Journal of Constructional Steel Research 63 (2007) 16031615 www.elsevier.

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Analysis of a bolted T-stub strengthened by backing-plates with regard to Eurocode 3

Z. Al-Khatab a , A. Boucha r b,
a Aleppo University, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Syria b CUST-LGC, Blaise Pascal University, Civil Engineering, Rue des Meuniers, 63174 Aubi` ere-cedex, France

Received 21 July 2006; accepted 31 January 2007

Abstract The connection reinforcement by backing-plates, which is of low cost and simple to realize, can give performances which get closer to that of stiffeners in the tension zone. Currently, in the Eurocode 3, this reinforcement mode is considered only for resistance. The T-stub, a main component in the bolted connections under bending, is analysed at rst in the non-reinforced stage as a calibration of the nite elements modelling approach. Then, the T-stub is reinforced by backing-plates with various geometrical congurations. The aim is to better understand the behaviour and the mechanical contribution of backing-plates considering the stiffness and the resistance. The 3D model developed in the nite elements software Cast3m takes into account elastic plastic behaviour of the materials, the large displacement and the unilateral contact between the connected parts. This model shows a good capacity to represent the available experimental results. The sensitivity analysis of T-stubs reinforced by backing-plates to various parameters such as the thickness of the backing-plate and the pre-tension force allows us to show that the contribution of the backing-plate in term of stiffness is signicant in some cases and in particular with preloaded bolts. The T-stub behaviour is analysed on the basis of the global loaddisplacement curves, the evolution of the bolt load and the contact pressure due to the prying force effect. The analysis shows that the resistance of the T-stub increases in a signicant way with the thickness of backing-plate. This increase has an upper limit due to the failure mode change which occurs for lower values of loads according to the analytical model, which gives a reserve of resistance for the reinforced T-stub. c 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Backing-plates; Finite element model; Non-linear analysis; Prying force; Resistance; Stiffness; Steel connection

1. Introduction The bolted end-plate beam to column connections (Fig. 1) are widely used in steel structures. They are essentially loaded by bending moment and shear force. They show a complex mechanical behaviour, because the load transfer is done partially by the contact between the connected parts (bolts, plates and I or H rolled sections). Their mechanical behaviour, represented by a non-linear momentrotation curve, can be described by three main parameters which are stiffness, resistance and rotation capacity. The non-linear behaviour is due generally to the evolution of the contact areas, to the plastic behaviour of materials and to the large displacements. There are several ways to dene this momentrotation curve but the
Corresponding author. Tel.: +33 473407532; fax: +33 473407494.

E-mail address: bouchair@cust.univ-bpclermont.fr (A. Boucha r). 0143-974X/$ - see front matter c 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jcsr.2007.01.012

most common are: the empirical approaches based on tests, the sophisticated numerical methods and the analytical methods. These latter, used by the Eurocode 3 (EC3) [1,2], give a very good compromise between the simplicity of use, the precision and the general character. The component method proposed in the EC3 consists in decomposing the bolted beam to column connection into its elementary components, among which the more important is the equivalent T-stub in the tension zone (column ange and end-plate in bending). The other components to be considered in tension zone are the column web and the beam web in transverse tension and the bolts in tension. These components are to be assembled with the column web panel in shear, the column web in transverse compression and the beam ange and web in compression. These components are characterized in terms of resistance, stiffness and ductility. The stiffness and the resistance are well dened in the Eurocode 3 for a

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Fig. 1. Column anges reinforced in the tension zone by backing-plates or by welded stiffeners and denition of the T-stub.

large family of connections. They characterize the semi-rigid behaviour of the connections where the initial stiffness is a parameter to be used for the structural analysis. The joint stiffness is compared to that of the connected beam, to consider whether the connection is rigid, semi-rigid or simple. However, the ductility is used to dene whether a plastic redistribution is possible in the connection. If one of the components in the connection has a brittle behaviour, the resistance is to be limited to the elastic one. The ductility is more difcult to characterize in comparison to the stiffness or the resistance. The basic properties of the components are then assembled according to suitable rules to supply the equivalent characteristics of the whole connection and to give also useful indications on the more inuential component. The T-stub can be considered as an elementary connection in itself. It is one of the main components of a beam to column bolted joint when the structural elements are I or H hot rolled beams or welded plate girder [2]. It represents in that case the tension zone of such a joint (Fig. 1(b)). The behaviour of the elementary T-stub was widely studied by experimental [3], analytical [4,5] or numerical [6] approaches. However, the T-stubs reinforced by backing-plates were studied only experimentally with a limited number of tests [79]. This is why the numerical study is developed and calibrated on the basis of these experimental results. In the beam to column connection, the local reinforcement of the column anges is sometimes necessary to improve the connection properties. Traditionally, it is obtained by the use of transverse welded stiffeners on the column web and anges (Fig. 1(a)). However, tests showed that the reinforcement by backing-plates bolted on the internal face of the column anges and covering at least two rows of bolts in the tension zone (Fig. 1(b)) can be an interesting alternative to the welded stiffeners [79] as well in terms of the initial stiffness as of the resistance for the T-stub alone and as a consequence for the whole beam to column connection. The EC3 covers the T-stubs reinforced by backing-plates through formulae of resistance similar to those of the elementary T-stubs. These formulae admit implicitly that the T-stub ange and its connected backing-plate behave as plates simply superposed. The European standard prescribes the minimal values of the length and the width of backing-plates. However, it does not consider the increase of the T-stub stiffness due to the use of backing-plates that tests, although limited, show clear evidence, in particular with preloaded bolts [9].

