Networking

networking is the practice of linking two or more computing devices together for the purpose of sharing data. Networks are built with a mix of computer hardware and computer software. Networks can be categorized in several different ways. One approach defines the type of network according to the geographic area it spans. Local area networks (LANs ! for example! typically reach across a single home! whereas wide area networks ("ANs ! reach across cities! states! or even across the world. #he $nternet is the world%s largest public "AN. &omputer networks also differ in their design. #he two types of high'level network design are calledclient'server and peer'to'peer. &lient'server networks feature centralized server computers that store email! "eb pages! files and or applications. On a peer'to'peer network! conversely! all computers tend to support the same functions. &lient'server networks are much more common in business and peer'to'peer networks much more common in homes. network topology represents its layout or structure from the point of view of data flow. $n so'called bus networks! for example! all of the computers share and communicate across one common conduit! whereas in a star network! all data flows through one centralized device. &ommon types of network topologies include bus! star! ring and mesh.

Network Protocols $n networking! the communication language used by computer devices is called theprotocol. (et another way to classify computer networks is by the set of protocols they support. Networks often implement multiple protocols to support specific applications. )opular protocols include #&)*$)! the most common protocol found on the $nternet and in home networks.

What is Client/Server Networking? #he term client*server refers to a model utilizing networked client and server computers and application software. "eb! +#)! email! ,N- and many other database applications are client'server systems.

What is Peer-to-Peer Networking? )eer to peer networks share responsibility for processing data among all of the connected devices. )eer'to'peer networking (also known simply as peer networking differs from client'server networking in several respects. A ./$ (.niform /esource $dentifier names both local and remote $nternet resources similar to ./Ls. Definition: A network protocol defines rules and conventions for communication between network devices. )rotocols for computer networking all generally use packet switchingtechni0ues to send and receive messages in the form of packets. Network protocols include mechanisms for devices to identify and make connections with each other! as well as formatting rules that specify how data is packaged into messages sent and received. -ome protocols also support message acknowledgement and data compression designed for reliable and*or high'performance network communication. 1undreds of different computer network protocols have been developed each designed for specific purposes and environments. Internet Protocols #he $nternet )rotocol family contains a set of related (and among the most widely used network protocols. 2esides $nternet )rotocol ($) itself! higher'level protocols like #&)! .,)! 1##)! and +#) all integrate with $) to provide additional capabilities. -imilarly! lower'level $nternet )rotocols like A/) and $&3) also co'exist with $). #hese higher level protocols interact more closely with applications like "eb browsers while lower' level protocols interact with network adapters and other computer hardware. Routing Protocols /outing protocols are special'purpose protocols designed specifically for use by network routers on the $nternet. &ommon routing protocols include 4$5/)! O-)+ and 25). ow Network Protocols !re I"ple"ente# 3odern operating systems like 3icrosoft "indows contain built'in services or daemons that implement support for some network protocols. Applications like "eb browsers contain software libraries that support the high level protocols necessary for that application to function. +or some lower level #&)*$) and routing protocols! support is implemented in directly hardware (silicon chipsets for improved performance.

Definition: IP ($nternet )rotocol is the primary network protocol used on the $nternet! developed in the 6789s. On the $nternet and many other networks! $) is often used together with the #ransport &ontrol )rotocol (#&) and referred to interchangeably as#&)*$). $) supports uni0ue addressing for computers on a network. 3ost networks use the $nternet )rotocol version : (IPv4 standard that features $) addresses four bytes (;< bits in length. #he newer $nternet )rotocol version = ($)v= standard features addresses 6= bytes (6<> bits in length. ,ata on an $nternet )rotocol network is organized into packets. 4ach $) packet includes both a header (that specifies source! destination! and other information about the data and the message data itself. $) functions at layer ; of the O-$ model. $t can therefore run on top of different data link interfaces including 4thernet and "i'+i. Definition: #ransmission &ontrol )rotocol (#&) and $nternet )rotocol ($) are two distinct network protocols! technically speaking. #&) and $) are so commonly used together! however! that $CP/IP has become standard terminology to refer to either or both of the protocols. $) corresponds to the Network layer (Layer ; in the O-$ model! whereas #&) corresponds to the #ransport layer (Layer : in O-$. $n other words! the term #&)*$) refers to network communications where the #&) transport is used to deliver data across $) networks. #he average person on the $nternet works in a predominately #&)*$) environment. "eb browsers! for example! use #&)*$) to communicate with "eb servers. Definition: UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is a simple OSI transport layer protocol for client*server network applications based on $nternet )rotocol ($) . .,) is the main alternative to TCP and one of the oldest network protocols in existence! introduced in 67>9. .,) is often used in videoconferencing applications or computer games specially tuned for real'time performance. #o achieve higher performance! the protocol allows individual packets to be dropped (with no retries and .,) packets to be received in a different order than they were sent as dictated by the application. %DP Datagra"s .,) network traffic is organized in the form ofdatagrams. A datagram comprises one message unit. #he first eight (> bytes of a datagram contain header information and the remaining bytes contain message data.

