsmen in India
of the best
Ind^cstrial
work on the
men being in easy circumstances. Accordknow nothing of the struggle for existence,
and serenity, and are thus enabled to attend work with contented minds, taking in it that pride and pleasure which are essential to artistic excellence. He ascribes
these
happy circumstances
to the
landed tenures.
And
though
may
all
who know
Chai>. VI.
may
serve as a
life as
foil to
the descriptions
He
writes thus,
stretch
cities of Poona and Sattara tliere Glad with the dawn, the men come forth to their work, and glad in their work thej' stand all throui;h the noonand when the tide, singing at the well, or shouting as they reap or plough stillness and the dew of evening fall upon the land like the blessing and the
men
. .
winding
year
is
lines to
Thus day
Critics
districts in the
and
it
is
of the State.
the iinest parts of the country, such as the tracts around Dacca
in eastern Bengal, the district of Calicut on the
Malabar
coast,
Bombay, the
other places.
valleys near
Kangra
in the Panjab,
and many
Having regard
to the
not being
there
is
It is necessary
that the Government should shorten its improving arm, in reference to its own financial means and to the immediate
needs of
its
people.
sur-
some-
much urged on
its
104
Ill
INDIA IN
truth the great
1880.
Chap.
for material
vi.
Company
did
its
utmost
im-
its lights,
means and
opportunities.
Since
its
ment has advanced with a speed which, though creditable, is not at all great as compared with that of Western countries.
There
is
now perhaps
of
the action
Government,
forwardness.
to
arise
from too
much
backwardness were
become
arise, to
perceptible, the
still
seeming
'advanced as they
Many
Native industries as
substi-
augmented
for ex-
attention bestowed
upon the
raising of
raw produce
The extinguished
number
of hands, which,
though
large,
reis
On
employment
The
mass of the
The
in-
much
The
still
finer textile
considerable
and famous.
The use of metal implements and utensils has enormously increased. While much of the material is im-
Chap.
vi.
105
though not
itself.
Calcutta,
created,
having
and being
as
cities
Mogul empire.
many
and
Though the
increasing.
grown
in
number and
at a steady pace,
and
their spirit of
Though
few
and
classes
many weeks
industries have, to
become
is
not so visibly
the masses
in
concentrated as formerly,
of the
more
diffused
among
less
people.
is
Capital,
though accumulated
as ever,
a few
hands,
saved as
much
and
is
scattered
more among
is
Though the
agriculture
still
in several respects
it
it is
practically
As
them
to store reserve
more produce
are annually
era.
Though
large
sums
lOG
remitted to England,
INDIA IN
still
1880.
Chap.
vi.
which
is
from other nations; and she has long enjoyed the benefit of
foreign
capital
largely
limits.
Though
there are dangers ahead, there are also springs of progress and
elements of security.
people
is
If taken all in
all,
may fail
but
is
still
The recent calamities of season have given a pale cast to the national thoughts and imparted a gloomy tinge to But, when the natural bounties of rain and public opinion.
the East.
path of improvement.
107
CHAPTEK
VII.
The temper of the Muhammadans The aboriginal Tlie ParsisThe Native nobility The landlord-class The traders The priesthood The educated classes Their mental improvement, moral aspirabelief Their loyalty And their conduct and tions Native munificence Culture of physical science Vernacular press and drama Advancement of Natives in the public service In of Natives visiting England State of the other professions Good
The peasantry
religious
political
effect
progress
of the
Natives
is
in
part
material
conditions, which
chapter.
have
been
also
summarized
in
the
preceding
But
it
must
depend on divers circumstances, some of which are within the The peace and security, control of the British Government.
introduced and maintained by the strong arm of power, afford,
as
it
were,
air,
light
and space
for
the
growth of some of
and suppress or eradicate many evil habits which in troublous times sprang up with rank exBut the operation of the same causes must close uberance.
the best
human
qualities,
many avenues
of enterprise
aspirations,
many
careers
and adventure, wither the self-reliance, stifle the and deaden the energies of many. With such
foreign
it
persons,
Government
is
unavoidably
unpopular,
to
less
however much
unpopularity.
adays, but will
may
strive
by far-sighted policy
is
avoid
much
now-
remain considerable,
among
108
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap.
vii.
it
may
order and
and
still
humanizing
too
Heinous crime of
very
all categories,
though
prevalent,
it
has
much
decreased.
In
many
other
countries
Happily
in India
for there
decreased.
a foreign
rule,
of the people.
On
may
many
is
now
be attempted.
upon
tlie
marked
or
decisive.
still
to the
But they
are
now
free
own
interest or
convenience, and to
carts
demand
for it its
worth in wages.
Their
and
They know
whom
all
British
by
whom
some
idea
of the
to
dignity
enter
the
of
humanity.
The
the
the
attention
bestowed
inside
schoolroom
upon
Chap.
vii.
BEITISTI RUI.E
CLASSES.
afford
109
poorest, as
must
some
encouragement.
Near the
On
and tenacious of
in
their claims to
remunera-
tion
and these
qualities
strongly
marked according
year by year
is
They
are growing in
numbers and
and
Such
is
growth
a thing almost
unknown
in former times,
The
peasant
proprietary
India
of Bengal
They have from time immemorial evinced, under every form of trial and trouble, many distinctively excellent qualities, such as
self-reliance, courage
in defence of
home and
the
family,
mutual
com-
dej^endence
among
brethren,
or parish of
among
of
members
munities,
instinctive
perception
the
nature of
proj^erty,
If
it
virtues
fire
of
war and
revolution, there
may
be fear
may
even deteriorate.
Still,
many
of their
most useful
qualities are
of the
land-tax,
rights in
the land.
and
110
tenants,
times. status
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. vn.
who were all much oppressed and harassed in former Many among them have, under British rule, risen in
feel
have
and
as
unsatisfactory condition;
from
the
Native
Governments, and of the British Government, have been drawn. The peasants used to be proud and glad to enrol themselves
for military service.
and readiness
to serve
Within the
last
have much
the good
men
among
The predatory spirit, and the instinct for the fray, were once These tendencies have been much prevalent among them. repressed, but experience even up to recent dates has indicated
that they
were ever
It
landed
encouraged
peasants
to
borrow
and
money-lenders to lend.
common, has become more rife than ever. And in prevails, it saps away the manly sentiments, and
been prone.
penditure of public
ex-
the
others deprecate
it.
All authorities
and of the
that have
cultivators.
But despite
forth, the
all
the
benevolent
efforts
been put
is
progress of education
among
these people
as yet
Chap.
vii.
BEITISH KULE
Ill
small,
and the
gi'eat
majority of them
As might be
British rule so
many
of
Hindu nation
is
divided.
Under
many
tribes,
employment
now
some
acquiring so
much
Hindu
It
was
to this
Mahrattas of
belonged.
The
and widespread
throughout
India,
last
down
to the south.
Within the
which the
stories of their
nation.
secular pursuits,
orders.
brethren of
is
the
priestly
comparatively
The peasantry
Bhils,
also includes
many
religion,
primitive description.
to fight against
by
nature,
may
be threatened.
When
They
swarm
sway
of Hindu, or rather
Brahminical, proselytism.
And
112
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. vn.
efforts
of the
missionaries.
and
others, inhabit
Burma and
China.
They frequently bring themselves power, and it cannot be said that upon
in the
any
beneficial effect
tribes dwelling
The
Himalayan region
are,
and
self-reliant
character, flourishing
On
the great
Muhammadans,
tribes has
Pathan
section,
though even
fights,
there, despite
and internecine
much improvement
Queen-Empress of India.
greater
number
as the
live
who
Shah
all
alone
has
in
many
are
millions
of
Moslems
many
as the
of Persia.
met with on
commerce, in
and refined
industries,
In
Muhammadan,
Chap.
vii.
and
its affluents
Muhammadan,
Muhammadan
Several
These
districts
are
among
much used
raised
By
the
same
hands
of Bengal rivers.
castes,
Muhammaacquaint-
They have
the
Bengali tongue,
and
have
prol)aljly
less
Their
social condition is so
mony
by
is
lax
much
there
to leaven the
Besides
the
discontent
is
engendered
one
special
among them by
circumstance
liistoric
memories,
content-
affecting
their
ment.
Under Native
haps the
and
at the outset
whereby
beaten by Hindus in
But nowadays they are the open competition of mind with mind.
Hindu youths and are consequently placed at a disadvantage when entering a profession or contending for advancement in
public employ.
selves
It is to this that the
Muhammadans themand
to
Hindus
are rising.
114
join schools of
to
1880.
Chap.
vii.
mixed
own
exclusively,
The Govern-
ment has
tions
them
in establishing institu-
on
principle.
Some Muhammadan gentlemen, for Nuwab Amir Ali, ISTuwab Abdul Latif of
Syed Alimed of Aligarh, Muhammad Ali Eoghe of Bombay, Synd Idrus of Surat, and others, have shewn an enlightened desire to imbue their countrymen with ideas of
civilized progress.
Muhammadans
Some
years
in Arabia,
many
commenced by
the
Wahabis
Muham-
madan
Indian
Muhammadans
considerably.
;
Plots
were discovered
and
symptoms
of disaffection
Be the reasons what they may, among them have of late abated.
special
mention
they maintain
and the
social
customs which
Arab
invasion.
They
preserve,
any other
van in the
enter.
march of
and
which they
As men
still
and in many
are
Though they
measured rather by their resources and their capacity for work. They are loyal and devoted to the British Sovereign and nation
there
is
no
class
are.
it
Their influence,
would hardly be
Chap.
vii.
115
India
(known
by the names of
titles)
and Oudh.
the
mind with the provinces of Bengal, Behar, Orissa, They are to be found, however, in almost all parts
prevailing tenure.
soil,
Some
of these
Native gentlemen
respects
show
forth
tliis
a bright example.
standard, exercise
if
In Bengal,
the land-
in order that,
among
much
probably no
in
India more
is
loyal
certainly there
much on
the
estates
Government
his property
power of edu-
him
in the Court of
age.
Wards
and of managing
of business,
till
he comes of
The amount
landlord
class,
quite enormous.
Many
by
the
many young
landall
In
many
is
men who
Some
of
them
116
station, dignity
INDIA IN
and reputation.
1880.
Chap.
vii.
Many, however,
are drifting
till
an Encumbered Estates Act affords some relief from the pressure. Many of them still enjoy, by the grace of the British Government, a part of the emoluments they received under the Native
rule in return for service, although they are
serving.
now
excused from
Such men,
but
meditate on the wealth, power and honour, which their immediate ancestors possessed
which a
reflec-
These disquieting
The policy
of the
its
all
the legitimate
means in
families,
power,
arrest
to
With
this
view several
have been
relief
of
encumbered
estates
continue to
aptitude,
which
so
and
fair
dealing with
all
proportionately high.
sionally
Their
name has
failures,
tarnished
by the
and
rife.
disasters
so
On
the
whole,
however, their
reputation
and
credit
are
still
good.
to the
They
money
landowners great and small, and but too often draw intentionally or unintentionally, both the gentry
credit,
most useful in the transactions of the nation, they are often regarded as grasping and extortionate. In some places, odium
Chap.
VII.
117
and disturbances.
On
the
of the people.
through
tion,
many
generations,
still
further fostered
by educacomposed
and
educational institutions.
of
Their profession
the
caste
is
largely
is
Hindus belonging
to
wliich
by the Hindu
the Marwaris of
still
system devoted to
this calling,
among whom
growing in
They
Muhamof the
amenable
to
many
of the
best
influences
flourish.
Having
in
The
pursuits,
With
is
in full vigour,
and
is
politically
an element of unrest.
Hindus, who
still flock
It
survives
with
brave
still
the toils
fatal
hardships
of the
pilgrimages.
With
no doubt,
justly regarded
by Western observers
as immoral.
In some
In
among
118
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap.
vii.
humanity.
the educated classes of Hindus, the priestly influence
its
With
is
final
decadence.
There remain
who stand by
observances.
But
as a rule, educated
Hindus pay little more than an outward respect to the forms and to the ministers of tliat national religion which is so intertwined
with the social institutions and the
Possibly, this effect
priests
is
civil
many
of the lesser
who
officiate
by some
of those
among the humbler orders of Hindus, nor priests who dwell in learned seclusion at the
But
it
many
Proud
must surely be
recognised by
many of
and
own
sanctity, conscious
own
and antiquated
car of their
own
the aspect and bearing, the lofty brow, set features, imperturbable countenance and erect stature indicate a pride not to be
upon themselves
as
endowed with a
nobility
which worldly
The influences
weaken the
barriers
which
up between the
several classes
of those
With many who have received a broad and liberal education, or travelled much by railways and steam-ships or visited foreign
countries, the distinctive feelings
of caste
Even
they,
however,
are
Chap.
vii.
119
notion
of
caste,
remain
of the
The Jain
religion,
is
though at
first
with Hinduism,
consummation
of bliss.
Its
life,
most
salient feature
an excessive tenderness
for
animal
carried to a degree
of superstitious absurdity.
he fears
lest
This
faith,
however,
has
among
its
adherents
many
of the
that
is
to say
many
and bankers
of Eajputana, Gujerat
caste, scattered
;
and Cutch,
throughout
shrines are
and zealous
its
among
to
Its adherents,
though ready
ment from the Hindus, are free for the most part from fanaticism and are to be reckoned among the loyal and contented
classes of the population.
The Lingayet
Hinduism and
pure
Its adhe-
and
the respectable
sections
of
the
community.
The Sikh
faith
A man
w^as
This
faith,
120
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap.
vii.
much
simplicity
and purity of
of
force
arms in
northern India.
own.
It
numbered among
its
adherents
many
and whole
tribes of resolute
and strong-
handed men.
It played a
modern
While
it
of poli-
sons of the old adherents admitted to the ancestral faith, but also
fresh applicants for admission were numerous.
Though fewer
appli-
cants
may now
may
the
mainone of
is
and
by the Panjab
well preserved.
authorities,
and
its
fidelity
to
the empire
trials
is
It
and
temptations, but
if tried
would
reassert itself,
movement.
but out-
Meanwhile the
may
who
are
sect.
in the hearts of
some anions
Nothing
things,
Muhammadan
that the
Government can do
will mitigate
it,
but
many
Chap.
vii.
121
would aggravate
seriously.
In recent years
it
at the present
moment, however,
class
is
seems to be quiescent.
several sections
The educated
society
of
The education of
There
indeed,
tion introduced
been kept
monastic
is
still
establishments
chiefly
to
the
shade
of
sacred
groves,
and
directed
religious objects.
numerous, must be
Men
of business
to be seen,
in the old
style,
developed
by modern
same
They
are,
however,
be-
the
new
style.
now be
observed
of
men
These
men
public service, such as the bar and other legal pursuits, private
practice in medicine,
civil engineering,
But many
of
them enter
homogeneous
importance,
this
the other
professions
taken
together.
It
is
profession
men
is
sharpened
122
INDIA IN
their
1880.
Chap.
vii.
assumed.
and
may
be
reasonably expected.
officers,
cleverer
men
and apter
learners,
is
easily conceivaljle.
The
foreign
instructors,
their
attachment to western
civilization
and
The answers
In the
such questions,
if
place, a
due and
among
been obtained.
as
gentlemen in
Their
as
men
is
of honour.
trusted
by public
In this
opinion, corruption
description,
as
on their part
all
is
not suspected.
there
in
general
descriptions,
is
must be
reservations and
have of
among
viving;,
For many
were
when their uprightness and when their conduct was were constantly impugned, integrity frequently distrusted, when imputations of corruption were One cause of the moral improvement, now bruited abroad.
not regarded as
of honour, perceptible, springs from the better organization of the public
service.
men
The men
are,
Chap.
vii.
123
of promotion
to be seen through
and everything
to lose
by misconduct.
is
Another
to
traceable
the
European
companionship
of English instructors
daily
life at
school or college.
happily seen.
Still it will
Together with the public service, the profession of the law has
rule,
and
is
Admission
Native Bar
is
who apply
An
is visible
in the Native
barristers as in the
The standard
too often
much
Any
remnants of these
evils,
which may
long be eliminated.
As now
Native Bar
is
fast
its
inde-
Its con-
down
in the
system of
124
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap.
vii.
privileges.
Its
Government
which
is its foster-father.
much
legal
and
all
other
moting fraud and poisoning the moral atmosphere around the Of this mischief, much has been precincts of the Courts.
removed by the improvements in the Native Bench and Bar, and by the operation of public opinion but much, unfor;
tunately, remains.
As an
instance of the
may
be mentioned.
so successful in England.
By amalgamating
post-offices
have
The increase
remarkable.
of letter-writing
has been
Within
from
the
last
years,
the
number
amount
48,000 to
The
in cash
postage
to
131
due
to the
Government and
ofl&cial
due
to the Natives,
The
stirred
foreign
Government
in
India must
be
prepared
to
setting in.
These
men
the
matters
concerning
progress,
Chap.
vii.
POLITICAL EFFECTS OF
and
fall
zenith,
sions,
decline
of
empires
the
relative
dimen-
the
world
the
constitution,
legislature
and
privileges
;
of
tlie
States
monarchical,
constitutional,
despotic,
republican
territorial
various
nationalities
It
may
England.
their
own country
fortunes
of
the
An
brief
growing up which
offers
summaries of the
political afflxirs
and
is
much
attention as
Native trading
Kingdom
reasons,
or
affairs of
The
lights
war.
If in
any conjuncture
it
fair
consideration of her
fight
own
interest
to
fighting,
unfurled,
it
is
followed
of
the
126
INDIA IN
of late,
1880.
Chap.
vii.
when
the inevitable
moment seemed
Still, as
a rule
the Natives raise their voice decidedly for peace, not at any
price,
but at some
sacrifice, rather
and the probability of the public burdens being augmented in They certainly are adverse to an aggressive, and the future.
favourable to a pacific policy.
are also
moved by
within
The
reports of Parlia-
interest.
conduct,
status
and
financial,
it is
The name
deed espouses the cause of the Natives, soon becomes a household word among them.
is
them
been
to be a
for so
having
many
conquerors
may
prove to be not
wholly an exception
to
the
rule of
selfishness
and harsh-
to be reassured
by responsible
and
of England,
There has been of late a tendency with some Natives to rely for
Chap.
vii.
127
of parties
is
But
this
tendency
deprecated
who
Thoughtful Englishmen
may remember
that self-government
among
the Natives
is
many
of the
Natives are
General for
all
India,
and of the
local legislatures of
Madras,
Bombay and
Bengal.
They
;
members
civil
of arbitration
causes.
They
by the
and other
institutions.
They
furnisli the
which
capital cities,
local taxes.
In Calcutta and
Bombay
especially,
and in some
other central places, they enjoy as ratepayers the electoral franchise for the election of
members
so
many
is
embodiment of the
avowed purpose of
for the
Anjuman
their
Janik Sabha of
England.
Such
by the
128
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap.
vii.
for legitimately
and tem-
as
moderately expressed.
Personal kindness and charity have always been
among
the
most loveable
have induced
These sentiments
men
to support not
and
which
is
well,
is
but also
their able-bodied
and
is
idle
male
relatives,
which
not well.
persons
^lany a rising
man
listless
This
diminished by
are
often
made by
who
stint
and pinch
generally recompense
spirit of
by evincing a resolute
beyond the
also spreads
circle of
and
is,
to the
indeed,
generously profuse.
Every Native,
a part of
city
it
who makes
empire
is
away
to
Every
in
the
In
many
provinces
list
of the
works of public
individuals
Chap.
vii.
12D
who
and considerately
potency
to persons
recommended
;
for their
good deeds
thus exercised.
been conferred
the
new Order
The
effect
of the Indian
Native members.
sentiments
is to
of these measures
Sound
political philosophy, it
still is
and
natural sciences.
now
youth
for professions in
hitherto
fessions,
had but
little
place.
It diverts
some
of the
It
students
who would
new
and
modes
of thinking.
It tends to correct
some
of the faults
which
developing
many
and
faculties.
In two of
among
Government
has done
expected.
Hundreds
and surgeons have been and are being sent forth into
world.
effected,
needed
still
remains to
be accomplished.
130
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap.
vit.
education.
Eeflection
to
upon
all these
In the
the
Muhammadans
does
not
seem to have received any shock from Western education and Nor has the Hindu faith been shaken with the civilization.
mass of the Hindus, who follow the ancestral idolatry mth the same simplicity as of yore. The faith is dubious with Hindus
tincture of education
much
as
the Greeks and Romans among highly educated Hindus the faith is dead or dying. With some it has been shattered well-nigh to the very base,
But
it
Many
educated
Natives
have
long
cast
away the
last
shreds of their belief in the mythology, the sacred story and the
future world of Hinduism.
irreligious
men, nor
mortality
atheists,
nor materialists.
of
the
human
in
principles of right
Being,
who
is
who
is
absolutely just
and good,
to
whom
all
men
are accountable
done in
this life.
resembling that
inculcated
by
Christianity,
New
Testa-
ment.
By some
theists.
They
call themselves Brahmos or Adhi-Brahmos, members of the Brahmo-Samaj or of the Prarthana-Samaj, and quite recently
name
of Theosophists.
The
sect, first in
Chap.
vii.
131
gifts, is
and
among
growth
the best
known
of its leaders.
Its
nomenclature
signifies
men and
things.
Its
The divine
is
discarded by
it,
and caste
social
regarded merely as a
human
institution,
like the
Hindus
religion,
are bestowing
and primeval
of their
preliistoric
period
ancestry.
They
time,
dawn
their
of
Hindu
when
grew up
and
now
to educated
Scripture
has to Christians.
the
Hindu
of
priesthood
are
is
disregarded,
earliest
literature
Hinduism
There
is
and mental, upon the loyalty of the educated Natives towards the British Government and nation.
of these influences, moral
employment and
habits
of criticizing
unreservedly
men
ought to
feel.
Such
been
justified
by the
facts,
by
divers
symptoms
deserving
attention,
and
have
132
vernacular press,
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap.
vir.
consisting of newspapers
published in the
Of the Native newspapers published in the English language, as yet few in number, some are distinguished by loyalty and good sense as well as by cultivated ability, and are creditable
products of the
Patriot
'
new
education
'
Hindu
criti-
of Calcutta.
circula-
about 57,000
copies
some
influence.
wdiile
Of
these
many
are
signally
consistently
loyal,
Others again have been disfigured occasionally by not actually seditious or treasonable,
political
are
objectionable
effect
in their of
have the
causing ill-feeling
is
whether that
effect
intended or not.
It
was
for the
much
discussed in England.
men and
measures.
Nor has
it
The
procedure
The
has
appearance of passages
objectionable, indeed,
CiiAP. VII.
133
with
j
\'
Such manifestation
of dis-
though pointed at by
should not be taken to
its
and regretted by
it
its
friends,
really does.
Allow-
ance must be
made
for
which
is
being exercised in
new ways
of thinking.
The
state
of the country
in every
way
desirable
that
their
made known
Though
its
'
in
read more
The
in English,
is
still
has a
among
the
popular recreations
thoiigh
it
has never
obtained the same hold upon the minds of Hindus as upon the
ideas of
some Oriental
races, the
Burmese and
others.
There
and the
plays are acted with some histrionic ability before large audiences.
The
Hindu
history or legend.
An
Act was
ceased
stop the
evil.
The
There
is
danger
of
discontent
being
engendered in the
minds
134
INDIA IN
offer itself to
1880.
Chap.
vii.
them
in various directions.
As
wMch
what she
must be expected that those who do accept these advantages, will be animated by hopes and stirred by emotions, They will evince an to wliich they were previously strangers. increasing jealousy of any monopoly of advantage in any
the Natives,
They are already raising a cry louder and louder, the purport of which is India for the Indians. They discern, or think they discern, undue
respect
liberality in some,
is
In so
far
as its
Government
is
bound
to attend,
so essential to the
The most
effective
means
at the present It is
service.
is
and regarding
this that
complaints
are
frequently preferred.
No
every
candid observer must admit that the story of the measures taken
by the Government
privileges, pensions
for gradually
and
official
grades of
its
service,
of judicature.
mainly
filled
European
officials in
the country.
officials
must be
CiiAP. vii.
135
its real
may
due
magnitude.
Some
felt
of
it
is
Government
of
remunerating
servants
more highly
re-
when
the
money value
all sorts of
of everything rose,
muneration of
private
is
employment
its
There
The Government
is
the Natives
who become
educated.
There
is
lest the
Graduates of a University
may
struggling for
far that
It
were better
such
men
should
make
mechanical
to manufactures,
and the
like.
But
of careers,
facilities
in
some
of these
are needed
It is in
community.
the Natives that they are cared volent people, ladies and
and thought
of,
by beneLasting
gentlemen, in England.
who
visit
men communicate
to their
countrymen
13G
..
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap.
vii.
was
for this
Williams.
Of
late, certain
symptoms
of disloyalty manifested
by some
made
But
that
was traceable
to
classes in a country
ance
may
who have
learned
medium
of the language,
men
may
feel
without at
all
relinquishing their
are
own
nationality.
The Natives
disloyalty
cordial
certainly
anxious
to
be considered loyal.
them more than imputations of and nothing gratifies them more than a frank and
irritates
acknowledgment
of their loyalty.
shews
many gleams
prospect.
The peasantry
retain
the
moral
robustness
for
Some
The
trading
and
banking
which they
thrive.
Though,
Chap.
vii.
137
and
lettered class,
whose
interests
on the
The
moral
The educated
integrity,
field for their
for self-improvement.
they
are
may have
employment has not yet been widened so much as expected, and though the existing professions
still
becoming over-crowded,
their
status
and prospects
divorced them-
many
directions.
Many
of these
men have
by which
their race
had been so
from
long enthralled
that which
is to
and though
be desired,
still
infidelity or materialism.
They
moved by
political
many improvements
Though intelKgently
alive
to
among
might of England
occasionally
Though
there are
symptoms
of discontent
faithful
to the
British
138
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap.
vm.
CHAPTER VIIL
NATIONAL EDUCATION.
Educational policy declared in 1854
relatively
to
the
population
Educational
Present
number
of scholars considered
financially,
resources
Government
policy regarding
superior
education respectively
Fchools
Want
Primary schoolsVillage
intellectual,
of technical instruction
schoolmasters
Middle
Superior educationUniversities in India of Native graduates Instruction Characteristics, moral and engineering Degrees in medicine In science Agricultural Ethical teaching Female education instruction Schools of
literature
civil
art
Zenana missions
National education, in the English acceptation of the term, was scarcely known to the Hindu polity. Much public education, indeed, there was,
but
it
or
to
religion,
priests.
The antechambers
and the groves
Private
of sacred trees,
all
their
classes
of students.
education, also, existed for the sons of the rich in the court-
In some of
Under Muhammadan
rule, similar
circumstances ex-
isted
Muhammadan
The
East India
Company
Hare
were wanting in
definite aim.
Among
Chap.
vm.
139
This was
The
first effec-
among
made by Thomason,
western Provinces.
North-
Wood (now
magna
regarded as the
effected.
There are
if
now
It
is,
This number,
taken by
may seem
to represent a
grand educational
result.
if
who must be
190 millions of
souls.
With
for
educa-
amounts
to
available revenues.
and other
degrees.
bodies,
also
subscriptions
munificence,
the
fees
A considerable
are
in
sum
The primary
col-
part
supported
;
by small
schools,
subscriptions
tliis
private income
may
be small
school, yet
it
for
so
many
nearly 40,000 in
number,
must be
There are
many
140
there
INDIA IN
must be a
is
1880.
Chap.
viir.
large expenditure of
unknown amount.
Lastly,
received.
there
much
private tuition, of
Thus
if
aggregate must
may
Still it
must, even
if it
should
mount up
two millions
sterling,
great a country.
Encouragement may be
derived from
the
fact
that
the
satis-
numbers
of schools
by
year.
The progress
has,
many
and
pestilence,
and
is
so grievously
Much
of primary
Many
argue that
is
the duty of
Government
bestow
its
own
Many
cation
among
first
and
dark valleys
to-
below.
It fosters all
made
to co-operate
and concur in
action.
Primary education
CiiAP. VIII.
141.
up
to
everything below
it,
fittest
instruments for
all
it
would be impossible
to find the
means
in
many
much
Cer-
own
direct efforts,
and too
little
on the grant-in-aid
much
as possible in the
development of grants-in-aid,
is
fully
The observance
of
it,
more complete
as the Natives
become better
Meanwhile the
agitation,
which some-
as
Such outlay
European
officials,
thoroughness.
has
three
branches,
I.
primary,
As
duty relates
three branches.
By
may
the
method known
as
"payments
by
results,"
both
be prescribed.
State,
he receives greater or
remuneration according as
142
greater or smaller
INDIA IN
numbers
1880.
Chap.
viii.
standard.
pupils
is
among
the scholars,
Thus by
a chance
is offered
to a poor
boy of genius
to raise himself
rule.
may
there again
win another
may
acquire
course.
all parts
Generally there
Thus
it
may
be said
Nevertheless, a vast
number
of poor children
;
and in
localities
school
is
now
Many
in this direction.
Primary education, in
to the rudest
its
fold as
many hundreds
and
in
of thousands as
to
can.
As
it
takes
root
some additions
sphere
of
the
instruction
enough
improve
themselves
their
own
and
to
become
more
efficient
in
their
humble
calling,
as
when they go
CiiAP. VIII.
143
But
there
to
young children of lowly capacity, must be schoolmasters much better than any who can
Therefore the State
of competent
qualification.
The
by men
the
of a
new
such
men
is
among
first fruits
The
it is
imparted solely in
for the
who should
men-
arithmetical calculation,
for subordinate
employ-
ment
who
liis
dition
by the educational
Indian schools.
among
the British
Some
commenced
at different
may
learn
the
young men
Still, it is
Germany
or Switzerland.
much used
subordi-
and
for
is
needed in the
subordinate employes
many
by Natives
if
there are
many
scientific
departments where
144
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. vni.
if
to
receive
would
that
such employment would be developed from the very fact of Native talent becoming available.
Of
Government
has obtained a more practical grasp than formerly of this important subject, and progress in various parts of
It is
it is
being made.
is
offered
own
still
of
language. While many learn English, the more the better, many can obtain their education only through the medium Hence a new vernacular literature their own vernacular.
rule.
others
verses
of
considerable
On
some
of
which are
extenso of English
works.
Original works
are
in
mode
is
of thought
and expression,
countrymen.
vernacular,
sciences,
Another
are prepared in
England by some
The normal
institutions
These
become
colleges
for
cultivating
the
vernacular
languages.
India,
with
The resources of Sanskrit, the ancient language of its copiousness, precision and flexibility, are
the
-
adapted to
Natives.
diffusion
of
The
dead
used
to
The Natives
CiiAP. VIII.
UNIVERSITIES IN INDIA.
well,
145
own language
is
controlled
by the
incor-
Universities
of
Calcutta,
An
institution
like tliose
Panjab
also,
of a University,
and
to
University in India
is
for degrees,
and
power of
rules of
procedure, but
is
Its
govern-
whom
European functionaries
of the State.
The remainder
are appointed
by the Government,
men
in respect of
eminent learning,
status or personal
worth.
Thus the
fellows-,
all
being a mixed
is
that
best
and
and
fairly represent
The fellows
which
styled a convocation.
The
affairs
members
Syndicate
sisting
elected from
is
among
the fellows.
performed by a certain
elected
of
persons
from among
members.
The
namely
;
literse
engineering
to
146
it
INDIA IN
still
1880.
Chap.
viii.
much
The head
members and
all
its
and
by the Government,
principles.
necessarily in
the
State
and
in
consonance with
of
It
desired
that
shades
reasonable
opinion
should
be
and the
several
Universities
are
Certain schools,
some belonging
to
Government
others to
by the Universities
to prepare
candidates
for
declared to be
An
affiliated
is
college
may may
either
those
;
receive
to
of
scholars
for
other
standards,
in
addition
the
undergraduates.
Thus some
colleges are
is,
At
all
highly qualified.
Catholic
The several
also
communities,
Eoman
and Protestant,
all,
however, receiving
There
are, as yet,
no examples
The
Government
Chap.
viii.
AFFILIATED COLLEGES.
at all,
is
147
of
its
own
some
quarters.
the competition
of
the
at
Government
the
to
colleges
cities
Government
Madras and
colleges
Presidency
be
Calcutta,
Bombay ought
])e
closed.
Doubtless
the
the
country can
of such relief
The opportunity
may
arrive
Mean-
and
flourishing.
present to close
Government would be willing at some of which in the interior of the country occupy ground which would otherwise be vacant.
its
colleges,
to
The authorities at the Presidency colleges do not attempt undermine the missionary colleges by charging lower fees,
on the contrary they charge somewhat higher
of
fees
than those
any private
institutions.
The missionary
bodies, together
with other sections of the general community, are duly represented in the senates
of the several Universities.
Nothing
can be more
encouragement on the
may
be
gradually introduced.
The number of the Natives who enter the Universities, after passing an examination, is satisfactorily large but the
;
number
small.
of the Natives
It
is
who
take degrees
is
unsatisfactorily
considered by
who has
has often
member
of
it,
membership
is
sufficient.
The Government
notion,
itself
148
courao-ed
it
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap.
vrii.
An
intermediate
examination between
called the
the
"First Arts
view
the
progress
of the undergraduates
passing
tliem-
the
entrance.
Thereupon
many
Natives
contented
by
so
Still,
many
a
Natives
do
take
the
degree
of
Bachelor,
while
mainly
the
The
authorities ought
to
insist that
remedy
is
higher
be persevered
in,
a
of
marked
The
number
these Universities,
society, are
worthy of observation.
on
all sides
that these
01
memory, power
and expressing
Above
all this,
But
it
is
their friends
Chap.
viii.
INSTRUCTION IN MEDICINE.
149
borrowed ideas
power
These
all
and the
like.
less to the
youths of
Consequently
is
many
it
much
This
superficial
where
it
ought to
ought to be substantial.
labour to
to
than
they might
otherwise
to
be,
have recourse
who belong
the
Universities.
The
would do well
to impress
on
be really
efficient,
should enable a
man
to
apply
novel or alien
it
may
will
be,
and
to
mental
If
enter.
men
act
up
these
to
maxims they
turn
their
will
be
to
heretofore
if
abilities
account.
But
having learnt so
much
at college they
have
little
or nothing
more
must
fail
to reap the
One
of the in
means
the
an increased
attention
sciences.
Universities
to
pure
science
and applied
It is a
and
civil engineering,
the Universities.
colleges of India,
namely those
of Calcutta,
institutions, justly to be
nearly all
thorough.
is
150
INDIA IN
chemical
instruction,
1880.
Chap.
to
viii.
The
though
not enough
is
lead
the
practical so
is
efficient in
a like
degree,
and
is
The
is
instruc-
tion
in
ophthalmic
midwifery
given in
for these
explained
by trained demonstrators.
is
Theoretical pathology
in
some
these
and receive
medical
university
in
being
styled
of
licentiates,
are
men
the
professional
sense
the term.
men from
the
who
are
certificated as
hospital assistants.
Several
such medical schools exist in each division of the empire and they are very largely attended.
is
efficient.
They
as
are
medica
They
are
wanted
men
any medical
do much
staff that
They can
are
to dispense
Natives,
men and
the
certificated
still
further rising
countrymen.
They
are extensively
CiiAP. VIII.
151
by municipal
and
local
committees
separate
They
and lucra-
There
is
prohibiting
men from
practising
medicine unless
they possess diplomas from British authorities, and the practitioners under the Oriental system are still free to practise their
art.
in surgery
skilful in the
In
civil
engineering
also,
met with
civil
considerable success.
The extension
for
works throughfor
demand
Native
and
also
engineering in every
Among
these
and promoter,
college of
the
Thomason College
instruction
in
of Civil Engineering.
all
The
other
of
branches,
and
is
fast
becoming
college
science
for
Western
India.
These
and
Extensive workshops
attached to
practical.
professional
some of
have
assist-
survey
department,
they
acquired distinction.
ants
to
European
already
manifest.
Some
of
when
tried
by the hard
of public
and
critical
labours
152
works.
It
INDIA IN
would be premature
1880.
Chap. vhi.
which
They
will certainly
fill
a place
which,
if
difficult, will
be replete
confer degrees in other scientific branches, and should re-arrange the educational courses with this object.
It
may
may
then prosecute
In answer
this
system
may
doubtless be effica-
cious for
some important
many
sorts of private
employment, but
to follow
is
not
pro-
who
are
scientific
agriculturists.
The
life
much
of
to science if
he
is
become
really scientific.
his mind,
when the faculties are most elastic and the memory most receptive, which should be partly employed in science and
should be enjoyed while
return.
it
lasts,
for
to
him
it
will never
In respect to
habits
of
order,
observation,
method and
classi-
Chap.
viii.
AGIUCULTUHAL INSTRUCTION.
Tlie
153
to the eftect
ficatioii.
dictum of Faraday
may
])c
(jiiotcd
tliat
science
is
India.
sufficient
land
is
attached
for
experiments, and
many
it.
community
are attracted to
Some
who
Poona a
class
for
superior
instruction
agriculture
with
suitable examinations,
and by establishing
same
instruction
India.
in
A department
Whatever steps
There
have been taken in southern and western India, are but the small
beginnings of what ought to be a widely diffused system.
is
to
the Natives.
made
under-
from time
to time
and prove
futile
model farming
is
manner
which
discredits science
and
Even
if
awakening
the
importance of improving
agriculture,
staple
industry of the
and would
154
willingly
direction.
INDIA IN
follow
1880.
Chap.
viii.
the guidance
of the
Government
in
this
by competent
Sir Bartle Frere
artists
obtained from
branch
when Governor
of
Bombay,
them as portrait-painters, photographers, lithographers, engravers, wood and ivory carvers, ornamental designers and draughtsmen,
and more especially
well
filled.
as architects.
students to
art,
fix
their gaze
which flourished
its
at times
when
finer
was in
prime
and
its
soared
highest
when Asoka graved on the rocks the edicts of duty and the Buddhists hewed sacred chambers out of the strata on the mountain sides when the Brahminists covered their fanes with carvings which make bygone races of men live again before the spectator when the Muhammadans reared the tall minarets for prayer and the domes in memory of the dead. It aims at
; ;
may
govern the
efforts of the
European
effect of
mind.
all
human
duty.
human duty
man
to
CiiAP. VIII.
ETHICAL TEACUING.
155
God, although the
One must be
of
to
and often
directly,
is
much
of the
Thus, happily
much
effected in this
most important
prescribed for
as
direction.
it
now
is
in
some
institutions
it
is
it is
optional.
These variations
;
in practice are
the
subject
is
were
well
if
to take
up the
sure to be followed
established.
The
Many of them,
done in
effort
is
all that
has been
this
not
made
life,
be included in an educational
is
;
receiving
much
is
the
matter
of pressure might,
instead of progress.
Under the
what
their
system of
is difficult
to ascertain
condition
is
in the present, as
com-
By
all
:
generally
there
uneducated
in
former
times
some
educated
ladies
156
doubtless
were,
INDIA IN
but
such
1880.
Chap.
viii.
instances
rare.
by
patriotism,
the
poem
an
of Lala
historical
The
Eoshanara
Begum,
sister
affairs.
of
The
When
the Eajputs
men.
Among
of
the
of rank
For
instance, the
widowed mother
for
Sivaji
incited
faith.
her son to
Hindu
In later days
some
of
example, the
benevolent lady.
and dependants, in
but also
times of difficulty,
who
with a British
Every
the Natives,
who knows
accredited
to
princely houses
among
faithful upholders of
to
of the
families
In
short, it is
manifest
tliat
declared to
women, though by the Hindu social code be dependent, and by the Muhammadans hardly
the
And
this
The
fact of so
Chap.
viii.
FEMALE EDUCATION.
up
to
157
(Satis)
having,
would
still
it
not
prolii))ite(l
of will,
and a power of
self-
may
be productive of happy
by education.
As
and favourable
to
retrogression.
home
is,
of ignorant
The circumstance
of a
young
ISTative
having been
brought up too
much
in
under the
place, in
moving onward
common
lettered,
of educated Hindus,
whose
At
Brahmin
caste attend,
castes.
The name
Drinkwater Betliune
is
an institution at Calcutta,
The Muhammadans
daughters to school.
as yet
are
less
disposed
send their
The
Among
With
all
the
Alexandra Institute
at
Bombay.
whose
social
with the community and whose presence proves that the move-
158
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap.
viii.
There
is
much
home
to the girls
it
many houses instruction is being given who by social customs are prevented from
any educational
receiving
institution.
was
to aid in this
It is only
made by European
many
well-born
real education
when
the
mind
is
most receptive of
interior of
knowledge.
the country
of this
;
description.
first
ensured
castes,
girls
of
humbler
obtained
from Native
their
gentlemen,
who prove
to school.
their
sincerity
by sending
own daughters
In the
may
it
peasantry.
first
care of its
Some
and sending
many
on good
at other
places.
The
social or
to
Chap.
viii.
150
now beginning
profession.
find
suitable
On
sented by large
effect
who have
An
ladies
tlie
is
exercised
by the European
Indian
sisters
who
shew
to their
to
^\hich
the female
mind can
rise
when enjoying
educational
Prominent among these was Mary Carpenter, upon whose monument it has been written that " Taking to heart the
advantages.
women,
life,
A re^-iew
being afforded to
ways and
of various industries,
unable to
their
many
it
fatherless
or
motherless European
sent to
cliild
is,
in poor circumstances, if in
India,
cannot be
dangers.
England,
exposed to grave
closer
and
closer
till
who
it
the
home
of their
children, or
who
them
to
England
for educa-
160
tion, or
INDIA IN
who,
for
1880.
Chap.
viii.
some
keep them in
India.
Among
who
many helpto
less ones,
would grow up
in ignorance.
were
become
Humane considerations
munity
to
make
upon European
therefore, both
sympathy.
Protestant and
Eoman
Originally
cities
and
at
maintained there.
At
of the plains.
A similar principle
has
The
also
At
Europeans obtain an
though
They
some
Government
colleges,
At
many
so
by the clergy of
efforts
The untiring
gratitude.
and powerful
remembered with
Chav.
VIII.
EAST INDIAN
ClllLDllEN.
161
anxiety of
many
whose opinions
made by
and
it
number
of East
humble
classes.
The Government
to
supply
them
grants-in-aid.
It
would be
difficult
institutions
belonging to
private
societies are,
if
is
producing a
and
is
among
people.
among
the
State.
The instruction
in its in-
in
science
fancy.
inadequate
of pronunciation
is
and colloquial
ness in loyalty.
visit of the
founding,
in
parts
of
the
country,
educational
institutions in
memory
162
INDIA IN
1880.
Chai>. ix.
CHAPTER
IX.
RELICxIOUS ESTABLISHMENTS
AND
MISSIONS.
The
Maintenance
of religion
by Native rulers
Their religious endowments in part maintained by the British GovernAttitude of the Keligious establishments of the Portuguese ment
Christian missions in Native Government respecting religion StatesThe Koman Catholic Church in India Protestant missions Unabated efforts of religious societies Approximate statistics of results High authorities in favour of missions Character of Native Christians Special missions from Oxford and Cambridge Prospects of Native Church
British
Moral
For duly
effect of
missions generally.
it is
desirable
comparison
is
Attention in England
some-
times drawn to the State Church in India, as being an institution maintained, for the benefit of Europeans,
revenues.
It
The Native
its
rulers,
each dynasty
own
faith, besides
it
practical duties,
the British
of its
Government
is
bound
to care for
is
and needful.
The
they
on
are
The servants
;
of the Indian
Government
are, for
station to
It
; ;
CitAi'.
IX.
NATIVP: llELTGIOUS
impossil)le for
if
ENDOWMENTS.
163
would bo
ment, and
be
left
them
clergy
officers,
who
economical
if
the
Government
to all
had omitted
circumstances
to
common
The
civilized societies,
which
India,
facilities
of
be
otherwise
for the
amounts
to only
it is
150,000 a year
whole country.
Perhaps
endowments
When
lapsed
to
the
Brahmins,
priestly
class
with unbounded
in secular affairs. The Hindus, having al)jured Buddhism and embraced Brahminism, continued the practice of bountifully endowing the Hindu religion. Temi^les were raised in every quarter, with numerous establishments. These were supported in part by voluntary offerings of devotees, but in part also by public revenues assigned to them by
influence
the sovereign
Ecclesiastical
charity
castes
was dispensed
of feeding
of all
caste.