The present study aims to analyse more precisely the behaviour of these T-stubs using the nite element numerical modelling. Such a modelling is calibrated in advance, by comparing results obtained by means of 2D and 3D models [10,11] to the experimental results for elementary T-stubs (not reinforced) [3,12,13]. It is then used to make a parametrical study and to observe the evolution, during the load until the failure, of various parameters difcult to measure experimentally, such as, for example, the prying forces and the evolution of the contact area under the T-stub ange. Also, the model is used to make an evaluation of the Eurocode 3 formulae applied to the resistance and the stiffness of elementary T-stubs with available experimental results to calibrate the model. Afterwards, the model is applied to T-stubs strengthened by backing-plates to analyse the effect of the backing-plate thickness and the bolts preload. 2. Analytical approach In practice, according to the EC3, the equivalence between the T-stub and the tension zone in the joint is realized by the denition of an effective length for each bolt row which is based on the plastic mechanisms. This effective length is used for the calculation of the strength and the stiffness of the T-stub. In this paper, the EC3s formulae are used to determine the design characteristics of resistance and stiffness of the T-stub. They are then compared to the results given by the numerical model described before. 2.1. Strength of the T-stub according to the EC3 In the EC3, the resistance of the T-stub is calculated using the simple plastic analysis (yield analysis) of a T-stub in 2D for which three possible failure modes are distinguished according to the value of the ratio between the ange resistance in bending and that of the bolt in tension (Fig. 2): - The rst failure mode, associated with the failure of the ange by forming of plastic hinges in the ange (webange junction and bolts row axis). - The second failure mode, corresponding to the appearance of one plastic hinge in the ange and to the failure of the bolts in tension. - The third failure mode, characterized by the failure of the bolts in tension.

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Fig. 2. T-stub failure modes according to EC3.

The resistance of the T-stub is given by the weakest of the resistance values associated with the three failure modes above mentioned. The failure mode 1 is of ductile nature because it involves the appearance of a large plastic deformation in the ange under bending and that the steel used in the construction usually presents a large ductility. This allows a large redistribution of the loads between the bolts rows represented by the T-stubs dened in the whole connection. It will be noticed that the backing-plate contribution to the T-stub resistance concerns only the T-stubs with failure mode 1, because this mode is the only one which mobilizes signicantly the backing-plate bending. If the other failure modes are determinant, backing-plate does not give sensitive improvement of the resistance. To nd the formulae for the T-stub resistance without backing-plate, it is sufcient to eliminate the terms related to the backing-plate for the failure mode 1. The head of the bolt, the nut and the washers have nonnegligible diameters in comparison with the width of T-stub ange and the distance of the bolt to the median axis of the T-stub. As a result the loads are not transmitted on a concentrated zone to the ange but by way of an unknown contact area between the bolt (or the washer) and the ange. This effect is considered with a formula of resistance called alternative which is based on the hypothesis of uniform distribution of stresses under the head of the bolt and the nut (or the washers). So, the resistance of the T-stub with the failure mode 1 is modied as indicated in Eq. (1). The other failure modes (2 and 3) remain unchanged (Eqs. (2) and (3)). Mode 1: FT , Rd ,1 = FT , Rd ,1 4 M P + 2 Mbp or m (32n 2dw ) M P + 16n Mbp = (alternative) 8mn dw (m + n ) 2 M P + n Bt , Rd m+n Bt , Rd

Fig. 3a. Initial model for the T-stub stiffness calculation.

2.2. Stiffness of the T-stub according to EC3 The stiffness of a T-stub is dened by likening the behaviour of this T-stub to that of a beam. In a beamcolumn connection, a rst T-stub, representing the column ange in bending, is connected to a second T-stub with the same bolts row, representing the end-plate in bending, connected to the rst T-stub by bolts in tension. The contributions of these two T-stubs in bending and the bolts in tension are assembled in series with their associated coefcients of stiffness. Every T-stub is modelled as a continuous beam on four supports. Two of these supports are elastic supports representing the bolts bearing loads considered as applied in their axis (Fig. 3a). In the analytical model used in the Eurocode 3, the interaction between the T-stub and the bolts is not considered directly, because the load in the bolt is taken equal to the applied one, while it depends in reality on the ratio between the ange and the bolt stiffness. To take into account this effect, a factor equal to 1.6 is applied to the stiffness of the bolts. This stiffness is obtained by considering equivalence between the initial model (Fig. 3a) and the simplied one (Fig. 3b) with n = 1.25m . This means taking into account a prying force equal to 14% of the load applied to the T-stub ( Q / F = 14%), which is equivalent to an increase of the load in the bolt by 28%. So, the elastic stiffness ( K ini ) of two T-stubs connected by bolts is based on the elementary stiffness of the end-plate (kep ), that of the column ange (kcf ) and that of the bolt (kb ). It is given by the following relationship: K ini = E
1 kcf 1 kep 1 kb