A .,) datagram header consists of four (: fields of two bytes each? @ @ @ @ source port number destination port number datagram size checksum

.,) port numbers allow different applications to maintain their own channels for data similar to #&). .,) port headers are two bytes longA therefore! valid .,) port numbers range from 9 to =BB;B. #he .,) datagram size is a count of the total number of bytes contained in header and data sections. As the header length is a fixed size! this field effectively tracks the length of the variable'sized data portion (sometimes called payload . #he size of datagrams varies depending on the operating environment but has a maximum of =BB;B bytes. UDP checks ms protect message data from tampering. #he checksum value represents an encoding of the datagram data calculated first by the sender and later by the receiver. -hould an individual datagram be tampered with or get corrupted during transmission! the .,) protocol detects a checksum calculation mismatch. $n .,)! checksumming is optional as opposed to #&) where checksums are mandatory. Definition: $$P ' the 1ypertext #ransfer )rotocol ' provides a standard for "eb browsers and servers to communicate. #he definition of 1##) is a technical specification of a network protocol that software must implement. 1##) is an application layer network protocol built on top of #&). 1##) clients (such as "eb browsers and servers communicate via 1##) re0uest and response messages. #he three main 1##) message types are 54#! )O-#! and 14A,. 1##) utilizes #&) port >9 by default! though other ports such as >9>9 can alternatively be used. Definition: &$P allows you to transfer files between two computers on the $nternet. +#) is a simple network protocol based on $nternet )rotocol and also a term used when referring to the process of copying files when using +#) technology. #o transfer files with +#)! you use a program often called the Cclient.C #he +#) client program initiates a connection to a remote computer running +#) CserverC software. After the connection is established! the client can choose to send and*or receive copies of files! singly or in groups. #o connect to an +#) server! a client re0uires a username and password as set by the administrator of the server. 3any public +#) archives follow a special convention for that accepts a username of Canonymous.C

-imple +#) clients are included with most network operating systems! but most of these clients (such as +#).4D4 on "indows support a relatively unfriendly command'line interface. 3any alternative freeware * shareware third'party +#) clients have been developed that support graphic user interfaces (5.$s and additional convenience features. $n any +#) interface! clients identify the +#) server either by its $) address (such as 67<.6=>.9.6 or by its host name (such as ftp.about.com . +#) supports two modes of data transfer? plain text (A-&$$ ! and binary. (ou set the mode in the +#) client. A common error when using +#) is attempting to transfer a binary file (such as a program or music file while in text mode! causing the transfered file to be unusable.

!nswer: $n computer networking! a port nu"'er is part of the addressing information used to identify the senders and receivers of messages. )ort numbers are most commonly used with #&)*$) connections. 1ome network routers and computer software work with ports and sometimes allow you to configure port number settings. #hese port numbers allow different applications on the same computer to share network resources simultaneously. ow Port Nu"'ers Work )ort numbers are associated with network addresses. +or example! in #&)*$) networking! both TCP and UDP utilize their own set of ports that work together with $) addresses. )ort numbers work like telephone extensions. Eust as a business telephone switchboard can use a main phone number and assign each employee an extension number (like x699! x696! etc. ! so a computer has a main address and a set of port numbers to handle incoming and outgoing connections. $n both #&) and .,)! port numbers start at 9 and go up to =BB;B. Numbers in the lower ranges are dedicated to common $nternet protocols (like <6 for +#)! >9 for 1##)! etc. . (ore ' #&) * .,) )ort Number 5lossary When )ou (a* Nee# to $ake !ction with Port Nu"'ers )ort numbers are typically processed by network hardware and software automatically. Normally you will not see them while casually using a network nor need to take any

action involving them. 1owever! in these special cases you can work with network port numbers? @ network administrators may need to set up port !or"arding to allow the port numbers of specific applications to pass through a firewall. On home networks! broadband routerssupport port forwarding on their configuration screens. @ @ network programmers sometimes need to specify port numbers in their code! such as insocket programming. @ @ sometimes! a "eb site ./L will re0uire a specific #&) port number be included. +or example! http?**localhost?>9>9* uses #&) port >9>9. Again! this is more usually seen in software development environments than on the $nternet. Definition: An IP a##ress is a logical address for a network adapter. #he $) address uni0uely identifies computers on a TCP#IP network. Definition: #he $) address +,-././.+ is a special purpose address reserved for use on each computer. 6<8.9.9.6 is conventionally a computer%s loop$ack address. Network software and utilities can use 6<8.9.9.6 to access a local computer%s #&)*$) network resources. 3essages sent to loopback $) addresses like 6<8.9.9.6 do not reach outside to the local area network (LAN but instead are automatically re'routed by the computer%s own network adapter back to the receiving end of the #&)*$) stack. #ypically all $) addresses in the range 6<8.9.9.6 ' 6<8.<BB.<BB.<BB are reserved for private use! but 6<8.9.9.6 is by convention the loopback address in almost all cases. $) address range from /./././ up to <BB.<BB.<BB.<BB. #he $) address 9.9.9.9 has special meaning on computer networks. &omputers normally show an address of 9.9.9.9 when they are not connected to a #&)*$)network. 1aving this address! a computer cannot be reached or communicate with any other devices over $). Definition: #he $) address +/././.+ is a default for some types of network routersincluding &isco brand routers. #his address may also be used by network servers. 69.9.9.6 is sometimes called a default gateway address as it typically represents the local side of a router%s connection to the $nternet. 69.9.9.6 is more commonly found in business networks than in homes! which tend to use routers having default addresses in the 67<.6=>.x.x series. 2oth the 69.x.x.x and 67<.6=>.x.x series are private $) address ranges.