The duty
of
but
a
it
Hindu
For
this
164
assigned.
INDIA IN
Ultimately in
1880.
Chap.
or
village
ix.
the
revenues of
some
Thus
it
came
amount
was
an endowment of
religion.
The Muhammadans, on
for the
respected
religion.
Hindu
among
by any attempt
at
interference.
They some-
In so
their
far as
own power. Then they proceeded to endow their own Moslem religion in tlie same manner; the mosques arose in
quarters with land revenue assigned for their support,
of
all
by
way
endowment.
of saints
Thus
also
and these
When upon
Mogul power
on
by recounting such
the
them that the endowments of Hindu temples should be augmented and that the State
liberal
than ever.
its
Native pre-
It
the property of
the method of
management and
CiiAP. IX.
165
of cases.
want of
sufficient authority,
and
many
For some
time British
of certain
among
But
as such supervision
was open
of
The conduct
the British
Government
by sound policy but also by a true spirit of Christian charity and toleration. Nor have its motives in this respect ever been
misconstrued by the Natives, though
doubtless
many
of
them would
to
be pleased
if
the
Government were
do
more
than
it
these institutions
were formally
of
endowments.
of a
It
is
probal:)le
ment,
had
had endowed the Christian priesthood, churches and convents, and if missionaries had arisen of extraordinary zeal
if
it
faith.
is
nothing unusual in
an
Government
paratively
in India.
The
small
annually,
already
seen.
comThe Governits
the precedents of
166
Native predecessors
substantial
INDIA IN
if it
1880.
Chap.
ix.
endowments
in favour of Christianity.
While previous rulers of India have promoted their forms of religion by endowment, the British Government has contented itself with providing for the spiritual necessities of
servants.
It
its
has
scrupulously abstained
from
directly
or
It
assurance
and
and
conviction.
protects
Christian
missionaries
ministers
when
same
manner
as that in
all
protected.
It assists Christian
is
given to
all
educational agencies
religious.
is
Muhammadan
Under
rulers.
these
circumstances the
Christian
Missions
The Roman Catholic Church has real vitality in India and counts among its sons, not only Europeans and people of mixed
blood, East Indians
also Natives
many
work
of
is
the Europeans
Its
Bombay,
empire, and in
many
rural
districts.
It
CiiAi>.
IX.
ROMAN CATHOLICISM
IN INDIA.
167
Archbishops,
German, Belgian,
Irish.
Lady
Superiors,
nuns and
sisters.
and orphanages,
its
opens
of all
collegiate doors
and
its class
rooms
to the
members
it
for its
own
members
its services,
does not
and
girls,
and
its
attitude
is
very considerate.
Its
among
in
India
It has priests
many of
ment.
priests
bear
a high repute in
own
religious
community,
among
among
of charity
the miserable.
of the
Eoman
its
The Church
of
England
for the
many
countries,
operations.
missions of
community has contributed the the Established Church of Scotland, of the Free
The
American Presbyterians.
In effective
Church
zeal
of Scotland, of the
ability
and
and in devotion
no
reli-
168
gioiis
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap.
ix.
community
of Scothand.
in Christendom has surpassed tlic Free Church The Independent community has furnished the
;
London mission
Wesleyans
The Baptist community was among the and continues its exerac-
The
religious
several missions.
cording to
to
the
means and resources contrihuted munificently work, and has produced a roll of distinguished
its
missionaries.
Glowing visions
floated
It
was
missionaries,
strange land.
is
enshrined even
now
steadily
continuous,
be comparatively slow,
and
that
Christian
teaching
must,
with education
as
its
handmaid,
only the
wend
thick
onwards a
persevering way,
through
not
and many-
may
felt
be expected to produce.
by many,
at
may seem
to
at first sight to
to
Many
persons looking
be the poverty of
visil)le result,
may
Some
societies are
may have
occasionally weighed
down
the spirits of
CiiAi'.
IX.
PROTESTANT MISSIONS.
169
aide
aiiticipatiuDS
resided
feeble
long in
the
force
India,
of
declarations
may
teiid to
en-
missions.
The
East.
Missionary conferences
and
afford such
an income
may
comparison of the
statistics of
upon
their
labours.
Men
in
sufficient
abundance
for the
many have
employed, in their
and
gifts
incurred
of the
l)y all
known
can hardly be
It
may even
by the
results,
be added.
The
measured by available
statistics,
of comparison
adopted in
of the
secular
may
fall
short
hopes of
earnest men.
alities,
If the total
number
Native mis-
sionaries
and
others,
American,
at their head, be
five thousand.
The number of Native Christians is not less than 400,000 souls, of wdiom a fair proportion consists of communicants. To these may be added, as coming under the
influence of the missionaries, all the school-children who, though
not
professing
Christianity,
is
attend mission
schools
where
Christian instruction
obligatory.
170
total to
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap.
souls.
still
ix.
number
onwards.
with tendency to
fluctuation or retrogression
it
moved
by
like
resources
among
in
the
of French,
whom
of
(of Tinnevelly),
James Long, Vaughan, Mullens, Wenger, Alexander Duff", John Wilson, Hislop,
Murray-Mitchell,
Smith,
Nesbitt,
these,
Anderson,
and
others.
Some
of
like
William
have become
household words
Some,
scholars.
Some, like
upon
all
foremost
left
men of their day at Calcutta and Bombay and have much posthumous fame. Some, like Hislop, have been
No
doubt,
some Englishmen
in
and resources
It does
little or
no
fruit.
not,
India
is
adverse to missions.
always
to
their
much
as their
countrymen anyfelt
where.
CiiAP. IX.
EELATIONS OF MlSSIONAltlES
to
WI'l'II
NATIVES.
171
tli(jso
their
view ought
be
On
the
testimony
among Anglo-Indian
authorities,
by such men
as
Jolm
on the missionaries
for inter-
beyond
;
and
for
and high authorities have occasionally considered that such blame has been in some
measure deserved.
On
is
so situa-
means than any one else can have of knowing the real sorrows and anxieties of the people and such knowledge conduces to lively sympathy. Thus a mutual confidence exists between him and his Native neighbours, wdio will open their hearts and lay bare the realities of their lives before
ted that he has better
;
with an
official
person.
to the
proper authorities he
the points raised
may
no wise administrator would disregard, and affording information which the ablest officers would be thankful
siderations wdiich
to receive
many an
brought to
covered
light,
till it
which might otherwise have remained undisbroke out in some worse form. If any oppressor
or evil-doer
he,
among the Natives shall have been thus unmasked, and others like him, will condemn the interposition of the
by
On
the
the inner
life
of the people
their
ministrations,
and should be
On
172
slionld be
INDIA IN
on their guard against
1880.
Chap.
ix.
from hearing
;
counterpart
and should
The character of Natives converted to Christianity is geneThough they do not possess all the Christian graces rally good.
that might be desired,
still
their
new
and conversation.
may
must have
many
superstitions deeply
imbedded
in their
mental con-
stitution,
alone, they
of the ties
to humanity, they must have borne the reproaches of those from whom reprobation is hardest to bear. Despite many temptations, the instances of apostasy
rare.
On
the
other hand during times of rebellion and danger there have been
instances of courageous adherence to the faith notwithstanding
.
Such
difficulties,
Christians
the faith
and nurtured
by parents themselves sprung from Christians. Of these the numljer is considerable and constantly increasing, especially in
southern India.
With them
and
is
They
and
are beginning to
evince a laudable willingness to render their Church self-supporting, to sustain a Native ministry,
to bear
some
of the
humble means.
It
number
There
is
much
in the bright
and
happy condition
(31IAP.
IX.
(JllUPiCII.
173
wliicli
pleasantly in
of all
ear of Cliristendom,
wlii(;li
frauL^lit
Church
and
Many
for
much
for
Oriental lit(;raturo
the enlightenment
of public
and in
in
the chamber,
thoroughfare.
as
well as in the
of
schoolroom
and
the
in
Most
them
are
nowadays
the
ever-
engrossed
the
administrative
of
business
which
widening
operations
the
to
missions
produce.
They have
of a
by elementary
instruction
large
Thus
their leisure
less
and
and
less.
Nor
is
of Native Christians.
The
qualities
most
an adequate knowledge of
minds and
of average intelligence, a
power
of bringing
truths
home
and
alien people.
It is the
young men
and
it is
in
in
England
regard
to offer to
such
societies.
The missionaries do by
thus qualified at
qualifications.
least,
while
many
of
174
INDIA IN
1S80.
Chap.
ix.
Hindu
chief
their
fly
among
Hindus
at the
centres of Hinduism.
own
religion,
off to various
Their conduct no
fellow-religionists,
doubt
influences
faith
numbers of
their
whose
who might
otherwise be
Thus
men who
who not
Hindus
fail
in nationality only
and not in
religion,
only
to guide
countrymen towards
it
and towards
other paths
of belief.
They
original truth
was
revealed to
men on
Ganges.
;
They
remember that there the religion of Brahma arose that thence sprang the religion of Buddha and spread till it overshadowed
India, Ceylon, Siam, Thibet, China
there,
two
cognate religions
all
the
other religions in the world taken together and have been obeyed
of souls.
it
Hindu
tion
and that
if
it
will
owe
its
their historical
by similar lapses
and
errors;
and that
it
Founder.
and aim
Brahma and
of
Buddha
in
Such
is
may
and and
it
is
sensitive
these.
class,
new
Chai'. t\.
MISSIONS.
also
175
tlio
more
for]ni(la])le
luiy
yot
encountered, wlioni
If the encounter
to
side,
specially skilled
ordinarily
by
They
will
They may
among wild
but
also
among
forms of
human
brain.
They
on
earth.
They may
how manifold
corruptions, of
may
conceivable
between
ability of every
man and his Maker, and the personal accounthuman individual to an omniscient Judge for
life
and of
eternity.
They
will
have to
polished criticism.
The argumentative
difficulties
will be even
more severe
if
Muhammadans as a body shall l^egin to cease own religion. There are no present signs,
conjuncture arising
;
believing in their
however, of that
Muhamdo
madan
converts to
Some Moslem
with
priests
endeavour to
answer
the
missionaries
argumentative
170
skill.
1880.
Chap.
ix.
generally, if pressed,
would point
example
with much
some portions
of
Brahma and
may
it
perhaps
;
it
was
better.
Certainly
much
less corrupted
definite in its
is
specific in its
commands,
it
more
likely
The
so practically recognised
England,
in India.
is
of
some importance
whether the
if it
effect of religious
missions in India
It
is
good, and
be,
may
all
be
of
minipaum
to
human
The Natives
will
regard
the
distrac-
tions of national
its
life,
is still
devoutly loyal to
is
own
religion.
They
loyal
in this cardinal respect, will be just, faithful and honourable in all other respects.
They
feel
power exerted
is
State,
contemned
is
raised in their
eyes
moment.
The
;
much which
they think
blameworthy in
British
conduct.
])oliold
tlie
l)right-
Oii.vp. IX.
177
UGSS of whicli
rellectcd
on the nation
to
They are
large
to be lieard
preaching in every
the
city,
town, througliout
empire.
They
considerately
are
They
held to
be
among
at a
even
staff of the
Government
affords a
model of organization.
They
They
and
are
trusted
as
benevolent advisers
l^y
their
Native neighbours.
trouble,
They
are
known
as friends in need
and
In seasons of pesti-
aid.
among
They
in-
its officers
to
elucidate before
their
countrymen
the
Natives.
Many
of
them
as
or
lexicographers,
have held
Ijooks
a high
of lasting of
their
fame and
wives
utility.
estaljlishing
emplified
before
may
charitable
nunistration
the
warmth
of practical philanthropy.
178
INDIA IN
1880.
CiiAK
x.
CHAPTER
LAW AND
Constitution of Indian
character of
X.
LEGISLATION.
Government by Parlifinicntary enactments Sacred Hindu and Muhammadan law Administration of justice
English law
in in
confidence in the
Special
legislation
regarding indebtedness
the
peasantry
to charges
Arbitration
of over-legislation
COMPLETE
stability
belongs
to
the
fundamental institu-
tions
of British India.
They have a
legal status
which was
conferred not
by any authority
in India, but
by Parliament in
The Supreme Governments, the Local Governments, the several Executive and Legislative Councils,
and the Covenanted Civil Service derive
from Acts of Parliament.
a parligtmentary charter.
a chain, as
it
their
constitution
The
made
most experienced
experts.
With
Hindu
or
Muhammadan,
the national laws had for the most part a sacred origin derived
either from the code of
Manu and
Koran.
secular
arm but
also
fear of divine
authority.
for
No
Hindus
as being the
word
of God,
is
for
Muhammadans.
Nevertheless there
Chap.
x.
JUDICIAL SYSTEM.
179
Under Native rule there were Hindu law officers and Muhammadan law officers to whom reference was made for deliverances on difficult points of their respective systems of law. Tliese
deliverances
much popular
veneration,
State
itself.
The
restraint of
by those
who conducted
worst
it
was ignored
its
subjects,
but also
itself,
by
establishing
courts of justice
in
wdiich
persons,
considering themselves
their
against
fellow-subjects
acts
and
against
the
Government,
of
of
the
very highest
functionaries
humble
grades.
in
the people, and lies close to the foundation of that regard and
respect which cause acquiescence
rule.
in,
Originally the
main
objects
India
Company were
to lay
down an
cedure for the guidance of the courts, to provide for the judges
officers in
matters touching
embraced by these
institutes, to
l)y
The Supreme
dency towns, Calcutta, Madras and Bombay, administered the English law, which law came thus to have an important influence on civil justice, as so
many
180
at each Presidency town,
INDIA IN
and
1880.
Chap. x.
In
were found
prepared with the utmost care and with anxious thought for
sul3stantial justice,
in
assistance
any regular
The
civil
the
empire two
or
tril)unals of
Supreme
English
Court, and
or
The
Hindu
law, which
governed
was found
to mercantile affairs
and
by the
imperfectly comprised
law, and
was yet
It
in-
civilization.
was
deemed hardly
institutes, the
practicable,
to apply
Native
has
its difficulties
all
by
tlie
Government
in
of India,
Britisli
the
controlling
authorities in England, or
by the
Parliament.
in
The Government
besides
England
determined
1833
that,
the judicial
body of
to the
should be framed in a
manner
and conformable
Chap. x.
LAW
COMMISSION IN LONDON.
181
best
notions
of jurisprudence.
sit in
added
this
to tlie
legislative
Macaulay.
colleagues
first fruit of the laljours of himself and his was the preparation of the Penal Code, which after many years of consideration was passed into law. In 1853, a
The
Legislative Council
in India consisting
this,
In place of
there
of secondary
rank
empire.
by the Government.
the
The supreme
large,
Indian empire at
the
and
those
under
Local
Governments
Councils
of
Madras,
Bombay and
The secondary
are
the
of the
Local Governments of
Madras,
affairs
Bombay and
law
It
consisted of
men
sat
from 1861
to 1870.
It pre-
Act,
the
Contract
Act,
the
com-
also to
which have been framed regarding alluvion (land thrown up from rivers), master and servant, easements
Bills
trusts.
upon
and
is
by common consent
182
considered
INDIA IN
necessary
1880.
Chap. x.
and
will
lias
doubtless
be
framed.
An
these
excellent law
of limitation
been
passed.
With
may
with
all
comprehensive in
its
much
many
The
by Acts
drafted.
the
many
some
time.
The
may
excellence
among
the
work
of English lawyers,
and
intelligence.
It
It is adjusted
wants
of the empire
and
to the particular
needs
of provinces.
It is conducted
due regard
to public opinion,
Some
of the
A legislative
part of the
Government
from
It causes
made
of
Chap. x.
183
community
in
India.
Wliitley Stokes
has rendered
so clearly as to be
of
law are
still
observed
religious institutions
and the
like.
It is impossible to over-
come the
difficulty
arising from
the various
and sometimes
of
conflicting precedents
Hindu
law.
Much more
however, devoted
now than
legal
exclusive reliance
is
The functions
Native law
some
officers,
whom
of
so
much
of
respecting
the
solemnization
marriage,
rites.
as
civil
justice,
of India,
or
are
first,
to
184
render
the proceedings
INDIA IN
1880.
CiiAP. x.
decisions speedy.
The administration
competent
is
they are
for
the judicial
repute, in
the
already
civil justice, as
now
It
Still,
has
sometimes
on
made,
may
be considered
as
The
best on behalf of
beyond
is
in the
consists in
advocates.
The
grown and
is
provide that
effectually
made by
men
also
Bar has
been men-
whether
suits are
on the average of
Chap.
x.
CIVIL COURTS
UNDER
BRITISH RULE.
for
185
remain pending
an extraordinary
length of time
make
much
that
become
invalidated.
and
in
some provinces
satisfactorily short.
One
is
the
which
much
im-
still
cling pertinaciously.
Tlie
pecuniary amount
may
made
for this
consideration,
it
will
be found that
many trivial
ness, are
tribunals.
considerable
limited.
And
if
appealing
it
is
European
people,
authorities,
arises
from the
disposition
of the
Any
attempt to suppress
stricter
or
to
now
exist,
The popularity
many
classes of
may
be admitted.
They
classes, landlords
and
others,
who
after
their
landed security to run into debt, find themselves conbefore the judge.
authorities
They
are yet
who
find themselves
186
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. x.
who thought
also
to
establish
actually planted an
this
Upas
tree.
Some Natives
less
may
share
opinion,
esteemed in some
Nevertheless, those
who
are cognizant
perceive
that
the
Courts
despite
their
shortcomings,
any other department or authority whatever, and are regarded as the embodiment of what is best in British rule.
The Europeans
centres,
and
at other great
High Courts
is
Indeed there
classes,
Europeans and
exist.
;
The
many
of
them seem
ment
for
wealth
and resources
number
of suits
is
large
and
value, in
satisfaction
amounts.
the provisions
of the recently
amended
civil
In
the
in
dispensing
manner
one fault has been the which bonds which, though duly executed, were
of
justice
Chap. x.
ARBITRATION REGISTRATION.
187
sufficient cognizance
and
of
its
subsequent augmentation.
remedy
this fault
in the
It
most prevailed,
and
it
were vain to suppose that the same defect does not continue to
prevail in several other parts of the empire.
The ancient
" Panchayet,"
consisting of five members, has for the most part vanished into
it
the
In the Panjab
it.
Their
arbitration,
In some
places,
where such an arrangement, whenever practicable, receives encouragement from the Government.
arbitration for regular judicial trials
by means
registered
of registration.
The
documents of private
has been a
blot
on the
social life of
it
much
to
diminished,
still
exists.
The
authorities
have
still
be
188
on
tlieir
INDIA IN
guard against
it.
1880.
Chap. x.
They have
In respect of real
transfer, for
most provinces
Since
Beyond
this,
registration generally
were
Eegistry
offices
registering
may
be
augmented.
Muniment rooms
is
are
documents.
staff,
an inspecting
and
every division
at
of of
the the
the
head
that
the
Native
public
may
management.
on the
registration,
enough
ments and of the management. The scale of fees is arranged in order that the department may be self-supporting, but not with
a view of
its
The law
and
The
docu-
tendency of legislation
compulsory.
offices
;
Meanwhile
and numbers
of documents to be reckoned
registered year after year.
The
must be
to clear
and
many
and
;
social quarters.
were once
phrases of
much currency
in India
(JiiAP. X.
PATRIARCHAL RULE.
effect at
189
had practical
disappeared.
Men
of
may
be met with
who
as
now
every nation,
advances
in
ruled, not
by the
will of persons,
who however
meaning
men
when
indeed
somewhat inconsistently
to
speak of over-legislation,
they yet desire that there shall be laws for almost every matter,
to
conflict
which they can appeal either as against the executive or in with their neighbours. They have a dread of the un-
On
from what
it
used to
be, is yet
very great.
still
districts
and of provinces
wield
for
good or
for evil.
substantial justice
British territories.
in the
who
their
and shortcomings of
territories.
with
The name
every respect.
meant
some newly
annexed or freshly conquered provinces, the regulations pertaining to the older provinces of the empire were not introduced,
on the
spot.
190
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap,
x,
just as
The
then,
set of rules,
set.
The
provinces thus governed, of which the Panjab was the chief' were styled " non-regulation," in contradistinction to the old,
or " regulation " provinces.
As
came
were one
by executive authority
to
be observed
Some
all
the
Then
were passed
for
legislative "
provinces, specifying
or parts of laws,
and
what executive
force within
it.
having
the legislature
of
provinces alike.
law has
statute to
this
remove any
is
power
occasion-
and uncivilized
territories.
The ancient
The
establisli-
which
arise
Chap. x.
101
new
ideas
by means
of education,
oldest things
be placed in juxtaposition.
tlie
wronged
arises
new phases of contention appear, A sense of being among the Natives, who are quick to feel injury
redress.
If the jurisdiction,
under
will find
it
is
just
and equitable in
complex
cases.
The judges
will
They know
that with
it
must be
casual, that
under
it
doctrines
become
much
ought
to
The only
remedy
scientific,
of the nation
which
is
The
formal.
specially embarrassing,
it
and the
intricate
remedy
said, "
for
them
is
definite legislation.
To
and by entrusting judges with a wide discretion is to try to put Leave a judge with only one out a fire by pouring oil upon it.
192
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. x.
may
and every
is
Homoiopathy
the
The
exist,
The Natives well know that the profession of the law must unless the Government is to be conducted by sheer They have been instant
law
it
whenever
by any
project of
from the judgment of tribunals to the discretion of the executive They object to those Acts which contain only authorities.
general provisions and
for practice,
empower
the
Government
by law.
to
make
rules
on
this
to executive
discretion
what ought
if
Again,
to
legislation
English law would gradually creep over the country, like ivy over a wall, entwining itself with all social affairs and relations.
In doubt as
to
do, or
decide,
the judges would follow the precedents or analogies of that law, the English, to which they could most readily refer and
trained.
Thus a
nucleus of judge-imported
consummation was
legislation
at
The law
even been
re-
commended
legislation
as a panacea for
much
suffering.
The idea
of such
is
English law.
among
it
the
Hindus
as their
Among Muhammadans
nation.
Its
as definite as in
any
Chap.
x.
193
and other,
wide an empire will cause undue interference with the customs and unwritten laws of the Natives, will injuriously
for so
affect the constitution of
tlie
As
have
shall
own law
So
tlie
far
from
English
among
the
many
nationalities of India.
Now
that
men
are entering
more
and more
of the empire,
is
In
many
by the
In
and
simplification.
No law
or before it
by
legislation, is vitally
By
these
to
are stopped,
no
delibera-
tion
their expediency.
194
After the experience
INDIA IN
of
1880.
Chap. x.
three-quarters
century,
crowded
sufficiently
uniform
for
imperial
and yet
sufficiently variable
who
desire to live
power
by those whose well-meaning zeal outstrips their discretion, and yet affording room for the exercise of all the talents which even
the
ablest
men
can display.
to
which several
on the
spot.
legislation cannot
control.
But
individual
allowed to
personal
judgment, then
confusion,
perhaps even
energetic,
disaster,
would
arise.
Then they
will
man would move the hands forward, the next man would put
classic proverb,
them back
again.
In paraphrase of the
they
would pull down and build up, they would change square
things to round.
is
The ship
may
tack about,
it
as
much
as possible.
195
CHAPTER
CRIME, POLICE
General character of crime in India
horrid characteristics,
its
XI.
AND PWSONS.
its
repression
burning,
Regulation of marriage Female Gypsy Occaoccurrence of Penal code and criminal procedure reorganization Condition of former Kegular General regulations regarding arms Prisons under British Recent improvements thereinJuvenile reformatories Convict settlements.
its
suppression
expenses
sional
Political
police
Its
There
are
disfigured
the Indian annals, otherwise the crimes of India do not essentially differ from those of other climes.
orderly
may
be compared
The
rise
left
stain
upon the
consisted
The
crime
was
the
in
its
of the
waylaying
for
and
sake
strangling
of
of
on
lonely
roadsides
carried
the
money and
characteristic
its
valuables
they
secret
about them.
Its
dire
was the
the
purposes, operating
by combination
in
country,
watchwords.
amounting
o 2
to
196
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap.
xi.
It arose
human
life,
Though
and
its
its
existence was
real
proportions
Its
shocking extent
remained
repressive
long
unknown.
discovery
was followed
after
by
measures, which
ended successfully
com-
which
so
many
of the
The information given by them would have been incredible but for the sulisequent verification of particulars, whereby certainty
was obtained regarding the
distressful
and the extraordinary accumulation of murders committed by The fulness of their disclosures would individual murderers.
almost indicate that they were conscience-stricken, were
for the callousness
it
not
of their
damnatory
narratives.
The psychology
it
criminals
is
themselves again,
if
another form
ever ready to
spring into
life
again.
The
The
alive
The
among
wliere
withdrawn.
tlie
has
Chap.
xi.
FEMALE INFANTICIDE
The same
is
GANG-ROBBERY.
exists
;
197
popular reverence.
proliibition
generally in
fully
obeyed
if
must be very
rare.
who
are
in their
lineage,
who find
it
most
difficult to
as a slur
upon
their family.
for
many
inhuman
practice
by various measures
at
failure.
Perseverance
it is
extremely
evil,
namely,
the
pride of caste
marriage ex-
penses.
undue expenditure on
for
Some Native
regulation
of
reformers
the
expenditure on marriage
is
an ex-
penditure which
infanticide.
many
respect
evils besides
In
public
opinion
has
in
been produced on
to
matters
by reason
of the fierce-
ness and audacity which distinguishes some classes and timidity and submissiveness which characterize so
classes.
the
many
other
It has
first evils
British
it
Government had
This
stronger administrative
authorities,
and
dispersed.
from
198
time to time
persons are
in a
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap.
xi.
still
milder form in several provinces, and many at large whose chief occupation is the planning
more or
which may be
of
offered.
It
is
symptoms
impending
scarcity, political
social trouble.
Gang-robbery assumed an ominous shape and troublesome dimensions in the Deccan near Bombay during 1879, by
reason of the ferment in the public
mind during
a time of war,
The
services
two
of Native
months,
speedily.
much
of
in
villages
lying within
short
distance
the
mountains.
and shewed
when attacked by
The plague would have spread indefinitely, if the Government had not taken numerous precautions and availed The Brahmin leader and itself of many means of repression.
his
immediate adherents were avowedly fornjing a conspiracy against the Government, though his followers were actuated by
the ordinary desire for plunder.
Some
of his
colleagues
of
in
mischief probably
some
sort.
The numljer
of
men engaged
was
were watched with a strange interest by some sections of the Native community and with an equally strange apathy by
others, while
among some
fire
classes a lively
An incendiary
Peshwas
Poona was
Chap.
xi.
OCCURRENCE OF SERIOUS
evil,
RIOTS.
199
by
and
such
abortive,
silly
and though any exaggeration of the importance of and clumsy designs ought to be avoided, still these
occurrences
Piloting
demand
and disturbance are uncommon in India, but occur now and then, as if to warn the Government of the many
dangers which lurk in so vast and varied a country.
In 1872
to stir
up
rebellion in
In 1873, a serious
Muhammadans
In
in the
city
of
Bombay.
occurred
in
severe,
1875
the
Sontals,
who
riots,
had
caused
some
out in
In 1878 some
the
city of
In 1879
in the in a
there were
some troubles
Eampa
Madras Presidency.
attitude
Events of
and be prepared
to enforce order
necessity arises.
of livelihood,
who
abide
to village,
be thieves by profession.
is
The
villagers,
with that
power
for
calling
200
beliaviour,
o-iven.
INDIA IN
detaiuiug
1880.
Chap. xi.
is
them
in
exercised, lest
The power needs to be sparingly and cautiously an undue power should be indirectly placed in
police. It is exercised,
however, in
many
who,
tribes
having a quiet demeanour externally, are yet skilful and daring They wander about, and settle down like a small thieves.
flight of locusts,
may
be
available
away from them bit by bit. Here again the legislature has wisely empowered the executive to take effective steps for restraining these criminal tribes, for reclaiming them from
predatory habits
better, for settling
wdiich
tliey
know no
them down
some
with
results,
The
kidnapping,
otherwise
obtaining
of
were constrained
to
adopt special
common
as
crime, and
It
was regarded by
exists,
comparatively
venial.
still
though
doubtless diminished,
com-
Of
Government
and boldness.
Adultery among
is
tlie
liumbler classes
is
but not
Probably the
severer
for
not
inflicting
Chap.
xi.
PENAL CODE
forgetting
rOLICE.
severity
is
201
punisliments,
that
excessive
seldom
many
murders, more
loose
of waste,
cattle-stealing is rife, as
many
marks not
distin-
the
social
standard,
of
justice,
improve.
which used
to
The penal
the
empire.
by one
of the
highest
of living-
authorities. Sir
James Stephen,
it
to be the best
system of criminal
name
is
It is supported
who laboured
The
into
l)y
and completion.
two parts
first,
the
regular
police,
all respects
;
holding
office
by the
by authority, and
paid, not
from
the
the public
villages,
treasury,
but
by emoluments
drawn
from
and constituting a
The
rule.
The character
and
202
corruptness was, for
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap.
xi.
many
and anxiety
to
conscientious
With Englishmen,
against the
evil,
it
was
a theme of reproach
Government.
The Natives
lamented the
for comparison,
own
its
organization
during recent
it
ought to
be.
On
its
the introduction
police
Government formed
rule,
which would,
to the peculiarities
of the country.
on
its
pattern, broke to
pieces
in
magistrates.
men
of character avoided
it,
Men
intention of
The chances
man had
When
man
They committed
and they
The
scale of
pay
was low, being much the same as that which had prevailed under Native rule. It was not sufficiently remembered that if
Chap.
xi.
POLICE.
203
paid, they
men
income by
officials in
the country,
and
it
was impossible
of the
to detach
any of tliem
the conduct
crime.
of
and detection
to
of
any capacity
it
was impossible
make
district there
among many
little
other
indeed under
the circumstances.
suffered,
and withhold
all assistance
plights, rather
than undergo
similar disposition
specially charged
police
was
the
landowners would
first
resist
mischief, to take
into their
band themselves together to Next they learnt to regulate the own hands and to become abettors,
checked on the intro-
general
pu))lic.
if
survived for
many
years.
The
the
police
Some crimes
fail to
armed
and
ruffians
upon a
village, that
be reported.
light,
In various ways
to
of that a certain
204
punished.
fill,
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap.
xi.
Many
At
Many an
earnest English
felt like
officer,
a buffalo
ramming
beating
its
The
first efforts
cities of
European
the
sole
officers of status
and
capacity were
appointed to
duty of
supervision
and a comcity
affairs are
was organized.
is
police
is
conducted very
much under
toleral)ly good,
and
its
administration comparatively
satisfactory.
reform on a large
scale,
whole of their
command them
Sir
in every district.
(now
Sub-
sequently in
Oudh
Then a com-
sit
scheme
everywhere.
There
were discussions whether the new force should not be independent of the magistrate of the
control and at the
district,
under the
command
of the magistrate.
been
for
some years in
is
force
The
regular police
a constabulary with
much
the
same designa-
CiiAP. XI.
POLICE REORGANIZATION.
It is a
205
department with
are stationed in
many European
every
district.
officers,
one or two of
whom
at his
elbow a qualified
affairs,
European
that
officer,
devoted to police
and
may
be reported.
on the
prevents malpractices.
officials
consist of Native
paid,
who
look to
Below them
are grades
for
among whom
to
the best
advancement
officials
When
the
superior
Native
are
the
some
sort of drill
At some
points
on the
with a military
organization.
depended upon
when any
were vain
to
have disappeared
they have, in
The pay
not
liberal, is
yet as
much
pay of the Native soldiery. The salaries of the superior Native police officers, though much better than formerly, are not
sufficient to procure
The
police
not so
much esteemed
The
as that in the
and
administrative
departments.
Native
206
officers,
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap.
xi.
yet equal in character and status to the corresponding grades in Although some meritorious Natives have other civil branches.
received
considerable promotion
in
the police,
of
the
superior
exercise
promptitude
and
must
filled
The
village police or
for
Being
men
of the
and holding
office
watchmen had some understanding with, and some fellow-feelBut they sometimes became the actual ing for the villagers. agents in crime when the landholders being badly disposed
began
to collude
with criminals.
an additional
much vexed
neighbourhood.
their little
Their
eke
it
duties.
allotted to
them
Thus the
service
little
On
years
the whole, this rural police, though of ancient origin and containing the
inefficient.
germ
of a valuable institution,
many
During recent
have been
by law on a permanent
fixed
and in a
state of efficiency.
Its
it
emoluments are
and
secured, its
officials of
duties
are defined;
is
is
bound
and
to co-operate
It
is
required to
make
Though very
desired,
it
far
is
which might be
is
still
much improved.
well-being and
conduct
of
much importance
to
the
Chap.
xi.
207
neces-
The
British
own
territories, for
On
one of the
first
without demur.
The disarming,
secreted
as
it
Many arms
to pass.
Many
Natives of rank,
carry arms
many
also
of
humble
where.
the
arms
Under
all
these circumstances,
to
it
became necessary
for
Government
carefully revise
The importation
of
sea, for
Native States, involved several serious considerations. Native States, which require
Those
armament, have
to
make
tliose
Government.
All
who need
without
to
them
time
difficulty.
legislation
at
seemed
at the
excite
some
dissatisfaction, but
present no particular
desires
to
complaint
arises.
Government
necessary,
take
only
anu
that
to
with
all
the
considerateness
can
reasonably be
expected.
been made,
first
to
the prevailing
and detec-
to their prisons.
The
modern sense
of the term
208
INDIA IN
little
1880.
Chap.
rule.
xi.
was but
known
practically
under Native
Many
nowadays have prisons in imitation of British But few States, if left to themselves, would have any rule. prison worthy of the name, though they might have dungeons or bastilles. Indeed, resort was had as little as possible to longNative States
termed imprisonment as a form of punishment for ordinary Short confinement with flogging, fines of various sorts, crime.
compensation to relatives of murdered men, and mutilation in
cases of grave robbery, were the descriptions of
punishment
usually in vogue.
unknown,
was seldom
inflicted.
On
tlie
to
much on
wanting
The
fully
what seemed
better
accommodation
than free
men
and
their diet
was
They were brought daily beyond the prison precincts in gangs, to work in road-making, and for many years the local roads near the principal towns and stations were maintained by prison labour. In the arrangements for cooking and for messing a reasonable consideration was shewn to caste prejudices.
There was
no special sanitation, yet there was neither misery nor squalor. The magistrate of the district was solely responsible for the
prison, but
no professional and
scientific supervision
was under-
taken.
Little
was
numerous
indis-
humane
now deemed
ill- ventilated
wards in a hot
climate.
straits of
prisoners
India.
The voyage
Chap.
xi.
IMPROVEMENT OF THE
for
PRISONS.
209
called,
had
many
Gradually public opinion, in India as elsewhere, awoke to the belief that for prisoners something more than mere incarceration
is
morally obligatory.
And
though
still
end as that
to
look forward.
struction,
which prison reformers in England and elsewhere The district prisons have been improved in conas
especially
regards
ventilation.
Many
central
may be
to the health
labour of the guards with the scattered gangs, therefore, indoor labour within the prison precincts was substituted. The
men were
by hand
or
by machinery according
to opportunities.
is
and even
for exporta-
The prison-made
arts
The
and a
liberal allowance
was ordered.
The
spirit.
careful distinction
210
to hard labour at
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap.
xi.
and those not so sentenced, and a partial attempt classification of the prisoners was made, in order that persons
offences
by good conduct, obtain a slight reduction in imprisonment and so have some motive for
Arrangements were made to afford elementary prisoners who could in any way be made to
j)risoners
education to
learn.
all
medical
officers
In every province of
The
for
life,
in the
first,
are now concentrated at the settlement of Port Blair Andaman islands in the Bay of Bengal, From the
afford the
men some
zation were being rendered too easy, and were liable to abuse,
as
Special
that
measures
the
have
shall
subsequently
been
taken
to
ensure
men
any
privileges.
to
terms of imprisonment.
known
as
and
There
Chap.
xi.
211
occasionally
reformers.
many
is
lamentable
in few
of sickness indicate
rate
would the sanitary returns and the statistics permanent salubrity and the general death;
among
The
high.
bestowed upon
is
still
defective
fvill
in
many
prisons
the
at night
The
during the night in the wards, but not during the day when
the people are at their labour, or at the best
fectly during the
is
observed imperis
working hours.
Solitary confinement
but
;
though
it is
for
been found
that
is
each
man
in a separate compartment.
This reform
visits to
Though many
still
much
their
that
may
release,
and
At
if
the
best
their
physical
other
and
p 2
212
INUIA IN
1880.
Chap.
xii.
CHAPTER
XII.
of survey and Immense work Government Property land created recognised by Europeans belonging such property Fee-simple Value Bengal and elsewhere Importance Permanent settlement Madras and Bombay northern India Tenures communities some Indebtedness of peasant Antiquity of occupancy tenants Tenants at Tenant-right
gross value cf the produce
in
The
tax
is
and
a pci-centage
on
record
or
British
of
estates
to
in
of village
in
in
of village officers
proprietors in
districts
Piivileges
will
may
be discussed quite
Controversy
still
of the nature of
nomenis
by the
The accepted
defrayed,
and
and his
Tims out
by the
State, usually
much
much
may
be regarded
The same principle doubtless obtained in theory under Native rule and in well-ordered Native States received observance. But in many of such States, as foreign or intestine
troubles caused depletion of the treasury, the ministers
would
till
nothing but
Chap.
xii.
NATURE OF LAND-TAX.
213
Whatever may,
Government,
it
or
may
set
has
this
there
is
may
but such
when
to
shew that
too
narrow a margin of
involve so
profit
which
many
life.
But revised
really exist.
must
The value of the produce of the different sorts of land is known and a reference to this and to other broad considera;
tions
The following
S.
table,
taken from a
5"6
. .
7-8 3-9
3"8 4-6
Berar
Bombay
Madras
T'G
6-3
In
all
make
a detailed
upon every
purpose a
boundaries
field
separately, or
upon each
all
village or parish
it.
after a detailed
examination of
the fields in
For
this
scientific
of
physical
features within
Further, a survey
has
been executed of
211:
INDIA IN
field,
1880.
Chap.
xii.
every
curate,
in
some provinces
roi;gh but
approximately acnear
scientific
in
other
provinces with
field,
something
accuracy.
Regarding every
the
or
names
the rent,
separately assessed.
is
Eegarding
summary
or abstract of the
This
"
minute
and
comprehensive
;"
termed
the
Eecord of Eights
it
of
main
features
uniform
for
;
them
its
all.
It is thus the
Domesdayprobably
proportions
and
details
ment
lation
in
is
cultivable area to
so
numerous
the
the popu-
which
it
It
constitutes
most laborious
India,
of all
and
this
To
it
talent
at
and
its
memory
of several eminent
men
departed, on the
names
of Mertins Bird,
initial
work
yearly
the
personal
changes of ownership
or
to
or occupancy, to
reclamation
of the waste
other
permanent and
property in land.
filed in several
The
and
Chap.
xii.
FIELD
SURVEY RECORD OF
RIGHTS.
215
every village.
territories of
is
From
excepted the
upon a consideration
by
been assessed.
The
numerous
produce
and yet
rotation
so well
known
to the
upon every
absence of
artificial irrigation,
fiscal
may
in
the empire
whether
it
and
tion.
There
is
conferred de novo on the people or else recognised authoritatively as belonging to them, something
equivalent to
property in land.
There
may
existing
it
was
formally recognised.
Certainly
it
British rule
it
216
pristine vitality.
INDIA IN
1880.
is
Chap. xn.
possessed
transfer,
sell
or otherwise of
namely that
and
its privileges
lia-
tax,
which
from any
interference on
reaping or storing
make
their
own
They have the benefit of any arrangements improvements they may effect or of any capital they may they present the money due from them and no lay out
uncontrolled.
;
enquiries are
made
regarding their
affairs.
the land.
But, after
all,
this is
no uncommon proviso,
is,
however, enforced
agriculture,
is
first
attached,
temporary
may have
a chance of recovering
ordered.
itself,
is
When the
process
adopted,
numerous
provisions, prescribed
ensure that the owner shall receive due notice, and shall be
otherwise protected
;
and he has
remedy
if
any one of
may
be vitiated
if
is
not so fixed
on the contrary
it is
owner.
by any chance
it
is
princii)le,
reduction.
Chap.
xii.
217
above
much
The most
to
European owners in
and coffeeredeemed " by
called locally
Nilgiris, tea-planters,
is
planters.
either "
compounded
is is
for,
sum down,
or else
fixed in perpetuity at
what
is
a "quit-rent," that
an almost nominal
is
rate.
The owner
locally
called
the
tliey are
There
may be
other varieties
tenure
but on the
tliey
have
is
termed
demand."
This pre-
With
it
also
may
The owners,
United
Their land-tax
made the subject of large pecuniary transactions, in the same way as in the most advanced countries. It is by means of such transactions that European indigoplanters have become possessed, either by ownership or by long leases, of so many extensive estates. As the families of
valuable, being
the Native landlords have increased, and as subdivision the prevailing rule of
is
still
Hindu
among
the
members has
is
The process
known
of
by the name of
legislation.
" partition,"
sul:)ject
elaborate
218
INDIA IN
1880.
CuAP.
xii.
become
creased within the limits of the estates, these tenures are but " fee-simple " tenures just described. The little inferior to the
varieties of
tenancy.
Resembling them in most respects, save one, are the landlords of Orissa, of Oudh, of Sind, of the Central Provinces, and of
other " Zemindari " estates in several parts of the empire.
The
point of difference
is
this, that
the land-tax
is
fixed not in
The perpetuity but for a long term of twenty or thirty years. petty part landlords of the Central Provinces are for the most
in degree, though
still
is
together in villages
or
As
the
a
men
from a common
community," or a
The
manner
other countries
described in Sir
village
communities.
The
some parts
it
has subsequently
disappeared.
and
to
armed
description.
upon the
village
in the aggregate
the
members
upon themselves
amount, each
man
of the
any member
pay
proviso
that
with the
of the defaulter.
Chap.
xii.
219
There
is
all
those wiio
bclon^^ to tlic
fraternity
and
this
is
in
name
of "joint responsibility."
It is
condemned by some,
cations.
as leading to hardship
and
otlier
compli-
By
is
been denied
;
tlie
defended in respect of
tliese considerations
and in
other
among
In many
any
of
their
transfers
strangers,
while
common.
mortgages
On
which,
among
otlier signs,
may be adduced
by Native
The men
remainder to cultivators as
tenants.
Each
land included in
brotherhood.
in this
which waste
is
common waste
In the densely peopled parts of the country, as the territory between the Ganges and the Jamna or the upper part of the
Panjab, the waste entirely belongs to the village communities.
In other
territories, as
is
is
reserved to
respects, are
220
tlio
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xn.
men who
sidencies of
in
which category
also
may
many
is
parts of British
is
Burmah
and of Assam.
The
technically
He
tenure while he pays his land revenue, and he has a heritable and
transferable right therein.
allotted to
He may
facilities
him; he has
for giving
up
to the State
any
field
Lands
are,
as
woodcutting.
gross,
The land-tax
is
field or
detail.
Each
without
those
who own
by the
fact
of large
sums
of
current settlements
to
made
the in-
In northern, western and southern India, alike in those provinces where " joint responsibility " prevails and where it
does not, the ancient organization of the " village "
is
preserved.
There
is
who
is
the
medium
for collecting
who
in
some
is
office
officially recognised,
and
who
crime and
accountant,
assisting
l^etter
the
police.
There
is
the village
much
Chap. xn.
221
There
is
foniiiiig ])art of a
rural constabulary of
l)een
much
smith,
ameliorated.
blackthe
the the
shoemaker and
potter,
weaver,
barber,
who
are
members
of
hereditary
trades,
to all
who study
The indebtedness
some parts of
Nothing can
their best to
it
causes anxiety.
be more disappointing
to those
accord-
ing to
all
may
live in
men
are neverthe-
At
first
sight
must be
is
quiry generally
that
the case.