(1) (2) (3)

Mode 2: FT , Rd ,2 = Mode 3: FT , Rd ,3 = with:

(4)

M P and Mbp : plastic moments in the T-stub ange and the backing-plate; Bt , Rd : resistance of the bolts in tension in the T-stub; n et m : dimensions dening the bolt positions (Fig. 3); dw : diameter of the contact area between the bolt head and the ange.

where E is the modulus of elasticity of steel. According to the simplied model of the EC3 (Fig. 3b), the stiffnesses of the two T-stubs, with one row of two bolts in a bolted connection, are given by the following expressions: kcf = 0.85
3 2 L eff tcf

m3

3m + n 3m + 4n

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Fig. 3b. Simplied model for the stiffness calculation of the T-stub (Eurocode 3).

Fig. 4. T-stubs studied (two rows of bolts with backing-plates).

kep = 0.85

3 2 L eff tep

m3

3m + n 3m + 4n

and

kb = 1.6

As . Lb

(5)

In these expressions giving the stiffnesses of the T-stubs (kcf and kep ), the formulae of the EC3 given below can be found if n is replaced by 1.25m : kcf = 0.85 (6) m3 m3 where: L eff is the effective length of the ange dened for the resistance and the 0.85 is a coefcient of reduction for the stiffness, tcf is the ange thickness, tep is the end-plate thickness, m is the distance dened in Fig. 3, As is the tensile stress area of the bolt and L b its conventional length dened in the EC3 by: 1 t + 2tw + (th + tn ) (7) 2 with: tw , th and tn the thicknesses of the washer, the head of the bolt and the nut and t the sum of the thicknesses of the assembled plates. Lb = 3. Numerical modelling In this paper, the nite element modelling is used to represent the behaviour of various T-stubs. It allows a good representation of the two sources of non-linearities: The steel plastication and the evolution of the contact area. In agreement with the principles of the EC3, two symmetric T-stubs with one or two rows of bolts are examined. The load is applied by the
3 L eff tcf

kep = 0.85

3 L eff tep

controlled displacement so as to better control the evolution of the system. For the material characteristic law, the conventional stressstrain curve is used ( ) dened from the coupon tensile tests. No signicant modication was found if the real updated curve is used (true stresses) [12]. The limit and the yield plastic laws are governed by the Von Mises criterion with isotropic strain hardening. The results obtained by the numerical modelling are compared to the experimental results to check and to calibrate the approach used in the numerical modelling before continuing the parametrical studies. 2D and 3D nite elements models are applied to ve specimens with available experimental results, consisting of elementary T-stubs (not strengthened by backing-plates) of various geometrical congurations. The results considering the global loaddisplacement curves are used to calibrate the model without backing-plates [10,11]. Then, the FEM (Finite Element Model) thus calibrated is applied to the same T-stubs but with the ange strengthened by backing-plates. The global behaviour of these reinforced T-stubs is analysed to understand and to quantify their sensitivity to the effects of the backingplate thickness and the pre-tension load in the bolt. 3.1. Experimental results: Geometrical and material data The studied T-stubs are symmetrical with two rows of two bolts (T1, P1K, P2K) [3,12], or one row of two bolts (T4, T7) [13] (Fig. 4). This choice is justied by the fact that the Tstubs were designed to present a failure mode 1, the only one, as indicated before, able to be inuenced by the presence of the backing-plate. Besides, these T-stubs have different

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(a) Whole T-stub model.

(b) T-stub model.

(c) T-stub model backing-plate.

Fig. 5. A 2D model of the elementary T-stub or strengthened by backing-plates. Table 1 Characteristics of T-stubs used in the modelling Test T-stub origin f y (MPa) Bolts 2*2*M12 8.8 2*2*M16 10.9 1*2*M24 8.8 1*2*M27 8.8 Dimensions (mm) P w 40 55 90 90 100 100 143.8 156.6 Fpret. (kN) L 80 105 210 118.8 122.8 b 150 150 150 260 300 e 30 25 25 58.1 71.7 e1 20 25 60 59.4 61.4 30 30

T1 P1K P2K T4 T7

IPE300 t f = 10.7 HEA260 t f = 12.5 HEA300 t f = 14

431 270 300 308

geometrical congurations, which allows us to check the effects of the T-stub length and the position of bolts represented by the parameters ( L , P , e) (Fig. 4). Detailed data related to the concerned specimens are given in Table 1. 3.2. Description and calibration of the numerical model The nite element type used in the modelling was selected on the basis of the modelling of simply supported beam under bending by means of various types of linear and quadratic elements in 2D and 3D. On the basis of the comparative study of the obtained results, nite elements with quadratic formulation are used in bending considering two elements on the thickness of each plate (ange and backing-plate). Different densities of meshing were tested; those selected for the continuation of the study guarantee a good compromise between the size of the elements and the stability of the numerical solution [14]. The contact areas represent an important part of the boundary conditions for the numerical study of the T-stub modelled in 2D and 3D (Figs. 5 and 6). The calibration of the contact for the two models is realized on the basis of a Hertz contact example for which the analytical solution is well known. Lagranges multipliers are used to model the unilateral contact without friction in all the contact areas situated between the head of the bolt and the backing-plate or the ange surface, between the backing-plate and the ange and between the ange and the symmetrical part (foundation). The friction has a large effect on the behaviour of the T-stub (particularly with