+or students? in classful $) networks! 69.9.9.6 is a class % address with default subnet mask <BB.9.9.9. D0&!%1$ 2!$0W!) $n computer networking! a default gateway is the device that passes traffic from the local subnet to devices on other subnets. #he default gateway often connects a local network to the $nternet! although internal gateways for local networks also exist. $nternet default gateways are typically one of two types? @ On home or small business networks with abroadband router to share the $nternet connection! the home router serves as the default gateway. @ @ On home or small business networks without a router! such as for residences with dialup $nternet access! a router at the $nternet -ervice )rovider location serves as the default gateway.

A network firewall protects a computer network from unauthorized access. Network firewalls may be hardware devices! software programs! or a combination of the two. Network firewalls guard an internal computer network (home! school! business intranet against malicious access from the outside. Network firewalls may also be configured to limit access to the outside from internal users.

Network &irewalls an# Pro3* Servers Another common form of network firewall is a proxy server. )roxy servers act as an intermediary between internal computers and external networks by receiving and selectively blocking data packets at the network boundary. #hese network firewalls also provide an extra measure of safety by hiding internal LANaddresses from the outside $nternet. $n a proxy server firewall environment! network re0uests from multiple clients appear to the outsider as all coming from the same proxy server address.

-ome home networks! corporate intranets! and $nternet -ervice )roviders ($-)s use pro3* servers (also known as pro3ies . )roxy servers act as a CmiddlemanC or broker between the two ends of a client*server network connection. )roxy servers work with "eb browsers and servers! or other applications! by supporting underlying network protocols like 1##).

4e* &eatures of Pro3* Servers )roxy servers provide three main functions? 6. <. ;. firewalling and filtering connection sharing caching

#he features of proxy servers are especially important on larger networks like corporate intranets and $-) networks. #he more users on aLAN and the more critical the need for data privacy! the greater the need for proxy server functionality. Pro3* Servers5 &irewalling an# &iltering )roxy servers work at the Application layer! layer 8 of the O-$ model. #hey aren%t as popular as ordinary firewalls that work at lower layers and support application' independent filtering. )roxy servers are also more difficult to install and maintain than firewalls! as proxy functionality for each application protocol like 1##)! -3#)! or -O&F- must be configured individually. 1owever! a properly configured proxy server improves network security and performance. )roxies have capability that ordinary firewalls simply cannot provide. -ome network administrators deploy both firewalls and proxy servers to work in tandem. #o do this! they install both firewall and proxy server software on a server gateway. 2ecause they function at the O-$ Application layer! the filtering capability of proxy servers is relatively intelligent compared to that of ordinary routers. +or example! proxy "eb servers can check the ./L of outgoing re0uests for "eb pages by inspecting 1##) 54# and )O-# messages. .sing this feature! network administrators can bar access to illegal domains but allow access to other sites. Ordinary firewalls! in contrast! cannot see "eb domain names inside those messages. Likewise for incoming data traffic! ordinary routers can filter by port number or network address! but proxy servers can also filter based on application content inside the messages. Connection Sharing with Pro3* Servers Garious software products for connection sharing on small home networks have appeared in recent years. $n medium' and large'sized networks! however! actual proxy servers offer a more scalable and cost'effective alternative for shared $nternet access. /ather than give each client computer a direct $nternet connection! all internal connections can be funneled through one or more proxies that in turn connect to the outside.

Pro3* Servers an# Caching #he caching of "eb pages by proxy servers can improve a network%s C0uality of serviceC in three ways. +irst! caching may conserve bandwidth on the network! increasing scalability. Next! caching can improve response time experienced by clients. "ith an 1##) proxy cache! for example! "eb pages can load more 0uickly into the browser. +inally! proxy server caches increase availability. "eb pages or other files in the cache remain accessible even if the original source or an intermediate network link goes offline. A network gatewa* is an internet"orking system capable of Hoining together two networks that use different base protocols. A network gateway can be implemented completely in software! completely in hardware! or as a combination of both. ,epending on the types of protocols they support! network gateways can operate at any level of the O-$ model.

(ultiho"ing 3ultihoming is the configuration of multiple network interfaces or $) addresses on a single computer. 3ultihoming can increase the reliability and sometimes the performance of network applications.