The
fact is
many
of these
men have
position.
On
is
banker
at
hand
to
offer
temptation.
The
commonest
in-
may become
that these
volved in debt
if
way
men
to
the seductions
of the
may
reasonably
function
and
at
speedily cleared
off.
and
as he prefers to
keep them
He
compound
till
confused, and signs a fresh bond for the renewal of the debt.
222
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap.
xii.
principal and interest together, with but little insight into the
is
made
up.
first
some seasons
of inflated
years, ran
by some unpropitious
difficult.
In their
Legislation
was under-
taken
for
removing the
was
proved to be considerable.
Additional
;
conciliation courts
and
arbitra-
Authority
is
given to the
to separate the
fair
be reduced to a
and
moderate amount.
volved,
Those peasants
who became
seriously in-
evoked the
The
regret
if
felt
respecting
the
indebtedness
would
be
mitigated
The
and other
largely apply
receive such
repayment.
by the
authorities.
Some thousands
Chap.
xii.
223
of
tlie
as well as
small scale.
availed
themselves
these
The
liability to
settled for
wliere
it
is
Still,
it is
founded, feels
next assessment.
least the
He
improveof
it
some portion
enhanced
he
is
greater
part will be
him.
as the
end of a current
settle-
postponed
the
new assessment
shall
At one time
near to
promulgation
the
now
to be remote.
It is felt that in
some
parts of Bengal
settled land
224
revenue has become
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap.
xii.
extremely light
and
almost
nominal,
having been assessed for ever on lands then imperfectly cultivated, but subsequently
rate of incidence,
is
time,
now unreasonably
for
thus
it
is
felt
that
there
income.
This
no reason
is
infringing
Mdiich
inviolable wherever
But
it
is
arises as to
whether any,
present.
and
if
so,
There
may
had
to
the effect
of railways
of material
improvement.
much
as that
Endeavours,
still
being made, to
ment
landowners
may know
as
by wliich is meant the status of the occupant or below the grade of peasant proprietor, has formed a
Bengal
is
held
made
landlord.
of
Bengal
there
lon^^
has probably abated of late years. In the Northwestern Provinces and in the Panjab there has always existed a sentiment in favour of tenant-right. In Oudh the question has
feeling
much
has
been dune
for
the tenantry.
Chap.
xii.
PROTECTION OF TENANT-RIGHT.
225
In Bind
improveis
to
ment.
in
the
questions
by
legislation.
occupancy
for
if
demand an enhanceenhancement
justice.
ment
to
agree, such
an order of a court of
In
and
this
necessarily
to the
evade
remain as
happened
occasionally,
happens
rarely.
Generally the
thus to
rise,
considerable,
to time.
but little.
Among
demanding
Q
to
226
cultivate
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap.
xii.
upon any terms, however meagre, which they can obtain. Thus the peasantry in Behar are for the most part tenants at will, without any rights their condition is not worthy
;
of the fertile
and thriving
territory
which
is
cultivated
by
their
some
has
of
much
local
experience.
;
The
circumstance
though the
difficult of
speedy remedy.
made
for
all
terms of twenty
the proprietors
who form
is
a considerable class,
so largely held
notwithstanding
proprietors.
by peasant
The tenants were broadly divided into two main classes, first those who had rights on the presumption of their having had
possession for a long time, or from father to son,
whence they
were
such a
who were
The "hereditary" tenants were held to possess much the same rights as the occupancy tenants above described, and they comprised a large proportion of the entire
"non-hereditary."
tenantry.
arrangements.
Laws
of
a similar
nature
Oudh.
done
But
in
Oudh
it
seems
to be held
by some
authorities
more
to the peasantry.
Chap. xn.
PrvIVILEGES OF
OCCUPANCY TENANTS.
227
safeguards.
in
many
effectually
protected against
undue
It is generally
admitted
improve,
may
may
transfer or sublet
of his land-
lord.
many
all
localities,
and instances
may
he
differs
but
little
from a sub-proprietor.
Probably, as time
;
and the
improvements, so long as
improvements or
injured.
any way
In any
much
of concurrent
own
land.
still
far
from solution,
?
their rents
and
?
if
he can,
to guide the
enhancement
In some
once
af-
instance
They even
stirred
up agrarian disturbances and agitation, in support of claims which really were to that effect. The landlords claimed, and
will probably continue to claim,
some share
in the proceeds of
which
is
locally
termed
" the
vmearned increment."
;
Such
but the
disputes
may
a moot point,
or
by other dubious
of all concerned,
data.
It
is
much
and be embodied
in Bengal has
enactment.
The Government
Q 2
228
for
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap.
for
xii.
such
legislation.
of occupancy tenants be
at will,
in the technical
sense.
men
who do other and to move work besides cultivation, and who change. Even their position, however, has been guarded by
estate
in
many
many
just provisions
their rent
may
adequate notice.
If
and
they
may
pay
rent,
exempted.
rule the rent
itself
Under Native
was
Under British rule rents are still sometimes paid in kind, but more often in cash, and the tendency towards this mode of payment
becomes strengthened from time
Opinions will
has been, or
is
to time.
differ
At
the
is
strong.
Many
of the Native
spirit
considerate
and conciliatory
community
of tenant-right.
may
not be
Chap.
xii.
TENANTS AT WILL.
subject, but
229
unanimous on the
same view.
Some European
all
officers,
and of special
regarded as
the cultivators,
now
pay such
rent.
upon
'
rural
affairs
The Garden
of India,'
may
find
acceptance
occupancy tenants.
On
management
Whatever
most
satisfactory, as it is the
of the administraexist in
it,
may
they are
whatever shortcomings
may
doubted achievements.
taxation
its
Tenant-
husbandmen,
may
be promoted.
and a
230
INDIA IN
1880.
Ciur.
xiii.
CHAPTER
XIII.
REVENUES.
Land revenue
Average
from Native States Excise Assessed taxes Customs Abolition of import duties on English piece goods The salt tax English salt imStamp revenue ported Opium revenue Objections to it discussed
Government receipts as contradistinguished from local and municipal purposes Projects for revenue proper Taxation
Total of o-eneral revenues
for
new
taxes deprecated.
The nature
of the
preceding chapter.
average yield
;
may
be set down at
annum
receipts
have exceeded
this
sum.
Its
1| rupee or
2s. 6d.
per
acre irrigated.
The
shew that
it falls
at the
annum
population.
Some
proof of
authorities
it
is
a heavier
was in the
past, generation,
and in
the fact
is
adduced that
its total
Had
indeed be remarkable.
with 36 millions of
it would But during the time, fresh provinces, people and 242,000 square miles of territory,
to the empire, to
The area of
by more
than 50 per
cent.,
fgovernment it
(JiiAi>.
xui.
LAND REVENUE.
231
increase
may
be ascribed,
Ijut in
l)y tlie
On
notorious
and has brought about a great increase in the value of land. Calculations have been made which seem to shew that when
the Permanent Settlement was
of the Zemindars
made
amounted
it
to only a
now amounts
lighter.
earnestly desire
is
too rigid
needed, according
Now,
;
British
rule
is
more
there
must
necessarily be
more
between
whom
and the people a settlement or compact has been rulers, between whom and their
The essence of
232
settlement, giving the
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap.
xiii.
men time
to pay,
portion of till the seasons improve, and sometimes remitting a a large to adopted are measures These lenient it altogether.
Some
authorities
under certain circumstances, the Government might advantageously revert to the old Native system of collecting the land
revenue in kind, instead of the existing system of collecting But the prevailing opinion would be wholly adverse it in cash.
to such a
Such
which
a method of collecting
rule.
of British
It
would give
avoid, and
it
would impair
spirit of self-
would
which the
and
it
would, in
all probability,
of
free
from
may
if
The
and a half
empire,
spirits
it
perfectly well
amounts
made
trees
opium.
As a
it
tax upon
is
exported to China.
the
opium
opium pays
Chap,
xiii,
EXCISE.
tlic
233
drug contrive to
compared with
also
the total quantity produced, but enougli for the private con-
sufficient
the
excise.
In the province of
opium-growing
districts
there
is
evades
Some
;
progress
has,
however,
is
been made
towards prevention
subject.
directed to the
felt
system of excise on
spirits.
Farming
does indeed prevent evasion, for the farmer and his servants
become
by
self-interest.
On
all
fluential
publicans
drinking
among
those
who have every incentive to encourage who are inclined to this indulgence.
At one time
tribes,
indeed in
and in
many
which
in
warmer
latitudes.
The
that
sight of this
may
Native
Wider observation
main
will,
Indians,
which may
still
234
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap.
xiii.
on trades
imposed since the famine of 1877, with a view of ensuring a surplus of income over .expenditure, and so enabling the State to
execute works of material improvement for the prevention of
famine.
It is held that the mercantile classes are
fiscal
but
little
community.
sideration of the
The taxpayers are grouped into classes, according to incomes above and below certain amounts, and for each class one rate is The tax may therefore be fixed for all who are placed therein. described as a rough income tax upon traders, without the inquiry into the affairs of individuals which is apt to be unpopular in India. If not so productive as an income tax,
it
is
It
cannot be said
to
to
professions,
and
;
income tax
these
met with some disfavour at Calcutta but with some favour at Bombay and Madras, they have not, however, been
carried into effect.
If financial requirements necessitate the
licence tax
on trades
with an
classes, is
much
namely the
the
they pay
were easy
to
;
would be
difficult
assessed taxes.
beyond a rough
or
merge into
an income
tax.
Chap,
xiii,
INCOME TAX
CUSTOMS.
235
if
after
tax.
abandon
this
There was
much
to
all wliich
relinquishment,
been
formally taken,
ought
to
be
The arguments
as,
are in England, save that in one respect they were stronger, inas-
much
little
were weaker.
it
unpopu-
larity.
It
the
the
abandonment
a half, even yielding less
was determined.
in recent years
but are
further to be diminished.
tariff,
One
may
be abolished
One
tariff,
on grain,
is
change in the
rice
last
European
short
:
trade.
The
list
list of
but the
and
long;
however,
The question
on
23G
INDIA IN
1880.
still
Chap.
excites
xm.
much
discussion
to competition
from Indian
may
permit.
it is
is
a growing competition
many
of
and that the margin is becoming more and more narrow which determines whether the British manufacturer or the Indian manufacturer shall obtain the custom and patronage wdiich such
India,
light, still it
so slender as to
when
the
trade
is
large,
and where so
may
This competition
is
intensified
is still
by the
mass of
indigenous fabrics
of steam
the advantages
fabrics are
now being
made on
Bombay and
manufacturers should
look upon the import duties with jealous eyes, and should ap-
English,
manufactures.
The very
fact
that
those
who
protective tendency.
those piece goods on wliich the duties have been remitted, has
proportionately increased since the remission, affords proof that
These and other similar views find some echo in India, but
are there frequently controverted.
loss
Stress
is
laid
on the
;
fiscal
which
while
Chap.
xiir.
237
duties,
held to be less than has been often supposed, and too slight to be
really appreciable.
their
way
down
in India
good in quality
for the
same
The repute
sizing facturers
processes.
would do
better, it is argued, if
The welfare
of India
is
is
so
much bound up
financially injurious
The
salt
sterling,
and
it is
Though imperceptible
some degree
felt
to the
upper and
classes,
middle
classes, it is in
it
by the poorest
but then
is
make towards
annum.
It
computed
at
7^. per
used to be designated a
;
monopoly
still is
Company
of,
the Government.
by The
mandel
and nearly dried arm of the sea named the Eann of Cach, the
Salt range of the
enough
tracts
for
the
vast
population
to
of the
empire.
All these
are
still
made
yield
salt,
of the
Bay
salt,
In these
the manufacture of
238
manufacture be saved
;
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap.
xiii.
The people
murshew
any other
appreciably affects
lower
of late they
have been
raised,
lower
than that of Bengal, which, on the other hand, has been slightly
reduced.
also,
would
deter
affect the
consumption of
salt
them from giving it in sufficient quantity to their cattle. and central India a remarkable change of system northern In
Formerly, the
salt,
made
in the
on crossing the
a preventive
the
British borders.
tliis
taxing,
all
manned with Native sentinels at intervals way, under the command of European officials, stretched
line,
for
about two thousand miles, beginning from near the Satlej in the
north,
in
tlie
to the
Godavery
other
Still it
also
it
inevitably operated
to trade.
and an impediment
But,
management
entrusted to
has been
passes
British
its
supervision,
to
by the works on
salt
way
conveying the
to the marts.
spared.
in cost
was accordingly abolished at a great saving of establishment and to the satisfaction of all concerned.
Tlie line
CiiAP. xiii.
239
this
re-
same preventive
linquished
line,
on sugar
chiclly indigenous,
and were
when
yields
on the
levied in
two ways
one,
side,
by
by auction
it
at Calcutta
on the State
account to merchants
who
side,
export
to
China
by an export duty levied on opium made by private manufacture from poppy grown in Native
western or
Bombay
States.
Bengal
side, as directly
manufacture
deleterious.
of
drug
which
are,
is
regarded
by
many
It
as
These operations
as a
Government only
means
would
form of objection.
established and
is
But
as the
concerned in
it,
make any
opium
Nor
is
by the
or not
its profits
would im-
who abound
Whichever method be adopted, the would make eastern or the western, the opium will be exported to China.
the advances.
The
blame
real
is
that
which attaches
is
to the
Government
of India, because
opium
exported
240
from India
for the
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xin.
consumption of the Chinese. Now, in effect opium the same the Government of India adopts towards and in other attitude which the Government in England
countries preserves towards spirits, that
heavily.
If
is,
it
opium
flourishes in India,
when thus
weighted,
relief
it
would
fiscal
flourish as
much
or
more
if
lightened by the
from
burden.
tion, as it
if it
There cannot, then, be any objection to the taxawhich, falls upon an article which is a luxury and
is
most deleterious
if
used in excess.
the treasury,
the
drug,
To abandon the taxation would be to injure leaving no check upon the consumption of
rather
but
giving
some
encouragement
thereto.
Wliether those,
cro
so far as
who object to the existing opium system, would to recommend the absolute suppression of poppy
be doubted.
cultivation
may
Inasmuch
and
and
more
profitable to traders
capitalists,
part of the State at suppression would be futile, and would Nor do the British territories only lead to dangerous abuses. comprise the only area fit for poppy culture, for as already seen
much
question, too,
poppy are in Native States. The not confined to the opium exportable to China
opium
to
some
extent, though
is
much
less
than
tlie Cliinese.
At
sumption.
own
subjects as
as affecting the
very
difficult
of adequate
discussion in a
work
relating to India.
them
They
are evidently
it if
they
Chap.
can,
xtii.
241
for
it.
ment
tion,
is
home
for their
own consumpGovernment
efforts
which
their
make
occasionally for
opium continues
sumed
liked
in
China as much as
classes, is
much
by some
and therefore
still
commands
harm
On
the contrary,
indirectly in
must
effect
some good
It seems, however, to be
on moral grounds
to the
to prohibit
opium
This
is
prevented
treaties
and other
the Chinese
Government
much
desired
by the people,
will be essaying a task which has rarely been undertaken by any Government with success anywhere, and which the Govern-
ment
There
may
who
and whose views wdll doubtless be received with due deference. The only object of the foregoing remarks is to explain the
conduct and the position of the Government in India.
and
its
a fiscal
many years been steady and heading new to India since the
for
is
satisfactory.
It
introduction
of
Natives,
who
regard
it
as
242
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap,
xiii-
Although objections are raised against some parts of it, still on The stamps are the whole it is far from being unpopular.
grouped under two categories, namely those which are levied on The judicial documents and those on commercial documents.
judicial
easily.
;
They
are
by some condemned
is
as being taxes
on justice
it is
this
objection
counter-
balanced by the fact that litigation flourishes, and that the petty
classes of suits are specially
to
numerous with a
are
slight
tendency
increase.
rarely
made the
subjects of complaint
can take
this evasion,
The
make up on an
Chat.
xirr.
243
must
1)0
There
is
nically understood.
which must, under a sound system of national accountkeeping, be entered in the same statement and on the same
with the revenues. There would be danger in having two accounts, or in allowing the financial authorities to decide
side
on their discretion what items should be included or excluded, and whether headings of revenue should be exhibited gross
or net.
all
The
fide
rule followed
receipts
all
is
this,
that on the
receipt
side
bona
exhibited,
and
and not
all
net,
no
fide
abatement being
made
for
expenses
that
bona
charges for wdiatever purpose, whether for defence or administration, for concerns
managed by the
of the revenue
side.
itself,
Thus the
fact that
amount
comes
to 65 millions,
On
it
land revenue
shewn
it,
gross
a large
expenditure
indeed
is
exhibited against
2^ millions
also
sterling,
much
of
which
is
shewn
shewn net
at only
which
is
of the
post-ofiice
and the
electric telegraph,
are recoveries in
some
ments,
as
receipts
from sale of
various
dues,
K 2
244
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap.
xm.
Lastly,
there
are
large
receipts
from
in
which the
it
which
has
advanced considerable
sums
of money, or on account of which it has heavy liabilities Such receipts are the interest on loans and to discharge. advances, the income from canals, the earnings from State
it
would be tedious
total
to
of receipts.
further to
be
due
to
taxation.
There have been a natural growth and a spontaneous expansion of the revenue itself also
;
all
may
at the best,
but too
much ground
by some
and
authorities, that
the revenue
it
is
It is
for
the
purposes of the State, there are rates levied on the land for
local purposes,
Octroi or
palities
town duties
In
many
and the requisite remedy has been applied. Of the total of the revenue proper as above shewn, 43J millions, only 36;^ millions are really paid by the people of
British India;
of
tlie
The sum of
OnAi>. xiit.
NEW TAXES
sterling
DEPKECATED.
over the
3s.
245
3C)\
millions
distributed
190 millions in
9d. per
British India
head per
annum, which
is,
The average
The
real
be very suggestive.
S.
Cunningham
" The landowner pays
cent,
for
on the gross produce of his lands, and a further fraction by way of provincial rates. If he goes to law he may contribute something to stamps
if
he drinks, to excise
and
if
to
is
customs
~d. (per
but when he has paid his laud revenue, his only imperative tax
annum)
aire,
for salt.
The owner
of
may
litigation
and English
cloth, contribute
.
.
salt, to
the
The
when he has
gains are
may
go
It
would be
difiicult to
of British India
all.
on houses.
is,
adverse
to fresh taxation, if
The popular
many
The
Government
the Native
duties
forego
vexatious
and transit
set
itself
a good
example in
marred,
fiscal
if
The grace
of this policy
would be
had pre-
viously deprecated.
24(i
INDIA IN
1880.
Ciup. xiv.
CHAPTER
XIV.
Canals in Asiatic countries adjacent in India Irrigation from wells British system of canals In Hindostan In Native works of the Panjab In Behar In Orissa In the deltas of the Godavery and the From the Indus in Sind Kistna In Tanjore From the Tumbadi-a the Madras Presidency In the Bombay Presidency Lakes from which canals have been drawnEivers from Principal
Irrigated and unirrigated
irrigation
tracts
river
for irrigation in
rivers
The term
Some
in India, although
bosom the
Many
of the
districts
to production.
Some Asiatic countries adjacent to India, such as Persia, have from time immemorial depended on irrigation conducted from springs by ingenious contrivances (called karizes). The
ancient canal system of the Tigris and Euphrates has shrunk to
Chap. xiv.
247
self.
original
The
irriga-
still effective,
many
political revolutions.
Some
of the territories to
There the
fierce
and rude
their
whereon
to
depend;
twelvemonth
sources
if
an enemy
heads,
obtained
possession
of
the
canal
and
the
inhabitants
must surrender
at discretion.
In India, however,
irrigation,
Whole
regions, such as
The
in-
is
not so
much
The
Bengal,
produced without
more
extensive crops, raised from the rainfall alone, and called the
" dry " crops, in contradistinction to tlie "
wet
" crops
raised
from
irrigation.
wither,
still,
they seldom
fail,
save
in extraordinary seasons.
are copious
And
crop "
lands
bringing
the
cheaply
with grain.
is
In Europe, a well
248
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xiv.
But
in
some wells
though they serve for drinking, are sunk mainly for the purpose
of irrigating.
It is to this well-sinking that the peasants in
capital,
most parts of India devote some of their little generally to seek assistance from the State in
in times of famine.
not caring
The
well-irrigation is considered
to
be
and
is
many
For instance, the wheat of Northern India, the poppy of Behar, the sugarcane and the vegetables in most parts of India, are
from wells.
Some
of
is
from wells.
The works of irrigation represent so ancient an institution in India, and the Natives have often shewn so much cleverness in
constructing such works, .that a reproach has sometimes been
Government
as being inferior
In truth, however,
lists
in this
works,
compassing
difficulties
which
attempted
to
encounter.
usually in India bend their constructive genius towards agricultural irrigation, as they so often did in other lands with such
masterly
effect.
fairly established a
Commencing
Chap. xiv.
249
nation, they
stemmed and
deflected the
all
valleys
embosomed
in
tlie
where the
of the
together by closing
up the natural
and
mainly
and which by
and
of
their
admiration
life
many
Each
of these
works gives
and wealth
many
Such favourable
sequently,
sites,
Con-
one lake
the
constructed in
neighbourhood,
district or
is
by these works,
correctly
They
some
Western Ghat
These rivers
begin to divide
built
Bay
of Bengal.
first
they stemmed
at points
were named
classic
become
Above
may
be taken therefrom,
like veins
and
250
INDIA IN
first
1880.
Chap. xiv.
At
the British
Government was
too
much
busied in the
Company gave
scale,
best attention to
success.
for nearly
that
the
now amongst
characteristics.
The canal system which the British Government in some its predecessors, but in the main originated
for itself,
may
part
of
summer and autumn, and nearly the whole supply during the winter when the crops greatly need water. From the river Jamna the old canal constructed by the Muhammadans
on the right bank
at
for
the
sake of
the
imperial
demesne
the
Delhi,
irrigation;
and another
bank.
canal
has
been
drawn from
river
on
its left
From below
Delhi, a
new
canal from
By
in
the
Jamna
for
water,
the
cultivating
season,
of
will
be
the
diverted
irrigation.
Hindostan,
very heart
is
of
India,
now an
exten-
In the Sirhind
tlie
district of the
CiiAi',
XIV.
BlUTISll
SYSTEM OF CANALS.
251
is
taken, drawing off nearly all the winter supply of water from
From
has
another
great
canal
home
of
the
Sikh nation.
Satlej
Further south, in
lesser
between the
down
Multan
Indus.
when
summer and
Sone
In the
district of
Midnapur south
constructed which,
Ghat
dammed up
Near
here, the
Muhanadi
its
delta
from which
canals
may
districts
around Calcutta.
coast,
at a point
dammed by
mighty dyke
or " anicat,"
whence
is
drawn a
river
Kistna or Krishna
issuing
stemmed
is
in a similar manner,
whence a
system of canals
Below Madras,
drawn
have
many
branches near
252
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xiv.
numerous channels,
causing
it
to
in the empire.
From
the Tunga-badra, or
canal has
The province
souls, depends,
two millions of
cultivation,
The
irrigation
merous
rulers,
canals,
Muhammadan
Government.
In the Madras Presidency,
irrigation
many
large
artificial
lakes for
Bombay
much
irrigation
is
derived.
Lake
Fife,
near Poona,
canals
one
Some minor
have been
also,
being
Gandak
in Behar,
the lower part of the Pennar on the east coast north of Madras, the Periar stream which issues from the Travancore
tains near
moun-
Madura
Bombay,
the lower
i)art of
Chap. xiv.
253
tlie
the Wardha,
Wynganga and
lesser
streams in
province of Nagpur,
the upper course of the Mahanadi in the eastern extremity
of the Central Provinces,
the
Chambal
in Central India,
the
Jamna
season
and several
have been
There
projected in the
Deccan
districts of the
Bombay
Presidency,
much
dreaded in most
may
be averted.
From
rivers
contribution more or
districts in India,
the Ganges,
lesser streams in
the lower part of the Godavery on the east coast, the lower part of
tlie
Kistna or Krishna,
the Tunga-badra or
Tumbadra
in the Deccan,
lesser rivers
it
and streams,
which
would be tedious
to enumerate.
254
INDIA IN
are
1880.
CiiAP. xiv.
known
to
the
Gandak
the Periar river near Madura, the lower part of the Tapti on the west coast near the lower part of the Nerbadda on the
Bombay,
same
coast,
Nagpur province,
in Bundelkhand,
Chambal
in Central India,
lesser rivers
and streams
Deccan
districts of the
Bombay
Jhelum
some smaller
of
which the
known
it
humid
its
drainage that
is
Megna and
others,
physical
circumstance,
and which
have
at
times
been
subjected to
much
professional controversy.
In the north, the rivers are fed from sources arising in the
perpetual snows of the Himalayas, and have in the winter
season, generally called the cold weather, a
volume of water
which, though
much shrunken
It is this
summer
is
yet
volume
of water
Chap. xiv.
255
according to convenience.
At
the points where the river issues from the mountains and
enters
upon the
hilly
plains,
the ground
is
undulating, or even
somewhat
slope.
Unfortunately
at their
which serve
as natural
reservoirs of water
Therefore the
it
head-works."
The
new
the rough ground for some miles, enters at last the more level
portions of the plains.
to
be
As
may
be imagined, these
striking
features.
The channel
is
hills.
The
and the
and
piers,
clear as
looking purple
in
is
bounded by
the
For the
first
few miles of
its course,
series of
and
science.
whole
place
of
pilgrimage,
256
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xiv.
its
up
its
this
Insalubrious
swamps were formed from the obstruction of the surface drainage by the canal works, and the public health was
consequently affected in several places
;
made
in
to
remedy
The
some
^Dlaces,
which
is
detrimental to cultivation
for this,
too,
There
is
meander
over broad
is
expanses
Some
suitable locality
dams
on
or
dykes,
of great
dimensions,
the waters
of the
rivers can
canals
with
subsidiary
channels
ramifying
much
There
is
volume
of streams
dammed up and
done
by the lakes
southern India.
travels
in
India
must be struck as he beholds the lakes near Poona, near Arcot, and at many other places, filled to the brim with, summer
where engineering science has followed nature's truest model. Nor is the visitor astonished by only a few artificial
floods,
for
Madras Presidency
is
Chap. xiv.
IRRIGATED AREAS.
wliicli
257
the Madras
important
With
will be
name
of
Sir
Proby Cautley
handed down
to the grateful
rememln-ance of posterity,
Arthur Cotton.
Of
many
material good
Both he and
lustre
The name
of Fife is
Bombay
Presidency.
its
is
first
Some
protected even
seasons of drought,
some outlying
tracts
only remaining
improtected.
too,
irrigated in
lesser
ordinary seasons.
lakes,
of the irrigation
more
or
and
many
must be
expected to
In the
Bombay
Presidency
same conditions
tlie
as those of Madras.
is
An
exception
is
formed by
almost
entirely irrigated,
from drouglit
but from
floods.
258
INDIA IN
in time of famine
;
1880.
Chap. xiv.
upon
the
very cream,
so
to
speak,
of
the
the
most productive,
yielding
other land.
Consequently where
ten per cent, or even five per cent., of the land, can be thus
protected, that protection is a very
much
The
State,
having constructed
the
canals,
receives water-
who
The mode
for
of
regard
the con-
may have
what
will
Sometimes the
owner, and
amount
is
is
the
is
levied, partly
rate,
and partly
rate.
combined, or consolidated,
It
may seem
make
for irrigation.
an expansion
the people
it,
or
make
and anxious
the
to obtain
But in the
to
north,
canals,
ordinary
When
CiiAP. XTV.
259
harvest
the
often
so
protracted
that
opportunity
lost.
After
hesitating for weeks, they are sometimes seized with panic and press in multitudes
at
the gates
stricken creditors
In Orissa,
copious
where
the
rainfall
be unusually
and
seasonable for several years after the opening of the canal, this
be overcome.
the
It
Bombay
is
Presidency.
Whenever drought
occurs, there
is
These circum.dilatoriness
was unnecessary
Thus
it
comes
structed
by the
State, at a cost
It
may
be argued that
if
important,
it
if
them unless
defray the
recovers
from the
people
enough receipts
if
to
interest charges
system
is to
who
to
insurance
by which they
benefit.
to enact that
Some
its
official
arguments in
favour,
s 2
260
feel
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xiv.
for canal
irrigation
selves.
they have
not seen
to
fit
to
avail
them-
The Natives
alleging
especially object
any plan
projects,
of this
to
description,
that
it
encourages the
Government
in
embark
on
comparatively unremunerative
Ije
the
receipts
from the
and the
legislation
power in England.
There has been unavoidably some room for difference of
opinion as to what
are, or are not,
The
difficulty of
made
In other
revenue has been taken into account, and the return seems
perhaps excessively high.
After making
all
due abatements
may
defray on
In some
On
Chap. xiv.
NAVIGATION OP
TPIE CANALS.
261
canals
outlay,
more than covers the cnrrent interest on the capital and that in tlie aggregate the canal system of British
paying six per
cent.
India
is
The canals
times but
in India are
mainly
for irrigation,
and although
they are
after satisfying
little
still
some appreciable
extent,
easily that
same
canal
produce to market, the double duty thus enhancing the beneficence of the work.
really admirable
project
for
Some
traffic
authorities ob-
have
urcjed the
Government
railways.
to involve
communication, instead of
authorities
are
deemed by other
still preferred.
to introduce
Pennar
rivers
and
it
still
much
excellent work,
difficulties.
many
financial
The canals
rights to the
commenced by a comGovernment
whom
At
262
the engineers
INDIA IN
have
established
is
1880.
Chap. xiv.
extensive
workshops where
technical instniction
afforded to Natives,
and sometimes to
canals,
yet to
be undertaken,
may
new
yield a good
projects is
how
frame
is
them
to
enough
be
borrowed
for
the
Few
pursuits
are
more
fascinating to the
mind than
lakes
bosom
of the
hills,
and then
to
imagine
how
fusing
life
and
civilization
around.
But
"
to
these
glowing
reflections there
to
command," that
is,
be
the
made
felt
make
money.
tlie
Disappointment
projected works,
for the interest
is
frequently
executed,
if
on the outlay.
arises
This
question
mind by
volumes
storage,
humane
the
and on unused
to
sites
for
thereupon
urge
Government
continue
undertaking
works, without,
incidents.
perhaps,
sufficiently
summary
some idea
of the
This subject
set forth in
works in
detail.
of the
of distributories) in the
to
Bombay amounts
4900
CiiAi'.
XIV.
263
700
To these are
Tims
total
The
;
is
not
known
but in
it
amounts
to
8300 miles.
amounts
to 1,900,000 acres in
or nearly six
pnd a
is
The area
irrigable
by the canals
;
yet
so that the
still
capable of development.
The
caj)ital
may
be set
down
at
20^ millions
sterling,
yield an
These
its
be the finest of
too,
is
exclusive of a great
number
works in many
statistics
would be
in
tedious.
Apart from the direct receipts from the canals, there are
many
indirect
benefits
accrue
all
cases.
Tliese
to agriculture,
instruction of the
of the superior
The value
inestimable
were,
264
INDIA IN
1880.
('iiAr.
xv.
CHAPTEE XV.
RAILWAYS AND ELECTRIC TELEGRAPHS.
Lord Dalhoiisie's design
for
railway
Calcutta to North-
In Central India In Berar and Nagpur In Southern India From Goa to southern Deccan In Burma Railways of two kinds, Guaranteed and Goods State Advantages of the Guarantee system Passenger Rolling stock State railways Capital furnished by Native States railways Broad and narrow gauges Railways in time of war and of Guaranteed telegraph Lines belonging famine Introduction of the Government Telegraphic communication railway Companies And between India and England Also between India and other countries.
traffic traffic
west frontier From Calcutta to Bombay From Bombay to Madras From Lahore to Karachi Projected extension to Candahar Line from Bombay to Agra In Rohilkhand and Ondh In Behar In Bengal
for
electric
to
to
The
pos-
may
few years.
Such a
able in
itself,
whence
all
the
at home in the midst of resources, close to the very centres of industry, in the native air of the engineers and artificers, in the land of their professional practice, and with
were constructed
Whereas,
tlie
from
home
works in India were completed at a vast distance and from the sources of supply, under many
disadvantages of climate, with a scanty labour market and untrained labourers. Again, in India the engineers were landed
in a country with circumstances novel to all their professional
Chap. xv.
265
their
work
often in a
in
health
and sometimes
to
losing
life.
girders
Company
out a
first laid
and
this
many
titles to post-
humous
fame.
The main
its
idea,
is,
at
Attok and
entering Peshawur.
across the eastern
fields,
and a loop
bank
of the Ganges.
;
It
was
to
river once
thrice
then
it
was
five rivers of
and
lastly
the Indus.
was
to
most part a champaign country, consisting of the plains of upper India, or Hindostan, and of the Panjab, till
traverse for the
it
river,
when
to the
it
terminus at Peshawur.
must be
There
is
Jhelum
Prom
main
700
26G and
tlience
INDIA IN
ninning down
tlic
1880.
Chap. xv.
JabnliDur,
Ghat mountains to Bombay, with large viaducts over the Nerbadda and the Tapti, and with a mountainous incline of great Thus the two capitals Calcutta and Bombay were to difficulty.
be connected by
rail.
Then from Bombay, there was to be a line of about 800 miles, ascending the Western Ghat mountains near Poona, crossing the great plateau of the Deccan, entering the Madras Presidency, and so approaching the Eastern Ghat mountains wdiich it would
descend on
joining in
to
way Khandesh
its
to
Madras.
It
line
also a
branch
There
would
size
;
be
Bombay.
;
but
much
importance.
From
crossing
down
the Satlej
and entering
the
Indus,
bank
which
Laki
is
liills
impinge upon the river bed, and then proceeding to the seaport
of Karachi.
pass, is flat
;
of the
very formidable.
maintained
between the sea and the Panjab, and between the mouths of the
Ganges and
considerably shortened.
From
line
CiiAP. XV.
IMPORTANT LINES OF
tlie
IIAILAVAY.
line
is
267
aloii;^
From
liarhoiir of
Bombay, a
carried
tlic
their
mouths
then entering
difficult
the hilly
crosses near
Agra and
upper India;
for exIjy rail
this
Bombay
portation.
Bombay.
fertile plains
of
Itohilkhand and Oudh, between the river Ganges and the Himalayan mountains, connecting these territories M'ith the main trunk line of northern India. These lines have viaducts
over the Ganges at Cawnpore and at Aligarh
;
of north
Behar
Nepal mountains.
From Calcutta,
many
bridges,
and
is
if
There
is
to be a short raihvay in
Assam from
the
Brahmaputra
to the coal
mines of Makum.
At a point on the trunk line from Allahabad to Bombay, in Nimar north of the Satpura range, a line is conducted up the
lofty sides
Bombay
there
is is
to Agra.
to
be a
Thus Central
the
India
268
INDIA IN
auotlier point,
1880.
Chap. xv.
on the same trunk line but south of the and Satpura range, a line has been taken eastwards to Nagpur, Calcutta. towards the east on further is now being extended
At
of the This line carries to Bombay, for exportation, the cotton exDrovinces of Berar and Nagpur, and will, if ultimately
r^
tended,
"ive
straight
route
from
Calcutta
to
Bombay,
is
slightly
In the southern peninsula there is a connected series of railways. One trunk line stretches from sea to sea, from Madras on
crossing the Coromandel coast to Beypore on the Malabar coast, this line on point one From a gap in the Nilgiri mountains.
Mysore
Pondicheri (to which place there is a branch), passing to Tanjore and then from Trichinopoly southwards through Madura and
Tinnovelly in
lines
the
These
the
run through
(except in
From Goa, on
Bombay, a railway
is
is
the
projected to
commence from
the railway
From
line to
the seaport of
down Rangun as
taken a
Chap. xv.
2(19
Burma.
There
in eastern Burma.
are, or will be,
in
some
under construction.
traffic,
The
total length
of the
is
lines,
open
for
amounts
to
8611 miles.
;
This total
being gradually
increased year
total length of
by year
1850 miles.
are conf5tructed
Guaranteed Companies,
all
The
capital
April 1880
was 123,124,514
Of
this
expended on Guaranteed
lines,
and 1,392,866 on
lines in Native
Of the
total mileage,
is
is
if
the
defrayal
of
The Government
raised
instance
chiefly
shareholders,
the
funds were
in
Under
Government
strength
establishment,
the
rates
and the
fares.
It
270
INDIA IN
1880.
CnAP. xv.
officers in
India
the
guard
its
interests.
It grants the
line,
stations
and appurtenances,
free of charge.
In other respects
;
a guaranteed
Company
is
like
an ordinary Company
it
with the
line,
it
selects
on
own judgment
The railway
the
English
by reason
of
profits accruing.
After the opening of the lines, the net earnings defrayed only
part
the
interest
many
years, the
The
total of the
amounts
to nearly
27 millions
This
is
regarded by
many
been generally
interest
;
and has occasionally divided a surplus profit with the State other Companies have sometimes been able to accomplish
a similar result
;
The Companies are designated thus: the East India, the Eastern Bengal, the Oudh and Eohilkhand, the Sind, Panjab and Delhi, for northern India the Great India Peninsula, the
tills,
though
it
is
some Companies have not been able to hoped that they will do so in time.
effect
several
and western
agency
directly,
and
at
by the State operating through its own a less cost. They see disadvantages in
such important public interests being entrusted to private Companies, which, by reason of their dividends being guaranteed up
CiiAP. XV.
271
to a profitaljlc
railway companies.
The
lart^e
not the real check upon extravagance and the actual means
of enforcing
responsibility devolves.
at
alleged, could
a cheaper rate
than that of the guarantee, and could have managed the lines
more
efficiently
and economically.
On
and importance.
basis in
It secured
England
and was
The conand
operations
period,
State
the greater part of the country was convulsed by the war of the
mutinies, the railway works were carried on, while almost all
public works
except military
who
ordinarily invest
Government
securities.
improvement,
It
induced
moneyed classes
to
generally, to take
administration.
It infused
new blood
men
of high
capacity,
in Europe.
272
It
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xv.
Ije
recalled of
distin-
W.
P.
have supplied.
The work
E.E.,
of the
William Baker,
the service of
England, Sir John Hawkshaw, the two Piendels and Mr. George
Berkley.
The
abilities
and resources
of
several
well-known
such
men
as Brassey,
Faviell.
In
short,
the
guarantee
essential
have
lieen
procured.
Without
it,
benefit of railway
who have
The
With most
tliis
of the
still
a considerable portion of
period
its
Company
the
management
which arrangement
is
guarantee system.
The Guaranteed Companies, represented by boards of Directors in London and by Agents in India, have generally maintained
excellent relations with the Government, and in times of emer-
gency
ha\'e
Chap. xv.
273
departments.
thanks of
On some
the railway
officials
officers of
the State in
to
do yet employ
Europeans
for
work
is
consideralde.
provided by the
namely
and
boys
and
girls,
reading-rooms,
recreation
grounds
gardens.
They
are
encouraged to
organize
themselves
by
movement
among
and produces a
At
many
stations
and the
exist,
like,
well-ordered
little
settlements
colonies.
of
European
employes
resembling
The passenger
develops
itself
traffic
is
more
any
speedily,
entirely than
other.
;
Tlie Natives
indifference
in
this
case.
On
the
contrary,
they instantly
mode
of travelling,
which
They
274
waiting for the trains
;
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xv.
to wallcing for
though habituated
long
afford to travel
by
so
rail.
The
fares,
The
great bulk of the passengers are booked for the third class
the carriages
of the
first
and second
to
classes
heretofore
partly
in
the labours
in
the
footsore
pilgrims,
nevertheless
pilgrims
tens
of
tliat
The necessity
same
for
men
of all sorts
is
and conditions
to ride in the
third-class
carriage
As
the trains
it
railway
could arrange
way
into
trains,
with as
much
retinues.
On
the
classes
number
of passengers in
a year
amounts
The goods
the
However embarrassing the multitudes may passengers must be sent on and conveyed somehow but goods come in overwhelming quantities, they will be
;
detained more or
as
in
it
less.
If such detention
it affects
becomes lengthened,
even tempts
some
Chap. xv.
GOODS TRAFFIC
ROLLING
STOCK.
275
to divers abuses.
rail, for
The saving
to the
the
traffic
managers
it
is
way
tlie
country
is
to
have the
minimum
of charge
mum
of
traffic.
and
fares very
moderate.
Such a disposition
rivers of Bengal,
which
sail
However valuable
pressure,
officials
war, famine
commercial
railway
efforts of the
late,
There
is this
reason,
among
others, that
owing
to the difference
and
being
felt in
The
several
the
State
possess
extensive
locomotive workshops
the
principal
termini of
T 2
276
their
lines.
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xv.
Though engines cannot be made in India they England can be repaired very well and when sent out from
;
" erected," or
put together.
The
State
much
railways.
Entering the
al)le
to
profit by the experience which the guaranteed lines afforded. It was hoped that they would shew cheapness in construc-
tion
avoided
extravagance perceptible in
guaranteed
lines, it is
lias
been essentially cheaper, upon a full comparison construction being made of all the circumstances and of the topography of the
country traversed.
doul)tful
Though they
except,
it
is
also
guaranteed
traffic
goods
benefited.
It
is
invest
money
Begum
of Bliopal
is
The guaranteed
of
lines
intermediate gauge
ft.
in.,
which
is
less
than
the
English old Ijroad gauge and more than that of the English
standard gauge.
is
now termed
the
When
made
metre, 3
ft.
in.,
which
is
now termed
the Indian
Chap. xv.
277
tlie
narrow gauge.
opposed
to this
narrow gauge.
impede
traffic
by causing breaks
lines,
of gauge.
carriages,
and
it
is
insufficient
the growing
traffic
in
goods especially.
appreciable
It
produces
inconvenience,
without
an
saving
of
lines.
These
On
it is
of troops.
is
important with
narrow-gauge
must
size,
and
less to
work.
Even though
In
the expense
must be
less considerably.
is
many parts
traffic.
of the country
The
Ijreak of
was contemplated
and
in 1871
and 1872,
in
most
in the
its tributaries,
The
project
and wagons.
which related
to
of the
278
project
INDIA IN
which related
to Eajpiitana
1880.
Chap. xv.
or
is
of narrow-gange railM^ays.
In
southern peninsula,
also,
there
is
a continuous series of
Cape Comorin.
Some
other separate
State lines,
lines yet to
be undertaken,
have been, or are to be, constructed on the narrow gauge. In reference to the importance of keeping down the capital account
of the railways,
which
is
economizing the current expenses so that the net earnings sliall represent a profitable rate of interest, and husbanding the
limited
means
still
of the
country
is
for
the completion of
much
extension
needed, it
The potent accession, which the railways have brought to the military power of the Government, has been proved on many The proof has been signal during the occasions of late years.
recent
campaigns
in
be
still
more
any
financial sacrifices
The military advantage alone might be held to justify which may have been incurred for the
rail
is
whose attacks are of periodical recurrence. public opinion in England demands that when millions of
no saving remedy untried which the science of the
without the possession of railways throughout the
of the electric telegraph into India
be
fulfilled
The introduction
approjjriately
may
be
All the
Chap. xv.
279
guaranteed Companies
performing the
for the public.
railway
business,
despatcli
many messages
Separate from
tliese is
the exertions of
William O'Shaughnessy.
all parts of
It
extended to
manner
on the
concerned.
The
amounted
in all to
3^ millions
by 19,100
miles,
and If
work
of relief.
In time of war,
much
regularity
sort of
and conit
and in every
emergency
has added
much
to the
It is largely
used by the
despatch of
so great.
officers of
affiiirs
in an empire
The European
first,
non-official
community have used it The making full use of its advanavail themselves of
it
now
as
much
to the
which
in England, probably
by reason
of the miniIf a
mum
an increase of messages.
satisfactory accuracy
;
The messages
in a
manner which
creditable to the
management
the public.
of the department
280
expenses
;
INDIA IN
1880.
CuAP. xv.
Of
these,
Ocean
to
Egypt
passes
it
mouth
thence by
it
joins
the European
system
it
With
these two
lines, the
telegrapliic
communication
is
safe
from interruption.