large displacements or pre-tension). In this study, the friction is not considered to have a comparison with the EC3 formula which is considering two simply superposed plates (backingplate and column ange). In fact, the case without friction is more conservative regarding the mechanical characteristics and is less demanding for erection. However, the 3D model requires a particular adaptation. In fact, even for an uniform applied load on the nite element face CU20 (quadratic with 20 nodes), the distribution of the nodal forces is not uniform between the corner and the middle nodes (different signs) [14]. To avoid this situation, it is easy to introduce a supplementary condition on the nodal displacements between the middle node and the corner nodes on all the border of all the elements situated on the surfaces in contact. The examined T-stubs have two plans of symmetry (T4 and T7) or three plans of symmetry (T1, P1K and P2K). This allows us to model only a quarter of the T-stub, with one row of two bolts, in 2D or in 3D. However, it is necessary to introduce the suitable boundary conditions on the segments of the circumference corresponding to the axes of symmetry. The 2D model with plan stresses presents a simple solution but leads to a simplication of the geometry for the bolts and the holes. So, different thicknesses are considered for the T-stub web, the ange, the holes and the bolts [15]. The bolt shank is not superposed geometrically to the hole and the bolt head is in unilateral contact with the ange (or the backing-plate). Finite elements with eight nodes (QUA8) are used in the analysis. It will be noticed that the case of the whole T-stub (Fig. 5(a))

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(a) Whole model for a non-reinforced T-stub.

(b) Short T-stub with backing-plate.

(c) Long T-stub with backing-plate.

Fig. 6. 3D models for the T-stub: A whole model with double T-stub, short and long T-stubs with backing-plates (XOY : U z = 0, YOZ : U x = 0 and ZOX = contact).

was also considered but it shows few differences in comparison with the reduced case (Fig. 5(b) and (c)). Thus, this simplied model is chosen for the 2D modelling. The models chosen and calibrated for the elementary T-stub (not strengthened) are used to study the T-stub provided with backing-plates. The backing-plates are of rectangular shape, with the same steel as the strengthened ange and have minimal dimensions (length and width) given by the EC3. As written above, the parametrical study concerned the effects of the thickness of backing-plates and the pre-tension load in the bolts on the stiffness and the resistance of the T-stub. The same approach was used for all the analysed T-stubs, without or with backingplates. To avoid a premature plastication of the web in the T-stub, the nite elements of the web are considered with a high ctitious elastic limit. This allows the concentration of the study on the part of the T-stub considered according to the EC3 approach (ange, backing-plate and bolts). As for the elementary T-stubs, the T-stubs with backingplates are characterized by two or three plans of symmetry. This allows us to model only a quarter of the T-stub with one row of two bolts. The unilateral contact is considered under the ange, between the ange and the backing-plate and between the backing-plate and the washer under the bolt head. For more simplication, the head of the bolt is connected perfectly to the washer. This reduces the contact management to the interface between the washer and the backing-plate or the ange. This hypothesis is acceptable regarding the stiffness ratio between the bolt head and the washer. A comparative study showed that the effect is very small [14]. The exibility of the bolt due to the contact between the threading and the nut can be taken into account by a ctitious length larger than the real one (Eq. (7)) (Fig. 5(c)) or by a diameter lower than the real one (Fig. 5(a) and (b)). The 3D model takes into account the transverse deformability of the T-stub by considering the third dimension. As for

Fig. 7. Denition of the initial stiffness and the plastic resistance.

the 2D model, the case of a quarter of the T-stub (Fig. 6(b)) is studied then compared with the result of the whole T-stub (Fig. 6(a)). The simplied models represented on Fig. 6(b) and (c) are used for all the calculations made afterward. For the simplied model, the shank of the bolt is considered as a cylinder of constant nominal diameter by taking an equivalent length which takes into account the low rigidity of the threaded zone and that due to the exibility of the nut. So, the contact conditions under the ange and the boundary conditions on the bolt shank are situated in different plans. So, as for the 2D model, a double T-stub with a complete bolt is considered (Fig. 6(a)). The bolt is modelled with a variable section on its length to take into account the difference between the gross section and the threaded part and to obtain a stiffness value close to the reality. Finite elements with twenty nodes (CU20) are used in the 3D analysis because the solid elements with eight nodes (linear formulation) are too stiff and have to be used with a high number of elements to obtain acceptable results in bending. 4. Analysis of the results The results of nite element analyses are based mainly on the global loaddisplacement curves ( F ). From these curves, the plastic resistance ( F p ) and the initial stiffness ( K ini ) are dened (Fig. 7). The plastic resistance is usually

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Fig. 8. Global ( F ) curves for a short T-stub (T1). Fig. 10. Evolution of the load in the bolt (T-stub T1): Comparison of the 2D and 3D models.

4.2. Evolution of the bolt load The evolution of the real load in the bolt has to be known because it can inuence the resistance of the T-stub and, in particular, inuence the failure mode really observed. It includes the prying effect. The curves representing the bolt load evolution versus the global load applied to the T-stub show that, while presenting comparable shapes, it remains always higher with the 2D model than with the 3D model (Fig. 10). As a consequence, the plastication of the bolt arises earlier if the 2D model is used. The Fig. 10 shows the case of a short T-stub where the prying force increases the load in the bolt, considering the applied load to the T-stub, by more than 40%, while the value used implicitly in the simplied analytical model of the EC3 is about 28%. The long T-stubs show similar evolutions [14]. On the curves representing the evolution of the load in the bolt versus the applied load, three phases can be distinguished: elastic phase, phase with partial plastication of the ange and the phase of the bolt plastication. 4.3. Effect of the backing-plate thickness The effect of backing-plate is observed for various values of the ratio (tbp / t f ), and the thickness of the ange is maintained constant. This ratio varies between 0.4 and a maximum from which the failure mode of the T-stub changes. The results are observed, on one hand, on the basis of the global loaddisplacement curve ( F ) which allows the determination of the resistance and the stiffness of the T-stub to be compared to the design values. On the other hand, the evolution of the load in the bolt is observed. It allows the analysis of the evolution of the failure mode according to the denition used by the EC3 (modes 13). The prying force is taken into account because its inuence is very important on the bolt loads. The loaddisplacement curves (Figs. 11 and 12) show that the thickness of the backing-plate has a large inuence on the global behaviour of the T-stub, and in particular the resistance. This resistance increases in a relatively important way until the level from which the failure moves into the bolts. The curves show that the thickness of the backing-plates has a more important effect on the resistance than on the stiffness for the

Fig. 9. Global ( F ) curves for a long T-stub (P2K).

obtained by the intersection between the two lines tangent to the loaddisplacement curve at the initial and the nal stages. The various numerical results are compared to the experimental results on the basis of the global curves. Also, the evolution of the prying forces, which are difcult to measure experimentally, is drawn versus the applied load. They are used to observe the evolution of the load in the bolt, which serves for dening the limit between the failure modes 1 and 2. 4.1. Comparison of the results between 2D and 3D models The short T-stubs have rather a two-dimensional behaviour. They can be efciently represented by a 2D model whereas the long T-stubs require the use of a 3D model. To illustrate the inuence of the size of the T-stub and the type of modelling, comparisons are done between two T-stubs where one is short (T1 or T4) and the other is long (P2K). For a short T-stub, the curves ( F ) from the 2D model are in good agreement in term of initial stiffness with the curve obtained experimentally. However, the resistance is a little underestimated. The 3D model is also satisfactory for the initial stiffness and it agrees better with the experimental curve at the nal ultimate phase. Besides, it can be observed an excellent agreement between the numerical curves ( F ) with 3D model obtained using the Cast3m software package [16] and those obtained using another nite element code (Lagamine) [6] (Fig. 8). For a long T-stub, only the 3D model is in good agreement with experimental results (Fig. 9).

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Fig. 11. Global loaddisplacement curves ( F ) with different backing-plates thicknesses (long T-stub P2K) 3D model.

Fig. 12. Global loaddisplacement curves ( F ) with different backing-plates thicknesses (T-stub T4) 2D and 3D models.

resultant depend on the contact area between the two equivalent T-stubs representing the column ange and the end-plate. The resultant of the prying forces and its position are not constants and their evolution depends on the applied load. As qualitative information, the distribution of the normal pressure of contact under the ange and the deformation of the T-stub, are given for the cases without and with backing-plates. In both cases, the shape of the contact pressure distribution under the ange shows the same tendency. The contact pressure is uniformly distributed on all the length of the short T-stub (T1) (Fig. 13) and on a shorter zone for the long T-stub (P2K) (Fig. 14). However, for the two T-stubs, maximal pressure of contact for the same applied load F , equal to 100 kN for T1 and to 80 kN for P2K, is greatly higher for the cases with backingplates (tbp / t f = 1). The deformed shape of the short T-stub ange shows a uniform deformation on the length [14] while the long T-stub (P2K), shows a relatively complex shape of deformation. In this last case, the contact areas are greatly dependent on how the T-stub is or not provided with backing-plates (Fig. 15). It seems clearly that the backing-plate makes the ange more stiff for the same level of load ( F = 280 kN), which is the ultimate load of the T-stub without backing-plates. This ultimate load is taken equal to that relative to an imposed displacement of 10 mm. The deformed shape of the T-stub ange without and with backing-plates, under their ultimate load chosen equal to the imposed displacement of 10 mm, shows a wider area of contact for the case with backing-plates (Fig. 16). 4.5. Comparison of resistance between EC3 and FEM The analysis of the increase of resistance due to the backingplates is based on the comparison between the results given by the nite element modelling and those of the analytical formulae given by the EC3. The modelling values are taken from the global loaddisplacement curves ( F ) showed before (Fig. 11). The values given by the analytical formulae of the EC3 were calculated on the basis of the nominal values of geometrical characteristics and the real values (measured) of the mechanical characteristics. The effective length used in these formulae for one row of bolts was taken equal to the weakest of the values

considered long and short T-stubs. Furthermore, Fig. 12 shows that the 2D model, although satisfactory for the elementary T-stub, is less efcient for the case with backing-plates and particularly for the limit from which the failure mode changes. The evolution of the global curves ( F ) shows a maximal ratio, of the backing-plate to the ange thickness, smaller in 2D model because the bolt has to carry a higher load. 4.4. Contact pressure due to prying action and deformation pattern In the T-stub, prying forces develop to balance the bending of the ange. The value of these forces and the position of their

Fig. 13. Distribution of the contact pressure under the ange (T1): Without and with backing-plates (tbp / t f = 1).