The value
and the
of such
communication
merchants
is
utility to
The expense
it
for
usefulness
is
beyond
news,
in respect of
most convenient
public information
of importance
and
interest, are
complete.
Whatever happens
is
honourable to the
messages are transmitted, by this long line through so many countries, is remarkable. The Indian Empire is now in telegraphic communication with China, Australia and South Africa.
281
CHAPTER
XVI.
rule
British roads
Their
Under
British
rale
Pack-bullocks
Their
Principal
lines
of
noteworthy features
in part superseded
Carts
with
draught-bullocks substituted
spacious
chambers out of
rivers
the
with dykes
to
form
in
reservoirs for
the
Indian
Muhammadans who
structural design
excelled
their
and architectural conception have not been of men, seem never to have bent
and communications.
bands or
minds
In
for warlike
for peaceful
It
was often
at fixed
for
deemed
by minarets
intervals of distance,
farers at every stage.
way-
Here and
there, bridges
were constructed,
Not
was equal
to a day's march.
In the
champaign
though with
difficulty,
But
which comtraffic
wheeled
282
was impossible.
of
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xvi.
down
The shortcomings
in respect
to roadmaking,
and
his neighbours,
None
Ofttimes
British officer,
when
and such a
commerce.
its
much
absorbed in
its
consolidation
English
officers
charge,
was
at first
;
afterwards became
its
was only
abreast,
time.
Within
roadmaking that far-seeing discernment and that comprehensive grasp, wliicli liad procured for it victorious success in so
many
fields
of action.
frontier
advanced
from Bombay
to Agra, a distance of
Madras
to
Bombay, a distance
of
Chap. xvi.
cipal
283
province
among
after province
and in season
after season.
The
lines of road
but also
marched right
at
or
made
straight for
some
of the
most arduous
There was no
want
encountered.
now
For many
Bombay
to the north
to
Madras served
for
During a
Provinces
ISTorth- western
main
and and
noteworthy points
are,
the rugged
raviny tracts between the rivers Jhelum and Indus, where the
roadway sometimes
and embankments
;
consists of a continuous
series of cuttings
Vindhya
Ghafc
coast,
the
which
the
is
in the empire
by
the line
coast.
many
from Mirzapur on the Ganges to Jabulpur in Central India and thence across the Satpura
district
of
Sikhim
284
iiiountains to
INDIA IX
1880.
Chap. xvi.
tlie
Nagpur
is
Western
Ghat
near
range
pierced,
such as
that
near
Mahableshwar,
and
;
Beypur
the
line
from
Poona
to
the
southern Deccan
from
;
Utacamand
the
Many
portions of the
and revetments.
fine bridges
and many
parts of the
empire.
They
are
however,
The trunk
are
usually
metalled or macadamized
the materials
but deficient in
Bengal,
to be supplied
still
by brickmaking.
In several
many branch
by these
The
difference, caused
roads, in the
is
modes
of
com-
always strongly
The pack-bullocks driven by strange tribes, resembling endowed with uncommon hardihood
carts
with draught-bullocks
The
carts
and
anti-
taller,
stouter
it is
;
the
and
may
be heard resounding
all
night
The
drivers,
Chap. xvi.
will
285
continue
graze in
finil
vast nnmln'rs
on
the mountain
distant time shall arrive wlien the road system of the enii)irc
approaches completion.
Thus, not only has the professional skill of engineers, but also
some
to
made
no longer be considered
much
it is
douljtless held in
commercial
remains to be done.
still
If thousands of miles
have been
finished,
Some
now than
formerly,
as
they are
now
to
the railway.
Here, again,
consider
that
much more
yet needs
The finance
of
Governments
The
central
Government
The several Local Governments receive annually, from the Government of India, certain aggregate grants for provincial services, among which services roadmaking is
purposes.
included.
They may apply to roadmaking such portion of these grants as they deem fit, and to these funds they may add the receipts of local rates imposed by law for roads. With the
resources at their disposal, they
may
286
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xvi.
of India for
Government
any
additional funds.
American
Tramways have been introduced into the city of Bombay by enterprise, and are managed with that skill which Americans everywhere bring to bear on this subject. They are
very successful and carry
many
as well as Natives.
There
is
a good
which are
might
namely that
In some
floods,
hardly exists.
have repeatedly
laws on this
become subjects of
subject there
is
legislation.
To one
of the
amounts
to
1170 miles.
The
river
Gandak
in
and other
rivers.
many
In
1875,
the
Bengal
Government
estimated
the
area
under
Chap. xvi.
RIVERS.
287
embankments on
tlie
bank
of tlie great
for
canal system in that region, the land revenue, the towns, and
the line of military communication with soutliern Afghanistan,
partly depend for their safety on the stability of these
embankflood.
ments.
There
is,
however,
much
when
any country.
288
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap
xvii.
CHAPTER
XVII.
Compamon
Tobacco Cinchona Cotton Indigenous staple Local manufactures Production and of cotton by steam machinery Factory legislation manufactures of jute The forests Destruction in past times Present
Tea Coffee
Climatic importancePreservation of pasturage Comdepartment Conduct of the Forest laws The munal Mineral resources Coal Iron Gold people in relation to flourishing on the whole Precious stonesIndustrial products Merits of and industry Effect on Native Exhibitions of
conservancy
forests
forest
forests
Still
art
taste
Native
art.
India
will,
many
been famed.
Her produce
have
less
Her
cotton
far surpassed
by
by that
of
South
America.
quantities,
of her
rice,
grown
still
in limited
of
unsurpassed
is
fineness,
the
quality
excelled
by that
Her maize
is
southern Europe
her
cannot be com-
nor her
figs
Her
Chap. xvii.
289
Notwithstanding great
efforts in the
made to match Her wool cannot compete with that of Australia Her horses, even on her own ground, cannot vie
Arabia or Persia
;
with
tliose of Australia,
are outstripped
1>y
Her mineral
many
all
must be placed
The merit
of India,
which
raise
some
articles in
them
in
abundance.
For instance,
rice
but that
little is
by many degrees
Many
other
sugarcane
is
the best,
is
Again,
grown largely
and
Himalayas, but
the
Himalayan
there are
some
articles in the
at
the
head of
all countries,
or is not surpassed
by any
country.
Her
to
look
their
hitherto
unquestioned
is
supremacy in
still
this
respect.
surpassingly
to
used in
tea,
the
English
markets chiefly
flavouring
Chinese
and
this
may
The
quality,
Arabian
coffee, so
famous of
old, to
be superseded.
The indigo
though
of Bengal
as yet,
290
its
INDIA IN
1880.
is
Chap. xvii.
threatened by
new
dyes chemically extracted from other substances. Still, no plant yet discovered in any clime can rival the dark blue dye
of the Indian plant in
permanence or in
lac.
colour,
and no dye
The opium-producing
poppy
is
in quality unequalled.
own Government
their
variety
is
no-
most highly esteemed product in many eastern countries, yet nothing beats the cocoa-nut of the Malabar coast of India.
a
This tree
is
man
wants, his
to
is
become an
of large consumption.
;
The mango-tree
its
among
to
tlie
wood
is
turned
many
purposes
its
fruit
is
an
article
of sustenance for
varieties,
poorer classes,
Burma and
of
largely
The cedar
forest,
is
regarded everyis it
but nowhere
found
among
the
Hima-
The ebony
of Africa
South America have long been celebrated; but they may be rivalled by those of Eastern Bengal and other parts of India.
The Eacahjptm
glohidosa, introduced
Horns and
object,
is
the
main
and in
Her
fibre
oil-seeds,
with her countless cattle has a vast resource. flax and hemp occupy a high place her jute
;
so
many
competitor anywhere.
Her
oranges, naturalized
by the Portu-
(Jhap. xvir.
PRODUCTION OF INDIGO.
soil,
ri\'al
291
;
guese on her
hut her
Some
tree,
The rhododenflowers
Nilgiri
among the glories of the mountains. The European when cultivated in some parts of India, such as the
are
Europe
itself
skill.
From amongst
brief notice here.
the
many
products, a few
may
be selected for
The production
twenty years ago
become
con-
The
who
made
for pro-
The
was disputed
Con-
troubles,
most
part,
and
arise,
is
make
concessions which
the present.
Thus the
into
dustry has
flourish
;
been
to the
saved
up
are
being
made by
it
the planters.
may
bering that
fall,
unless
it
who
is
The
tea
is
u 2
292
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xvn.
Himalayas, of Assam or the upper valley of the Brahmaputra, and of the western slopes of the mountains which bound Bengal
on the
east.
Its increase is
it
among
of pounds
three
millions
Many
of the earlier
and disappointments.
They thus
lost
much
capital,
good returns.
The
leaf,
tea-
gardens are
now
scientifically
and
steam machinery
is
beginning to be used.
The
and
is
carried on
somewhat
greatly increased, and amounts on the average to 350,000 cwts. annually, valued at 1^ million sterling. The coffee-planters
also liave
become
their plantatrees
are in blossom.
Tobacco is largely cultivated for local consumption, but is not exported in any appreciable quantity. Many people are sanguine that with scientific treatment it may be placed in competition ^^'ith American tobacco. With this view some
important experiments have been made in northern India, with assistance from the State and apparently with success.
The
Sikhim.
Cinchona-tree
cultivated by the
has Ijeen for some years assiduously Government both in the Nilgiri hills and in
are
The plantations
extensive
tree.
Chap. xvii.
SILK
AND COTTON
S'J'AIM.ES.
293
and yet
so cheap as to be purchaseable
by
tlie
poorest people
among
interesting sight.
The
Italy,
price
commanded by
much on
the yield
China and in
The production
account of
it
is,
many
much
attention.
full
report.
Great interest
not on the
The substance
thus produced
is
;
many
kinds of
European
fabrics
machines
its
and hopes
Eeference
are entertained of
may
be
treatises
Cotton received
much
attention, both
American
civil
Much
was exerted by
Special
efforts
forth,
by improving
fibre
produce a
fibre
which should be
but
as suitable as the
American
all parties
now
29-1
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xvii.
as large as ever, despite
is
The interest the social changes consequent on the civil war. become cool, inevitably has warm, improving the staple, once so
among
India,
after
the war,
though ceasing to export the abnormal quantities which used to be despatched to England during the blockade of the American ports, continued exporting annually quantities much
larger than those she
had exported before those events. The exportation has of late been decreasing, though it will doubtMeanwhile the cultivation of the less remain considerable. indigenous species is flourishing, and is stimulated by the estal)lishment at
goods.
special
Bombay of factories for the manufacture of cotton The demand for raw cotton is brisk in all the marts regulations are made by law to stop the frauds and
whereby foreign substances were mixed with the
adulterations
tibre,
and the repute of the Indian staple lowered. The local manufactures of cotton by steam macliinery in
much
noticed of
first
late.
Some
twenty-five years
a great impulse was imparted to the movement when the cotton trade became so inflated after 18G1. There are now 53 spinning and weaving mills in India, of which 41 are in the Bombay Presidency and 5 in Calcutta. These They mills employ 10,500 looms and 1^ million of spindles. mostly belong to private companies, though some of them are owned and managed by individuals. Of the capital, a part
it
is,
however, in
The
owTiers
many
of
footing,
goods produced by the mills are good, serviceable, and free from
Chap. xvii.
adulteration.
FIBEOUS SUBSTANCES.
295
compete with
The growth
at Calcutta,
of these
Bombay and
work
in the factories,
and
to enact other
humane
these respects.
Some moderate
restrictions
it
must be
management
their families
is
bestowed on the
women and
which
is
coir,
cocoa-nut,
which furnishes
exported in some
;
which
is
but the
production of
plant,
and the
of the fibre.
hemp
are
grown and
this article,
factured,
is
Among
is jute,
an
in the Crimea.
staple
is
of the
It is
Brahmaputra and
and partly
for exportation.
is
sent chiefly to
The
296
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xvii.
They
tall
where the
and the
They
consist chiefly
to the
United
States, Australia,
They
employ many
all ages.
Among
The
forests of India
to
ti-adition,
and
centuries, they
size
for so
which possesses
liill-sides
so
many
as
ranges of
mountains and
hills.
If the
which could
gradually cut
be cultivated,
then the
they were
down and
But the
thin,
bearing
fields.
soil,
lying upon
rocky
strata, is
and
speedily
certain seasons.
soil
The
forest
is
destined
liy
with
roots,
and so to support
Consequently,
when
the
fail
denuded of
trees,
to sustain themselves,
The unrestrained
wood, a necessary
article, to
scarce,
For
many
whenever
the
firewood
had
be gathered
for
the
consumption of
hilly slopes, or
is
villagers, or
towns
which wood
for troops
largely used,
to
more
particularly
when cantonments
had
be formed.
Cjiap. XVII.
297
used to be carried on
indiscriminately, without
any thought
the forests, or even a few trees here and there, for reproduction
in
tlie
future.
British rule,
cumstances.
and the
officers of
make
were
supply.
These
officers
them
to the
The
had been so
little
authorities seldom
became aware
of the mischief
which was
being-
done.
not,
When
as they
now
who denuded
unfortunately
which
had
been
established
in
such
so
cases. far
The
they
Government
theoretically
;
as
but
real
proportions remained
of the ignorance
which prevailed in
has been
effective
scientific attention
itself,
and an
Mischief, practically
may
Ije
Of the primeval
enough
there
remain
several,
still
intact,
many
districts
forests
have been
is
for the
most part
hardly to be anticipated.
298
INDIA IN
ill
1880.
Chap. xvii.
But
the
the
liiglier
where
join, in the
In some parts
them
is still
being invaded
bit
Many
and
owing
which,
not arrested,
may
the country.
forests of India
comprise, as
might be expected,
fir,
of
European
juniper, the yew, the oak, the ilex, the elm, the ash, the maple,
the ]3lane, the holly, the laurel, the birch, the walnut, the alder.
The Asiatic
tree,
the
mango, the sandal-wood, the cane, the bamboo, the toon, the
neem, the blackwood, the
;
and greatest of
all,
the teak.
To these should be added the palms, including the feathery date-palm, the palmyra with its fan-like leaves, and the betelnut palm.
The
myro-
Many
is
woods and
which
at all events
must admit
of
much
total
the view
raiiilall
is
The
be
of
whole
country cannot
possibly
affected
by the existence of forests. The average quantity of vapour must come from the ocean and must be condensed somewhere
:
if
it
it
CiiAi'. XVII.
299
plains,
there.
it
on
is
to
This, indeed,
float
moisture-
ladeu clouds
to the
and move on
the torrent-
fill
beds with rain-water which rushes into the rivers and returns
ultimately to the plain in the shape of inundations.
Similarly,
The hope
is
were distributed
to
attract the
There are
many
tracts
where
forests, if preserved,
it is
short time.
Thus
anticipated
remembered
that, throughout the world, those regions which possess rich vege-
It is
remarked,
by a long drought, are plagued afterwards with immoderate rain. At all events the forests, and their subsidiary vegetation, husband and
dry season.
store
of the rainy season, for the benefit of the country during the
and
more
to
This consideration
drawn from
rivers
Near the
springs,
relating
to
the
forests
are
In
300
iiortlieni
INDIA IN
India,
1880.
Chap. xvii.
where
trees
by
the sun, affords good material, and the earthen walls are durable, Ijut elsewhere the earth does not always possess a like degree of
consistency.
it
is
Without interposition by markets should the State, the wood and timber would become scarcer and As dearer from time to time, as the forests became exhausted.
be well supplied.
coal
is
wood
for fuel
if
they
for burning.
The
for
practice of
consuming
which ought
artificial
to
be used
is
manure, in a country,
extensively
of the
where
manure
not
available,
prevails,
soil.
to exhaustion
practice, is
injurious
and tends
this
by preserving the
forests to provide a
cheap and
plentiful supply of
wood
for fuel.
many
articles of
;
forests,
are
exported largely
forest
conservancy would
forests is the
numbers
wander
eat.
as they graze,
Some
communal
supply of
and
for
vegetation,
much
at that
fodder.
This project
is
well worthy of a
careful trial in
many
upon two
Chap. xvii.
FOREST LAWS.
301
timber and fuel for the use of the people. This policy
is
of
much
all
The Government
of this
law regulating
Local
;
Governments. The
those which
two categories
first,
manner
secondly, those
which are
The
be
and
to
mark
The primary
Due attention
is
much income
over 500,000
amount
to
nearly
700,000, and in time the forest department will have a prosperous revenue.
The superior
part
British,
officers
for
the most
trained
in
the
forest
schools
of
France and
Germany.
The Inspector-General
ment
which
whose
sound and
scientific,
and
is
Instruction in forestry
afforded to
Natives also;
forest
As might be
" reserved "
and the
sometimes ojiposed by
lest the foresters
them.
302
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xvir.
local civil authorities
The
are vigilant
and prompt
which rights,
is
made by
the law.
They should,
officers
the
welfare
of
the
country.
of
Many
of
the
in
as
to
hill
tribes
liabitually
burn
patches
so
valuable
the virgin
forest, soil
order
that
it
the
ashes
may
fertilise
render
tillage.
Having reaped
and move on
to repeat the
gradually
to
small area for so large an empire, especially bered that of this not more than one half
is
when
it is
remem-
effectually preserved.
Some
There
are,
districts.
Among
mineral
resources
of
many
parts of India.
The
largest are
among
the hills
is
flanking
complete
railway communication.
Wardha
Nagpur, and to
CiiAP. XVII.
MINERAL
HKSOUIJCES.
303
in
u])[>i'i'
been constructed.
iSonie coal-beds
is
Assam
to
made
coal
to tliem
is
;
from tbc
The Indian
largely used
by
annually
and
tlie
The industry
affords
employment
Still,
to
upwards of
(quantities
to
families.
some
600,000
tons annually.
known
range.
to
exist in the
and in
the
Palamow extremity
is
of the
Vindhya
Iron
is
used in
many
among
of
seldom worked
fuel,
on any large
other reasons.
Bengal,
private
company with
is
India
world, but during recent ages the supply has been small.
late
Of
the
some
auriferous
veins
have
been
discovered
in
Wynaad
ore
;
and in the Mysore plateau near Bangalore companies have been and are being formed for working the
hills,
concessions of
;
many
and sanguine hopes have sprung up in the minds of many well-informed persons. The matter is undergoing
this purpose
scientific
made.
it is
enquiry by professional experts and trials are being There are traces of operations in ancient times, wdience
worked
too,
out. The gold which still remains must apparently be " won," by processes of crushing and reducing. Questions,
If
mining
gold in this quarter should prove successful, the economic result to the Indian empire would be important.
The supply
is
but
little
now
as
304
coniparetl with
INDIA IN
what
it
1880.
Chap. xvir.
was
in former times.
There are
still,
Jamna
river,
fisheries
Southern Peninsula.
Among
which the
produce
is
Bombay
market.
agricultural
products
seems to be held
l)y
many
by British manu-
has less
foundation than
is
commonly supposed.
by the
These
else-
The
may
be cited as an instance.
to
The number
great.
hands employed
instances might
l:)ut
Some
beauty
be adduced, where
of extreme
of limited
by reason of
bands of
moment
as
the
demand
died,
the
little
were dispersed
indi\iduals
their
skill
Such
as the
circumstances, however lamental)le from an aesthetic point of view, have not produced any
effect
number of persons concerned is relatively so small. The armourer's trade, which once reached an excessive growth in an empire where for some centuries warfare was almost
universal and incessant, necessarily languished on the establish-
ment
was
Armoury
as
an
hardly to be regretted.
On
many
Chap. xvii.
INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS.
still
305
made, are
diminished quantities.
now
are,
could be compared
But
if
commoner
sorts
were thus
contraction
would be obcompared
number
Akber the
Great,
it
is
would not
suffer
published
book by
the
same
author
on the
produces, in great
and of excellent
it
which
celebrated.
large,
even
if
in numbers,
at least
as
numerous
and
their
which
still for
of Indians.
On
Several
arisen, so well
known
in connection
with cotton,
silk,
tea
and
coffee.
The works
of
material improvement
now
by the
architectural or structural
series of
of former dynasties,
much
Thus a detailed
that, in respect
306
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xvii.
that
numbers
for
the most part to have come, not from the industrial classes, but
rather from the classes formerly engaged in the defence and
On
Museum
South Kensington, and of the several illustrated works which have been published,
it
still
has the
and the inventive power which signalized them of yore, that her chiefs and upper classes still appreciate and encourage the
production of really beautiful things in the utmost variety.
The gold and silver plate, the metal work in Ijrass, copper and tin, the damascened work, the trappings and caparisons, the mother-of-pearl of Ahmedabad, the inlaid work of Agra and of
the carved ivory horn and tortoise-shell, the lac work, the cotton
and
work
world,
The
of
art of enamelling
in the
first
and
is
degree
perfection yet
known.
It
it is
carried
on with a greater variety of device and of method than ever. When the Native princes and chiefs of the empire attended
the Imperial Assemblage at Delhi, the mass of articles of
luxury and adornment, then collected, probably equalled anything ever seen in the
or
the
The presents
offered to
Chap. xvii.
307
order to illustrate
arts
and industries
ui'
their territories,
probably rivalled in
laid at the feet of a
taste,
Mogul emperor.
Althougli
the
Indian manufactures
may
be
regarded as
variety and
The good
principle,
upon
which
fine art
itself in India.
many provinces
and
The
produced on the
minds
of
European
arts
spectators,
the industrial
of
India
was
disseminated throughout
Europe.
The
interest
of the section
by the Natives
to the Prince of
Wales during
the
many
Kingdom and
all lovers of
the
industrial art,
and
The proceedings
attention, in a
drew European
much
demand
too,
for
them
in the
was enlightened
art.
European
The
Natives were stirred with a sense that their works were being
noticed in European circles.
effect of a
308
either to imitate
their
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap, xvii
to engraft,
upon
In
own
all cases of such imitation or admixture the result was unsatisAs factory, and conduced to the vitiation of the Native taste.
an instance, the recent circumstances of the Cashmir shawl manufacture may be recalled. These shawls w^ere esteemed not
only for their matchless colouring (due to the peculiar qualities
of the air
for
the
appropriateness
the
peculiar
elaboration
in
the
Imitative fabrics were commenced in the Panjab designs. mth the aid of skilled workmen from Cashmir, but never The demand becoming brisker equalled the superb originals.
in the Parisian markets, French agents
India.
came
to
to purchase in
be made more
and more
loveliness.
For a moment
was
by the imitating
mistakes
European designs
It is to be
may
be
many
its
cen-
adversities,
a marble
monument
retaining
beauty
and
It has
been profather to
who from
thereto
their
hearts
Its
forms,
are
Its
softened hues
and modulated
effect,
enough of chastened
all
admired by
those
who
love
human
industry.
309
CHAPTEE
XVIII.
The " East-Indiamcn ships The The Peninsular and Oriental CompanyThe Suez CanalDirect dealings of India with the Continent of Europe Africa, Asia and AustraliaFrance The United States ItalyThe Mauritius Particulars of trade with United Kingdom Shipping the most part British Coasting trade Balance trade How adjusted The Home remittances Value India of her export trade Food-supply generally Internal trade India Registration of Land communica"
"Green's" ships
for
of
to
sufficient
of
it
tion
The
foreign
interest,
In recent times
economists,
misgivings.
which
all
eastern
dependency with
ties
of
mutual
considerations of policy.
The
"
East-Indiamen
commerce
a class of
many were
to
called
whom
they
belonged.
The name of a
Anglo-
seamanship in tempests.
These ships,
too,
were once
momentous events
310
in the East.
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap, xviii.
to the regularity of
awaited in India.
The importance
carried
of the
sailing
ships
was
Oriental
Company, which
Egypt
all
and some of the most portable and valuable articles of trade. Still, however, the mass of the trade, consisting of cheap and
bulky
articles,
it
was known
It
freight charges
that
steam-navigation
the
be
round
the Cape, for the bulky articles composing the greater part of the trade.
all
ante-
tried,
and draw
The
but time
is
The
electric telegraph
many
the
respects.
is
flashed
profit
on
critical
transactions.
some
sacrifice
the
Chap,
xviii,
311
Conse-
Bombay
harbour, fleets of
The
traveller
fro,
nowadays wonders
and
and
still
economy
in fuel,
for the
many
and
is
seafaring
men.
designer,
destined
further triumphs.
A chorus
of satisfaction rose
from
all
Indians
decorated by
The
by the Government
due allowance
be valued
this at
may
Out of
exjDorts,
imports, of merchandise
This
sum
total
would
Towards
this
mounting
Finance
many
In 1860 James
Minister
among
312
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap.
xvm.
Afterwards
it
seemed
not
to
oscillate
between amounts
sensibly
It
retrograde
by reason
Europe
for
1874 in Bengal.
was
rising favourably
(mainly
by reason of a quickened
demand
it
in
reached the
sum
of
124
It then suffered
depression,
when
this
over the
120 millions
of
and
;
rising.
Symptoms
visible
Great Britain.
Formerly, the trade of India with foreign countries used for
the most part to pass through England.
Eeceiving
all
these
commodities in the
first
instance,
England used
to retain
what
among
But
of late India
begun
to send,
direct to
The
commercial intercourse
is
growing
fast
Bombay on
Trieste,
the
Havre and Hamburg, on the other hand. India, also, is trading more and more with America, especially with California
and San Francisco
in Calcutta.
consideral)le,
is
to the dwellers
still is,
scope, consisting of
opium
silver
the
demand
for
if
Chap,
xviii.
313
Sydney and Melbourne. The suppression of piracy by the Indian Government has caused
to exhibitions at
much
and especially on
Persian Gulf.
Much commerce,
Gulf and
to
now
passes
down
the
Aden.
of India with
any foreign
She sends
wliicli
country are those which she has with France, and their value has
much
France
raw
;
silk
and shawls,
The United
intercourse
attain vast
States
are
growth in the
as
future.
and manufactured,
and
skins, receiving in
The importation
circumstance.
of cotton goods
from America
is
a noteworthy
as yet
grown
still
to
the extent
India exports
cotton, oil-seeds,
more than one million and a half sterling worth of raw silk and hides, importing small quantities
and glass beads. While receiving some moderate quantities of sugar from the Mauritius, in some years, India has sent as much as threecolony.
cent, of the
with
314
INDIA IN
lier
1880.
Chap, xviii.
trade accounts.
is
The proportion
as ocean
she^vn by this
percentage
likely to increase,
mer-
The export
division of
shews a long
The
skins,
cata-
wheat,
and
and
silk
and
all
worth,
Of
all nations,
among
is
now perhaps
the
carries
this
sea-borne trade
consists,
vessels,
Of
uj)-
number one-sixth
vessels,
which include
wards of 2000
made
in
Of the steamers, two-thirds come and go by the Suez Canal, and the remainder by the Cape of Good Hope and by other routes.
Of the
total shipping, sail
cent, is
foreign, the
vessels,
The foreign shipping numbers, with a total tonnage of threethe several thousands of
number
numbers
is
Arab.
As compared with
marine of
99
CiiAP. xvin.
BALANCE OF TRADE.
Italian,
315
German, 134
and
port,
tliey are
craft.
For
many
trade has
been
that
India
sells
much
to
more, by
foreign
many
millions
sterling worth, to
England and
nations,
sum than
consists
some part
of machinery
and material
years, that
exceeded' that
of the
average.
of things
the
country being
much
of its produce
and receiving so
home
by
charges
;"
to
In other
On
many
all
she can,
if
desired,
transfer to
England
to be
316
India remits a large
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap, xviii.
sum annually
cash,
for "
home
charges,"
at
away
her produce.
if
It would, indeed, be
satisfactory
India
^^'ere to
The magnitude
;
of the
it
home
a serious import
is
It is a pressing
matter of
amount
of the
home
remittances,
For
all that,
the export-
is
The
must be the
If they
other products
;
artificial
wants
multiply
is
if
money
Whether they
had
to
make
still
would
export as
much produce
much
in
consideration.
As they do not at present require an equivalent kind in the shape of British merchandise, there misht
speculation as
to
be room for
adjusted
if
how
the
account would be
there
were no
remittances for
"home charges"
trade
or on other accounts.
in
doubtless be found,
the settlement
of
concerns
all
of
the
between
At
events,
the
exportation would
be continued and would be one of those satisfactory proofs of the wealth and industry of the people wliich can be
Chap,
xviii.
317
may
much
articles,
must reduce
an empire so
stores of food in
much exposed
to famine.
seems
clear,
abundant stores
from the scene
to
at a distance
Even
in
the supplies
came, not
is
an
empire.
At
passage
may
Famine Commission.
was the time when the capital for tlie and there was hardly any surplus In 1869, the construction of guaranteed railways was of exports at this time. coming to a close and the system of construction by the State was beginning, and from that time India instead of drawing large sums of capital from England for investment had to pay many millions a year as interest. The great rise in the export trade dates from that time and for the last ten
"
The
years the excess of exports has averaged about 16 millions sterling (annually).
... So
exports
is
due
to the
investment of English
onerous
capital in India,
difficult to conceive
of a larger
which pays it, for the investment must have led to the outlay sum than the interest sent away, and the balance of what is thus
in
produced remains
the country.
Thus
ways, 100 millions of capital have been raised and spent in India, and 5 the millions a year have to be ]'aid in England as interest on that capita!
;
occupation.
The
people
who
voluntarily pay the 10 millions for the use of the railways are themselves
largely benefited
by them."
is
318
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap, xviii,
During recent
and
years,
many
by
borders,
also
between the
different
territories
comprised
The interchange
greatly
the empire, also the flux and reflux of treasure, have been
Communications by road,
river, rail,
and canal have been improved materially and rendered secure, and the people
avail themselves of these facilities abundantly.
Many
and
artificial,
month by month.
If a
com-
putation could be
made
sum
total
would be enormous
on the
The
would
shew tens
of thousands
of
and forwards, and even a greater number of boats plying up and down stream.
the
set
on suitable points of
those
towns and
cities
would
Those
working in the
estuaries,
arms of the
sea,
potent
on the internal,
the industrial
The interchange
at
of the fabrics
between
centres, situated
Chap, xviii.
RIVER NAVIGATION,
eni])iro, is
319
In times of
l)y
other in so largo an
scarcity, the
greatly promoted.
is
movement
by the
of food grain
to
be measnred
millions of tons.
will be occupied
It is to he expected that
traffic to
many
of the roads
;
many trunk
traffic
which never
way
The navigation
of the
upper
is
owing partly
gation.
It
to the
irri-
which
its
bank.
The navigation
affluents, of the
many
branches,
is
The
have
holder keeps
his boats
many
vessels,
may
At
on the great
many
much
barter of produce
where monetary transactions are arranged and banking business done the concerns being conducted afloat.
;
is
of the
numerous
flotillas.
At
and squalls which sweep over the expanses of the broad rivers, there lie moored under the banks
blasts
many rows
These
craft
many
chang-
ing stations, where the lesser boats from the upper basins
320
INDIA IN
1880.
(JiiAP.
XVIII.
freiglits
to
the larger
boats
able
sea.
at divers
built,
to
Natives.
are
so
The quantities
vast,
that
the maintenance
unfailing
supply
from the
forests of the
country
is
The amount of Native capital the boats, and in the traffic which they
if
of advanced nations.
Among
it
is
In former times
was want
or
hunger in
while in
Even
some
districts,
other districts, not very distant, scarcity and very high prices
prevailed.
The
now
for
may
in
exist
here and
Despite
is
this
levelling
still
a considerable
prices
in
various
parts
of the
empire,
which
though
for
less
perceptible
to come.
now than
some time
experienced difficulty in
realising
landtheir
Compara-
but in western
many
^21
CHAPTER
XIX.
Vital Popular instruction Purification of water suj^plyWater-works of principal Conservancy in towns Sanitary engineeringUtilization of sewage Lodging-houses in townsDwellings in Examination of food Small-pox Vaccination Contagious diseases Hospitals and dispensaries.
statistics
cities
villages
The importance
to time
by
The
diseases, in
some
are
preventive
ago, brought
Department,
which
constituted
as
an
Sanitary
Com-
medical
men
Inasmuch
There
is
a Sanitary
Commissioner of a
still
ment
of India,
who
supreme
authority.
Annual
of
instance
Government
Commission
sanitary
India,
examined by a
of experts in England.
is
commencement
y
system
foundation
on which a philanthropic
322
structure
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xix.
may
be erected.
It is a plant which,
though only a
The measures adopted by the Indian Sanitary Department, relating to the troops and to the military stations, will be
described in the chapter referring to the
to tlie civil stations, the
Army,
Those relating
in this chapter.
The primary
that
is,
returns of the
improveonly an
It has
men having
area,
supply
the returns,
men under
much more
under the
title
of hygiene primers.
Under some
of the Local
men
among
the villages.
In so vast a country,
it
sible for
now
so ignorant
have
become more
measures.
evils
which are more easily remediable and those requirements which are more immediately pressing.
Chap. xix.
WATER-WORKS OF DIFFERENT
first placo,
CITIES.
323
tlie
In the
at
which
is
the cause probably of more sickness than all other causes put
together.
The water-works
of the
Presidency
cities,
Calcutta,
needing enlarge-
may
They
afford such
an average supply
and
domestic uses.
is
pumped with
engines
At Bombay,
the water
is
stored in
hills,
two
with
wooded
is
Madras
city is
kind, but less in degree, have been executed at most of the civil
stations
At
all
these
is
acknowledged to
The provision
first to last
been
to
them
While
in
some
and
Y 2
324
be deemed incredible.
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xix.
in the
evils of
much
and which
The same account, mutatis mutandis, may be given of conmanagement of sewage and town drainThe works at age, and all arrangements connected therewith.
servancy, including the
Calcutta,
cities
cities,
;
country;
itself
Several millions
by
environs
condition.
as yet,
of
many
of the
remain in an unsanitary
as applied to India, has not,
European conservancy,
won
They
are
inclined to doubt
or at least attempted.
Doubtless, there
fear lest,
tools,
who much
is
use them.
scope for sanitary engineering, a branch
which
still
advances, large
sums
of money.
It
borrow from the State, rather than in the market, because the State can afford to lend at cheaper rates of interest. For facilitating these arrangements a general law for the empire, besides
several special laws for
some of the
CuAP. xiX.
LODGING-HOUSES IN TOWNS.
Most
of the municipal
325
improvements have
In
some
cases,
open market when the rates of interest appeared favourable. sewage might, throughout the empire, be made the means of improving the health of the people and of
utilisation of
fertilizing the soil,
The
though
this is
done but
little in
the interior of
the country.
in
some
or
tracts
groups of villages.
in the
towns
is
seldom or never
it
much longer tolerated by public opinion. The want of ventilation is among the primary defects of the urban dwellingcannot be
houses
ly,
;
and
if
But the
practice
which the
very deleterious.
many
of impurity.
penetrate
so
far
inland
among
the
and
most
fresh
In the rural
the
tracts,
much
out-ofat
is
doors
among
fields,
and
life-ffiving.
326
INDIA IN
1880.
CuAP. xix.
Although adulteration has not caused any particular scandal in India, the examination of food is nevertheless recognised
to be important.
In times of
scarcity,
mented grain
are prevented,
is
by the ancient
prejudice,
may
meat of the
and
this is
in the
much
of the
decomposition.
Some
it,
of the
cities
has
poisonous germs in
of illness have
and
to this origin
traced.
some
striking instances
matters
is
Small-pox
is
universally prevalent,
of
almost
every
for
many
years
made
persistent
efforts
arrest
the disease
Kumaon
in
The
practice of vaccination
many
districts,
but has
now been
prohibited,
encourages vaccination.
numbers
theless,
small-pox appears again and again with terrible manifestations before the people, and causes them to disbelieve
the
efficacy of
vaccination.
In this
disbelief,
rendering vaccination
Without
real
co-operation
on their
part,
it
is
Chap. xix.
"
327
impossible to
Wherever circum-
is
But
its
as
this,
unavoidably desultory,
extension
is
are casual
is
and incomplete,
not promoted, or
even
indirectly resisted,
cities
by the people. In some of the principal and in other places the vaccination is legally compulsory
really enforced with the usual benefit
;
and
tlie
is
in other places
power
who
feel
some
natural hesitation
people.
strict,
in exercising
is to
it
against
The desideratum
absolute
and
country,
may
Once they
The
special diseases
known
lamentably
all of
the great
cities.
especially
laws,
for at least
diseases.
Lock
want
In the
stations, there is
The Govern;
in various
;
indirect
opposition from
feebleness
part,
some quarters
and
sometimes a
of
conviction
among the
and the
the
authorities.
however, the
officials
best
men among
328
evil
;
INDIA IN
and
aid
it is to
1880.
later,
Chap. xix.
public opinion
will
for
the
Government
Such
success, if attained,
described,
relate
chiefly
to
what
by
is
The Government
establishment
also does
much
esta-
way
blishing,
or encouraging
the
of,
hospitals
and
dispensaries.
At
worthy of
capital cities.
One
of them,
Bombay, was
citizens.
by
private
name
of
Many
by their benefactions
and dispensaries.
gentlemen
Assistance
to
have
is
come
forward
with
liberal
contributions.
The Government
affords aid,
to their
the chief of
officers
and
them
periodically
inspected
;
by European medical
authorities.
They vary
in size
at all of
them there
is
suitable
accommoda-
Chap. xix.
tioii for
329
surgical operations
are performed,
to outdoor patients.
At some of the larger institutions, reasonmade upon patients who are able to pay but for
;
is
an exact
may
given period.
in the
indoor patients
many
of
which are of a
is
Public confidence in
European medicine
increasing
for training
Notwithstanding
tive medicine,
all these
among
is
the Natives
is
At some
this.
and
in
some
places,
the rate
in
excess of
in salubrious districts
it
is
only
even
the
less.
Hence
which
exists
for
beneficent
is,
operations
of medicine
and
sanitation, a field
which
in co-operation, but of
winch the
gradually advancing.
330
INDIA IN
1880.
CuAP. xx.
CHAPTEK XX.
FAMINE.
Famine under Native rule Under British rule In Behar and Bengal in 1874 Public charity in England In Madras, Bombay and elsewhere in 1877 In India Mortality Advantages of railways Calamity in 1874 com-
tors
Precautions preventing mortality be prevented from wandering Sanitary department Distressed people Relief works Village inspection Relief houses People not demoralized operations Good conduct of the peasant proprienor pauperized by Prospects of material improvement Supply of food by private
to
relief
enterprise.
DuEiNG the
pestilence,
five years,
India has from one end to the other been visited by famine and
the like of which has
generations.
Inasmuch
shewn that
man
of
famines
India,
the
famines of
nineteenth
Under Native
rule,
when famine
occurred, there
of the rulers.
Alms-
houses were opened, the most pitiable creatures were fed, charity
made
to
the
arm
of the State
was regarded
as lying
beyond
work and
wages
employment,
and
who were
CiiAP. XX.
331
State
is
Now, under
all of
obligation
its
of the
to
do
power,
acknowthis
ledged.
Its success,
up,
When, ten
of the
years later, a
this
still
manner
which
in
peril to
The
of
The Government
conviction
relying on
of
its
itself
was, as
it
ought to
own
any
not,
necessary, and,
to resist
own
conscience,
demands
for excessive
Neverto
opinion in India, and caused the remedial efforts to be maintained at a high degree of tension.
ture
assisted
and
relieved,
it
may
be said
that no lives
were
lost.
severe,
was
of comparatively short
During the two years 1875 and 1876, the country had
respite,
kingdom
more
to
of
Mysore.
The
Government girded
for
itself
once
332
of the people.
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xx.
The heartiness
of that
Mayor
many
charitable agencies
to nearly
one
million sterling.
by these
subscriptions,
upon the
grateful
still.
Public charity
itself,
The
of
Government performed
variety
persons,
of useful
its
part
by undertaking an extraordinary
works,
by feeding with gratuitous charity several millions more, and by incm'ring an expenditure which, from 1874 to
1879, has been reckoned at the grand total of sixteen millions
sterling.
Nevertheless, there
has been
if
much
mortality, in southern
taken
together
with
the
augmentation
of
the
death-rate,
by
several
millions,
belief
during
the
cycle
rate
of of
calamities.
If
the general
in
the normal
if
increase
of
the
maintained dming the period in those provinces which for a time escaped the visitation, the net diminution of the population
may
awaited.
Of those who
relief,
many were
many
Chap. xx.
ADVANTAGE OF RAILWAYS
to
IX FA^flXES.
333
succumbed
officers,
famine alone.
And
devotion of
its
penditure borne,
hesitate,
may
to despair.
As compared
had, from
Xative
Government
an ad-
1874
The
many hundreds
of miles, at rates
much
cheaper
than those of the old land carriage, and at a season "when deep
mud and
much
were.
;
traffic of
that sort.
tressed districts
If they
terrible time
indefinitely aggravated.
Those
who were
felt
The precedent
conditions, life
of
On that occasion,
it
lasted,
was
followed by sickness
and pestilence
on the contrary,
its
The
territory
and
come under
super%-ision
and inspection.
circumstances^ were in
marked
very hea^y
on this account
as
having been
has been
The
relief
was
liberally afforded
it
also
S34
censured as excessive.
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xx.
it is
On the
other hand,
to be
urged that
the people shewed no symptoms of being pauperized or demoralized, that they would not have sought for or taken relief
unless they had needed
rains began to
their
fall,
it,
and that
as
no time was
lost in
homes and
Much
on account of Government.
The
It so
happened
ment was
tation, if
year,
had
to be
It
came
if
proved
to the
loss
the
the fact of
its
prove
it
to
even
if
as regards the
and
admitted on
satisfaction
The Native
chiefs,
independently outspoken
body
gentlemen in the
Chap. xx.
1878.
335
country,
But
in the
main stroke of
the calamity.
The
first
or indifferent year
an
evil increasing
Pari passu with the famine, cholera advanced as a dread ally in destruction, and small-pox appeared to decimate the children. When the
it lasts.
became
excessive, sometimes
crops,
febrile
and always
affections.
afflicting the
people with
of death
damps and
malarious fever.
was resumed,
it
afforded
waste.
The concatenation of
mortality
is is
be remembered,
when the
computed.
found to
When
after
have occurred,
decrease represent so
many
Nor
is
it is
by the diminution in the number of births, the families being scattered, and by the loss of infants at their birth.
In the Presidencies of Madras and Bombay, the suffering
people were not, as in Behar, situated in a comparatively concentrated area admitting of supervision
;
among
It
lulls,
valleys
and
and undifficult.
inhabited.
much more
wandering
336
hither
INDIA IN
and
till
1880.
Chap. xx.
thither, seeking
work and
none,
In
many
same
in
Madras
and Bombay, as in Bengal and Behar. The ideas regarding relief works, labour and wages, charitable and gratuitous relief,
kitchens and hospitals,
village
inspection for
searching out
save
life to
ment and
its officers.
Whatever
European supervision
In operations
for
as in
of or
by Native
officials of status
not only will the public funds be wasted or embezzled, but also
the mortality will be aggravated.
The
be
many
deserving persons
relief will
turned away
be
falsified.
Such
evils
they have
but there
is
any
cost, of a
consisting
of
severe the
humane
zeal, in
benevolent
Chap. xx.
337
persistency and
unflagging diligence,
life
event of even
protracted famine.
Beyond
all
material con-
the people has been earned, and the moral effect throughout the
great.
The instance
solutely
of Behar,
if
the
collateral circumstances
may
be ab-
But such prevention cannot with any many untoward mishaps may occur to mar the best laid schemes. The Government must look the difficulty full in the face, and must gird and brace itself witli that determination to succeed which is the surest forerunner of
prevented.
certainty be anticipated, as
success.
The recurrence
is
to be
that no
reasonable
The prospect
to
of famine thus
liabilities of the
must be prepared
for accretion
from time
From
now been
collated
In the
first
may
the
symptoms which
When
pronounced and
its
signs
and
The danger
is
is
really greater
off
when
warded
officers
temporarily
by a
The
prepare to act
z
338
then pause
;
INDIA IN
1880.
C;hap. xx.
though on the whole failing in physical condition. At length the scarcity throws off all pretence of relenting, and comes on
with merciless rigour.
that
It is
these,
some
trained
population, would
authorities,
become both
forewarned and forearmed. The next step is to keep the endangered people well in hand
to let those depart
.of
a reasonable chance
success,
;
return in a state of
emaciation
who
work
in
If aimless
was
and circumstances
favoured
prevention.
it
In Bombay and
esj)ecially in
Madras
was
Circumstances hindered
attributable to
it
prevention
and much
mortality was
alone.
The
relief
moderate distance from their homes, to be supervised by engineering and professional agency some, near their homes, for the
;
feebler persons,
Then
declares
as the scarcity
itself,
there
positively
of all the
who
tending
as
towards
depression,
must
be
relieved
in
such
is
manner
may
be expedient.
This village-inspection
a
it.
cardinal point in
an
effective
system of
relief;
without
Chap. xx.
RELIEF WORKS.
It
339
organized before-
For
must be subdivided
groups.
Over every
or
competent Native
officials,
officer, or at
Native
official
of trustworthy aptitude.
In every
headman should be required to render assistance the ancient communal or parocliial system of the country is peculiarly suitable for work of this nature. The
village
;
the
difficulty
relief,
will
be,
not to reject
fall.
Much
must be established
in suitable
may
may
be sent by conveyances
move.
poor people will be unwilling to resort thither, will hide themselves to avoid being sent there,
and
Consequently,
cases in their
it
becomes desirable
many
of the worst
headmen, a practice which requires close supervision, otherwise These village headmen a door would be opened to peculation.
were not thought in 1877 and 1878 to have done as much as they might, in assisting the State to tend and care for their
suffering fellow- villagers.
is
its
340
INDIA IN
a time the
1880.
Chap. xx.
At such
work
becomes
much
district. It is the special the European officer at the head of the head of every of the Local Government to ensure that the
duty
district is a
man
superior officer in command, of distressed districts there is a and that full instructions are circulated among all concerned.
might be apprehended, perhaps, that a system such as that mortality, above sketched, however indispensable to prevent would inevitably tend to demoralise and pauperise the people
It
and would teach them unduly to lean upon the State in emergencies of this character. Such apprehensions have not been verified by the result. The people never seemed to expect
that the State
would
or could do as
actually
it,
been done.
to
come upon
Often they were willing ing after sustenance for themselves. When for public alms. ask to languish at home, rather than
relieved, they
to their ordinary
employ-
ments on the
"Whenever
off to their
men were
On
of the Natives, during these crucially trying times, has raised the
good repute.
their patience in
witnesses.
The peasant proprietors on all occasions, and in all provinces, have evinced considerable power of self-support and a creditable
sense of their obligation to discharge their fiscal liabilities to the
State.
Very
;
few, perhaps
none, of
them succumbed
classes of
to the
relief
famine
in any shape.
them, indeed,
received
relief,
many
of
CiiAP. XX.
rilOPKlETOUS.
to
3-11
went out
fields.
work
at times
when
generation,
much improvement since the famines of the jmst when some of the peasant pro])rietors swelled the number of those who perished. Certainly the manner in wliich
saved by tliem from diminution
however,
much
of
the
revenue was
collected,
and the
was contrary
for
any
exerted. In Madras, where the famine was worst, the Government certainly shewed all the leniency and The broad fact is tliat considerateness that could be expected.
of their land
revenue.
It is
important that
all
whom
when
whom
On
the
would be most inexpedient to press unduly for revenue on those who could not pay without impoverishing
other hand,
it
themselves.
several Local
Governments and
famines
at
first
their ofiicers.
if
out of evil
empire.
342
INDIA IN
is
1880.
Chap. xx.
The Government
The
local resources
the stores
The food supplies were despatched by private enterprise with regularity and promptitude to the principal marts of the distressed districts from the provinces where the harvests had been
plentiful,
craft
by the railways, by the coasting vessels, or by the and from those marts the local plying in the rivers
;
Government
which may
assist
Mr. H.
S.
official
gentlemen, European
C. A. Elliot as Secretary.
The eminent
the public
regarding
its
the
thoroughness of
its
conclusions.
After visiting
oral evidence,
much
and
Commission has
issued an elaborate
all
which
is
also
Indian empire.
343
CHAPTER
XXI.
LEARNED RESEARCH.
Spirit of research has long existed
and
still
exists
In the present
Works
Military
history Biographies Civil and Ethnological worksBooks of travel in countries beyond the Indus Asiatic Society of Bengal at Calcutta Bombay branch of Royal Asiatic Society Antiquarian remains Archaiological Survey
of historic
fiction
political
Books written
Learned works
iu the past
European readers
history
The
Englishmen whose
lot
it
The
spirit of research
so
many
talented Europeans,
It
may
earlier
Warren Hastings first gave official encouragement to Oriental learning, when William Jones founded the Asiatic Society in Bengal and James Mackintosh a similar association in Bombay, when Colebrooke and Horace Hayman Wilson began It was felt when to search out the riches of Sanskrit literature.
Anquetil du Perron investigated the doctrines of Zoroaster as
brought by the Parsis to India, when Pieinaud drew the notice of Indian students to Albiruni and other Arabian authors,
discovered
mass
of
independent
Buddhist writings in Nepal, when Burnouf threw critical light on the history of Buddhism, wlien Stevenson investigated the origin of the Jain religion. It moved William Hay Macnaghten
344
to epitomise the
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xxi.
Hindu and Muhammadan codes for northern southern India, and Strange to analyse the Hindu law in the entered Prinsep It spread far and wide when James XDeninsula.
upon the
field of archaeology,
with Turner of Ceylon fame, elucidated the spread of the Pali The works of these great men departed, and many language. other labourers in the same field who might be mentioned,
attest the attractions
to the
European
intellect.
its train.
Nor
did this zeal for learning endure only while the novelty and It still endures as bright strangeness of Indian affairs lasted.
by the achievements of the past, it strives to sustain the onward flight and even to soar higher. Men still feel as keen a desire, as heretofore, to gather together the countless fragments of historic evidence, to exhume the
as ever, and, encouraged
all
European view.
either recently
living,
learned research.
and com-
Max
literature
the
contributions
;
by
Goldstiicker
and Biihler
to
Sanskrit
;
learning
among
the
Hindus
Bengal.
palaeography of southern
description
of
graphic
the
religious
in
Eminent examples are also to be found in Edward Thomas's numismatic and archccological researches Alexander Cun;
ningliam's
';
Chap. xxi.
1145
Martin Hang's
in'Sprenger's 'Life of
close
Muhammad'
original
'
in
German,
prc])arc(l
with
study
'
of
the
Arabian
authorities;
William
Muir's
sources
Life of
Muhammad
treatises
;
in English, derived
from Arabic
;
Baillie's
on
Muhammadan law
Great.
Elliot's
first
Muhammadan
other
historians
Akber the
age.
many
eye of
reputation
present
Conspicuous
to
the
teresting
works on Indian
tree
and on the
To
tliis
distinguished
list
by a Native
of Bengal,
;
antiquities of Orissa,
and
Urdu by
monumental
Such
The people
owe much
many books
eastern ideas
and thoughts
in a form
readily
to
Monier Williams'
;
Talboys
poems
;
of the
Hindus
India
Griffith's
Hindu poetry
; ;
346
illustrated
;
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xxi.
work on the architecture and antiquities of western India Ehys Davies' description of Buddhism Hunter's works on rural Bengal, on Orissa and on the Indian Musulmans. To
;
these
may
reformer, entitled
The Light
of Asia.'
History has always formed an important part of AngloErskine's account of the Central Asian Indian literature.
conquerors of India
;
men
;
Ferishta
Mountstuart
Elphinstone's
Muhammadan
political trans-
dynasties
actions in southern
and western India, written when the data Grant Duff's were fresh and many of the actors surviving
;
the
transactions
were present to
;
interjDret
made by Henry
his
and by
work
entitled
The Journey
to Cathay.'
The history
of the
'
Muhammadans
by Keene's Decline and Fall of the Mogul Empire.' The threads of the political and military history of modern India, as left by the standard works of Mill and Thornton, have The two matchless essays by not yet been fully taken up.
Macaulay on Clive and Warren Hastings
to every reader,
first
still
afford delight
European
or Native.
war of the
He
work on the
first
Afghan war
full
of interest.
Special
Phap. XXI.
347
by such
works
history
as
Broome's
the
history
of
the
Benjral
Army, Leach's
history
of
tlie
of
Indian
Navy, and
Laurie's
civil
as
contradistinguished from
remains
and
social
For
this,
prepared
Cust's
by Marshman's
history,
modern
India,
on
the
rural
affairs
of
the
North-western
Provinces
and
on the
'
Sepoy
revolt.
The
Indian thought.
and
for
each
An
is
to
Parliament
among
Government
States,
many
volumes.
of Anglo-Indian statesmen,
An
by Arnold, but
Mayo
records a great
of
prematurely
The
memoirs
Bishops
Wilson, Cotton and Milman, and the Lives of the great missionaries
34:8
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xxi.
Smith, throw light upon the moral and religious progress of The Life of Henry Havelock has been written by the time.
Marshman.
appeared.
part
A
The
by his attached friend and pupil Herbert Edwardes. When the Life of John Lawrence, now in course of preparation, shall
appear, the story of that gifted and illustrious brotherhood will
be
told.
Historic fiction
fills
The
Tara,'
;
popular works of Meadows portraying the revolt of the Mahrattas against the Moguls the Confessions of a Thag,' throwing a lurid light upon crimes
'
by the same author Kaye's novel, entitled Long Engagements,' and many works of fiction, illustrate the India of the past and of the present. The ethnological and linguistic considerations relating to the aboriginal and other races of India have been elucidated by
;
The books
of travel
beyond the
fill
upon
the
Pottinger,
names of Moorcroft, Burnes, ConoUy, Abbott, Wood, Masson men who were consumed by ardour
advance the standard
thought and
and physical
sufferings, ever
indomitable
qualities
which
have
characterised,
and
their
race in
India.
The same
spirit
officers
Manning
of Sikhim.
Adventurous
has
its
charm
for
Chap. xxi.
349
many,
as
proved
l)y
instances.
prefaces to
Wood's account
the
Oxus and
to Gill's diary of
march
in
China.
He
has
to
Ava.
and topographical information has always been prepared voluminously in India, but has often remained in
a disarranged and ill-digested condition, detracting
its
much from
this
usefulness.
Among
the
first
and greatest
efforts in
direction
was Buchanan Hamilton's elaborate work on northern Bengal, the Mysore province and other parts of the country,
when
it
was written,
is
monument of exploring and investigating skill, and is still read by many with instruction. These important steps were followed
by Thornton's Gazetteer, which long continued to be a standard work of reference. In more recent times there liave appeared
the full and learned guide-books to western and southern India
by E. B. Eastwick.
Director-General, Dr.
fications.
More important
still,
the
Government has
its
head, as
W. W.
Hunter, an
is
officer of
eminent quali-
To
this
department
whole empire,
all
The work
is
prepared on the
spot
thereto
laid
down by
Director
to Dr.
Hunter
been
of Bengal,
and
most useful
350
" Statistical
INDIA IN
Abstract "
is
1880.
Chap. xxi.
founder.
Sir
to
the
present time.
It enjoyed for
many
Prinsep as
Secretary,
for the
encouragement
No man
has
left
among
the
still
number
of
rich in
knowledge applied
of the
Similarly the
Bombay branch
its
to the
much
that
is
highest
mental
of its
its
efforts of
The
not
number
able,
considerit is
and
But
and respected, should hold quite the same place which they The comparative proximity of England in these once held.
days induces authors to
offer to the
London,
and
to
other
objects, papers
Many
scientific fields in
India are
left
now
occupied by the
to
be
to the
From
domain of natural and physical science has, the most part, passed out of the hands of these Societies.
however,
contain
scientific
Their journals,
articles
and in
still
research
they are
Chap. xxi.
It
ANTIQUAIUAN REMAINS.
tluit for
351
must be acknowledged
lie
remains which
seems
to bafile investigation,
may
still
many
Of
late
years the
Government
if
prosecuted to
its
Alexander Cunningham, a
for
man
of the
highest
its
qualification
the work.
Already
sevei'al
volumes of
among
adjunct to this
of
As an Bombay have
This
junction wdth this survey, Mr. Fleet has rendered great service Mr. Burgess in respect to Canarese and Sanskrit inscriptions.
also prepares a periodical, entitled
'
under
mass of
however assiduous
The photographic
a
Indian
antiquities
now form
valuable
procured.
The preservation
of ancient
monuments
is
a duty clearly
352
It
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xxi.
this
or
many
years.
utter
modern
structures.
it is
At
own
use.
The duty
recognised by the
Government
it
of India,
is
to be expected that
some
result
and recently
Captain
the
to this
special duty
Cole,
herits a
who
in-
353
CHAPTEE XX IT.
PHYSICAL SCIENCE.
Great Trigonometrical Survey
tory at
Madras Meteorological observations Botanical Gardens, and Herbaria The Geological Survey Natural History Imperial museum
at
Death of Basevi and Stoliczka Pisciculture Organization of an agricultural dejjartment Model farms Popular instruction agriculture Veterinary
Calcutta
OrnithologyZoological
in
art.
Government
in
many
Nevertheless,
has effected
much
scientific operations of
magnitude
The Great Trigonometrical Survey is one of the earliest and best sustained among the scientific undertakings of the
It has served as a basis
Government.
and a guide
much
to general science.
or lesser.
By
these operations
ning the dimensions and figure of the earth. It has recently supplemented these operations by pendulum observations, conducted with great care over the wliole area between Thibet and
the Indian Ocean.
It has
snow, and of
all
The name
of one of
354
loftiest point as
INDIA IN
yet
1880.
Chap. xxii.
Its geodetic opera-
known
in the world.
land in
many
the
much
to
representation
Its
contour
and
configuration
rectification
of
the country.
services
it
geographical
has furnished
many
back-
ofiicers
officers
the sun and the transit of Venus, for which India has offered
special facilities.
It
The Topographical Survey of India, proceeding on the fundamental data furnished by the Great Trigonometrical Survey,
has
made
many
of
of
the mountainous
the
country
inclusive
the
hill-side, mountain top, and table-land, but also every ravine, torrentline.
iDed
and drainage
With
many
can be considered in the cabinet, for the preliminary treatment of wliich much labour in the field would ordinarily be
affairs
required.
When
repeatedly tested
by these
Some
extraordinary interest, such as those of Cashmir, of Ladakh, of Huzara in the Panjab, of the Western Ghat mountains near
Chap. xxii.
METEOROLOGICAL OBSEEVATIONS.
355
Bombay,
coast.
When
the height,
steepness
many
are
all
duly
map-
The
situation
of
Madras being
suitable
for
astronomical
there.
Mr. Pogson,
;
man
of
his
.,
JBombay
is
peculiarly well
tlie
been established
for
many
years,
by Mr. Chambers, with various scientific appliances, chemical, magnetic and others. During recent years the Government
of India has organized a meteorological department
for
the
An
observatory, with
each of the several divisions of the empire. Calcutta, for Bengal, is under the care of
qualified
The
]\Ir.
oliservatory at
Elliot, a
highly
the
gentleman.
The
observations, thus
made by
public information.
during the
rainy
and
at
times
Mdien
scarcity
is
impending.
2
A 2
356
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xxii.
of
are
existing
within
the
limits
of the
and are
of
the
Malayan
the
of
regions.
The Indian
flora
represents
great,
perhaps
kingdom.
The Government
in
is
some degree
to her
Among
the medical
botany.
Of these one
of the
Eoxburgh,
This garden
an area of 272
acres.
It was,
by the
from
labour of
many
occurred.
;
Its misfortunes
re-stock
and
to
improve
its
grounds.
It possesses a herbarium,
collections
made
at
various
times
Wallich and
Griffith,
More who
have
has presented
many
Specimens of foreign
floras
been obtained
at
for it not
Kew, but
also
Melbourne, Adelaide,
It has suffered
made
to
maintain
progressive development.
at Seharunpore,
caiial
northern India,
Chap. xxii.
scientific
BOTANICAL GARDENS.
exertions of
;
357
establislicd
lloyle
and
is
l\alconcr,
and
Dr.
richly stocl^ed
witli it also
associated
first
to.
the
name
ol'
Jamieson,
the
There
a botanic garden at
Utakamand
The Bombay Presidency has not The heavy four months during the monsoon season
Stei)S
have
is
what degree
treatises,
may
most interesting
The Flora
of British India
'
is
and
is
is,
Trigonometrical
l)y
the
Government of India. It has been in progress for about twentyfive years, and with its past proceedings the name of the late
Oldham has been honourably connected. It contains many highly qualified officers, who bear much fatigue and sickness
Dr.
from travelling in
many
where
who
are sustained
scientific
in alacrity
and
zeal
work, and
358
INDIA IN
180.
Chap. xxii.
the heat, the damp, the chill, which are inseparable from them,
is
illustrated
'
entitled
Jungle Life in
by the recently published book by V. Ball, The details of the geology of India.'
the empire, so far as they are yet known, are given in the
manual
of
The
some
in the empire that claimed priority of consideration, such as of the formations in the
Western Ghats,
It
has surveyed
the
Mopani mines on
river, to
the northern slope of the Satpuras near the line of railway in the
Nerbadda Valley
wdiich
Wardha
has,
which a
among many
and
;
other
operations,
examined some
of the
limestone
sandstone
of the trap*
much
morphic
empire.
series.
the metadue course of time, embrace the whole Much, however, remains to be surveyed in so extensive
also, of
many,
It will, in
as that of India.
The
geological department
sort,
a large compartment
museum
at Calcutta.
an
Pala3ontologia Indica.'
The
museum
and among the gentlemen in charge of the museum there are professional naturalists. Sir Joseph Fayrer's illusCalcutta
;
trated
Chap. xxii.
111
NATURAL
lIISTallY
AND
rittClCULTUllE.
359
W.
is
Atkinson.
excellently
The
ornithological
department of the
museum
arranged,
and
is
in the
Dr. Jerdon's
to be a standard
all
work
for reference, as it
nearly
the
know-
Subsequently
much
by a number
of gentlemen
who
are fond
it.
for
pursuing
At
the head of
them
C.
'
is
service,
Mr.
A.
periodical entitled
Some impulse has been imparted to the practical study Natural History among the Natives, by the establishment
the gracious auspices of the Prince of Wales shortly after
Year's
of of
New
Day
in 1876.
they have become very popular, and are thronged with Native
visitors.
There
is
Victoria Gardens at
Bombay, but
Among
the martyrs
of
science
in India
there should be
Survey, botli of
whom
pcrislietl
many
classes
which constitutes an important article of food to of the people but no result worthy of note ensued.
;
Afn-icultural science
is
may
reason
the
u\'er\vheliain,L':
360
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xxii.
magnitude of agriculture as an industry. Nevertheless, the Government has as yet done but little on this behalf nor has
;
it
among
the people.
In 1872 a department of
Kevenue, Agriculture and Commerce was established in the Government of India, under the supervision of Mr. A. 0. Hume,
an
economic
objects.
But
this
primary
It has
work has
been transferred to the other branches of the Secretariat. Lord Mayo, when Governor-General, desired to found a department
to agricultural science
and the
quite practicable.
management of the operations. Otherwise, if any attempt were made to manage these matters through some central authority under the direct command of the Government of India,
executive
irrespective of the Local Governments, there
would be clashing
were properly
would be obtained
for
science.
But
if
this
ment
to
and
gentlemen in the empire, as there are several Local Governments, and under them a scientific staff of Europeans and
The Government
of India
would
to
1)0 its
and
Chap. xxii.
AGRICULTURAL INSTRUCTION.
ago, the
361
Govern-
a special director
of agriculture,
])eneiit
arrangement.
result
before
any appreciable
a staff
With such
of scientific
practical
men working
in
all
the provinces, a
body of
Whereas,
many
of
made
in
to
model farms,
if scientifically
failed
be brought to a scientific
agri-
cultural science.
cultural
of
the
national
education
schools of agriculture, or
students, as explained in
by
The agriculture of an
many
but
may
be gradually improved.
is
In several respects
such as dis-
the
Indian peasant
and making the most of every foot of ground. But in ploughing and other parts of husbandry he is delicient. Though some
fields are
well manured,
still
the want of
manure
in
many
in
of
the fields is
the
condition
of the
The dung
of cattle
is,
in
many
862
districts,
INDIA IN
diverted from
its
1880.
Chap. xxn.
is
used
for fuel.
The bones of dead cattle, instead of being utilised for manure, are for the most part wasted. Sewage instead of being
utilised for the
good of the
fields is
man.
is
the veterinary
art,
in
no
has
been already seen in the previous chapter, relating to material progress, that the cattle are still very numerous, though
decimated by the recent famines.
destructive murrains
occurrence,
Even
in
ordinary times,
of too
and
which
frequent
If
some
of
schools
and
colleges
would
arise,
where
Natives might be
363
CHAPTER
XXIII.
SI'OKTS.
Spearing the wild boarTiger-shootingThe "man The panther Dangerous when he becomes a man-eater Wounds from carnivorous animals The hunting Cheeta bear The elephant The bisonThe rhinocerosThe alligatorThe Himalayan ibex and Ovis Ammon Anglo-Indian wild
"i'he
in
mountains-
literature relating to
sports.
Although
seem
at
first
be
wanting in
seriousness,
still
an
would be meagre,
of the fcrcc naturce,
jejune,
unless he
knew something
still
which
of the plough
and the
axe,
If a
man
receives
other person.
more of exciting pleasure from the country than any Though he may not bend himself to acquire
information regarding the land and
in-
knowledge, yet his sporting pursuits bring him into the way of
all sorts of useful
its
habitants,
a careworn
a great advantage to
him
spirit
in his profession
He
is tlierclty
all t]ie
more able
to retain that
buoyant
disposition,
which are
and enervation of a career in the tropics. Even if he be but an erring marksman, and an unsuccessful hunter, still he must be
acquainted with the
beasts of
lairs,
habits
of
the
tif
364
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap, xxiii.
where they crouch and the hidden pathways where they prowl,
if
he would
.see
"
Ego vitam agam sub altis Phrygia3 columiuibiis Ubi cerva sylvicultiix, ubi aper nemorivagus."
too,
The matter,
aspect, because
to the ravages
has
its
saddening, as well as
its
pleasurable
fall
many
victims
of wild beasts
and
to the bites of
venomous
from the
encourage the
The
same
causes,
is
considerable.
of complaint
It is notoriously a subject
among sportsmen
and from easily
the vicinity
The ravages
many
for
by gentlemen
Still,
numerous mountain ranges wliich ramify throughout the empire, and in the stupendous Himalayan range which shuts out India
from Central Asia.
hunter
;
afield
and
wood become
so tliick in foliage
and
downpour
is
so
must
and
must hang up
and
beware of entering
forests
life-long
malady may be
phere
is
contracted.
cleared of
autumnal
It
at its zenith
lie up,
and must
known
Chap, xxtti.
365
are cauglit in a
slaking their
Then
it
is
tliat
tliey
or
by day.
Many
fall
summer
night, perched
l)y
up among the
branches of
trees,
seeing his
game
to the rifle-shot.
One
at
that of hunting on
horseback the wild boar, and piercing him with a spear, without
This sport
is
followed in almost
of accidents to botli
man
and
worthy of the
steel.
Thus, hog-
hunting,
if
queen of Indian
The
one that,
He
is
But
if,
on
moment
is
come.
him on the
into
spear-point, well.
The But
weapon deeper
tlie
own
vitals.
if
horse, at
least, is in
danger of being
One turn
of the protruding
tusk as the boar ruslies past, severs bone, sinew and artery, as with a knife many a gallant steed has thus bitten the dust.
;
The
a tiger
to
be
Tiger-shooting
is
sometimes attempted on
foot,
and then
366
INDIA IN
special
skill
1880.
Chap, xxiii.
It
is
demands
and wariness.
more commonly
com-
paratively safe,
if
the elephant
is
generally
is,
of his
If or
want
rifle,
among
is
added.
The
feline nature
escape
is
closed,
The
habit. forest
tiger is
when he dwells
Often, however,
If not shot
down
or
hunted
out,
he and his
them from
their homesteads.
Sometimes in north-eastern
tall reeds
Brahmaputra.
From
Thus
in space,
is
tiger, feeling
is
when
retreat, lies
down
is
de-
game,
tempted
up suddenly; and even when he is seemingly life flares up with dread power
Chap. xxiu.
to
"
THE MAN-EATER."
who comes
witliin
^07
reach of
liis
the foe
teeth or claws.
Some
Sometimes the
then he
eater."
tiger,
having
successfully
preyed
on the
the villagers
tliemselves,
" the
and
called
maneitlier
He
betakes
dread
pursuit,
man
is
of affording food.
Then
all
of
Ms
He
seems
to feel
man,
if
warned or
resistance,
Tlie
paw
from
laid like a
fate
;
hammer on
his
and in an instant
all is over.
" man-eater," if
But a
report of this
scourge
is
soon removed.
called locally the
is
The animal
but with great motive power in the limbs, witli retractile claws,
teeth.
if
If not attacked, he
to
is
generally harmless to
sliews a
But
any extremity, he
He charges,
its
object
human
foe.
stantly repairs the mistake, and repeats the assault with greater
precision.
If
up
Having overthrown
wounds, he will pause
and
inflicted desperate
and charge another of those who have provoked him. Sometimes having rid himself of the sportsman, he will dash
368
off
INDIA IN
to
1880.
Chap, xxiti.
wreak
his fury
When
in
this
mood, he
is
the most
He
for
when he
does,
compass
his
destruction,
sake
of
the
Even
he,
however,
is
human
in-
genuity in trapping.
The authentic
traditions of a panther in
to
Nagpur used
killed
be told with
sheer vice
He
At
men from
from desire
for food,
and
would be gathered
for
In
is
hurried away.
The
survivors, terroroff,
and
find
him
a short distance
dead, with a
gaping wound in his throat from which the blood has been
hastily sucked.
At midnight
in another village
some miles
off,
home-
Suddenly a death-shriek
arises,
one
is
cries,
have
off,
been
Towards dawn in a
is
wound
of
The
imagined which
other, spread
among
the people to
whom
him
to elude capture
he was
mobbed and
slain.
is
a particular reason
why
the
sportsman should,
if
from carnivorous
Chap, xxiii.
THE HUNTING
CIIEETA.
;]G!
beasts, which is this, that their claws and tcctli arc often tainted by the putrefaction of animal substances, and tiius communicate a fearful and incurable poison to tlie ])loud of the
sufferer.
first,
Sometimes even a
becomes inflamed and sloughs with gangrene, causing a slow but most distressful death. Some known instances of
this nature are too
shocking to
relate.
is
The
hunting leopard,
kept by Native
panther, but his claws are not retractile and are less harmful
his
agility for a
minute or
so,
is
power
is slight.
He is wise. He
trained to
is
placed,
cart,
Native chariot or
whom
The unsuspecting
approach
cart to
hundred yards.
At
the right
is
eyes,
agony of
fear.
the Cheeta
If,
on
he
liim,
with teeth
some
vital part.
make
good his
flight for
a hundred yards or
The
bear, of
;
many
is
species or varieties,
is
found in
creature.
all parts
If,
of India
he
stupid
on
fight
When wounded,
that,
he
may make
a charge which,
It
was
in
manner
St.
by a
In the
Maur was
2 a
370
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap, xxiii.
Himalayas the bear will sometimes evince surprising strength and courage, and will rush up to the muzzle of the sportsman's <Tun even the barrel of a gun may be bent and indented by a
;
bear
in the fray.
Somesportslest
times a bear, without any hostile intent, will hang about the
forest
after dark.
Then the
man
will
home
at nightfall,
must beware
by
human
feature.
if
face,
mar every
If he meets a she-bear
is
may
attack
he
sure of his
he will bear in
if
she fears
The elephant
for purposes of
is
some
The
best hunting-
The depots, where the captured elephants are kept, have the The sportsman also has liis opporlocal name of Kliedda.
tunities
;
but the
sport
generally requires
an organization
beyond the means of an individual. The gregarious habits of His daintiest the elephant are well worthy of attentive notice.
food consists of the wild plantain and the tender shoots of the
young bamboo.
" salt-licks."
He
Sometimes he
is
device of alluring
by taking
is
Sometimes he
first,
enclosed
wide apart at
but
is
imagined which he makes against the stout barriers of the V, when his danger is fully realised by him. If at some earlier
Chap, xxiii.
THE
371
escape, the
chagrin, indicated
by
his
afford a to his
sorry spectacle.
lot,
He
soon, however,
becomes reconciled
and seems
civilized
servitude.
He
member
is
of
an establishment.
young elephant
of tender age
petted by Natives as
among
But
if
life,
and then
In
some
known
to
have been
The bison
affords
difficult.
is
sport
which
critical
is
interesting
is
without
being
specially
The
moment
The rhinoceros
times he
is
He
is
sometimes
shot, at other
The
alligator is
seldom pursued
for sport,
lies
though marksmen
him while he
is
one
which preys on
and
is
harmless.
carrion
offer,
The other
and will
seize
is
human
beings
and which
the
alligator
of such
Being ampliibious, he
so
which are
common
in the country.
When moving
to another,
timidly at
dawn
or
he
is
awkward and
2 B 2
dis-
372
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap, xxiii.
His
He
As he
lies in
and
at
all
him
is
over in a moment.
The
rush,
alligator, propelled
by
his powerful
tail,
makes a sudden
the
monster, seeing a
man
proper element.
bathing in
many
of the
most picturesque
rivers
so unsafe.
European
soldiers
while swimming.
in wait in
tail, seize,
to drink
Such a thing
would be
ineffectual.
Bengal.
Some women
with long rows of teeth, emerged from the water, and seized
women by
the waist.
rose half out of the water, brandished his victim aloft, and then
and the Ovis Aiimion, the mountain goat and the wild sheep of the Himalayas, demands not only
of the ibex
The hunting
the highest skill of the marksman, but also the nerve, patience.
Chap, xxiir.
373
rarely to be
But
"
he will
live,
move, and
have his
glory,"
being
amidst
the
abounds in
narratives
of
Wild
in the
Himalayas.
Among
books
life
who
forest, is
charmingly
illustrated
by Lockwood's
Sanderson's
*
and by
374
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xxiv.
CHAPTEIi XXIV.
NAVY AND MARINE.
Early naval enterprises
Companies The Indian Marine Marine Surveys Tidal observations the Shipwrecks Native passenger ships Port of Calcutta Cyclones on the Hughli Madras Dockyards Bay of Bengal Calcutta and Bombay Wet dock and foreshore at Bombay Karachi harbours Lighthouses. harbour Examination of
in
Pilots
pier
lesser
Piracy The
Indian
Navy
Naval
arrangement
The between the Government of India and the Admiralty in London Persian Gulf Defence of Indian harbours and coasts Steam Navigation
at
The ultimate
after
With
sea.
The
earlier
madans
did
not
affect
maritime warfare.
down upon
its
seaports,
to establish a power,
which,
maritime.
craft
of the
Malabar
coasts
and courage.
Upon
Mahratta king,
mounted
effect
his guns.
With
the
fleets,
war-ships, he used to
and
some
of his
most
These proceedings
inured
men
then,
to
fighting
When
ascendency
CiiAP. XXIV.
375
many
For
to reduce
Mahratta enemies or
years
to
punish
pirates.
many
the
now
time-
honoured
India
title of
Company
maritime
affairs in
Indian
it
macliine.
rendered service to
acted as the armed
It
the country in
many
fields of action,
and disciplined
and
for the
Its officers
examined
India
itself
and of
ail
sMps
resort.
They
marine surveys,
for
long distances
Thus the
flag
which they hoisted was the symbol of and men were maintained in
vigour
much
But
and
becoming obsolete, by reason of the changes in naval architecture and armament. If new vessels were to be procured from time
to time, according to the changeful types of sliip-building, also
and men versed in the newest forms of nautical instruction, it was preferable that both ships and crews should come direct from the Eoyal Navy. It was therefore determined
with
officers
A marine,
indeed,
many
duties, subsidiary to
it
men
for a
an
and admitted
to pension,
to the
country
by themselves and
their predecessors.
remain
376
ill
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xxiv.
carry
on the public
service.
large
financial
saving was
An
was
Indian waters.
naval jurisdiction
Persian Gulf, to
extended to
Aden and
the
Eed
Sea,
to the
and the
and
the
Straits of Malacca, to
sufficient
many
scattered interests.
Many
demon-
more
of naval
is,
of
many months
in the year,
The
They are skilful, hardy and competent men they are largely employed in the steamships of the European Companies which carry the mails, and in many other steamships and they could
;
Their
Chap. xxiv.
377
army stands
having
forces.
The demand
much
of late, tliese
men
are
more
difficult to oljtain
now than
The defence
coasts
and harbours
of
India, against
its
great
extraordinary character.
It is built far
a river
which
is
not so piloted.
British
The
;
pilotage
is
Government
and
it
fate that
squadron.
of British
Burma,
but
is
is
also Ijuilt
the
Irawaddy,
much more
;
and has a port with much shipping at certain seasons position is not free from anxiety, although precautions have
been taken.
A similar remark
is
On
the sea, but, though the prosperity of the place has been rising,
no important interests are as yet centred there. The important harbour of Karachi is also liable to naval attack, l)iit it has
been placed, provisionally and temporarily at least, in a state of defence and could at comparatively slight cost and in a short For the vitally imtime be rendered adequately defensible.
;
portant positions of
of fortification
have
partly
by reason
of the costliness,
doubts whether such fortifications constitute the best means of At Aden some batteries have been erected, but more defence.
are yet needed
;
it is felt,
1
-c
maintained there.
At Bombay,
also, batteries
378
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xxiv.
them
Two
efficient
stationed
these
are
fully armed,
The
is
establish-
under con-
for
large expanse
possesses a considerable
of,
the island of
might be sent
circumstance
to
secure
constitutes
advantage.
Besides these
little
conveyance of
by officers
of the
vesssels,
men
The steam
fleets,
numbering many vessels, of the two Navigaand Oriental " and the " British
Government
for
conveyance
of the mails.
They
Government,
for
any
Burma
after
to
of a force
from
Bombay
to
Malta in 1878.
troops
between
Bombay, Aden
Chap. xxiv.
MARINE SURVEYS
SHIPWRECKS.
it
:{7!
P>urina
with the advice and assistance of Admiral Jiythesea the Royal Navy, and will soon shew much improvement.
service,
oi'
of the coasts
much
made by
scientific
officers.
In
tlie tides
of the
Indian
seas,
peculiarities, registers
coast,
Mdth
self-
the globe.
In Intlian waters
common
character,
in
their
to
is
reflect discredit
Due
by the
provision
made by law
for
and
strictly enforced
and security on board the ships M'hich carry Native passengers backwards and forwards across the seas, pilgrims, emigrants and
others.
Much
protection
is
who would otherwise be exposed to many perils or distresses. At Calcutta, as the port consists of a broad navigable river,
there
is
is
380
chain moorings
jetties.
INDIA IN
of great
1880.
Chap. xxiv.
strength,
alongside
the
is
quays and
adequacy of
is
strength to resist
periodically threatened,
destructive.
con-
siderable
may
supreme strain of a violent tornado, is more than any one can If the ships do break away from their anchorage in a say.
confined harbour like that of Calcutta, the consequences are
lamentable.
jetties
thrown out
new
and economical.
the outlay being
works
is
favourable
moderate and the returns considerable. The pontoon bridge across the Huglili at Calcutta is one of the finest structures of
its
kind ever erected, and secures almost uninterrupted communication across the river, between the capital on the one
bank and
its
great surburb of
cost.
Howra on
comparatively cheap
their moorings
If the ships
by a cyclone and driven at a considerable speed must give way and add to
Such an occurrence would, however, prove
raised,
solid masonry.
many
years, Calcutta
was
The town and neighbourhood of Masulipatam, was visited by an hurricane of this kind, on and in the dead of night the inhabitants and their dwellings were submerged by the sea driven from the force of wind beyond
again in 1867.
the eastern coast,
its
natural bounds.
visitation
befell, in
Megna
At midnight
a furious
Chap. xxiv.
PILOTS
ON THE
HtOIILT.
381
many
miles,
manner
of cyclones, brouglit
its force to
it
seawards.
the
entire
many
feet of water.
More
where
than one hundred thousand persons were dro-^med in the darkness of that night.
districts
The
Hiiglili river,
to
be
in treacherous sands,
upon which
its
headquarters at Calcutta
it
who
vary from season to season, and of which they must possess the
in
organization have
stances of the time, and the pilots are, as a rule, very able and
competent men.
The
position of the
afford
much room
been
An
may
important
.pier
has, however,
constructed,
-v^dth
be
still
further enlarged.
At Calcutta and Bombay there are dockyards belonging to the State, not indeed sufficient for any considerable naval
purposes, but adapted to execute some
repair
vessels of the Indian
work
many
At both
At Bombay,
to
accommodate
382
INDIA IN
1880.
CuAP. xxiv.
stone revetted
strongest
sides,
description,
and with
for vast
powerful
hydraulic cranes.
of
accommodation
quantities
of merchandise.
;
The
cost of the
to | million sterling
the
this.
works being in
addition to
The dock itself is excellent both in design and execution, and with it the name of the engineer-in-chief, Thomas Ormiston,
will
be always
associated.
laid
auspicious
The
Prince's
dock."
The
capital outlay
amounts
on the extensive
The
interest
on
this outlay,
which
is
dues levied on the trade, and from the rents for the extensive
These arrangements
will, it is
size,
is
possesses
a
of
commanding
situation
If it
must always be
much
importance.
had only something of the expansiveness of Bombay, where ships can ride and swing, it would soon rise to a high rank
among
harbours.
Many improvements
the advice of Mr. Parkes, the harbour engineer. the deep-water portion of the harbour
is
neces-
improved dredging
Chap. xxiv.
.^83
and an
efficient staff of
all
maintained.
made
efforts are
made to keep these dues as low as may be demands of the service of the ports.
Government
of
India,
carried on
by Mr. Walker,
in detail has
little
further examination
The harbours
are
for a
of
Karwar and
by
of
Goa
ships
or
Marmagaon, however,
real
sheltered
headlands,
harbours
limited
mth
deep draught.
On
accommodation
for a
By marine
Government
if
to
the
importance
that,
will,
now
the
southern
Deccan
is to start
from Goa.
Much
made
Excellent
Bombay, Aden, Karaclii, Madras, mouth of the Hughli, and on the salient Lesser lights have been estaBurmese coast.
numerous points on both the eastern and western lighthouse is still grievously needed at Cape Guarda-
fui on the extreme north-east promontory of the African coast, near the island of Socotra, south of Aden. In the vicinity of
if
384
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xxv.
CHAPTER XXV.
THE ARMY.
Constitution of the armies in India
army Strength of European garrison in India The Volunteer movement The Native army Basis of its fidelity Three Native armies, according to the three Presidencies Castes and tribes among the Native
Short
The
service
European
system
soldier
Former
Marked
local
imEuropean
Physique and His obtaining pay and allowancesKecent systems Regular and the Native army Native corps The Native cavalryThe ordnance The European Audit and department The commissariat The transport accountEstablished strength of military
soldiery
Families
army Enlistment
difficulty
officers
of the
Native soldier
recruits
in
Officering
of
irregular
officers
staff
service
forces.
Though
for war,
the
army
of India, as a
combined military
force, can,
Government
and
departmentally,
three
armies,
namely, the
of Madras,
The
respective
The Native
much
importance
is
attached
to
tliis
The
European
The European
ment As
of one
army
to that of another.
is
Chap. xxv.
385
European
forces consequent
A
those
who
were wanting
were at
and in
ventilation,
and
his surroundings
He was
amusements were
many, and
He worked
to a
and
if
sent
by medical advice
sanitarium, he was
journey.
Nowadays,
afford
his lofty
are,
with the
abundance of
air
and
to
receive
complete
and yet
at will to be shaded
glare.
The
men whose
soldiers'
workmanship.
libraries, for
order to draw
amusement, and
them
for adults
and
for
The im-
men
is
evinced by the
little pictures,
386
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xxv.
The quarters
all
the clean-
barracks
is
much
developed.
At
men and
may may
exhilarating
and invigorating
altitudes,
the Himalayas, in
which every
may be
by
sent in
it
its
in India.
men
deposit
it to
money
remit
United Kingdom.
The sum
of
remittances to 142,000.
for in the
The welfare of the orphans of European soldiers is provided Lawrence Asylums at Kusowli, Utakamand and
after their munificent founder,
State.
Abu, named
Henry Lawrence,
The
defects of the
elevation
in
ground,
whence
malaria
;
was
much
exhaled
head
ill-arranged
the
buildings.
An
After that
European
forces
brought the
accommodation into fresli prominence. The matter was taken up earnestly by Lord La"svrence when
question of barrack
to be
the benefit
Chap. xxv.
387
of sleeping upstairs
whereas
all
furtlier
when Commander-in-Chief.
these improved designs.
Many
on
by few barracks
anywhere.
in
They
by the
are
of its
European
soldiers,
and they
They
150,000
to thus
thereby secured.
The buildings
;
are
though
many
authorities
stations at least
to the effect
that some
this description.
and other
back
hills, for
who may be
restored to
whole
mountain
such
Utakamand
in the Nilgiris.
However
required in
may
be in
itself, it
life,
where a
spark
may produce
a flame, politically,
which
if
388
forcefully at once,
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xxv.
It
may
blaze
up
into a conflagration.
troops,
was the
a few in
want
European
marches
But
this consideration,
is
many
is
greatly affected
same
as in other countries.
authorities
ascribe to drink
much
If the soldiers
offences.
During the
;
last generait
of late years
has
for spirits,
The old-fashioned
which really
Still,
the efforts
the reach of the soldiers are often unsuccessful, and the subject
causes constant anxiety.
Meanwhile, associations
tempe-
among
have
several
jpa7'i
thousand
members.
Doubtless
increase
Much
discrimination
is
exercised
by the medical
authorities
home to England
all soldiers
who have
Indian
soldiery
The
local authorities
The examination
of
for
Chap. xxv.
their
389
cure have
At Calcutta
especially,
acliieved.
partial,
and
at at
some other
places,
much
But
at
and
many
miserably imperfect.
It
is
melancholy to
European
force
some
from
preventible, and therefore ought thousands more, during the course of their Indian service, suffer sooner or later from this complaint, which
is
this
disease
which
not to
exist.
Many
must more
undermine
their constitutions.
The
subject,
and
if
European
soldiers in India.
If the
Government
shall continue
must
follow.
But there
are
many
and
elements of opposition in
indirect,
and
coming
of these, firmness
and resolution
as well as
patience
requisite.
The consequences
ing
men
of
beginning to be
in India.
Still,
from England
material.
are,
Complaints
England, just
when they
artillery
are
clearly perceived.
some advantage,
as
drawing
upon
additional
The transactions
arising out of
the amalgamation led to questions between the Government and the men, which were followed by some strange events whereof
the full history has not yet been written.
390
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xxv.
themselves aggrieved by the terms of the amalgamation they were technically in the wrong, but there were circumstances
;
which might make them think that they were in the right. They then committed acts of dangerous insubordination in There was, for a time, some different parts of the country.
peril to the empire,
warnings of this experience are doubtless remembered whenever the idea of restoring a local European
army
is
resuscitated.
ever,
The
owing
cost of the
to
improved
the soldier.
Consequently
many
authorities
are induced
to
66,000
officers
that
hold
is
cannot.
The
as to
points, to
all
dominate
all
command
;
the
main
lines of
communication
there
reasonable hope
but
more than
Indians
this
cannot prudently be
is
said.
Volunteering in India
;
restricted to
among them
it
flourishes as a
permanent
interior
The men
The
rules,
Government
army
cally
of the
United Kingdom.
The corps
by military
authority, rifle-shooting is
much
encouraged,
degree of
and a
fair
attained.
may
be computed at five
Cjiap, XXV.
391
to tlie
battalions,
some addition
European
The value
of the volunteer
it
movement
produce in
may
respect of
community armed
in India, teaching
them
defence,
and imparting
to
them
that confident
bearing which arises from discipline and training, and which tends
to
Should
they be at any
moment
occupy
many
of the points
where British
and
to
had been
In
enrolled
the disturbances
of
would
render
would
rise high,
much
Next
and
after the
is
main
The obligation
a force of 66,000
severe drain on the warlike resources of the United Kingdom, and would indeed tax heavily the means of any military power
in the world.