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Fig. 14. Distribution of the contact pressure under the ange (P2K): Without and with backing-plates (tbp / t f = 1).

Fig. 15. Deformed shapes of the long T-stub ange (P2K): The same load ( F = 280 kN).

Fig. 16. Deformed shapes of the long T-stub ange (P2K): Ultimate loads ( = 10 mm).

given by the EC3s formulae for the individual mechanism and the mechanism of group. Thus, for the T-stubs T1, P1K and P2K, the effective length L eff , governed by a mechanism of group (non-circular patterns), is equal to P (T1 and P2K) or to (e1 + 0.5 P ). Table 2 gives the resistances for the T-stubs without backing-plates obtained according to:

- the nite element numerical modelling; - the two formulae proposed by the Eurocode 3 for the failure mode 1, which should be the only one to take a benet from the presence of backing-plates. Also, the values of the effective length used in the analytical formulae and different ratios of resistances are given in Table 2.

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Z. Al-Khatab, A. Boucha r / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 63 (2007) 16031615 Table 3b Resistances of the T-stubs: The backing-plate thickness is the maximum for the failure mode 1 (according to the FEM) T-stub tbp / t f FEM F p (kN) EC3-simple EC3-alternative FEM/EC3-simple FEM/EC3-alternative T1 1.1 235 215* 256* 1.09 0.92 P1K 2.4 315 366* 468* 0.86 0.67 P2K 1.8 390 423* 537* 0.92 0.73 T4 2.2 430 389* 475* 1.11 0.91 T7 2.4 550 548* 669* Mean SD 1.00 1.00 0.11 0.82 0.81 0.11

Table 2 Resistances of the elementary T-stubs (FE model and EC3 formulae) T-stub leff T1 P1K P2K T4 105 150 94 115 1.60 1.30 180 230 161 196 1.43 1.17 118.8 185 114 135 1.62 1.37 T7 122.8 230 141 167 Mean SD 1.63 1.53 0.12 1.38 1.28 0.10

80 FEM 185 F p (kN) EC3-simple 134 EC3-alternative 157 FEM/EC3-simple 1.38 FEM/EC3-alternative 1.18

Table 3a Resistances of the T-stubs: The backing-plate and the ange have the same thickness T-stub tbp / t f FEM F p (kN) EC3-simple EC3-alternative FEM/EC3-simple FEM/EC3-alternative T1 1 225 201* 239* 1.12 0.94 P1K 1 190 141 176 1.35 1.08 P2K 1 310 242 302 1.28 1.03 T4 1 255 170 205 1.50 1.24 T7 1 310 212 254 1.46 1.22

Table 4 Resistance of the T-stubs with the failure modes 2 and 3 T-stub F p EC3 (kN) mode 2 ( F p FEM/ F p EC3 mode 2) Fp EC3 (kN) mode 3 T1 182 1.29 296 P1K 301 1.05 651 P2K 321 1.21 651 T4 362 1.19 619 T7 495 1.11 805

Mean 1.34 1.10

SD 0.15 0.13

Table 5 Resistances of the T-stubs with a thickness of transition for the backing-plate T-stub (tbp / t f ) max. EC3 F p FEM (kN) F p EC3 alternative (kN) F p EC3/ F p FEM T1 0.6 200 182 0.91 P1K 1.7 270 301 1.12 P2K 1.1 320 320 1 T4 1.8 365 362 0.99 T7 1.9 500 495 0.99

It can be observed that the formula called alternative gives values higher by about 20% if compared to those given by the simplied formula. The ratio between the resistances given by the modelling and those given by the formulae of the EC3 is on average equal to 1.28 for the alternative formula and to 1.53 for the simplied formula (Table 2). For the T-stubs with backing-plates, two cases are considered for the comparison: (a) the thickness of the backingplate is equal to the thickness of the ange (tbp / t f = 1), and (b) the thickness for which the failure mode 1 is not dominant. In view of the results given by the nite element modelling, and in comparison with the elementary T-stubs (without backingplates), the case (a) seems to give an increase of the plastic resistance ( F p ) of 20%40% (Tables 2 and 3a) and the case (b) gives an increase of 30%140% (Tables 2 and 3b). The comparison between the results given by the modelling and those given by the analytical formulae of the Eurocode 3 is given in Tables 3a and 3b. The comparison of the results of the modelling to those of the alternative formula shows that this one gives satisfactory results for the case (a) and lower results for the case (b). These results lead us to think that the reinforcement by backing-plates is interesting from the point of view of the resistance. However, the analytical formulae, and in particular the alternative formula, should be used with care for large thicknesses of backing-plates. This has to be moderated by the fact that the analytical formulae detect the transition to the failure 2 earlier than the calculation by nite elements, and in the two cases, the failure mode 3 does not occur (Table 4). The thicknesses of backing-plates used are higher than those given by the analytical formulae of the EC3. The values with (*) (Tables 3a and 3b) correspond to those for which the failure mode 2 according to the analytical formulae is already reached. However, the values are kept for the coherence of the presentation. So, the formulae of the EC3 remain conservative in comparison with the nite elements results.