It
would be
of the
difficult to
provide the
men
for
;
any
and
large augmentation
European garrison
in India
even
if
the
men were
expense of maintaining them. The importance of the European Not only in his soldier is equalled only by his costliness.
maintenance, ordinarily three times, perhaps even four times, soldier; but his lodging as expensive as that of the Native
demand and accommodation in an eastern or tropical climate to and from India by sea, a vast expense. His transport, also, of England, involves a power maritime though easy for the
large
outlay
chargeable to
is
India.
On
;
the
Native soldier
his
Erora
for
and no rations
huu
392
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xxv.
State.
More
especially
a small allowance
is
made
to
him
Native
soldiers,
or Sepoys, have
might be required.
The recent
However
its
thrifty the
Government
may
Native
number must be
soldiers
stationed
the Native
States.
These,
together with
the
European
soldiers,
make up
and
men, which
may
The
fact of
the
garrison
men
is
The country must be garrisoned in a competent manner and the dominant points in it must be held. Small insurrections here
and there from time
peace,
to
and during
dragons' teeth.
At such
moment
Government
If the
it
united volume of
ensues, as
when the surging waters overtop the dykes and sweep in an uncontrollable inundation over the land. Such an
Chap. xxv.
iidS
apprehension
perience,
is
which proves that such events have happened, and indicates how they might happen again. Now, although the
of the
body
politic
and also
l^e
they are
all
numerous
to
perform
the
the
If such
duty
frittered
away
in operations
which
better,
by Native agency.
The Native
soldiery,
encountered by them.
Therefore a considerable Native
army must
ever be employed
it is
forces to a
But
if
On the
of this
army which
had some grievances which were real though The men had been drawn too exaggerated by imagination. Northern India, a class someof Brahmins the from largely
what disposed
to fan
Various political
many
one cause
was
a consciousness that they held the scales to determine whether British authority should be vindicated, or for a time be
humbled.
fortresses
or partly
many
of the treasuries,
At many
394
had a
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xxv.
any Europeans
at will seize
They could
much
also of the
Swayed by
all
national
which are
still
unextinguished in
wild, unthinking
the
Native breast.
and
common to
Orientals.
In
short, the
war of
Native army
is
ever raised to
its fidelity.
It
and rend
its
masters,
who
themselves.
and
strategic
points.
if
for
There
is,
however,
point
at
army cannot be
The loyalty
soldiery.
and
fidelity of the
that presented
by the same
European
With
years.
There
is
Chap. xxv.
395
away from
safety,
and
and
homesteads in peace.
There
is
also a
rememtiiist
him
in the future.
All this
is
There
are not included the patriotism, the pride of race, the feeling of
nationality,
its
defenders, which,
addition
to
the
sentiments
above
if
described,
soldiery.
Consequently,
fidelity of the
Native army
must
necessarily be dubious.
the same motives for fighting to the bitter end, for standing
faithful to the utter extremity,
has.
The
is
faith of the
too
be easily dimmed.
or obscured,
But
if
that
faith
were
to
become weakened
Here, then,
is
some catastrophe
would ensue.
others,
many
weight
and influence
Profiting
by experience, the
British
is
At
are
enough Europeans
hold their
own, even in the event of a mutiny. On the other hand, there the Native troops, who take is no semblance of distrust towards having many a share in guarding and garrisoning the country,
honourable and important duties confided
guarantee can be given as against
to
them.
No
actual
;
mutiny
or
396
but
INDIA IN
1880.
CnAr. sxv.
It
many
effective precautions
would
to
not be expedient to
one
European
soldier
but
much
Some eminent
is
But any reduction would be seriously deprecated by many whose views on military and
a moderate reduction
possible.
political subjects
command attention.
to the efficiency as well as the
is
Native troops,
namely those
respectively.
The
soldiers
of
the
three
belong to
and in language.
all
know
the
Urdu
or
As
their
homes
are in
some
them amount
its
Each army
under
own Commander-in-Chief, and has distinct headquarters, so that the three form organization, and traditions of its own Each army ordinarily serves in its own definite entities.
;
homes
it
of the
men.
It
is,
however, liable to
and parts of
army
It did to
when
Undue
reliance
must
to
not,
it,
prevent unlawful
in the
It
opens every
recruiting-
ground
draw men
CiiAP. XXV,
TrJBES
tribe.
SOLDIERY.
military
397
from
every
also
renders
tlio
service
if
men
had permanently
to serve in districts
Men
Bombay
for a
from northern India will indeed accept service in the Presidency and in the Deccan. Native soldiers from
India will wallingly go, for a short tour of service or
all parts of
But a
battalitjn
of Panjabis
would be miserable
if
permanently quartered
in
Bombay Mahrattas
officers,
in Bengal proper.
The Commander-in-Chief
appoints the
and upon
his
pend.
It is essential to
is
composed of various
apart.
of the Bengal
army
is
the western
coast, still
many
This arrange-
ment
as
is
a precaution
combination.
Overmuch
inasmuch
jiroduce
as a safeguard,
community
of discontent,
may
universality
Still,
of disaffection
among
otherwdse diverse.
mischief
One
mutiny
in
1857
was the
consisted of
Hindu
caste,
which was more likely than any other to become susceptible of headstrong impulse, and which dwelt in a province where
recent political events had inevitably provoked hostile intrigues.
The Brahmin
ceased to
enlist
men
in
Oudh
or
in
398
Panjab,
a
INDIA IN
province
1880.
Chap. xxv.
so
which furnished
crisis
many
gallant
and
faithful soldiers
during the
of the
mutiny.
But the
was seen
they
whom
of race, of
birthplace, of nationality,
religion.
They
own
position.
tliis
score in 1858
It
was perhaps
realised at the
moment.
was averted
by
Government
of the Panjab.
The
now,
risk
of other tribes
is to
There are
fighting
many castes and tribes in the empire which furnish men of good quality. The races capable of supplying
the best soldiers are the Sikhs of the Panjab, the Gorkhas from
the valleys near Nepal, the
Muhammadan
west
The name
of the
Brahmins of
military
Oudh
they
have
forfeited
once held in
estimation.
troopers,
ready-made horsemen,
used to the saddle from their youth, are obtained from the
Muhammadan
Satlej.
Good horsemen
A further
of
Native
the
practice
CiiAP.
XXV.
399
whereliy the
men
them
ordinary cantonments.
the Madras
This
is
indeed hardly at
stations
all,
causes
the
military
to
be
with
non-
But
it
men
The Madras
officers
men from
fine
men, of
broad, thickset
and
as
British
They
than
other
Native troops
are needed,
for
work
in wliich
sheer
weight
and strength
and in which
men, bred
to be endured.
The Bombay
active
and smaller,
hills,
The Madras
are
slighter
still,
but steady
;
little
frames and
much endurance
more
In
are
all three
is
armies
much
the same.
uniformly
orderly;
excellent
everywhere;
demeanour
is
most
borne
400
in
INDIA IN
that the Bengal
1880.
Chap. xxv.
mind
army
is
of the
Native
forces.
important not to
the
army regard
itself as
occupying
;
as
indispensable to
the State
but
and capacity,
from the
and
so far as circumstances
may
permit.
differs
There
is
is
the enlistment
There has
on the contrary,
the enlistment
is for
a long period.
to afford
him pay
life
and
as the forfeiture of
much
respected as a safeguard.
Some Native
at all times
been found
but
common.
In
Government and
The furlough
of the
to revisit
their
homes and
them
in cantonments.
service
Lands
had everywhere
devastation,
Pievolutions
out
of cultivation,
owing
little
war or
demand.
and
agricultural
labour was
in
customed
by martial avocations.
Chap. xxv.
401
fixccl
perhaps a handsome,
rate,
as a
wage
which the
lapse of time
become
less
and
less favourable as
brisk
labour
markets,
the
rising
growing
trade.
From time
to time slight
im-
might
command
its
armies.
In
all parts of
the
country the price becomes exceptionally dear during the periodically recurring
drought, and in
fifteen
many
parts of
the country
set
years
a dearness has
in
which
as-
be permanent.
Therefore the
Government,
to be regulated in
some degree by
ever
made
if
the cost of
rate.
In time
to the soldiery
considerable.
gaining ground
and
yeomanry and
of labourers.
offering themselves
in less
abundance; whereas formerly there used to be some considerable competition, and young men used to remain in
Within the
recruits in sufficient
numbers
requirements of the
army
phenomenon observed fm
2 D
402
the
first
INDIA IN
time in British India.
1880.
Chap. xxv.
The
difficulty
may
partly arise
diu?ing the
snows
and
may,
among
to be hoped,
During recent
number
is
who
worthy
is
of note.
Such
men
and there
;
doubt as to what
becomes of them
to cvnl occupations,
Native commissioned
Another peculiarity in the Native army is this, that the officers have grades corresponding, though
as possible
relatively in
and yet
rise entirely, or
almost
selection,
but chiefly by
Thus
if
and
to lead
the
way
in action.
ment
of
Xative
officers
of chosen
merit;
limited
number
of
European
officers,
AYhen tried on
it
never been seen in the empire than some of these irregular regiments.
to be
open
commissioned
officers,
morally, depriving
them
of
the
the
sense of
responsibilities
officers,
European
affording
employment
to
Chap. xxv.
4U3
the European officers whose work was shared with the Native
officers,
European
and causing unnecessary expense to the State. officers were reduced to a number sufficient, as
The
it
was
more of the
officers
would be exercised
are
more
than
formerly.
principle,
now
organized on this
disapproved by
many
in Madras.
birth to
much
controversy ever}'where,
Despite
many
differences
and
shades of opinion,
far as
while
many mIU
affirm
that the Bengal troops are better than they ever were.
On
old.
Appre-
by many
the
It
in
actual action.
seems,
officers
should be too
among
the leaders
that a sufficient
who are but too likely to fall while leading numbs of such European officers must be
;
it is
Xative society
It is held
by some high
authorities that
men
to
be Xative commissioned
officers,
opening a
2 D 2
field
404
to
INDIA IN
for lionourable distinction.
1880.
Chap. xxv.
them
As
among
many
excellent
men
A change
European
made
in
tlie
manner
of appointing
officers
officers
Native army.
Formerly
were
Nowa-
days every
officer first
Then,
if
so
corps,
staff"
Bombay
corps,
respectively.
and promotion, he
all sorts of
is
admitted to the
staff
which comprises
Army
and some
employments.
is
Thus a
European
officer,
in
who
has obtained his position by special preparation and qualihas passed certain examinations, and
tlian
is
fication,
The Commanding
command
it
by
seniority.
On
the whole,
that the status and acquirements of the European officers of the Native
The three
officers
corps,
not
for
that
of the
forces
which
allotted to
the Indian service, while the other share pertains to the English
service,
and
for
They
also contribute
of military
administration.
service
and some
to various
branches of
employ.
The conas
stitution of these
condemned by many
Chap. xxv.
THE NxlTlVE
CAVx\.LRY.
field oifieers
405
whose promotion
regulated by time, and M'liose rank thus becomes too high for
The foregoing
Native infantry,
description,
is
to the
where
also the
new system
has
taken place.
By
European regiments.
some
;
men the combine among horsemen to pay being fixed so as to enable the themselves and to form funds for providing the horses. Some of the Native officers were allowed to bring their own men and their own horses, and thus to become influential and enjoy a certain status. Some of the regiments thus constituted have done
irregular regiments
aljle
Native
are
now
for horse-
Many
for
Indianmilitary
obtained
in
the
market
Government imports
mounted
fairs in
and
northern India.
The remounts
the
Native
cavalry of
Bombay market
Many
of the horses
of larger build, required for the purchases by the Government, are obtained from Australia through the markets of Calcutta
and Madras.
On
the
much more
scarce
The indigenous
406
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xxv.
last
some of them, once famed, have almost died out are fostered indirectly by the State, which does
can to preserve this local resource.
what
little it
But most of
the horses,
now
of foreign extraction.
are,
A few
however,
still
and give a
fair
promise of success.
The Native
artillery,
was abolished
with
some mountain
which are
in India
still
is
batteries,
manned by Native artillerymen. The artillery now an integral portion of the Koyal Artillery of
of forming a reserve for the Native army, after
The question
would
The scheme
certain
probably be
found
quite
practicable
under
would
enlist, to serve
of years and homes on reduced pay, with a liability But they the standards whenever wanted.
full
pay
for a limited
number
to be ultimately converted
to
to be continued, perhaps
without the liability of being called out when the time for such
pension should arrive.
inasmuch
as
many men,
trained to
likely to be taken
up
at
present, unless
numto
now
But, as
for the
of
men
make up
Chap. xxv.
407
to
Native forces
would be open
objection
The departments
armament
efficiency.
Even on the
very important,
not
if
any gust
Consequently,
Company maintained
its forces
depended.
Almost
tbe
made on
The guns,
arms,
The foundries
guns in
iron, brass
on an extensive scale
commanding
positions,
in
all
losses of small-arms
Had
still
further imperilled
The necessity
steps
for
precautions
was
diminished
first
by successive
in
improvement of communications,
With
the application
it
was found
Suez
that
408
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xxv.
to arrive in India
within a very
means
Hence the guns and the small-arms, of the Snider, Enfield and
Martini -Henry patterns, are
now made
in
England
and the
made
as ever.
is
a special interest
the
work
reason of the quality of the indigenous leather and the cheapness of Native skilled labour.
the mid-valley of the Ganges.
on
at
Cawnpore, in
managed by
Among
the
Bengal
;
for the
North-
western Provinces
Bombay
for
western India
St.
George at Madras,
southern India.
The clothing for the whole army, European and Native, has always been, and continues to be, made upon the spot, with
material imported
from England
efficient.
consists
its
entirely of military
officers are
its
commissioned
with supplies,
officers
the army.
In ordinary times
tlie
principal duty
consists
in providing
European
soldiers
In
it
and
tlie
camp-followers
if
Afghan war
must have been more than an equal number of non-combatants, so the Commissariat had to provide supplies at that time
Chap. xxv.
for
409
Indian Comits
at least
On
The supplies
and never
fail
in the field
when
There has
Commissariat,
army
in time of war.
If ever
it
has been
open
was
this,
was
its
many
things simultaneously.
In
its
officers
the soldiers receive good rations, and that the State shall be
protected from fraud on the part of contractors and others.
difficulties
regarding
transport have been serious, and have been overcome only by a most liberal expenditure on the part of the State, added to the
devoted exertions of
its officers.
;
The supply
of baggage-camels
within India
itself the
mortality
among
first
may
less
appear at
Probably not
than 40,000 of
in military service
and endurance But the camel, though famed for under some circumstances, proves under other circumstances
have a delicate constitution, which succumbs and perishes suddenly. With commercial caravans in Central Asia, where
to
he
is
thoroughly cared
for, all
to his welfare,
wdth ample
most
useful,
name
But on
fails to
of
are urgent,
which
is
on the sands
to
man
or beast, during
many
marches.
To lay in supplies
410
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xxv.
war, was a task which often taxed the resources of the authorities
To supply or to carry forage for the transport animals was a task which sometimes proved to be beyond the power of the responsible officers. Besides cold and fatigue,
to the utmost.
there
was often
the
among
In the
animals.
of camels'
was
severe,
as
The records
of the
Muham-
madan
military com-
camels, these
animals
prove
as valuable
it
in
war
as
In this respect
to
is
important in the
concerned
those
war
inculcate
on
all
first,
by painful experience, and after heavy cost of animal life and Besides camels, there are other animals useful for of money. Pack-bullocks and draught-bullocks are military transport.
obtainable in
in
many
in
thousands from
unlimited.
indeed
numbers
that,
practically
Eecent
experience has
shewn
the
made by
soldiery
to be
body of
in
commissioned and
all
versed in
management
of animals
military service.
of profession,
Such knowledge of
for
itself constitutes
a sort
who
devote themselves to
Chap. xxv.
411
of various
Such
organi-
were better
to organize separately
if
Sir
George
Balfour was
president,
and
Its
it
was managed
for
some time
specially
by
Sir
George Kellner.
sidered
by Mr. Foster
who was
deputed to India
which
the whole
make up
pay and allowances of the establishments are audited by the Pay Examiners of the respective Presidencies. The accounts of
each of the administrative departments attached to the army of
the Presidency, as relating to the commissariat, the ordnance, the medical services, the clothing and the like, are audited by
departmental Examiners.
The audit
of all kinds
is
supervised
by a Controller of military accounts for the army in each Thus there are three Controllers with their rePresidency.
spective staffs of Examiners for the whole empire, all working
on a uniform system and method, and under the general supervision of a Military Accountant-General immediately under
the
Government
of India.
The accounts,
as finally audited
by
412
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap, xxv.
The
upon a
plan,
which ensures
yet so far
by the Government
For the
Ije
prepared yearly,
and
is
scrutiny.
allotted
According
to the
tary department.
are guided
and auditors
no
diffi-
made to military
disbursers in the
inci-
More
Hence
it
expenditure
ment and for the extraordinary charges of the war. In such circumstances the audited military accounts cease to be a trustworthy
guide, and the accounts of the civil treasuries of the country
afford the only true
This chapter
may
is,
Some
its
413
414
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xxvi.
CHAPTER XXVI.
FOREIGN RELATIONS.
Indica's
Aden Southern Arabia Socotra of India Afghanistan Opinion in and KashgarNorth-west India regarding Russia Kokand, Bokhara and KhivaBoundaries of Afghan doroinionsRussian embassy to Caubul Position of Badakshan and Balkh Relations of Persia towards Herat Russian advance on Merv YarkandPersian province of Khorasan Importance of HeratFreedom of Afghanistan from Russian iniluence Amir of Caubul Kyber Value of Candahar. Pass Kurrum Valley The Pishin
neighbours, north, east, and west
Muscat The Persian Gulf Mesopotamia The straits of MalaccaThe kingdom of Ava Adjacent provinces of China Eastern Thibet Yarkand
frontier
frontier
continent of
an inverted
triangle, of
Cape Comorin,
India
both
This
circumstance
kind to
advantage.
It
also
furnishes
to
sea.
British
maritime
may
be,
are
For the other half of India, consisting of the basins of the two mighty rivers Ganges and Indus, the richest and most important
half of the two,
is is
possessing, however,
two outlets
and two
mouths
of the rivers
Ganges
and Indus, which constitute inestimable advantages to the mistress of the seas. Still, this long mountainous boundary, consisting indeed of several distinct frontiers, opens
up
to northern
Southern
Chap. xxvi.
415
India has happily not any alien neighbours, but nortliern India
has several.
India's interests are not, however, confined to her
lier
antenme
Siamese peninsula
to
Beluchistan and
connection
still
intimate
with
tlie
Straits
now separated, once formed and which command the gates of the Eastern
part of
Archi-
pelago and the Chinese Seas, protecting the route of her com-
of Africa
Thus, notsea,
she has
many
coast,
it
is
Bed
Sea.
It thus
dominates
As
justly
styled
the
it
Gibraltar
of
the
East.
Though
com-
paratively rainless,
possesses the
means
the troops, and for the civil population of Asiatics Mdiich gathers
in their wake.
it
draws
its
supplies of
food
territories
416
African coast opposite.
other reasons,
British at
series
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xxvi.
must cause
up between the
Aden and
and
their neighbours in
of political
transactions
in
relations closer
Aden has
an
become the
the
arbiter
among
the
Arab
tribes
throughout
little
Mandab
portant.
Strait,
its
is
which the
Muhammadan
pilgrims
craft
Opposite
Aden
is
near the north-east corner of the African coast, has an important position.
It
is
political
tribes
The
on
the neighbouring African coast, called the Somalis, are not under
British supervision politically, but the relations of the Eesident
at
are of a close
The
Suez to
ment
for
as indisputable.
of the
Arabian coast
of Muscat,
is
further secured
by
Imam
Near
who
the bay of
Oman.
traversed
by a
Chap. xxvi.
417
of the British
Government.
practically in
many
respects
at
controlled
who
namely
the pearl fisheries of Bahrein near the Arabian shore, and adopts
its
The coaling
The
The
com-
the south-eastern
extremity of Persia.
Bushire
itself
mands
Persia.
also
tele-
graphic
communication
between
India
of
and
Europe.
The
Above
of the
mouth
Mesopotamian
Karak,
last Persian
The Mesopotamian
river
above
mentioned
Tigris
is
the
Bassora, or Basra.
Up
to
is
Under
there according to
is
need or convenience.
the Kariin,
Near Basra,
too,
the
confluence of
;
and
its
is
Above Bushire, again, on the Tigris, is Baghdad, where an officer is stationed, who is appointed by the Viceroy of India
2 E
418
as
INDIA IN
in
1880.
Chap. xxvi.
Political Resident
Government
Gulf
liave
in the Persian
several shores,
Persia
itself,
some
of those regions
too, in
Her power,
The
this
mentioned,
the east.
is
now
is
Although India
may
be obliged at any
moment
to despatch troops to
and
Malacca.
Inasmuch
for
between
such expeditions
may
recur.
From
the issue
of his successors,
the three
first
Burma.
The
fourth,
Burmese
In
this
kingdom
Amerapura,
when many
Chap. xxvi.
419
late
king.
Mandalay
attitude
tribes
to
drawn
of the
east
last
year in
consequence
the
hostile
Burmese Court.
the Irawaddy,
The
relations
with the
hill
of
frontier,
at
one
Ava
:
quite
to
imminent.
The
king
with
had
been long
endeavouring
cultivate
friendship
support.
moment he
advanced
the
aspect
to the
very verge of
hostilities.
of affairs
became
so
of hostilities
was
for the
moment
averted,
How^ever
the people
may
of Ava, the
fraught
is
with elements of
The
interest of
it,
England
in
Ava
cliiefly
which connects
way
Burma and
south-western China
may
be improved.
The
last expedition,
ended unhappily in
it.
This deed,
in
was punished
Yunan, however,
to India;
for
is
is
was traversed
2 E 2
420
INDIA IN
ago,
1880.
Chap. xxvi.
some years
by Cooper,
is
no marked result
felt in
head
is
The
real
control,
however, rests
of
its
own
there,
troops.
Himalayan, principalities
Both these
their trade
Thus the
political
Muhammadan
State of
Yarkand and
Yarkand
lying between Kokand, a part of the Ptussian possessions in Central Asia, and Ladakh, a part of the Indian Native State of
Caslunir, is a comparatively
narrow
must,
the
As
population
made.
He was
killed,
however, and
So long
Government shall hold its own there, the British Government may tolerate the situation without absolute disthough not without some anxiety.
satisfaction perhaps,
But
if
Kokand, were
to
Chap. xxvi.
NORTH-WEST FRONTIER OP
INDIA.
421
occupy Kashgar or Yarkand, then she would come in contact with the outlying dominions of Cashmir and with the British empire. This would arouse apprehension among the English
Such apprehension would, however, refer to the indirect effect which the contact would have on the Himalayan
authorities.
them on the Panjab and not any direct military movement. For, between the Cashmir dominions and Yarkand there intervene mountain
;
But although
march
if
this
Yarkand might,
to
adjoin India.
now
reached the
The
Indus
tribes dwelling
frontier,
Momands,
and
others,
have
for
is,
Therefore
it
became
necessary on
against
many
;
them
necessity
must be
regretted,
was
Though the
tribes still
force, is just,
is
merciful, and
considerate.
than
It has
been thought
by some
on the Sind
ment was
frontier
too severe.
The
severity, however,
was
in proportion
Peshawur
and therefore
422
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xxvi.
The
principles of the
though the practice has varied according to circumcases the endeavour has been to deter the
stances.
rude
tribes
from
lawlessness,
and
to
win
them
over to
peacefulness.
relate to Afghanistan,
was underattempted
As
commentary on
tjie
war would be
is
summary
the
permanent importance.
Had
general war, some blow should be dealt at India from the north-
the
means
of embarrassing
England in case of
hostilities arising,
the future,
then no person
Most
in India
mended
Government should
ghanistan.
as likely to
cause waste of
majority
of
life,
loss of treasure,
difficulties.
The
and entirely
free
Chap. xxvi.
AFGHANISTAN.
423
graver contingencies
may
arise.
in recent years
lias
something worse.
From
Associations
classic
hovering
round
the
Indian
the
Caucasus,
hills,
the the
Oxus, the
snow-clad
ranges,
stir the
rugged
adventurous
spirit
Still,
which
such
in
the breasts
of so
many Englishmen.
The
all
save
For
many
and
still
more
Khiva, there
have
been
apprehensions
The alarm
operations
authorities
;
felt
in Afghanistan on
account of
itself
the Russian
in
Khiva communicated
to
many
Indian
different
shapes.
Some persons
to
The plundering of this fertile and populous country was Afghans as a bait for inducing them to join
These extreme views have been dissipated by the
the invaders.
dis-
abroad.
less
home to prevent her from engaging in complications Her power of aggression is proved by experience to be
Her
position in Central
Asia
is
If she
attempted to
424
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xxvi.
she
had
ac-
quiesced in
of Paris.
the position
She would,
it
own
and
to the
Circassia
and elsewhere.
and thus
British capital,
most
solid
and lasting
Before
kind, would
becoming quite amicable. There was a hope that the amity would
prove enduring between the two European empires in Asia,
Eussia receiving capital from England, and England drawing
interest
from Eussia.
The
securities of the
Eussian Government
offer
one of
vestment of money.
of borrower
induced
men
and
improve-
This fair prospect ment upon wliich Eussia had entered. when war was declared against Turkey by Eussia in vanished Then were the apprehensions of Englishmen in India 1877.
resuscitated in regard to the indirect effect of these events
upon
have
was understood
to
assumed towards
Persia,
by Eussia
calculated
acquired
if
was
for Kliiva is
to
cause
disquietude to
Englishmen,
nance of those
territories
l;)y
Chap. xxvi.
425
lias
unworthy jealousy.
barbarism which
dis-
humane and
direction.
may be
broadly described
Jaxartes,
which
is
lies
between the
classic rivers
Oxus and
and which
power.
too
Whatever conduces to the good of humanity from European domination in Central Asia, may well be done by
Eussia,
is
if
this.
But there
a great
no reason
territories
may have
some time supposed that Kussia was in Central Asia annexing territories which yielded but little and wliich were sparsely inhabited by untameable tribes. Such
for
is
was
not,
They
manageable population.
the
basis
afforded
on
which
Asiatic
have
been
founded.
Though much
or three generations.
Fanaticism
may
drive
into rebellion, if
an
But
if
may become
So
far,
as orderly as
many of the
subjects of other
European
powers in Asia.
then, there is no valid ground of rivalry on the part of
for
supremacy in
tliis
A
to
and
of sufficient breadth
426
troops
at
INDIA IN
any one time.
1880.
Chap. xxvi.
The Oxus
for
itself constitutes a
good
boundary in
It
England
the
Oxus
tion
up
the
natural limit
home
in Central Asia
little
These
difficulties
were
for a
Wakhan was
point,
whence a
both
line
towards
Foreign
may
Thus
quieted,
seemed
to
Had
acknowledged by
arisen,
and all
its
Chap. xxvi.
427
But
at Tashkand, in the
Khanates
aliove mentioned,
an embassy to
ol^ject of
Amir
of Afghanistan as against
The
known,
but there
to England.
and a positive
it
They
were,
is
true,
prepared at a time
when
hostilities
complain.
Still,
bassy ought not to have crossed the Oxus until war was actually
declared between the two empires.
Nevertheless
it
did cross,
was
in
full
deliberation.
Eussia
may have
claimed,
by an
for
hostilities
Even
was bound
to
pause
moment
1878.
which started
telegraphic
at the
of
with
St.
Petersburg,
but
pro-
ceeded to
the
destination
at
Caubub
still
international
obligations
subsisting,
and the
esta-
difficulty of recalling
an embassy once
it,
way and
and
momentous
a matter.
The
It
may
428
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xxvi.
Government did not intend that the embassy should proceed and Englishmen will after the date of the treaty at Berlin
;
good intentions.
be
lieutenants.
The
late
Amir
of Afghanistan,
acts
which led
against him.
or
much
It is
discussed,
be re-argued, as
it
relates to
is
means
of vindicating of the
rights
respecting Afghanistan.
The policy
its results
war
made above
permanent importance.
it is
to
maxim
that no
England
now
are.
of the Oxus,
of the Oxus,
mainly
Maimena and
to
Eussian empire.
;
England
Eussia should
other hand,
to herself
limits.
On
the
may
think
fit.
It
does
not
necessarily
follow
that
she
Chap. xxvi.
THE OXUS
to
HERAT.
close,
429
or
to
undertakes
Afghanistan.
render
these
relations
control
territories sliall
some
tlie
of the Oxus.
But
ought
approached in a good
spirit
on both
sides,
difficulty.
of
Kush
instead of the
Oxus
itself, as
istan.
Afghan boundary
Indian Caucasus,
acquiesce in
territories
placed beyond, or to
the north
for
of,
the
to
England
in
itself
the
on the southern or
as
river.
These
territories,
the well-known
positions of
fraught with
resources
political importance.
They
means
from
and the
would be impossible
preserve Afghanistan
The
to
fail to
pay deference
at
any
Badakshan.
territories
by
Prussia
to
make any
acknowledgment
Government,
when
it
assumed charge
administration after
Yacub resigned
430
and advanced
brigade.
INDIA IN
towards
1880.
Chap. xxvi.
Candahar,
after
defeating
British
He
ever.
on foot
for
entrusting
subject to certain
arrangements to be made
with England.
and the
as
tract of country
immediately adjacent
of
to
it,
as well
came over
a
garrison
her views in this respect, and the negotiations did not reach
any conclusion.
there,
place
submission,
and
could not
the
recent
expedition
against
so
Candahar.
close to
The
much
materiel of war,
is.
route really
various times, shews that a good line exists even for a railway
from Candahar
These
by England.
to
is
too
insignificant to
Merv.
The
real
Turkoman
tribes,
hands of Pussia,
it
made
possesses
Among
these
resources
is
to
Chap. xxvi.
MERV KHORASAN.
men and
to
liorses, to
431
bo found
could,
The hordes
as a base,
of well-mounted
Turkomans
tlie
From Merv
It
on
would be conducive
just
interests
of
England
if
Merv by
her
is
disliked,
and
viewed with
distrust, as
being
calculated to
cause disquiet
among
which ought
daries of Afghanistan.
is
tliat
Merv
any occupa-
tion
by Russia
England
Such an occupation
would
boundary of Afghanistan, as
The Russians must be well aware of the with which England would regard the interposition just jealousy of a European power in Yarkand-Kashgar but it is desirable
already described.
;
relating
to
northern
Persia are for the most part beyond the scope of this work, yet
it is to
Meshed, and
It is
its
outlying post
essential to the
independence of Herat, or to
its
constitution as a part
of
of the
Khorasau should
yet Russia has
As
the
The dominant
attitude
432
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xxvi.
to
the northern
portions of
with
part
the
Turkomans
the
limits
should
of
lead
to
interference
on
her
within
object.
the force
of the
it
is
As
acknowledged by Eussia
to be thus
when
the city
and
two
its territory
Clarendon arrangement.
The influence
of
would
quite
Therefore
it is
the internal
free
should remain
hand,
to
On
affairs
less,
the
other
England
the
has,
these
transactions,
reserved
herself
right
controlling
the
of
Herat
may depend
The
position of Herat
here to urge
those
Although England
may
manage
ference
their
own
affairs,
inter-
of that country.
It
may
own
behalf,
becomes in some
Chap. xxvi.
433
upon neighbouring
responsibility
is
tribes
The
worthy of
as
an imperial nation,
a
responsibility,
It
is
would never
considering
hesitate
accept
so
limited
at
the
collateral
interests
stake.
to
not
indeed
establish
an
em-
means
for causing
actuated by a reasonable
fair
and
it is
to be
individuals
among her
It
do
then
it
from
of too
remote
The invasion
of such
an invasion
is
occasionally assigned
as a reason
why England
at all, nor
by a prospect
is
no reason
therefrom.
directly,
not
invasion
which
indirectly,
which
easily practicable.
It
may
be matter for
minous empires
but
it
would be such mistrust if Russian influence were Afghanistan. There is no space here to recount the
set
up
in
territorial
2 F
434
strides
INDIA IN
whereby Eussia
lias
1880.
Chap. xxvi.
mediately
power.
fills
is
left
a vacuum.
till
it
close
up
to the right
bank
of the Indus.
may
and
mutual goodwill.
Indus
exist-
almost on the
It
for the
two empires
to co-exist in
mutual
and amity.
it
But
right
up
to the
of India facing
Such events
or circumstances
would
classes,
and also
States.
In previous chapters
is
it
how
an understanding of
affairs,
really are.
The
effect
would be
would sap
alities
felt
Whether
it
or
many
diverse nation-
beyond doubt.
different from what they now are. One of momentous consequences must be this, that England would have to maintain a much larger force of European
If a considerable augmentation
the
European garrison
Chap. xxvr.
435
inevitably a
portion
It
is
of
the
English
army would be
locked
up
in
India.
The
to
late
Amir
Ganthe
is
damak with
ill,
The present
as
ruler,
recognised
the
him to sustain himself. No treaty has been made with him, but he knows well what England expects in regard to Afghanistan, and what may be the consequences if he deviates therefrom the fate of Amir
;
Shir Ali
as yet
is
an example.
There
is
not
any assurance in
rife
resj)ect to the
riunours are
from time
to
troubles besetting
him
at Caubul.
who can be
as de facto ruler.
territorial rights
by
Gandamak
respecting
the
tlie Khyl^er, and by the Kurram which leads towards the Paiwar and Shutargardan passes, though it does not follow that the Government
which dwell in
which
could
occupied
the
passes
of
Khyber and
Kurram, have
they
positions wherefrom
move
have
Arrangefor
ments
the
frontier
tribes
the
436
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xxvi.
Kurram
a military
and
political advantage.
to Jelalabad,
and onwards
to Caubul, has
the
On
to be
occupying Candahar
with troops, installed Shir Ali, a relative of the late Amir Shir He raised some Ali, as a ruler there, independent of Caulral.
troops for the service of the Candahar province, and with
them
he marched in June 1880, in company with a British brigade, His to oppose the advance of the hostile forces from Herat.
troops, however, mutinied,
and he appears
to
be unable to carry
If the
arrangement made
deemed
to be
Candahar
is still at
seems probable that the British troops will remain there for a
time, until the
Government can decide either to retain the city, districts of which it is the capital, or to
Meanwhile there is an advantage
affect this question.
in noting the
By
the treaty of
Gandamak
was assigned
to the
Government
for administration.
two
The Pishin
district also
Khwaja Amran
which divides the valley of Pishin from the plateau of Candahar. This important range is crossed by the well-known Khojak
pass,
which
is
The British
authorities
have taken
The
territory is not
Chap. xxvi.
437
been opened from
Sibi
to
A railway has
Pishin,
to
suspended
owing
the
at
the events
Khan
of Khelat.
It
Beluchistan
have been
satisfactorily settled.
The Khan
situate
of
Khelat has
made
over to the
British
to
commanding
effectually the
neighbours
in Beluchistan, and having often caused trouble on the frontiers of the lower Panjab and of Sind.
When
British
power
shall be
districts,
imperatively
of the
In support of Pishin
supplying troops.
The possession of
it
enables
is
the British
to
Government
safety of the
to
essential
the
event of need.
438
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xxvi.
The
to
be held by a
if
On
may
ninety miles and more, the Government will hold upon southern Afghanistan.
transport
held,
retain its
Some expense
in military
would be saved.
the
dominating
The Khojak pass may still be range of hills which overlook the
there
is
By
feel
the relinquishment
Pishin
may
the
With
province can
may
whom
the
On
answering
political position.
The
means
The
of control-
to
best attained
by holding Candahar.
and
its
Barracks
exist,
where the
men have salubrious accommodation it is hard to find a station anywhere in which they enjoy such vigorous health as in Candahar during the winter. Whereas, Pishin has not any available
to be con-
The
city of
Candahar is rich
in
its
and highly
Chap. xxvr.
IMPORTANCE OF CANDAHAE.
lands,
439
will
cultivated
the
productiveness
of
wliicli
hardly
Pishin
be
surpassed
be,
anywhere.
Good
is
as
the
position
of
may
that of Candahar
desert
it
ranges dividing
better. Having on one and on the other flank the mountain from India, Candahar cannot be turned by
much
direction.
fierce,
The
tribes
are
for
not
warlike and
those
dwelling,
instance,
immediately
around Caubul.
trouble with
The British
skilful
authorities at
the
and industrious
occasionally
met
territory,
and the
like.
As
regards the
employment
;
would be
saved by retirement
will be
required to
Whereas,
if
Candahar
is
fully covered,
and needs no
As
British troops
must be maintained
in this quarter,
now are,
moving back on
Candahar and
province, there
is
no local chief
to
whom
the
The
chief of Herat,
Eyub
Khan, though defeated and a fugitive, is still in arms against us. The new Amir of Caubul appears as yet to have a most uncertain tenure even at Caubul itself, and it remains to be seen whether he
succeeds in holding his
own
there,
an additional dominion
Such
question
present,
are, in brief,
;
new when
the
conjunctures
all
may
at
any moment
arise
but at
a
appears
nnmely
this,
440
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xxvi.
summer
repaired
fully
effect of the
tribes,
communication
submissive-
off their
This instance
may
be
added to the
invincibility
many
must be maintained
if
would be injurious
to
defeat.
It
would be
well
if,
and
On
The
influence
of
Afghanistan will be materially strengthened by the construction of the railway from Sibi, near Bolan, the present terminus
of the
open
The
line chosen
at all seasons.
It is ad-
Government by the
treaty of
Gandamak, and
territory.
more engineering
difiiculties,
and fewer
441
CHAPTER XXYII.
FINANCE.
Publication of budget in
India Statement of income and expenditure Apprehensions expressed by some authorities regarding Indian finance
Want
expenses
Cost
Control
of expenditure
of
the
civil
administration
Cost of material improvements Guaranteed railways State railways Canals and irrigation works Total outlay on public works results during recent famines Recurrence of famine
European and Native agency
Its
to England Former proposals regarding gold standard The national debt Equilibrium between ordinary income and expenditure Audit and account Government paper currency Coinage at mints Savings-banks Presidency banks Cash balances.
The chapter on
rests,
and
afford tests
by which other
must be
finally judged.
The circumstances of
military
Good government,
ma-
would be
of
no avail
and
if
It has
been well
Before 1859,
Since that
by the
for
Government
made up
the
442
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap, xxvii.
for the
coming
year.
by
statement already
corrections,
made
may
be deemed
is
fit
Information
thus afforded
duced
at Calcutta
it is
Although
to
comment on
is
remarks as
may
In
convey an idea of
the extent
to
which the
and of expenditure, as
it
it
stood
in
several
previous
decades and as
stands
at
the
present time
Official
Years
Chap, xxvii.
443
Some
persons,
rience entitle
them
Some think
An
answer to a
S.
Cunningham,
entitled
tion.'
As
by studying both
made
by the student
and
'
Mr. Fawcett,
to the
two
by Mr. H. M. Hyndman,
review, and
entitled "
Nineteenth Century
The Bankruptcy
of India."
The
objections, wdiich
relate to other
many
The
writings
at
various
times,
may
be
summarized
inelastic,
and cannot
The increase
The
civil
and
the
sive
judicial
administration
is
costly
and
where
elaborate,
beyond
needs
ExpenNative
public
European
retained,
cheaper
agency
would
Material
improvements
scale
and
too
vast,
and in a
if
Even
foreign
still
the re-
The necessity
liable
to
of
making very
large remittances
the
derangement from
is
loss
by exchange.
till
The
growing,
its interest
amounts
tlie
Eevenue and
Estimate,
1879-80.
Land Eevenue
Tributes and Contributions Forest Excise on Spirits and Drugs
.
Customs
Salt
OiDium
Stamps
Registration
Mint
..
..
Minor Departments
Law and
Police
Justice
Marine
Education Medical
Stationery and Printing Interest Receipts in aid of Superannuation, Retired and passionate Allowances
22,323,869* 21,679,000 714,000 703, 6G0 662,091 005,433 2,765,000 2,619,349 797,000 900,920 2,706,000 2,638,835 2,231,000 2,326,561 6,941,120 7,335,000 10,459,000 9,399,401 3,203,000 3,110,540 266,360* 262,000 254,038 172,335 968,000 911,806 487,476 426,694 95,266 84,977 647,130* 663,000 211,108 221,000 206,017 250,595 147,425 137,000 44,332 54,751 52,916 47,096 628,367 711,325
Com-
667,485
348,218* 10,822 168,619 571,076 973 974,781 133,313*
531,442
Miscellaneous
327,246
192,000 479,858 59,000 947,812 324,000
Railways
Irrigation
Army
Gain by Exchange on Transactions with London
Total
..
..
58,283,200* 59,525,238
and Navigation
ditto
6,167,312* 622,156
6,701,000 678,967
Ditto
Portion of
Land Revenuel
j
due
to Irrigation
126,934
6,916,402=*
710,000
8,089,967
Total
65,199,602
67,615,205
* The reason that these figures do not correspond with those contained in the Finance and Revenue Accounts for 1878-79, is that the new arrangement of these items, which has been adopted ii>1879-80, has been applied in the above Account to the year 1878-79, for purposes of comparison.
1879-80.
406,562
:
350,000
2,944.749 521,177 110,000 35,000 50,000 201,000 356,223 2,058,856 114,250 162,000 91,583 1,133,032 482,038
1,899,965
Land Revenue
Forest Excise on Spirits and Drugs Assessed Taxes
Provincial Rates
Customs
Salt
Opium
Stamps
Registration
2.960,010* 454,934 87,839 37,617 64,431 200,417 404,743 1,698,730 115,452 160,801*
103,991 1,033, H27
Mint
Post Office
470,790
and"!
j
Engagements
1,826,484
Total
of the Direct Claims and Demands uponl the Revenues, includiug Charges of Collec-> 10,026,128* tion, and Cost of Salt and Opium .
.
. .
10,509,873
Interest on Permanent and Floating Debt Interest on Service Funds and other Obligations
Administration
Marine Education
Ecclesiastical
Medical
Stationery and Printing
Political Agencies Civil Furlough and
Absentee Allowances
Railways
Army
Loss by Exchange on Transactions with London
4,575,069 4,451,735 378,952 381,027 1,487,852 1,486 247 355,347 362,522 3,297,063* 3,291,049 2,419,119 2,485,000 548,703 548,363 978,254 971,864 155,200 155,800 672,901 669,059 471,470 432,757 440,440 448,793 214,386 231,561 2,087,279 1,997,327 293,094* 314,615 99,343 313,420 360,000 226,846 630,919 753,551 4,104,405 4,318,247 324,000 716,378 17,092,488+ 20,974,348t 3,188,000 3,359,144
54,990,433
58,609,505
Expenditure on Productive Public Works (Working Expenses and Interest): Railways Irrigation and Navigation Interest on Debt incurred for Productive Publicl
6,334,981 432,118
,
6,627,076 462,109
1,587,000
Works
Total
1.407,824
.nr,r,r,.
8,174,923
8,676,185
67,285,690
Grand Total
63,165,356
4,381,898
3,564,140
Revenue
Expenditure chargeable thereon
Exce
of
2,034,246
1878-79. 676,380
329,515
1879-80. 3,207,880 1,324,426
f Including
,,
Frontier Railways
446
properly bear.
to preserve
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap, xxvii.
failed for
many
years
and are entertained by some, but not by the majority, official men but they are stoutly controverted by some
;
authorities,
They
Indian
by English
the
latest
Government
tenders for
indications.
securities in the
Indian
may
be accepted
as
and
effective
much comment
to
in
and
non-official,
though
They have been noticed by the educated a portion of them has been echoed by classes of the Natives In some respects they coincide the organs of Native opinion.
;
impossible to
say for
in their
mind
It
would hardly be
these
apprehensions
deserve
and
doubtless
constant
attention
from the
For, although they may be rejected in the form whereby they are expressed, they are not destitute of plausible
Government.
reason,
of
apparent foundation.
Indeed,
they represent the very dangers to which the Indian empire would be exposed, if it were to be carelessly managed. They
point exactly to the
pitfalls
into
wliich
an administration.
Chap, xxvii.
financially"
sive,
447
of the tempta-
tions
sake of immediate
effect,
Therefore those
so
who
declare
and expound
these
apprehensions
lucidly
and forcibly
may
whether
In respect to the
must be acknowledged that they are inelastic as compared with those of the most advanced European nations, especially with those of Great Britain as compared also with what many well;
may
still
hope
to see.
There
any bound
Indian revenues.
pressive effect
This want of
fiscal elasticity
must have a
to
re-
of those
who wish
improve the
country.
permanently decline, notwithstanding the unprecetendency dented calamities from famine and pestilence within the last few
years.
ing that the share in the rent claimable by Government has not
been enhanced, and that the rate of incidence per acre has been
diminished.
It
may
salt,
from
excise,
from stamps, increases by degrees, irrespective of The income from the State forests
448
is
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap, xxvii.
failed to
receipts
from
In reference
to taxation
it
limits of safety,
a primary object
new
by a European,
light.
is
there
is
is
a well-
understood impost.
the objections
may
be of
remitted,
it
of absolute
and
it
will
Even
is
those,
who who
the
general taxation
moderate, vnll
burdens
In regard
trolled, it
to the national
must be allowed that from ofiicial and non-of&cial quarters pressure is incessantly put upon the Government to
augment expenditure.
All are agreed that in general terms expenditure ought to be kept down.
to
recommend expense
which they
economy
as a rule,
seem
Chap, xxvii.
MILITARY EXPENSES.
;
449
be the exception
general
the sense of
to
its
maxims
be forgotten.
Now,
the
very numerous
persons of
all sorts
who have
to
make
testimony
against
its face
In this
strictest
exercise the
under special considerations any augmentation has been allowed in India, it may very possibly be dissupervision
if
and
overwhelming
many
years
the
recent
forces,
equal
to nearly
Army
troops permanently.
The
slight
augmentation ordered
for the
effect
has
to propose
any diminu-
strength,
has
but this
is
improved
of
to
armament and equipment rendered necessary by the progress The Government could not possibly deny science in war. 2 G
450
its
INDIA IN
1880.
CuAP. xxvii.
As
to the
should
upon the
total of
shewn
in a previous chapter,
is
namely
43 millions.
This expenditure
;
shewn
at
but some
critics allege,
sum
represents
The proportion
large
as
Kingdom,
States.
or of
As
to
the civil
administration
is
that the
demands
of civilization
may
Government
The best
in-
commonly
merits without
If the cost be
mentioned as an objection,
for
such and
might
be,
and ought
to be,
found
who have
in the
Therefore, those
much
way
of a costly
time
the
it
Government
present.
in
arresting
that
the
But
if
instead uf being, as
CiiAP. XXVII.
451
the administration had been backward or halting, because the country could not afford the cost, then a public cry, of a
would have arisen, and the Government would have been reproached as being benighted and as lagging behind
different tone,
After
all,
cost
money
in India
any
The
police is corrupt
officials
organized.
to
Native
and
it
The mass
keep them in honesty; their emoluments must be raised. of the children throughout the country are growino'
in ignorance
;
up
for education.
The
the
A
;
vast terriit
torial area
must be
fully surveyed.
The empire
found to
be
is
known
to
for
abound in natural
physical science.
resources;
Much
some
jails
mortality
efforts
arise
must
put
forth
on behalf
of
sanitation.
some outlay
for
but enough
is
vey some idea of the reproaches which would have been justly
levelled at the Indian
and reformers,
if these,
neglected for any reason whatever, even the reason that funds
Had
it
Indian Government,
is
would have been accepted by that public opinion in England itself and makes its in-
As a case in point, it may be observed that who condemn the Indian Government for the
its
alleged extravagance of
it for
and
otlier
452
are already published.
INDIxi IN 1880.
Chap, xxvii.
But
it
costly to obtain.
During the
last
civil
shewn
to
slightly decreased.
An
by the Government
of India
for
to
certain
services
like.
education,
and the
The primary
demand
accounts.
is
to
Another object
in
which
expenditure
to resist.
may
these departments
from the
worked well
demand
It has
been found
its financial
place
advantage
several
it
distinctly established in
spending
departments
that
is
alleged
by some
critics to
be wanting.
European
agency,
suffice, it is to
be remem-
Chap, xxvii.
EMPLOYMENT OF
NATIA'ES.
is
453
likely to be furtlier
reduced in numbers.
service with
for all
f(jr
departments
indispensable.
In the ministerial offices, educated Natives have succeeded in almost entirely supplanting the European or East Indian clerks
who used
to train
to
be
employed.
and
made
Euro-
up Natives
some
The
training, if successful,
for
effect of substituting
them ultimately
policy,
extent.
To
in
this
however, manifest
looked by some
transgressed,
critics
the present
day,
and which,
if
to jeopardy.
In
what
are
for
known
Europeans must
employed.
an indefinite time
come continue
to be
The argument that material improvements have been undertaken on a scale too vast, and in a manner which cannot
prove remunerative, would,
if
are
Therefore those
critics,
who
insist
to the
Government
vidious,
in performing
when the schemes are in their nature excellent and have much to recommend them, barring the prospect of an early
financial profit.
The question
is
lias
can be pronounced
The works
in
question
and canals
454
inspection
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap, xxvii,
by the most independent observers on the spot the them are accessible to If they were to be taken one by one, it would be the pubUc, difficult to single out any of them which, for financial or any
;
minutest
The only
category, is
the
as it is
long time to
Few
persons,
how-
who
that
province,
and
drought
of irrigation,
would
justification
would be produced
said,
It
may
be
individual works
piecemeal, yet
may
its results
financially unfavourable.
of Guaranteed
and
canals.
on their account,
for
at
to
If million
sterling annually,
more than
two millions.
It fell,
it
rose again to
in one year
it
may under
circumstances be expected
to
disappear
permanently
ere long.
outlay of
Though the
com-
and not in
full
working
they
will, after
Chap, xxvii,
455
chargeable on them.
On
State railways
and Guaranteed railways together, the that the net receipts in 1879-80 on a capital of 114| millions,
on a capital
to 6;^ millions sterling
amount
to
5 J millions sterling
of 123 millions, the former giving a return a little less, and the
latter a return of a little more, than 5 per cent., a result wliich
attained
already,
notwithstanding that
sums
up
full operation.
Upon
of the
defrayal
have not appreciably increased when the net income from the productive public works is taken into consideration, as will be seen thus by figures taken from the finance and revenue
accounts.
On
;
106,959,534
the charges
were
1871-2.
Interest on
5,483,518 482,781
5,966,299 629 970
,
Total
5,336,329
however, 482,781 stated above should be dein ducted, as the capital of these obligations was not included 4,853,548. stand at the debt thus the total charge will
From
this,
456
INDIA IN
1880.
. .
Chap, xxvii.
On
Works
4 575 069
, ,
Irrigation
on Service Funds
.. ..
.
378,952
734,377 381,550
1
,407,824
7,477,772
966 006 ditto Irrigation Works 613,270 Land Revenue due to Irrigation 126,934
,
1,706,210
Total
5,771,562
From
Again,
this
378,952
for service
added
to the
tliis
national debt.
position
is
From
tenable only to a
limited extent.
fifth of
yielding returns.
much
and ad-
ministrative necessities,
is
all
added together
is
at the
cent, interest
on
be
As
this
to some, it
may
Chap, xxvii.
457
458
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap, xxvii.
liamentary committee.
tained
;
The leading
and the annual outlay was restricted to the amount which could be advantageously borrowed within India itself. A retrospect of the recent famines will convince most persons
that
it
for the
latter,
when
1874,
it
had
In
when
In 1877-8 the
much
still
further,
have been
The importation of food, from long distances to the distressed districts inland, would have been impossible without the railways. Thus the mortality, already so lamentable, would have been indefinitely greater,
people in
what would
on these subjects,
if
Many
who had
Then the
authorities
would have
to face
Chap, xxvii.
LOSS BY
EXCHANGE ON REMITTANCES.
may
still
459
full,
One
be admitted to the
must cause a drain on the resources of the empire. This prospect must be regarded with resignation to the will of Providence,
but with the most resolute
spirit of self-help.
Material improve-
The
receipts
may
be some
margin
left for
In view
must be such a
be found with
rigid
economy, and
trial
may
its
ordinary finance
casli
sound and
safe,
and with
its
sum
for
immediate
use.
The embarrassment,
arises
also,
must be
fully
acknowledged which
large remittancas
from the
loss
by
Government from India to England in silver, to be measured by a gold standard. The Secretary of State for India in Council draws bills on the Government of India which are sold in London
the
at rates, ranging
to
two
which causes
so
much
anxiety to financiers.
The
rate
is
main
The
may
In
comparatively small.
Of
happens to have
fallen,
and from
double cause
much
years,
Within
the
most recent
famine and by war, the loss by exchange has been superadded. In 1876, the exchange fell below Is. 7d. for the rupee, and the
460
alarm in
INDIA IN
1880.
many
The
The European
classes, suffered
classes,
non-official
severely.
trade,
was
any
affected favourably,
ill effect.
feel
In India, however, so
State, that there
many
interests are
bound
up with
tion
tlie
and general
risen
satisfac-
when
it
began to
rise again.
is
Though
somewhat
Is.
8(^.
after
several fluctuations,
it
still
low (averaging
for the
is
much
trouble,
existence of a silver
of a gold standard
The introduction
legal tender to
amounts
financial
many
Mr.
S.
The only
who
But the
liigh.
to be insuperable,
when
aggravated as
They have subsequently become that value has fallen, and practically there is not
was
There
if
is
doubt
even
gold shall be
itself,
of which
some
prospect
is
many
to be
It is
was not
introduced, and
many now
silver
many
years, a
infinite
Chap, xxvii.
461
standard.
there
It
W.
exchanged
for silver,
to India
being bought at an
spectacle
The strange
was exhibited
for
many
years of ships,
may
may either
the
money market in consequence of the changes made by German Government, and the altered condition of trade.
of the potent factors in hardening the exchange in favour
One
of
India and
is
remedying
the
losses
which
have
recently
occurred,
Whenever
is
a powerful impulse
The flow
was
enormous when the cotton trade started forward with a bound This subject is in consequence of the civil war in America.
well explained in
Drain of Silver
to the East,'
The next
perly bear.
difficulty relates
which
is
said to be growing to
The
is
millions) is held
by many
debt
but
it
chai'ge
upon the State on account of Guaranteed interest is expected to disappear. The national debt proper, that is the
registered interest-bearing debt,
sterling
may
Of
this,
37 millions have
to defray alto-
462
getlier,
4:h
INDIA IN
the interest charges
1880.
Chap, xxvii.
and
Thus, what
may
be termed the
Of
this again
something
cost the
for
is
to
have
Government 16
is
war
amounts
than two
But
it
which has
two
years, then,
The revenue proper of to 43^ millions. would amount to 87 millions, a sum not far short
years' revenue.
of the
little
sum
of
of
indebtedness in
many advanced
countries, this
amount of national
is
understood to be probable, shall receive from England substantial relief in respect to the debt incurred for the recent
of
immediate increase
to the
But
it
must
by the
receipts
when
much
wliich
amount
is
equal to
amount
of the revenue
The normal
5 per cent.
But
in
and 1^ millions
Even
at
in
reduction went
on
1^ millions
5^ per
were con-
verted into a 4^ per cent., and in July of 1880 the whole of the
Chap, xxvii.
463
cent.,
was converted
lose
into a
4 per
cent,
stock.
of the debt
shewn by the
end of 1866,
it
90^ millions.
Of the
in
England involves
an annual payment there of 2f millions, which sum forms an There is some reason for important item of the home charges.
satisfaction in the fact that so large a part of the debt is held in
more belongs
to
Europeans
than to Natives,
Government has or has not failed to preserve an equilibrium between income and expenditure
Lastly, the question whether the
In no
ordinary
revenue
nor
is
there
and
This
financiers
tliis
and an aggregate
1,159,000.
deficit of
of loss
by exchange.
If
tliis
then the ordinary finances of India are clearly seen to have been sound and healthy, to have been capable of sustaining, not
only the defence and administration of the country, but also several grave and uncontrollable misfortunes, such as famines
and
losses
by exchange, and
to
equilibrium.
In justification of
which embodies
ofi&cial
information
464
^-3
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap, xxvii.
Chap, xxvii.
465
The
much
force
and
ability against
now been
briefly reviewed.
Of
these,
some
The general
of the review
is,
position
Some few
mentioned.
subjects, relating to
yet remain to be
The system
whole empire,
of audit
and account
is
sufficiently decentralized to
There
is
who
is,
as regards
The
under a Controller-General,
wdio
is
Government
treasuries
of India,
who
the various
he
sterling,
must be held
in
Government currency, when the right of issue was transferred from the banks to the State by an Act of the legislature. The principle on which the Government currency was based
the
is
The
is tliat
wliicli
that the
II
466
amount of notes
issued on
INDIA IN
Government
1880.
securities should be
Chap, xxvii.
maintained at
a fixed sum, within the limit of the smallest amount which experience has proved to be necessary for the monetary transactions of the country ; and
that any further
and
should vary with the amount of the reserve of specie in the Bank, according The important condition is thus to the wants and demands of the public.
realised that the
mixed currency
exactly as
if it
Upon this principle, then, the Government when Mr. S. Laing was finance minister.
amounted very shortly
rose gradually
till it
The
circulation
average, though
it
to nearly 13 millions.
In the
first
instance the
own
securities
it
4 crores of rupees, or
tliat
4 millions
sterling.
In 1870
was found
the circulation
sterling, against
which
was a reserve
or bullion.
of
4 millions in
securities
and 7 millions
this
in coin
It
circulation
could not,
imagined,
and
up
to that
amount.
at
5f millions
5f millions of silver coin and bullion, wdth a few thousand pounds' worth only
sterling
worth of Government
in gold.
securities,
The
interest saved on the 5f millions of Government about 230,000 per annum, less about 30,000 of
for
each of
issued.
The State
is
bound by law
circles.
to cash the
notes of each circle at the Note office of the circle and at the
office at Calcutta,
It is
not concircles
5 rupees, or
lO.s.,
to 10,000
Chap, xxvir.
467
comprised
rupees, or 1000.
in
total circulation is
notes of
The expansion
been but
of the
is
regarded
rate
of
growth has
There
The increase
had previously
to about
some
circulation,
amounting
2J millions
sterling,
known. The
or
most
During
was maintained.
circulation of the
sterling,
Bank
and between
of that year,
May and
August, that
to
is
upwards of If million and equal to any that had been attained fully these amounts were
months
amounted
the
in
1869.
1865, the
normal and
quiet.
During
and 611,995 worth of copper, in all 55,146,649, have been coined in the mints of India. Specimen coins from each mint are tested in the London mint and the coinage is found
silver,
;
to
be perfectly good.
Government
country
savings-banks
many
depositor.
The
total of deposits,
namely 2 millions
2
H 2
468
has risen to 3 millions
;
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap, xxvii.
insurance to a moderate
for the benefit of
and limited
extent.
between
State.
Owing
mth
private enter-
Government has not yet seen its way undertaking business of this nature, however desirable that
be on
may
many
grounds.
of maintaining
The principle
of the
Government with
certain
India, though State banks, in the full sense of the term, have
many
sat
years.
and
who
on the
4| millions
of
sterling,
to nearly
^ million in
all.
of
1866 the
Bank
Bombay
involving
serious
consequences to
Bank
of
The other two banks, especially Bengal, have had unbroken careers of successful The constitution
of these banks,
more than once revised by the legislature. The Government no longer holds shares in them, nor takes any part in their
direction, but keeps
and
to
pay
below
this
Chap, xxvii.
THE
"
PRESIDENCY" BANKS.
4G9
minimmn. On the other hand, the 1)anks making advances beyond a certain amount,
ties
any upon
securi-
namely Government
like.
securities,
They
are
doing
much
is
which are
Mercantile
Shanghai
Bank, the
The
still
community, by reason of
it
their
be.
The
Government imparts
ment.
to the Presidency
any
real embarrassto
The
total
capital
of these
three
banks amounts
3^ millions, the balance which the Government keeps in hands ranges from | million sterling to 3 millions. While
in the interior of every province in the empire.
stituted,
their their
As now
con-
staljility to
money market.
They provide a
upon
word,
safe place
means
of affording accommodation,
as
anchors to the
commerce
of the
country.
;
Their
management has during recent years been very successful they have paid dividends at favourable rates, even during the period
of commercial depression from
emer-ed,
the profession.
Besides the balances in the Presidency banks, the Government in India maintains large sums in cash in its treasuries
scattered
throughout
the
empire, which
arc
not less
than
470
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap, xxvii.
treasuries,
district
and ex-
numerous provinces so widely dispersed cause countless demands to arise at distant points, and it hence
becomes necessary
to
It
in
tlie
of November,
amount
at the
down
at 9 millions sterling,
liighest
end of June,
official
when
even
it
may
March,
it
perhaps
15
millions.
March
1870
it
stood
at
18| millions.
When
full treasury.
471
CHAPTEE
XXVIII.
STATISTICAL SUMMARY.
Area of India Population Several religions, castes, professions, and employments of the people Agriculture Works of irrigation Embankments
Civil
justice
TenuresPolice CrimePrisons Hospitals and Dispensaries Education Universities Literature and telegraph Emigration Eailways Roads Foreign sea-borne trade Coasting trade Harbours Shipping Frontier trade Tea and Manufactures of cotton and jute Exports of wheat and Coal ForestsArmiesFinance Revenues and Expenditure Coinage and paper currencyEquilibrium of income and ordinary expenditure.
Post-office
electric
cotiee
rice
receipts
statistics
and reference
abstract
may
statistical
published
Nevertheless the
grouped according
and
fill it
brief
summary
now be
numbers, of those salient facts which are the most easily borne
in recollection
to a conception of the
magnitude
to
have attained.
The area
amounts
to
Of
this area,
one-third, consisting of
and chiefships great and small, about 450 in number. The remaining two-thirds, or something less than one million of
square
miles,
are
British
territories.
These
territories
are
472
various
grades,
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap, xxviii.
The whole
ment of India, administered by the Governor-General in Council. The executive or administrative unit is termed a district, which is somewhat like a county in England or a department in France.
There are 224 such
of a district being
districts in British India, the average area
4000 square
miles.
The
social unit
among
the Natives
is
English parish.
India
;
241 millions
whom
States,
and
tlie
The
will
is
This
may
it
by
field,
population
is
found
to
be 446 souls to
the square
representing a high
ratio of density.
There
is
Of the
41 millions of Muhammadans, 1^ million of Sikhs, and nearly 3 millions of Jains and Buddliists.
18 millions of aboriginal
The Christians
6
number.
There are
Brahmins and
to other or
humbler
not
recognising caste.
Chap, xxviii.
473
are
3600 Africans.
536,000 in
the
all.
may
work
and
number 26f
millions,
among
whom
new
of
religion.
territories there are
In the British
whom more
;
agriculture.
Of the remainder,
8 millions
2 millions
When
population on agriculture,
it is
remembered
The numbers
of
of adult males
;
their total
amounts
to 1,236,523,
whom
watchmen, while no
administration.
In
Government
civil
of
British
its
employes in
whom
Besides these,
there
are
21,000
employed on railways.
all
the
stamp vendor.
Some 61,000
fashion.
are 218,000.
employment
painting,
The extent
money
affords
will be under-
stood from the facts that 118,000 are bankers, 21,000 moneyLastly, the beggars and changers, and 110,000 money-lenders.
paupers, not however supported by any poor law, are 1,050,000,
or just one million.
Of the 38 millions
of adult
474
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap, xxviii.
f million, or 750,000, do not work, but live as landlords great or small, while the remainder,
whom
or
less,
as
peasant proprietors.
The farm
servants
bailiffs
and
graziers,
The
agricultural
of the
imperfect,
because
the
Government
consequently
rendered
for
many
interesting
are
particulars
which
can
for
be
the
other provinces
not
forthcoming
With
this large
stated.
however,
many
field
by
field in
the
manner described
this total,
fifth of
Of
surveyed in
detail,
millions of acres.
is
amounts
to
102 millions of
;
and
any mistake on
less
no
surveyed in
detail.
The grand
to
and the
cultivable area
amounts
is
244^ millions
of acres.
Now, the
area
is
uncultivable area
acres
;
in
;
cultivated
how
are.
Chap, xxvin.
475
in
some
and these
figures,
do not convey an
Out
above,
shewn
channels.
at a cost of
by the State
21^ millions
There
are,
on the
other hand,
embankments
near the
floods.
The
to
1370 miles
besides
for the
many
lesser
The land
edible grains
is
;
The prevalence
may
In the provinces under the Government of Bengal there are 130,000 estates, held by landlords great and small some of
;
whom
have
In the Central
by small land-
In the Panjab 91 per cent., North-western Provinces 90 per Oudh 36 per cent, of the land is held by the village and cent., communities described in a previous chapter. In Madras there
are 2,302,000 peasant proprietors, holding under the ryotwari
476
tenure, of
year.
INDIA IN
1880.
CiiAr. xxviii.
In
prietors, of
whom
The
may
In
revenue; in
Madras
10 per
area,
acre unirrigated
irrigated.
is
maintained in this
and among
this
by
men.
Out
of this
men
is
defrayed
by
on the State.
is
That
tlie
moderate,
is
the
rural
or village
watchmen, of
whom
the
number
down
at 442,000.
In so large a population the number of crimes and offences must it stands at nearly 880,000 in the year. necessarily be large
;
Then, the number of persons brought to trial in the year amounts to 970,000, or nearly one million, of whom 350,000, on
the average, are discharged, and 550,000 convicted or committed, the rest being under
trial.
These
some idea of
amounts
to 118,500,
whom
The
civil litigation is
Of number of suits instituted in the year, namely 1,500,000. the remainder money and for for are two-tliirds number this The estimated value of the suits, that is, rent and other things.
the
at the large
sum
of
upwards
Out
of this
number
up
to
10
are
upwards
of 1,100,000,
Tliese facts
Chap, xxviii.
PUBLIC CHARITY
EDUCATION.
to
477
is
whether there
niiich
The main
charitable
by the
and
indoor
patients
during the
year,
and
afford
outdoor relief
in 6^ millions of cases.
The
total of indoor
of 19,000 persons.
3470 inmates.
Reference
may
be had to
of India.
Calcutta, Madras,
and Bombay,
number, of
;
members
whom
The
whom
the
The average incidence of municipal duties and taxes is annum in the Presidency towns, and only 2s. in
The national education is promoted by about 65,500 institutions including schools and colleges of all sorts supported in some The number of students is decree, or inspected, by the State.
returned as 1,900,000, or nearly two millions.
Out
of this
number
specially, besides
boys and
girls.
them number at mixed schools of a considerable The colleges are 82 in number, with 8900
students, the normal and technical schools are 155, with 6900
478
students.
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap, xxviii
The
total of these
numbers,
shew
be
It appears to
much
in the
way
own
direct agency.
But the
Some
light is
effect of the
high education by
During the
ten years preceding 1879, 49,000 candidates. Natives with but few
exceptions, presented themselves for Entrance
;
of
whom
18,500
is
the
first arts
is
education,
of Arts,
in medicine,
arts
and 255 in
is
civil engineering.
As passing
the
first
examination
it
follows
Some
from
literary
activity
prevails
British
India, as seen
the
registration
of
publications
In
are published, of
which 550
classical
In Bengal there are 38 vernacular newspapers, in Madras 22, in Bombay 78, in upper and Central India 65. In Bengal the
circulation is represented
by 19,360
copies, in
Madras
5,750, in
Bombay
and the
total ranges
Chap, xxviii.
POST OFFICE
to
TELEGRAPII RAILWAYS.
;
479
from 750,000
970,000 annually
The progress
illustrated
may
1)0
by the principal
lines,
and
telegrapliic
departments.
year.
signal
offices
telegraphic
communication, and
The telegraphic
lines extend
The
total
number
of persons, Natives,
from India
to the colonies
is
and 1879,
173,420, of
whom
4200
It
to
Dutch
remainder proceeded
to the
British possessions.
opened
The passenger
amounts
The The
rolling stock
consists of
millions sterling,
by the guaranteed companies amounts to 97^ that by the Government to 24i millions, tliat
all.
by Native
cf-ross
The
amount
to
;
9| millions
to
4| millions
1 million.
and on the
to
amount annually
11
something over
The extent
480
to
INDIA IN
classes in
1880.
Chap, xxviir.
are interested in the
England
guaranteed railways
may
whom
Out
and
is it
partially bridged.
for
Out of
treasure.
is
made up by
Out
United King-
India sends to
England 28 millions
sterling
part of the trade the imports are fully equal in value to the
exports.
But
in
the
trade
during recent years sold more of her produce to them than she
has taken of their products in return.
On
value of the exports has for recent years exceeded that of the
annum on
the average.
The
at
13^ millions
now
con-
sterling
most of
is
entirely sea-borne
may
Of the
total shipping,
88 per
cent., is foreign.
17,
1869; the
Chap, xxviii.
481
figures of the shipping are not recorded until the year 1871-2.
During the nine years which have since elapsed, nearly 8000
steamers, with a tonnage of 10 millions of tons, have passed
On
the
The external trade by land with Afghanistan, Beluchistan and the Himalayan regions, though small as compared with the
sea-borne trade,
is
Some
Of
tea,
interesting
particulars
may
here
be
summarized
at 3 millions sterling,
and of
coffee,
1^ million
in
sterling.
6^ millions.
The quantity
amounts
to nearly
21 millions of cwts.
employ 10,500 looms and 1^ million of spindles. On the average 4 millions of cwts. of raw cotton are exported annually.
Of
3 millions sterling
tlie
The
tons
reckoned at 1 million of
tons annually
;
and upwards of ^ million of tons of English coal and coke are imported. The coal industry affords employment to
60,000 men.
The
half
forests
more
conservation
fully
preserved.
Indeed
the
Famine
Commission
made
to the
482
whether British India
INDIA IN
raises
1880.
Chap, xxviii.
for
enough of food-crops
the
for
without impoverishment.
at
some pains
to present calculations
acres
The
is
set
down
at
331 millions
sterling per
for
annum,
at
3 per
included,
acre
non-food-crops.
total
If
British
less
Burma were
;
the
grand
would not be
which
is
conable
made by some
which shewed a
total value of
clusive of British
Burma.
Upon
for
of food is estimated at
of
which amount
home
To which
must be added f million, the exportable surplus of British Burma; making up the total to 5| millions of tons. This calculation is offered by the Commission as approximate only
the
known movements
it
1874 and
1877-8 prove
the reality.
to be
moderate;
it
is
moved by
the
officers
and
and men
officers
that of the
1617 European
all
Native
officers
and men, in
189,597
officers
Out
Chap, xxviii.
to the to that
483
The principal
may
be thus epitomized.
The
67 millions.
stated,
Erom
it
has been
to
amount
to 55
millions
sterling
like.
To this
are added
The
works
be
amounts
annually to 4^ millions,
which
may
perhaps
The 65 J millions sterling above mentioned have risen to 67^ and 66f during the years 1879-80 and 1880-1, gross but the charges of collection and the like are considerable, and these
;
In the
total of
demands
upon the revenues, including charges of collection 4^ millions of interest on permanent and floating debt, 3;^ millions of expenditure on law and justice
;
2^ millions on police
loss
17
niilli(jiis
by exchange on transmentioned in
The incidence
Famine Commission
2
I
484
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap, xxviii.
"The
4s.
a head.
;
The landed
classes
pay about
5s.
M.
but,
excluding the revenue they pay for their land to the State, their
share of taxation
is Is. 9fZ.
The agricultural
to Is.
Sc?.
amounting
fortnight's
The
artisans
pay about
2s.
Traders
pay
3s. ?>d.
of India
who
does
not trade or
own
land,
drink no spirituous
only about
personally
to Is.
9c/.,
;
Id. a year
on account of the
salt
he consumes
wages of a labouring
man and
his Mdfe."
The public
millions
debt
proper,
that
is,
The
portion
war
is
less
than 100
millions, or little
much
less
than two
to
the
total
revenues
and
receipts,
which amount
65 millions annually.
With
The
stands
credit of the
liigh, as is
Government
and
still
in India
and in England.
4 per
cent.
Government
cent,
premium
They have
owing partly
at
97.
its
Government obtained
Chap, xxviii.
PUBLIC DEBT
and the
PRODUCTIVE
under
tliis
WORKS.
485
4^ per
cent.,
securities
;
they
now
stand at 105.
Of the
which
is
sterling
debt (in
gold) the
4 per
cent, securities
at 105, a rate
may
England
itself
would be able
to borrow.
them out
down
18 millions sterling, or
The latest returns, however, raise this amount to Now, the debt held in India amounts to 80 millions sterling in assumed value, of which 20 millions are enfaced for payment of interest in England and are presumably
20 millions.
held by Europeans paid in India.
;
is
Out
It is
by the Government in
India at 4^ per cent., the large sum of 26^ crores were tendered, of which no less than 9^ crores or millions were offered by Natives. The total coinage at the two mints during the decade ending with 1878 amounted to 52^ millions sterling, of which 51^
millions'
worth were in
silver.
The
circulation of the
Government
Government savings-banks amount to more than 2 millions sterling. The total capital of the three Presidency banks amounts to 3^ millions sterling. Some light is thrown on the wealth of India by the facts that,
The deposits
in
the
during the ten years ending with 1879, 25 millions' sterling worth of gold and 66 of silver, in all 91 millions of specie and
bullion
silver
while
and 16 millions of
being an
were exported, in
486
In
the previous
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap, xxviii.
chapters on canals, on
railways
and on
finance, it has
owing partly
to this cause
and partly
to reduction
On
Famine Commission
first
report that
is,
all
those carried
of
income
includ-
revenues
on which
it
They say
Chap, xxviii.
487
"The
financial
of the public
[in
shew
on the
public
debt,
works
works
this
as defined
on capital and
working
expenses of
under
all
and
works
(3) the
is
maintained
The
deficits,
which
When
and shewn
upon the
latest
488
INDIA IN
18a0.
Chap. xxix.
CHAPTER XXIX.
CONCLUSION.
Kecent war in Afghanistan
contradicted
Its results
and lessons
by
existing facts
Virtues
Happy
The beginning
Hostilities
of the
may well
comprise
Afghan war.
from the autumn of 1878 to the
can yet say whether they are
is
present time, in
conclusion,
though no
man
actually concluded.
connected with
head, propounded
The Indian Government, when Lord Lytton was a definite policy, which was calcupermanency
as is possible in a troublous
The broad
treaty of
lost,
Gandamak.
to
owing
Of these results a small portion has been events beyond the control of the Government
Be
this course
The might
tion,
England
The resolution of
if
the
Government
to
take up arms,
necessary,
in
all Asia.
The
hostile
power of the
Chap. xxix.
late
489
Amir
of the Indian
nations.
Still,
by Asiatic
is,
common,
it is
well that
at least
is
standard, and
is
was the
occasion
when war on a considerable scale had been carried on. On the commencement of hostilities in 1878, the advantages of railway
communication were remarkable,
to the frontier as the troops
were brought up
by
rail
which in the
first
war
as
of
many weeks in the second war of 1878, and many days. There had of late years been
now
of 33,000
across
it.
men
each, or 66,000
to the frontier or
Indian population was loyal and exemplary, with one unimportant exception on the east coast, and one notable exception
in the Deccan, as explained in the previous chapter on crime.
The Native troops behaved well, even better on the whole than during the war of 1839 the Gorkha and Panjabi soldiers being specially distinguished. One regiment only, that of Jacob's Rifles,
;
formed an exception to the general standard of merit. But the experience of this war is held to have proved the correctness of
what had been urged by many authorities regarding the paucity of European oSicers, and the need of properly maintaining the
490
INDIA IN
of these officers.
1880.
Chap. xxix.
complement
the
It is also
found
that,
although
Among
Of the
infantry, those
played
all
army
short
new
effect,
exempli-
many
as likely to result.
It is to be
hoped the
The
never
transport in
the
field
described
in
the
should
them
These
difficulties
were overcome by
brought into
full play.
It
is
undertaken
The Afghans, as a fighting race, recently displayed all the characteristics which have so often proved embarrassing to
British commanders.
They
are in
the
first
instance beaten
without
difficulty,
upon being regularly attacked, and then seem But they soon
rally again
aw^ait a favourable
and
moment
conquerors.
enemy placed
at
any disad-
Chap. xxix.
491
opportunity.
is a ready-made soldier after The word passes round, and all the men of the fighting age turn out under arms instantly. This is the reason why it so often becomes impossible for British commanders to
Afghan
It
would
which
is
not ascertainable.
their
homes
habitants.
It
is
and that resistance was hopeless. But they would be ever on the watch for a chance of striking for their independence and if among the many accidents which
;
present
itself,
subdued energy.
much
less
southern Afghanistan
district of
indeed
if
many
Candahar could,
There
is
northern tribes
The
rapid
fight at the
year, the
and the
battle
make
up a sum
of success
England, and chequered by only one defeat, namely, that at Maiwand. The memory of Sir Frederick Roberts and Sir
Donald Stewart
will be
handed down
to history as
belonging
492
to
INDIA IN
and
illustrious roll
1880.
Chap. xxix.
that long
of
Of the
East India
full
Company he
of its
it
pride
strength,
the
proper place
moment of its cro"\vning who tried to throw the imperial Company to its a permanent member of the
the corporation had gone,
yet,
men
of the
same
The Company's
colours,
which had been displayed on many seas and many battle-fields, were struck twenty years ago, and the flag of England was
hoisted in their place.
now been
described.
The motto
of the imperial
administration
should be
"festina lente."
By
"festina"
is
By "lente"
is
caution which
essential to success.
been
the effect
must be
to mitigate the
and
to
to
tlie
Chap. xxix.
493
nence.
empire
past, satisfaction
to
lay
its
hand on the
from
Central
Asia.
But while
these
many grounds
of safety
must be observed.
expands, wealth
During
capital
is
rises.
Government adopts
of
their
rights,
all practicable
the
encouragement
industry,
the
of the classes
is
who most
The
remarkable.
is
is
peaceful, their
mind
contented, their
of the people,
law abiding.
States, is actuated
by
claiming so
much
yet to be cured, the shortcomings to be retrieved, the defects to In times of adversity, improvements are devised be remedied.
duce permanent benefit when the storm shall have passed away. Elaborate calculations are sometimes made to shew that the
population
is
494
reasonable comfort,
cultivated at a loss,
INDIA IN
that
1880.
Chap. xxix.
is
being
landowners
instructive,
to
pay
spirit,
to
administrative improvement.
on assumed
Their extreme
to
opposition
large
facts
to all
who
known
were vain
must
ere
long be
were
supply must be
grain are being
insufi&cient,
stored
at
Government
the
is
cultivation, being
collected with
when
it
its rates, because new when landed property is treated by the people as a valuable security; when land commands a selling price unknown in any previous era when the fiscal demand is demonstrably much below that which
among
it
upon
at
least
and a greater
formerly.
If
demand
is
States,
which the
administration
wisest
will be found
CiiAP. XXIX.
495
is
to exact
much more
subjects than
levied under
Nor
new
industries.
The
fact that
many
persons will
by the
State, is not to be
cessation of
employment and
But the experience of the recent famines has proved, what was quite beKeved before, that large classes habitually
months.
hoard,
in
times
of
plenty,
some
stores
of
grain
these
for
their
Indeed,
calamities,
politic,
avowedly
to
certain
esteemed according
to its fruits.
this wise.
The
The attempts to protect the country, by works of material improvement against famine, result from a
the Indian empire.
mistaken policy.
tion,
The introduction
to
of a civilized administrasociety, is
calculated
the best traditions of bygone times and from the practice of the most advanced nations, are not conducive to the welfare
of Indians.
The
virtue,
energy,
administrators,
blished,
may
be dispensed with.
Even
496
of the empire
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xxix.
left
may
be reduced,
till
India shall be
with her
The mere statement of such conclusions shews that there must be a radical defect in the
breast bare to every foe.
The
till
train of
argument
is
consider
why
Stress
seems
to
national
responsibility,
and the
men
to a degree
these
But attention
is
drawn
to
the
risks
which are
of foreign
possession
It almost
upon the
resources,
and a
encumbrance
is
embarrassment.
are
invited
to don, if they
Still, it is
well
among such
investigations
may
be the
question
thereto.
why
because because,
immense
of rights
government of a vast population, rescued by her from anarchy, revolution, and internecine strife, and now living in loyalty
contentment and prosperity under her sway
in
the faith of
British
interests
have
arisen,
;;
"
Chap. xxix.
497 paramount
Government now
because
her
sistently taken
up by
her,
friends, allies,
and
all,
who have
Western
of disruptive forces
civilization,
because
belief,
especially
new
comprising
and
broken ancestral
guidance, and
ties,
who ought
now
to be deserted
by England
because
and
a vast
amount
sunk in
humanly
held by
ISl"atives
sprung up,
depend
on
the
maintenance
and would
British
power were
to cease
British
if
manufactures,
all
which must
more
or less,
closed
ment
burden upon the United Kingdom, and has on the other hand
rendered assistance in British wars waged beyond
in Persia, Abyssinia
its
own
limits
and China
for
maintaining
2
498
INDIA IN
1880.
Chap. xxix.
Eed
Sea,
stations of Gibraltar
and Malta
India
real drain
upon
who go
there,
own
benefit
affords
employment
because India
aspirations
offers to
for giving
actuated
and
because England
of caring
by the obligation
humanely and
how
uf probity
classes
numerous
of the Indian
is,
to
European
to
much
England.
The Native
character, as a whole,
may
be disparaged
by some whose experience is short and whose knowledge is not But with an Englishman who lives and labours in profound.
the country, the wider his acquaintance with the Natives and the deeper his insight, the greater
is
He
who
Chap. xxix.
499
exception,
who
has,
much
into contact
sincere regret,
^^'ith the Natives, parts from them with remembers them with the most kindly regards
and happiness.
He who
the firmest ground on which to found his belief, will have the
most hopeful
faith in their
He who
many
millions of them,
who
have formed
dures.
Many
mould
different
sliine
with
the
admiring gaze
before
still reflect
inwardly on an all-pervading
and
life,
The
shuttles of
its
loom."
There
is, in their disposition, a cheerful and courageous patience nurtured in the midst of national tribulations, a mllingness to
human
nature in
all climes,
and
which
and
Though
ill,
there
Unheard,
it
The
social
and
an ocean that
has long been swept and lashed by storms following each other 2 K 2
500
in
INDIA
too
1880.
Chap. xxix.
rapid
succession.
after
which ensue
the national
The heaving and the long swell, such events, may cause some to think that
There will
coming tempest, and who wait expectantly for disturbance, like as the stormy petrel in its flight hangs low over the rising
waves.
nothing so
much
up
and
lifts
They love
to dwell under a
tree, of
Government
sings, as
as they repose
which Milton
"...
High o'erarched
There
oft the
a
.
pillarVl
. .
shade
Shelters in cool
."
.
They
desire
of their
Government that
it
its
policy
shall
be
real
shall
have
tlie
power of giving
good intentions.
of
some
classes
among
ment
that has
antiquity.
They picture
They were
and
Some
Natives,
who
feel
are
beginning to be
grateful
to
the
State
resources
at
their
disposal.
Others
Chap. xxix.
501
soar
higher
enjoying that
mental
independence
and
moral
freedom
into
which
and
foreign
they
have
been
initiated
by
studious
preparation,
of their
the example
Among
them,
many
Government must
ment
Undoubtedly such opportunities will be afforded gradually, and the advancement of the Natives will
of the country.
proceed so far as
may
those
interests
concerned.
Here
onward
movement which
is
already
effected,
and
feel
English justice.
fidelity of the
wisely conducted as
respects
minds
will
in
many
progress which
being wTought.
day
is
this
who during
sit
the last
outside their
for the
glimmer
up black as Erebus, with no promise as yet of the shining robes in which they are shortly to be arrayed. As the sky becomes illtiminated with amber hues, the outline of the
are reared
peaks,
spires
till
and pinnacles,
is
defined
moment
Then, as the
snowy
502
range yields gradually
a purple mist,
INDIA IN
;
1880.
Chap. xxix.
while others, fronting the sun, are smitten with splendour and
seem
So
India.
to catch
fire.
At
length, the
for the
Formerly
" midnight hushed the world
As
vice
As
which
approaches,
of superstition, prejudice
Then
the guidance of Western civilization. the sunrise manifests itself to the earth
"...
Of
silver,
warming
By
To fervent glow, flushed from the brink With saffron, scarlet, crimson, amethyst
Whereat the sky burns splendid to the blue, And, robed in raiment of glad light, the King Of life and glory cometh " *
!
The Light
of Asia,'
by Edwin Arnold,
C.S.I.,
p. 113.
INDEX.
ABBOTT.
AECH^OLOGICAL.
Akber the
era
Great, palace
of,
ABBOTT,
Abdul
Latif,
mention
of,
114
sheltered in infancy
of,
Ab-dur-raliman,
Aboriginal tribes
305
of,
revenue
494
Abu,
cliaracteristic of, 13
Jain temples at, 31 Acacia tree, 298 Acts of the legislature, 181, 182 Aden, its position, 415, 416 its political relations, 416 defence of, 377 Adhi-Brahmos sect, mention of, 130 Adina mosque at Gour, 39 Adoption, right of in Native States, Admiralty, arrangement with, 376 use of teak wood by, 290 Adult males, employment of, 473 Adulteration of food, 326 Adultery, punishment of, 200 Afghanistan, position of, 422 importance of, 423-440 protracted war in, 488
trade with, 481
Alder tree, 298 Aleppo, trade by, 313 Alexandra Institute at Bombay, 157
Aligarh, viaduct
at,
267
Allahabad, arsenal
Alligator,
its
at,
408
25
view of bridge
at,
Almora, views
66, 61
Almshouses in time of famine, 339 Alompra, empire of, 418 Ambair, buildings at, 37 Amerapura, mention of, 419 American merchants in India, 56
vessels, 315
tramways
in
Bombay, 286
Afghans, characteristics
491
of,
Amir Amir
of Caubul, 435
of, 407,
408
Andaman
islands,
210
Andrew, W.
408
Anderson, of Madras, mention of, 52 Anderson, Rev., mention of, 170 P., his connection with railways, 272 Anglo-Indian newspaper press, 57, 58 Anicat in canals, 2i9 Anjuman of Lahore, 127
at,
42
Anquetil du Perron, his researches regarding the Parsis, 343 Antiquarian remains, 351 Antiquary, attractions of India for, 3
Appeal, right of, in civil causes, 185 Applied sciences in India, 149 Arab mercenaries in the Deccan, 68
department, 360
Agriculture, native position
of,
84
vessels, 314
of,
85
Arabian
with, 8
deserts,
306
at,
Aravali, 297
Arbitration,
Ajanta, caves
of,
28 65
how
importance, 351
Akbcr
the Great,
tumb
of, at
Sikaudra, to
work
in India, 351
504
ABOaaCOLOQIOAL.
Archaeological Survey, in
INDEX.
BASSEIN.
Presidency,
Bombay
351
Archipelago, Eastern, 415
Architect, attractions of India for, 3
Architecture,
Muhammadan, 38-42
Hindu, 31-38
Buddhist, 26-31
Jain, 31
British, 23
Assemblage, Imperial, at Delhi, 61, 306 Assessed taxes consist of licence tax on trades, 234 Assessment of land revenue, how made, 215 Astronomical observatory at Madras, 355 Asylums, Lawrence, 386 Atkinson, \V., his entomology, 359
Audit,
civil, 4
65
Area of country,
116
Armoury
industry, 304
of,
207
Army,
constitution
of, in India,
Ava, kingdom
of,
419
of,
European, 385
its strength, 413, 482
Yule's account
349
Ayodhya, remains
of,
36
Strait of, 415,
Native, 391-404
its
BAB-EL-MANDAB,
Bailakshan, mention
416
of,
428, 429
proportion between
his
395
divided
castes
its
its
of, 313,
into
72
Presidencies, 396
304
and
tribes of
which
It is
composed, 397
East
physique, 399
Indian and poor European children, 160 Bailey guard, remains of, at Lucknow, 25
missionary, 170
Baillie, his treatises
terms of enlistment, 400 pay and allowances, 401 its ofiBcering, 402 its native officers, 403 its European oiBcers, 404 its cavaliy, 405 horses and remounts, 405 regular and irregular systems, 402 staff corps, 404 question of forming a reserve, 406 armament and equipment, 407
ordnance, 407, 408 commissariat, 408
clothing, 408
on
Muhammadan
52
law, 315
of,
W., 272
"
district of Madras, 283 Balance of Indian foreign trafle, 315 how adjusted, 315, 316
Balaghat
Balkh, mention
Ball,
on military accounts, 411 428, 429 v., his book on jungle life, 358
of,
Bamboo
tree,
298
transport, 409-411
Arnold, E., his puems on Buddha, 346 quotations from, 502 Preface, is. Arracan, province of, 418
of, 417 to, 268 Banks, Presidency, 468, 469 savings, 467 exchange, 469
Banyan
500
154
Ash
Artillery,
European, 406
of,
status
of,
123, 184
Native, 406
Arungzeb, era
tree,
305
298
Bombay.
at,
BarLh^lemy
36
St.