In the standard approach, the eld of application of the analytical formula is determined by the maximum thickness of backing-plate from which the failure mode changes from the mode 1 to the mode 2 (Table 5). To obtain the expression of this thickness called of transition, it is possible to use the equality between the expressions giving the resistances for the failure modes 1 and 2. The resistance for the failure mode 1 is FT , Rd ,1 (alternative method) (Eq. (1)) and that for the failure mode 2 is FT , Rd ,2 (Eq. (2)). This transition thickness is given by the following formula (Eq. (8)).
1 [2mn dw (m + n )] (0.9n b As f ub ) t2 f ( m + 2n ) . m+n L eff f y

tbp =

(8) For the T-stubs examined in the present paper, the values of the thickness of transition determined according to Eq. (8) are indicated in the rst line of Table 5. It shows that the ratios tbp / t f from Table 3b are situated outside the eld of application resumed in Table 5. The values of resistances given by the nite element model and the analytical values calculated again with the new backing-plates thicknesses are shown in Table 5. There is noticed a good agreement between these two types of results. A difference remains for the short T-stub T1 which seems not able to be reinforced because it changes the failure mode with a low value of the backing-plate thickness. To better see the evolution of the failure modes according to the relative thickness of backing-plates [tbp / t f ], the results of the modelling are compared to those of the EC3 in terms of ratio of resistances [ F p bp / F p ] of the T-stubs with and

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Table 6a Initial stiffness of the T-stubs without and with backing-plates (tbp / t f = 1) T1 K ini nobp EC3 (kN/mm) K ini nobp FEM (kN/mm) tbp/ t f K ini bp FEM (kN/mm) FEM (bp/nobp) (%) 155 164 1 178 8.5 P1K 156 176 1 195 10.8 P2K 247 217 1 236 8.7 T4 176 121 1 141 16.5 T7 198 141 1 162 14.9

Fig. 17. Ratios of the resistances associated with failure mode 1 for the T-stubs with and without backing-plates (P2K and T4).

Table 6b Initial stiffness of the T-stubs without and with backing-plates (tbp / t f of transition) T1 K ini nobp EC3 (kN/mm) K ini nobp FEM (kN/mm) tbp/ t f K ini bp FEM (kN/mm) FEM (bp/nobp) (%) 155 164 0.6 166 1 P1K 156 176 1.7 226 28.4 P2K 247 217 1.1 244 12.4 T4 176 121 1.8 191 57.8 T7 198 141 1.9 228 61.7

without backing-plates (Fig. 17). This same ratio, calculated on the basis of the analytical formulae of the EC3, has higher values because the European standard leads to resistance values of the T-stub without backing-plates signicantly lower than the modelling. This allows the conclusion that the calculation according to the EC3 detects the failure mode 2 before the nite element modelling. As a consequence, the connections calculated with a failure mode 1 according to the EC3 still have a reserve of resistance before developing really the failure mode 2 which is less ductile. 4.6. Effect of the backing-plates on the stiffness The formulae of the EC3 do not offer the possibility to take into account a possible effect of the backing-plate on the initial stiffness of a T-stub. This lets us understand that this effect is at least negligible. To examine this possible effect, a comparison is made between the values of the stiffness given by the nite element modelling and those calculated according to the EC3. The values of the initial stiffness given by the numerical analysis are determined from the global curves F by considering the initial slope for a value of displacement equal to 0.3 mm which corresponds to the elastic phase of the global behaviour. The results of the nite element modelling show that the addition of backing-plates produce a small modication of the initial stiffness although it is associated with an increase of the bolt length and by a consequence with a modication of the ratio between the stiffness of the ange and the bolt. So, for a backing-plate of a thickness equal to that of the ange, the increase of the stiffness does not exceed 15% (Table 6a). However, for backing-plates with the thickness of transition, the increase of the stiffness can reach 60% for the T-stubs T4 and T7 (Table 6b). The curves related to the analysed T-stubs (Fig. 18) show the evolution of the ratio of stiffness between the cases with and without backing-plates [ K ini bp / K ini nobp ] versus the relative thickness of the backing-plates [tbp / t f ]. There can be shown a small evolution of the stiffness for a relative thickness of the backing-plate equal to unity, but the difference becomes more marked with the increase of the relative thickness. This is true for the long and short T-stubs. We examine now the effect of the bolts pre-tension on the mechanical behaviour of the T-stub with backing-plates. For all

Fig. 18. Evolution of the initial stiffness ratio between the T-stubs with and without backing-plates versus the relative thickness of the backing-plate (numerical modelling).

the examined T-stubs, this pre-tension load is taken equal to the value specied in the EC3: F p.cd = 0.7 f ub As . (9)