HiUire, 345
of,
Asirgarh, fort
76
Asoka, Buddliist emperor, 28, 154 Asoka tree, 292 Assam, tea-planters in, 57, 291
Basra, navigation
to,
417
INDEX.
BACHELOR.
Bachelor of Arts, native, 145
505
BUDDH.
of,
365
Bauhinia
tree,
291
of,
spearing
of,
365
Beads, importation
Bear,
313
369
Bedar, buildings
Beggars, class
of,
at,
39
101, 473
of, 109,
Bolan Pass, military stores and material railway to near foot of, 440 Bokhara, position of, 247, 423-425
in, 75
Behar, peasantry
tenures
in,
110
Railway
217
railways
in,
267
Bombay, arsenal
famine
in, 331,
333
437
Beluch
tribes,
behaviour
of,
of,
421
Benares, view
35
Bengal Asiatic Society at Calcutta, 343, 349, 350 Bengal, bay of, vapours from, 9
eastern,
at, 408 branch of Royal Asiatic Society, 350 bank of, 468, 469 Bombay Presidency city, view of buildings at, 24 port of, 377, 381, 382 wet dock at, 381 foreshore at, 382
monsoon
of,
In,
population
80
tramways
in,
286
famine
in, 331,
333
in,
waterworks
conservancy
defence
of,
323 324
378
tenures of land
217
of,
of, 377,
dockyard
at,
381
Bethune
at
army, 384, 396, 398, 400 famine in, 331-335 municipal franchise in, 127 Books, statistics of, 478 Borax, produce of, 289
Borneo, relations with, 415, 418
Betwa
254
at,
Beypore, railway
268
Botanic science in India, 356 services of medical men, 356 gardens and herbaria, 356, 357 Botanist, attractions of India for, 4
Bhinsa in Kumaon, view from, 17 Bhopal, Native State of, 71 Its State railway, 276 Bhore Ghat, view of, 24
railway over, 24
road over, 283 Bhotan, Native State
Bijapur,
of, 73,
420
Brahmo
his
sect,
mention
of, 130,
174
dome and
buildings at, 39
of,
Bijayanagar, ruins
37
50
Its services,
men and
villagers, 103
his report
bition, 305
33
25
Bishops, establishment
in India, 53
371
Broome, his history of the Bengal army, 127,347 Bruce, Colonel, organizes police, 204 Bryan Hodgson, 343 Buchanan Hamilton, his statistical works, 349 Buckley, his book on canals, 262 Budget, financial, in India, 441 Buddha, figures of, generally, 28
figures of, in Sikhim, 29
Akber
Bud
Ih
Gya, temple
of,
29
506
BUDDHIST.
26 ruins and remains, 26 Buddhism, roclj-cut temples
INDEX.
CAVALRY.
Canals, from the Tunga-badra, 252
in Tanjore, 251
of,
Buddhist
tfjpes,
27
in Sind, 252 in
421
of,
Bombay
Deccan, 252
Buist, Dr.,
mention
58
71
of,
Burma, architecture
railways
rubies in, 304
of,
30
in, 268,
269
proposed rate
for,
260
remaining
for,
262
mention of, 51 Burnouf, his Buddhist researches, 343 Bushire, political importance of, 417
Bythesea, Admiral, 379
navigation project.
CADDAPA,
342
Cane
Caird, James,
member
of
Famine Commission,
Capital,
accumulation
of,
94,
95
bank of, 468, 469 view at, 24 pontoon bridge at, 380
port
of,
Carey, Rev. Dr., mention of, 168 Carnac, Rivett, his services in cotton department,
380
of, of,
waterworks
conservancy
police
of,
324
324
288
Carpenter,
204'
159
defence
of,
377
380
dockyards at, 381 municipal franchise In, 127 Caldwell, Bishop, mention of, 170
Calicut district, wealth of, 103 California, direct trade with, 312 Cambridge mission to Delhi, 175, 176
improved build of, 93 Cash balance of government, 469, 470 Cashmir, beauty of, 18, 19 panoramic view of, 19 government of, 68, 429 its relations with Yarkand, 421
its shawls, 308 Caspian Sea, Russian base on, 424 system of, not yet weakened, 118
Camels, quality
of,
289
on modern India
Caste,
347
Canals, for navigation and irrigation, 246 of India compared with those of Mesopo-
affected slightly
by railways, 118
166, 167
Catholic: see
Roman,
of,
tamia, 247
.
numbers
of,
98
increase
99
by
natives, 248
breeds
of,
93
murrains among, 362 Cattle-stealing, crime of, 201 Caubul, embassy to, 427 mention of, 432 Robert's march to, 488
fight before, 491
of,
52
from the lower Godavery, 251 from the lower Kistiia, 251
Cavalry, European, in India, 405 Native, 405 recruits, whence obtained, 303
INDEX.
CAVALRY.
Cavalry horses and remounts, 405 Cavery, canals from, 251-253 tJawnpore, Well at, 25 manufacture of harness at, 403 Cedar-tree in India, 290, 298 Census of the Indian population, 78, 79
Central Prisons, 209
Clive, essay on,
507
COMMISSARIAT.
by Macaulay, 346
railways
its
its
quality, 302
of,
in,
218
importation
303
of,
288
of,
Coasting-trade, 480
labour market
Chakrata,
83 387
290
Chambal, poosible canals from, 253, 254 Chambers, Mr., meteorologist at Bombay, 355 Chambers of Commerce, position of, 56
Indian,
its
merits, 289
exportation
Coinage,
481
Champa
Chand
tree, 291
amount
467
Chandragarh, palace
Chaplains, position
near Arcot, 37
46-48
Colonies
see
Emigration, 85
of Indian emigrants, 479
:
statistics
how
see Coal.
Commander-in-Chief
397
430
Commerce,
of,
13
Chitorgarh in Rajputana, 36
Christianity, policy of British
Government
re-
direct
specting, 166
Christians, number of, 472 Church Missionary Society, 167
312
with France, 313 with United States, 313 with Italy, 313 with China, 312 with Australia, 313 with Mauritius, 313 with the United Kmgdom, 314 shipping engaged in, 314
British, 314
149
in India, 151
Civil service, covenanted, its duties, 43-50
its
foreign, 315
branches, 45
executive, 46, 47
judicial,
49
its duties,
uncovenanted,
53
Commerce,
185
318
476
on
prices,
320
statistics of,
480
mention
of,
51
Commissariat,
its
508
C03IMTS ARIAT.
Commissariat,
its
INDEX.
DEBENTUKKS.
Covenanted
Civil Service, its numljers, 43
eJBciency, 409
for framing laws, 181 framing laws, 181
Commission
in
England
in India for
for investigating
Deccan indebtedness,
222
for reorganizing regular police, 204 for Indian famine, 3-12
Cubbon,
for reducing military expenses, 449 Commissioners, divisional position of, 49 Communities, village, in Northern India, 218
Sir
Curg, coflFee-planters
Currie,
in, 57,
292
on, 218
73
Companies
see Guaranteed.
Competition system of appointing to covenanted civil service, 44 Concan, tenures in, 225 Congress of Berlin, 427 Conolly, his travels, 348 Conservancy in towns and cities, 324
in Calcutta, 324
ill
Cunningham, Arthur,
344
his
his other worlis, 345 General Alexander, head of Archiuological Survey, 351 H. S., member of Famine Commission, 254,
Bombay, 324
Currency in
silver,
460
461
army, 389 Continuity of system desirable, 194 Contract, law of, 181 Controller General of civil accounts 412
in the
in paper, 465-467
on exports, 235
partially remitted on English piece goods,
Cooper, his journey in China, 349, 420 Cooper's Hill, college at, for Civil Engineers, 51
Coparcenary communities in
Northern India
218 Copper, production of, 289 Corps see Staff, 404 of engineers, 52 Corals, importation of, 313 ' Corpus inscriptionum Indicarum,' 345 Correspondents, special, sent by English press to
:
in delta of
Cypress
tree,
298
184
DACCA
territory,
of,
wealth
197
of,
103
Dacoity, crime
Dagon pagoda
at
Rangun,
at,
30, 31
of,
53
387
347 founds schools in Himalayas, 160 Cotton, production of, in India, 293
efforts for
Dalton,
hi,-,
improvement, 293
manufactures
of,
294, 481
Daidatabad, fort
at, :^6
Country
craft
see Craft,
315
115
Court of Wards,
work
of,
Date, produce
of,
288
pisciculture, 369
3'29,
Day,
its dutic;-,
Dr., his
work on
332
43-50
Debentures, municipal, 95
INDEX.
DEBT.
Debt, public
private
:
'
509
EMiaBATION.
see Indebtedness.
in, 9
Eastern Ghat mountains, roads across, 283 Eastwick, E. B., bis guide books, 349
Ebony, produce
of,
290
67
canals
in, 2;>2
for, 5
indebtedness of peasantry
222
Eden, gardens
at,
Calcutta, 24
Mahratta associations
Decrees, civil execution
in science, 129, 152
of,
in,
72
186, 187
Edinburgh, H.R.H. Duke of, visits India, 61 Edgar, his travels in Sikhim, 348
Edmonstone, mention of, 50 Educated classes. Native, of the old school, 121
of the
new
school, 121
imperial assemblage
prize
at,
61
money
at,
92
Demoralisation not caused by fomine Dhannsala, characteristics of, 12 Diamonds, production of, 304
Dig, palace
at,
340
want of employment
134
37
of,
76
Educational statistics, 477, 473, 495 Education under Native rule, 138
grants
for, 139,
of, 139,
140
income
140
141
several kinds
of,
young native
princes, 65
Dockyards
at Calcutta, 381
Egypt, jurisdiction of, on Red Sea coast, 416 Edwardes, Herbert, mention of, 51
his biography of
Duke
Drama, Indian,
Drinking, effect
status
of,
133
legislation regarding,
of,
133
on soldiery, 383
of,
170
their
work on Native religion, 344 Drury, his work on useful plants, 357
Dufla tribes, behaviour
of,
Duration of civil suits, 184, 185 Durand, Sir Henry, mention of, 51 Durand, his history of first Afghan war, 346 Dwellings, sanitary examination of, 325
policy, 103
regulations, 179
its
Elliot, his
works on Muhammedan
meteuiulogist, 355
historians, 345
its canals,
its its
250
Mr^
C. A., secretary to
Elm
tree,
293
of, 31,
its
Elura, caves
32
in,
East India railway company, 270 Eastern Bengal railway company, 270 East Indiamen ships, 309 East Indians, prospects of, 54
education
of,
extraordinary temple
31
Embankments,
159-161
Eastern Ghat mountains, range' of, 251 canals near, 251 railways across, 266
510
EMIGRATION.
Emigration to the Mauritius, 85
to Natal, 85
INDEX.
FINANCE.
FACTORIES
Indies, 85
of Jute, 296
from India
to tlie
West
to Guiana, 85 Empire, Indian, Order of, 129 Employtnents of the people, 473, 474 Enamel, art of, in India, 306
of cotton, 294 proposed Act regarding, 295 Faiz Ali Khan, mention of, 76
Falconer, Dr., Botanist, 357
for,
116
FamiUes of Native soldiers, 399 Famine, Indian Commission, 342, 483-487 Famines under Native rule, 330
British rule, 331
in 1874,
in 1877-8, Madras,
Muhammadans,
securities, 485
rifles,
164
331, 332
charity
for, in
Enfaced
Enfield
India, 332
408
of,
Engineers, corps
civil,
52
advantage 333
particulars
position
in India, 52
far prevailing in
1874, 333
English law,
180, 192
how
:
India, 179,
of 1877, 335
education
for,
sanitary inspection beforehand, 337 prevent famishing people from wandering, 338
management
its
organization, 339
relief
346
Established Church of Scotland, 167
155
at,
works
of,
in India, 343
54
in
see
East Indians
of,
443
European colonization
India, 54
army:
see
Army,
of,
officers,
paucity
at,
408
489
Euphrates, river. 417 Evidence Act, 181 Everest, Motmt, view
Colonel, mention
of, of,
18
its extent,
353
Fife, Colonel,
mention
of,
52
460
288
on
its
spirits,
its effect
of, 441 budget, statements of, 442 accounts of, presented to parliament, 442
Execution of decrees, civil, 186 Elxecutive branch of covenanted civil service, 45 Exhaustion of soil, 84, 85, 300, 362 Exportation of Indian produce, 315-317 Exports from India, 311 Eyiib Khan, of Heiat, 429,430, 439
statement of for two past years, 444, 445 growth of, 442 apprehensions regarding, 443, 445 want of elasticity in revenue, 447
limit of taxation, 448
INDEX.
FINANCE.
Finance, scheme of provincial services, 452 Kuropeaii and Native agency, 453
cost of material improvements, 453
511
GRANTS-IN-AID.
Gandak canal project, 252, 254 Gandamak, treaty of, 435, 436,
440, 488
Garcin de Tasgy, on Oriental literature, 345 Ganges at Hardwar, 255 at Benares, 35 canal of, 250 delta of, 414 navigation of, 319 Gauges, broad and narrow, on Indian railway^
276
relative merits of, 277, 278
from
loss
objections to break
of,
277
and
Gawilgarh, fort
at,
36
Fir
tree,
293
of,
Flax, quality
290
of,
Genoa, direct trade with, 312 Geodetic operations, 354 Geoghegan, Mr., his work on
Geological Survey, 357
inscriptions,
its
silk,
293
production
Fleet, Mr., his
295
work on Canarese
works, 358
351
Flora, Indian, 356
its uses,
358
in India, 56
Food-supply generally sufficient, 86, 87, 317, 482 exportation of, during famine of 17), 317 Forbes: see Kinlocb, 345 I)r., his services in cotton department, 293
German merchants
Ghat mountains
Gill,
:
see
Watson, his work, 305 Foreign relations, 414-440 Forgery, crime of, 200 Forest officers covenanted, 51
313
of,
25
how
appointed, 301
department, organization
ranker, old, book, 373
Forestrj', school of, 301
upper, navigation works at, 26 Golab Sing of Cashmir, mention of, 68 Golconda, tombs at, 39
Gold,
298
amount
of, in
circulation in India, 96
of,
economic value
use
of, in
of,
299
proposed standard
460
of, in
importation
wasteful cultivation
statistics of, 481
in,
302
Fort
St.
George, arsenal
I\Ir.,
at,
408
Gond, Goods
Foster,
Goparums
or gateways, 34
in Bengal, 39
Governorships, 472
Lieutenant, 471
Frescoes at Ajanta, 23
Frontiers, 112, 421
149
Grain, importation
for
of,
by Government during
Furlough regulations
6AIRS0PA,
waterfalls of,
Grant-Duff,
M.
of,
E.,
tour in India.
Preface,
viii.
141
512
GRANVILLE.
Granville, Lord, his negotiation, 426
INDEX.
INDEBTEDNESS.
Himalayas, scenery
of,
16-18
Great Trigonometrical Survey, 353 Great Indian Peninsular railway company, 270
Green's ships, 309
Grlflath, his poetical translations
krit,
472
Hindu
castes, 111
345
botanist, 356
Groves, sacred, description of. Preface, ix. Guaranteed railway companies, 269
their system, 270, 271
newspaper, 132
Holkar, as a sovereign, 70
sovereignty
of,
416
of,
Native State
103
of,
of,
71
Gun-carriages, manufacture
408
Home
Holly
charges, 316
Guns, manufacture
Gwalior, fortress
of,
of,
407, 408
298
36
railway
to,
267
Gya, temple at Buddh Gya near, 29 Gypsum, produce of, 289 Gypsy tribes sometimes criminal, 200
HAIG
Hamburg, Hamilton
Horses, breeds
of,
in India, 289
383
decline
of,
405-406
of,
Importation
Hospitals
:
405 328
see Dispensaries,
at, 15,
255
statistics,
477
407, 403
Hubli, railway by, 268 Hughes, missionary, 170 Hughli river, 25, 380, 381 Hume, A. 0., head of agricultural department
360
his services to ornithology, 359
Hatwa
estate, 475
Haug, Martin,
Hunter,
W. W.,
283
Hyderabad
in the Deccan,
to,
mob
at,
67
headman,
village, 220
railway
266
sometimes has police powers, 220 his duties in time of famine, 339 Heber, Bishop, mention of, 53
Hyderabad
in Sind,
Hyndman, Mr.,
IBEX, mention
Ilex tree, 298
of,
372
of,
Herat, boundary near to, 426 importance of, 429-432, 439 Herbarium at Calcutta, value
science, 356
at Bijapur, 39
of,
Imam
of Muscat, 416
title
Imperial
of,
proclaimed, 61
Hides, quantity
290 314
for,
exportation
of,
50
to,
High Courts,
civil
servants chosen
Natives admitted
134
High Education
see
Education, 145
in,
387
INDEX.
INDEBTEDNESS.
Inik'btPtlncss, special cases In tlie Deccan, 222
513
KATHIAWAIi.
472
liidcpoiidcnt
liKlia,
community, missions
of,
168
it,
temples, 31
496-
498 Indian Caucasus, mention of, 423, 429 Indian corn: see Maize, 289
Indian Famine Commission, 317, 342, 483-487
tljeir opinions regarding tenants, 229 Indian Institute at Oxford, 136 navy, 375
its adherents, 119 at Delhi, 40-41 Jamaica, sugarcane of, 288 James, Lord Justice, on Law Commission, 181 Jamieson, Dr., his services to science, 357
Jama Mosque
Jammu,
Jamna
of, 71
State
of,
66
sovereign
of,
68
mention
Indigo-planters, as a class, 56
new
of,
290
416
of,
Jelalabad, position
436
of, in India,
Malwa
plateau, 267
members
of,
167
road near, 283 Indus, canals from, in Sind, 252 navigation of, 319
delta
Jheluni, source
valley
of,
in Cashmir, 19
in Cashmir, 20
of,
69
of,
414
-
Native, 301
See
of, 219 Jones, Sir William, founds Asiatic Society of Bengal, 343, 350
Army.
Jounpur, mosques
Judges of
455, 456, 461,
district,
at,
39
Europeans, duties
of,
49
on National Debt,
assistant, 50
462
in private transactions, 97
Native, 49
Judicial branch of covenant<?d civil service, 45
Inundation canals in Panjab: see Canals. Invaliding of soldiers, 388 Irawaddy, river, tribes near, 419
Iron, production
of,
system, 179
of,
168
Jung Behadur,
Juniper
tree,
in India, 303
298 36
company
403
Irrigation
Junir, fort
at,
production
exportation
local
296
of,
296
296
manufactures
of,
in Central, 249
in Southern, 249
Jyepur, city
37
of,
by
in in
British, 250
Native State
70
Upper
India, 250
in in
KACHNAR
Kailas,
TREE,
of,
291
in valleys
temple
at Elura, 31
importance
247
Karachi, defen'^e
of,
377
harbour
of,
382
merchants in India, 56
15
Prefaced-
of,
51
Karwar, position of, 377 harbour of, 383 Kashgar, relations with, 420
position of, 431
of,
489
of,
72
2 L
514
KA.THIAWAR.
Kathlawar, railway
in,
INDEX.
LONG.
Lala Rukh, poem, scene Land-tax, nature of, 212
is
267
of,
19
Katmandu
Kazi,
of
war
of East India Company, 347 Muhammadan, 183 Keene, H. G., his historic work, 346 Kellner, Sir George, on military accounts, 411 Kene river, 253, 254
at,
306
Laurel
tree,
298
307
of,
Kerosine
oil,
importation
313
Law,
Keshab Chander Sen, 131 Khanates in Central Asia, 424, 426 Khande Rao, Gaekwar, mention of, 71 KheJda, depots for elephants see Elephant,
:
Hindu, 179
in India, 179
370
Khelat, Native State
of, 75,
437
Muhammadan,
native system
life of,
of,
of,
178
178
how
Khiva, condition of, 247, 423, 426 Khorasan, Persian province, 431, 423 Khote landlords, 225
50
Khyber
Kliwaja
Amran
mountains, 436
Henry, mention
life of,
51
Kidnapping young children, crime of, 200 Kinchiiijanga, mountain view of, 17
Kind, collection of land revenue in, 232 Kinloch Forbes, his work on Gujerat, 345
348
Asylums, 386
Leach, his history of Indian navy, 347
Lees, Nassau, his book on drain of silver to the
East, 461 Legislation by British
Kirpa
Ram
of
Kirwi, prize
of,
76
Government
in India, 180
Kishim, island
417
merits
of,
193
Kumaon, views
in,
17
Leopard
5S
see
Cheeta
see Panther.
of,
Kokand, mention
Kol, tribe
of,
of,
424
of,
Canal, 311
111
72
of,
170
Kurram
pass, 435
of,
Kurram, valley
435, 436
Light of Asia, poem, 500 Preface, ix. Lighthouses, mention of at principal 383
at,
points,
386
want
Lingayet
of,
at
sect,
LABOURING classes,
110, 111
Lac dye, quantity of, 290 Lace, gold and silver, 306 Ladakh, travels in, 348
situation of, 420
its abolition,
390
taxation, 244
amount
workshops
of,
244, 477
of,
Locomotives, supply
of,
275
Native, example
when
at,
educated, 159
Lakes
257
'
479 Lock hospitals, establishment of, 389 Lockwood, his bo"k on jungle life, 373 Long, Rev. James, mention of, 170 Long Engagements,' novel by Kaye, 348
statistics of,
INDEX.
LOKD,
l>oril
515
MAYO,
Imw, Sir John, mention of, 51 Lowo, Mr. Roljert, on law commission, 181
Loyalty, probability
136,498-501
of Native army, 394, 395
of,
among
Natives,
131,
Lucknow,
prize
money
at,
at,
92
Maine, Sir Henry Sumner, as a legislator, 182 his work on village communities, 218 Maize, produce of, 289 Makum, delivery to, 267 Malabar, coast, gold discoveries in, 303 Malacca, Straits of, 418 Malcolm, mention of, 51
life of,
Btructures
39
of,
347
India,
Bailey guard
Lushai
tribes,
at, 25 behaviour
112
Malhar Rao, Gaekwar, mention of, 71 Malli'son, Col., his history of French in
346
his history of
Gandamak, 489
MACHINERY,
Malwa, railway to, 267 Mandalay, mission at, 419 Mandla, palace at, 37
see
'1
iger.
Maclean, J. M., mention of, 58 Macleod, Sir Donald, in favour of missions, 171
Mango
tree, 290,
298
India, 345
73
Manockjl
tion, 157
at,
255
408 34
vi.
bank
of,
468, 469
at, 23,
Marco
buildings
famine
port
of,
335
381
Polo, his travels, 346 Margary, Mr., murder of, 419 Marine, in tune of Indian navy, 375 remained after abolition of navy, 378 its reconstitution, 379 its duties, 379
railway company, 270 defence of, 377 army, 384, 396, 398, 400
Madura, palace
temples
railway
at,
38
surveys, 379 Mariner, attractions of India for, 5 Markham, Clements, his report on India, 347 Colonel, his sporting tour in the Himalayas,
at,
35 268
373
Marmaguon
harbour, 383
at,
387
Magazines belonging to Native States, 66 to British Government, 407, 408 Magistrate and Collector, duties of, 45-49
control of police, 204
expenses
of,
197
Magnetic observations, 354 Magnolia tree, 291 Mahableshwar, characteristics of, 13 Mahabalipuram near Madras, temples Mahanaddi, gorges of, 15
lower canals
of,
Marshman, Rev.
at,
Dr.,
mention
of,
168
34
251
Martand, temple of, in Cashmlr, 32 Martini-Henry rifle, 408 Marty n. Rev. Henry, mention of, 168 Marwari bankers, conduct of, 117
Masson, his travels, 348 Master of Arts, Native, 145 Matheran, view from, 14
Mathew,
F., his
Native
States, 72
Max
428
south country, 72
Mayo, Lord,
347
Malmena, mention
of,
516
MAYO.
Mayo, Lord, on provincial flnauce, 452
INDEX.
NATIONAL.
Monier Williams founds Indian Monsoon, season of, 9
171
institutes, 136
fictions,
348
men,
Medina, mention of, 416 Melbourne, exhibition at, 313 Melvill, Sir .lames Cosmo, 272
freedom from in 1874, 331, 333 severe in 1877 and 1878, 332, 335 Mosaic in stone, art of, among ;\Iuhammadans,
Moti Masjid,
its
at Agra, 41
Megna
river,
254
beauty, 41
Moulmein, pagodas at, 30 Mountstuart see Elphinstone, 346 Muhammad Ali Rogh?, mention of, 114
:
Muhammadan
genius in architecture, 38
part of Indian peasantrj', 112
Muhammadans,
-
50
347
of,
Meteorology, importance
observations at
at Calcutta, 355
355
Mules
410
Bombay, 355
MUller: see Max, 344 Multan, climate of, 11 Mumtazi-i-Mahal, her tomb,
the Taj, 41, 42
ordinarily called
477,
of,
Municipalities, mention
477
of,
Munro,
Sir
Thomas, mention
51
Murghab
of,
river,
170
Muscat,
Imam
of, political
347
Museum
at Calcutta, 358
at Kensington, 306
Jluslins of Bengal, 30
names
example
in India, 177
NABBA,
Naga
Missions,
Roman
Catholic, 165-1(j7
tribes,
of, of,
69
112
Protestant, 167-177
statistics of, 169
Nagpur, city and province, 263 Naini Tal, characteristics of, 12, 13
Nandidilrg, fort
of,
36
of,
52
from
Oxford
and
Napier, Sir
Cambridge, 175
political effect of, in India, 176, 177
National Bank, 460 National debt in India, 484, 435 amount of, 461-463
literatiu-e,
345
117
Moraand
tribe, 421
Money
lenders, native,
mention
of, 97,
INDEX.
NATIVE.
Native
517
rANNAII.
army
see
Anny.
of, in India,
Oilseeds, exportation
of,
314
Cburcb, prospects
Christians, 172
173
Oldbani, Dr., head of geologiail survey, 357 Oman, sea of, 313, 416
Native industries, how far existing under British rule, 88-93, 304-306 Native press, description of, 132, 133 Native States, 59-76
size of, 59
Opium, duties on, 239 Bengal and Bombay systems, 239 Bengal system discussed, 239 effect of Indian, on China, 240
grown
during
their
conduct
war of
the
Orange, 290
Order, decorations of Star of India, 61
mutinies, 60
their right to adopt, 60
their political value, 62, 63 their administration, 63, 64, lh9
of
Crown
of India, 62
constitution, 407
their railways, 65
Natural history studied in India, 358 Naval arrangement between Indian Government and Admiralty, 376 history of India, 374 Navy, Indian, its services, 375 its abolition, 375 Royal, 376 furnishes ships for Indian waters, 376 Neem tree, 298 Negapataui, railway at, 268 Nepal, BuddLiist pag'idas in, 30
408
260, 261
canals
in, 251,
in,
famine
454
Ormuz, mention
of,
417
Ornitbologiciil collections in
museum, 359
journals, 359
kingdom of, 74 government of, 74 Nerbadda, marble rocks of, 15 view from viaduct over the, 25
lower, canal project, 252
Ornithology studied in India, 359 O'Shaugbnessy, Sir William, introduces electric telegraph, 279 Oudh, talukdars of, 218
tenures of land
cultivators
in, in,
218, 219
229
Newspaper
Outram, mention
of,
of,
51
51
life of,
347
of,
Ovis
Amman, mention
372
292
Oxus, political importance of, 423-425 boundary formed by, 42t) sources of, 426-429
Nimar, railway
in,
267
Nizam
PACHMARI,
Non-offlcial
community
of Europeans, 54-ES
Normal
schools, 144
Nur
Jehau, mention
of,
156
Palm-trees, 298
Palajontologia Indica, 358
OAli-TREE, 298
Occupancy tenants, 221 sUtus of, 225
privileges
of,
of,
76
225
251
in,
Ocean, Indian, 9
O'Conor, Mr., his review of trade, 311
Octroi, 244
railways
266
Sikh faith
in, 120
army
ol,
of,
397
71
Offenders, 2lu
Oilseeds, production
290
ot,
518
PANTHEB.
Panther,
its characteristics,
INDEX.
PRIESTLY.
Pilot service
367, 368
of,
on Hftghli
river,
381
465
467
Paras-Niitb, mount, 31
Paris, exhibition at, 307
uiarlcets at, 303
Plane
tree,
:
298
Planters
Tea.
Plantain, 291
wild, 370
Passenger
traffic
on railways,
at,
273, 274
Pertabgurh, fort
36
Patan near Katmandu, temples at, 33 Pathan tribes on frontier, behaviour of, 112, 421
appearance
of,
of,
201
and
inefficient,
20
reorganization
in
relief,
of, in
310
improvement
141
206
Pondicheri, railway
mosque
at Agra, 41
268 Ponies in military service, 410 Poona, cultivation near, 103 college at, 151-153
to,
irrigiition near,
252
dacoity disturbances near, 198 Poor-law, none in India, 101, 473 Population in India, question whether
creases, 80-83
it
in-
moral 110,221
effect
of indebtedness upon
them
Bombay, 377-382
castes. 111, 112
humble
of,
Madras, 377-381
Karachi, 377, 382
418
201
of,
Pendulum
observations, 353
pany, 310, 378 Pennar, canal from, 252 Perim, island of, 416
of,
124, 479
revenues
of,
243
of,
308
223
of,
130
in,
376
417
importance
telegraph
of, politically,
in,
280
Persian horses, 289, 405 Personal rule dying out in India, 188, 194 Pertabgurh, fort at, 36
53 Precious stones in India, 303, 304 Presbyterian chaplains, position of, 53 missions, 167
of,
mention
Presidencies, armies
Peshawur, railway
to,
265
to,
of, 3^4, 413 Banks, 468, 409. see Calcutta, Madras, Bombay. Press, English in India, 57, 58
Presidency
see
Petersburg, telegraph
427
of,
170
moral
118
Muhammadan,
Priestly. Colonel,
mention
of,
214
INDEX.
PRIMARY.
I'limary schools
poUtical
:
519
RED.
see Education,
142
Railways, difficulty in tlieir construction, 264 from C;dcutta to North-west Frontier, 265
of visit. Gl
307
exhibition of
them
Allahabad
to
Bombay, 207
Bombay
to
Madras, 266
Lahore to Karaclii, 266 Sakar towards Candaliar, 266 Bombay through Giyerat to Kajpntana,
500
services of railways during his tour, 273
in Behar, 267
in Eastern
under British rule, 208 gradually improved, 209 manufactures in, 209
central, 209
'
from Goa to Southern Deccan, 268 Railway, projected, from Gujerat to Sind, 268 branch, to Hyderabad in the Deccan, 266 chord line in the Deccan, 266 from Rangun
268
Islands, 210
to
projected, direct
to
Calcutta
'
transportation, 210
to Port Blair,
Andaman
Prize
money
at several places, 92
Prome, temples
at,
30
:
passenger
traffic,
273
Property in land
British
conferred or recognised by
goods
traffic,
274
Government, 215
paying revenue,
216
several forms of, 217-221
rolling stock
value
of,
fee-simple, 217
in permanently settled estates, 217
partition
use
of, to tourists, 7
of,
of,
217
plant, importation
statistics,
265
479
219
joint responsibility of their
36
at,
members, 219
65
of,
70
See Property
see
Zemindars.
Rampa
disturbances, 199
forest, boolc,
at,
Ranger, old
defence
373
Rangun, pagoda
of,
30
377 268
at,
Public deljt
railway
at,
453-158
port
of,
377
Ranikhet, station
337
QUETTA,
view from, 13
of,
Reading-rooms
position
437, 440
amount
of,
243, 244
RADHANPUR,
Raegurh,
Native State
of,
73
fort at, 36
Red
Sfa, navigation
of,
310
520
RED.
Ked
Sea, electric telegraph in, 2S0
INDEX.
SAXITARY.
Roads from Poona to the Soutliem Deccan, 284 from Coimbatur to the Nilgiris, 284
across passes in Eastern
Ghat mountains,
284
Reinaud, his learned works, 343 Relief worlcs in famine, 338 Relief, houses and hospitals, 339 See Famine. Religious tendencies of educated Natives, 130, 131
missions in India
:
see
Chaptek IX.
Remains, ancient, preservation of, 351 Remittances by Indian Government, 88, 316, 439
204
in,
250
by soldiers, 386 Remounts for cavalry, 405 Remunerative public works, 454-458
Rendels, railway engineers, 212
267
Roman
organization, 167
operations, 167
Romilly, Justice, on
Roshanara,
Preface,
sister of
Reserved
forests, 301 Reservoirs for irrigation, 249, 253, 257 Resident, political, at Aden, 416
at Bushire, 417.
of,
219
Revenue, proper, several heads of, 230-242 contradistinguished from receipts, 243
amount
of,
242
W.
H.,
his
narrative of
viii.
Prince
of
incidence
of,
245
Rewa
Kanta, Native States of, 73 Rhinoceros in North-Eastern India, 371 Rhododendrons in eastern Himalayas, 291
her position in Central Asia, 425 her attitude towards Afghanistan, 426, 427, 433, 434
Rhys
see Davies,
348
247, 288, 289
314, 481
Rice, production
of, of,
exportation
towards Yarkand, 431 towards Merv, 431 Ryots, statistics of, 475 Ryotwari tenure, 220
199
rule,
SABATHU,
281
by the East India Company, 282 Roads from Calcutta to Delhi, 282 prolonged to North-West Frontier, 282
from Bombay to Agra, 282 from Madras to Bombay, 282 in the North- Western Provinces, 283 between the Jhelum and Indus, 283 over mountains near Indore, 283 in the Thai pass near Khandesh, 283 on the Bhore pass near Bombay, 283 in the Eastern Ghat mountains, 283, 284 in Hazara of the Panjab, 283 between Ambala and Simla, 283 from Simla towards Chini, 283 to Darjiling from the plains, 283 from Mirzapur to Jabalpur, 283 from Jabalpur to Nagpur, 284 over passes in the Western Ghat mountains,
284
station at, 387 Sadar courts formerly existing, 180, 183 St. George, Fort, arsenal at, 408 Sakar, crossing of Indus at, 266
embankments
Sal tree, 298
Salt,
near, 287
of,
76
tax upon
its
how
levied, 237
inland preventive
its
line,
238
aboUtion, 238
San Francisco, trade with, 312 Sandal wood, 298 Sanderson, his work on wild animals, 373 Sandhurst, Lord, on barracks, 386 on gold standard, 461 Sanitary reports and statistics, 321 reviewed by experts in England, 321
INDEX.
SANITARY.
Santtaiy Commissioner with the Government of
India, 321
521
SLEEPERS.
Sepoy
see
Army,
391, 404
nature
record
of,
ot,
215 214
mausoleum
of
measures, 321
480
325 examination of dwellings, 325 adulteration of food, 325 small-pox and vaccination, 326
contagious diseases, 327
Sanskrit, importance of, in education, 144, 145
Shaughnessy see O'Shaughnessy, 279 Shaw, his travels in i.adakh, 349 Shawls of Cashmir, 308 Sherring, the Rev., mention of, 170
:
Sarda Canal, project of, 252, 254 Sargent, Bishop, mention of, 170
ShlUong, characteristics of, 13 Shipping, British, in external trade, 309-311, 314 foreign, in external trade, 315
Ships, native passenger, regulations, 379
Saava .Janik
S:ibha, 127
Shipwrecks in Indian waters, 379 mention of, 417 Shir All, late Amir of Caubul, 423, 488
Shiraz,
view
of,
of Candahar, 436 Short service system, 389, 490 Shutargardan Pass, 435
Sibi,
railway
to,
440
in, 9,
299
11, 288,
289
284
Sikandra, tomb of Akber the Great at, 40 Sikhim, chapels and monasteries in, 29
lake region
of,
railways in, 266, 267 forests in, 298 Satrunj mountain, near Palitana, 31 Saunders, J. O'B., mention of, 58
Savings-bank, deposits
progress
of,
18
at,
Native State of, 73, 420 Sikh sect, mention of, 119, 120, 472 Sikhs, appear.ince of, 20 Protected States of, 69
Silk, raw, 288,
467
of,
293
of,
Scholarships, system
112
1
exportation
Silver,
293
Schoolmistresses, native,
58
amount
of,
in circulation in India, 96
Schools
currency
loss
in,
460
on, 460
by exchange
secondary, 143
technical, 143
causes, 461
superior, 145
normal, 144
female, 157, 158
art,
112,4 21
154
railways
desert
of,
in,
266 287
medical, 150
268
in,
Schwartz, Rev., mention of, 168 Science, education in, wanted, 1.'52
its
embankments
Sind,
Panjab,
and Delhi
Railway Company,
270
Sindhia as a sovereign, 70
physical, 353
Native State
167
of,
:
of,
71
of,
Simla, characteristics
12
168
view
408
469,
of,
17
of,
Singapore, mention
418
of,
Secunderabad, arsenal
484, 485.
19
by Government. 461-463,
at,
36
357
progress
towards,
anmn-^
522
SMALL-rOX.
Small-pox, ravages
of,
INDEX.
TELUGU.
Sumatra, mention
:
326
see Vaccination, 327
of,
of,
418
means
of preventing
52
58
of,
and Wilson, 347, 343 Rev. William, mention of, 170 Snakes, venomous, 477
of Duff
Snider
rifles,
403
Srirangam near Trichinopoly, temples Subscriptions for relief of famine, 332 Suez Canal, its success, 311, 407, 481 Suez-Egyptian sovereignty, 416
Sugarcane, Indian, inferior
Indies, 288
at,
35
to
that of
West
of,
416
grown
Superior
:
European, 384
his former condition in India, 385
Solitary confinement
see Prisons,
of,
211
of,
156
416]
of,
25
marine, 379
field or cadastral, 213,
South Indian Peninsular Railway Company, 270 southern States of America, 294 South Kensington, Indian Museum at, 306
exhibitions
at,
214
archaeological, 351
Sydney, exhibition
at,
313
of,
307
of,
Syed
170
Ahmed
of Aligarh, mention
114
Syed Idrus of Surat, mention of, 114 Syndicate in Indian universities, 145
for,
Sportsmen, opportunities
364
'
reason
for,
363
Sprenger, his
St. Hilaire,
life
of
Muhammad,
345
Talboys see WTieeler, 345 Talukdars of Oudh, tenures Tanjore, temples at, 34
:
of, 115,
218
Stamps, revenue from, 241 judicial, 242 commercial and general, 242 Star of India, Order of, 61
Stewart, Sir Donald, 491
State railways in India, 269-276, 455
mosque
at,
40
Tax,
for, 5
Department, 349.
see
external, 311
interaal, 318
245, 483
of, to travellers, 7
local,
244
of,
52
Tea-planters as a class, 57
Tea, Indian, value
exportation
of, in
market, 289
on Indian administration, 492 Stephenson, his connection with Indian railways, 272 Stevenson, the Rev., his learned works, 343 Strachey, Genoral R., President of Famine Commission, 342
Strange, his learned works, 344
Straits Settlements, 418
292, 298
Teak
Tehran, mention
of,
432
Teignmouth, Lord, mention of, 50 Telegraph see Electric Telegraph. Telugu people, appearance of, 20
:
INDEX.
TEMPERANCE.
Temperance, associations
Tenant-right, nature
in Bengal, 225
of,
523
VILLAGE.
388 221-229
for,
Travancorc, coffee-planters
in,
57
in Bebar, 225
in
tlie
beauty of, 20 Trevelyan, Sir Charles, on gold standard, 460 on military accounts, 411
Tribes, frontier, 421
criminal,
elsewhere, 228
Tenants-at-will, protection
of,
railway
228
its
to,
268
Tenasserim, province
of,
418
196
work, 353
achievements, 354
value, 354
Terminalia
tree,
298
of, 195,
of,
its Its
Thagi, character
Thag, confessions
348
Thai Thai
Theosophists, mention
130
his work on Sikh religion, 345 Tuuga-badra, canal from, 252 TurnbuU, railway engineer, 272 Turkoman tribes, 430, 431 Turkey, Russian war with, 424 Turner, his Pali works, 344 Turkish Arabia, Political President of, 418
Trump,
Tusser
silk,
293
UDEYPUR,
lake and palace at, 37 Native State of, 70 Uncovenanted civil service, duties
Undergi'aduates, Native, 147
of,
53
Tiger-shooting, 365
Tigris river, 417
United States, trade with, 313, 296 Universities at Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta,
145, 155
In,
173
graduates
175, 176
of,
148, 149
Universities of United
Utacamand
Lawrence Asylum
at,
386
Toghlakabad, ruins at, 39 Tonghu railway project, 269 Toon tree, 298 Topes, Buddhist mounds, 26 Topographical Survey, 354 its work, 355
VACCINATION,
its
its
introduction, 326
means
Town
duties, 244
see Octroi.
of,
Venus, transit observations, 354 Verniicuiar l^ess Act, mention of, 132 - languages learnt by civil servants, 49
53
education
press, 473
among
natives, 144
on railways, 273-275
In
literature, 144,
478
schools, 144
_
Tramways
Bombay, 286
in Calcutta, 286
colleges In
normal
Vernag
410
want of
its
organization, 411
Vienna, exhibition
of,
307
of,
vessels, 373
143
421
police, 206
524
VILLAGE.
Village watchman, 221
accountant,, 202
INDEX.
ZOROASTER.
Wild
f-ports in
India
see Sports-
headman, 220
inspection for famine
338
upper India, 218 Villages in India, appearances of, 8 number, of 472 Vines, produce of, 288 Vindhya mountains, 265, 284, 297, 303, 414 Vizagapatam, industrial arts of, 306 Volunteer movement generally, 390, 391 in railway department, 273
in
communities
of
53
347
.lobn, as
Rev. Dr.
his
a missionary, 170
WAGE, military,
Wages,
98, 401
introduces
first
budget, 442
In urban districts, 109 Wahabis, effect of, in India, 114 Walar, lake in Gishmir, 20
Wukhan, position of, 426 Walar, lake in Cashniir, 20 Wales, H.R.H. Prince of, vi^it to India,
Prince.
on gold currency, 460 proposes paper currency, 465 arrangements for military accounts, 411 Wiugate, Sir George, his services in the settlement, 214
his opinion
Wood,
G!
:
see
Wool, quality
of,
289
of,
exportation
314
Preface,
Walnut-tree, 298
Ward,
Rev., mention of, 168 AVardha, river, proposed canal from, 253
mines near, 302 Wardle, Mr., his work on silk, 293 Wards, Court of, 115 Warren, Hastings, mention of, 60, 343
coal
Workshops
AVynaad, view
of,
13
coffee-planters in, 57
Water supply,
purification
of,
323
in towns, cities,
in Calcutta,
and
villages, 323
323
Francis, 25, 165, 167
in Bombay, 323 works by Muhammadans at Delhi, 250 Watson, Dr. Forbes, his reports on Indian pro-
YACUB,
late
Amir
ducts, 305
it
increases,
Weber, on Oriental
literature, 345
of,
170
170
ZANZIBAR,
Zemindars
mention
of,
376
in Bengal,
115, 217
of,
Oudh,
115, 218
monsoon
in, 9
importance of, 72 266 roads across, 283 Wheat exported from India, 314, 481
political
railv.'ays across,
inferior
States, 288
to that of
168
Wheeler, Talboys, his historical works, 34 5 Whitley see Stokes. Wild animals, 363-373
:
Bombay, 359
Zoroaster, religioa of, brought to India by Parsia,
114
mention
of,
343
LONDON
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