To introduce the pre-tension into the numerical model, we proceed as follows. At rst, the T-stub is taken without external load, and a displacement is applied on the bolt shank to produce the pre-tension and to calibrate the relation between the pretension and the bolt elongation in the T-stub conguration. Then, this displacement is applied to the bolt shank before the introduction of the external load applied to the T-stub web. The results of various simulations are compared on the basis of the global curves ( F ) (Fig. 19). There is noticed an evident inuence of the pre-tension in the elastic phase. The initial stiffness is signicantly increased with the pretension and it is amplied with the presence of backing-plates because the pre-tension enhances more the contact between the plates even without friction. In the phase close to the ultimate load, the pre-tension loses gradually its effect, as it was expected. However, for the plastic resistance ( F p ), it keeps a non-negligible inuence. The friction has a non-negligible

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Z. Al-Khatab, A. Boucha r / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 63 (2007) 16031615

5. Conclusion Different T-stubs were analysed using a nite element model to observe their global behaviour as well as the evolution and the distribution of the contact pressure, their deformed shapes and the loads in the bolts. A comparison made between 2D and 3D models allowed us to dene the limits of the rst model, which is certainly easier to implement. The 2D model gives satisfactory results for short T-stubs. For some geometries, only the 3D model with consideration of the contact, the material and the geometrical non-linearities allows a faithful representation of the T-stub behaviour. This 3D model allows the description of various phenomena which occur during the load application on the T-stub and gives information which is difcult to obtain experimentally. The 3D models applied to the T-stubs with backing-plates show that the resistances increase with the thickness of the backing-plate. However, as care was taken to exclude any plastication of the web in the T-stub, this increase has an upper limit dened by the bolt failure. This corresponds to the failure mode 2 which succeeds the failure mode 1 and allows the denition of a thickness of transition corresponding to this situation. The analytical model of the EC3 gives a thickness of transition of backing-plate lower than that determined by the nite element model. This shows that a reserve of resistance and ductility exists if the resistances of T-stubs with backingplates are calculated according to the EC3. The analytical formula proposed by the EC3 applied to the T-stubs with backing-plates gives satisfactory results for the resistance in comparison with numerical results which were previously calibrated on the basis of the experimental results. So, numerical models showed that the contribution of the backing-plates is interesting regarding the stiffness for the majority of the tested T-stubs. This contribution is more marked if bolts with pre-tension are used. In that case, the backingplates produce an increase of the plastic resistance and the initial stiffness for all the tested T-stubs. The results of the modelling will be useful for studying many other cases of strengthened T-stubs. They will be used in particular in the development of an analytical model which would allow the consideration of the evolution of the stiffness given by the backing-plates. References
[1] Eurocode 3. Design of steel structures, part 1.8: Design of joints. CEN; 2005. [2] Eurocode 3 ENV 1993 Part 1.1 Annex J Joints in building frames. Draft. 1997. 60 p. [3] Gebbeken N, Wanzek T, Petersen C. Semi-rigid connectionsT-stub. In: ModelleVersuchsbericht-experimental investigations. M unchen: Univ. Bundeswehr; 1997. 83 p. [4] Yee YL, Melchers RE. Momentrotation curves for bolted connections. Journal of Structural Engineering 1986;112(3):61535. [5] Shi YG, Chan SL, Wong YL. Modelling for momentrotation characteristics for end-plate connections. Journal of Structural Engineering 1996; 122(11):13006.

Fig. 19. Global loaddisplacement curves F (T4) : (tbp / t f = 1.8).

Table 7 Initial stiffness for T-stubs without and with backing-plates (thickness of transition) and pre-tension T-stub F p.cd (kN) K ini nobp & pret. (kN/mm) (tbp / t f ) max EC3 K ini bp & pret. (kN/mm) (%) T1 57.5 224.9 0.6 237.8 5.7 P1K 126.6 219.1 1.7 423.5 93.3 P2K 126.6 291.8 1.1 384.1 31.6 T4 240.7 165.6 1.8 328.8 98.5 T7 312.9 203.3 1.9 414.9 104.1

Table 8 Initial stiffness for T-stubs with backing-plates (thickness of transition) and pre-tension T-stub F p.cd (kN) (tbp / t f )max EC 3 K ini bp (kN/mm) K ini bp & pret. (kN/mm) (%) T1 57.5 0.6 166 237.8 43.2 P1K 126.6 1.7 226 423.5 86.4 P2K 126.6 1.1 244 384.1 57.4 T4 240.7 1.8 191 328.8 72.1 T7 312.9 1.9 228 414.9 82

effect because it develops a higher equivalent moment of inertia for the backing-plate and the column ange. However, we considered the case without friction to obtain the most conservative values with a connection which does not require a particular preparation of surface. Indeed, the backing-plates can be used as a reinforcement of existing structures. In reality even without friction, the bolt pre-tension mobilizes a wider surface of contact between the backing-plate and the column ange. Table 7 is established for the thickness of transition of backing-plates, according to the formulae of the Eurocode 3, with bolts pre-tension given by Eq. (9). The results of the numerical model show that backing-plates produce a high increase of the initial stiffness of the T-stub, if bolts are with pre-tension. This increase can reach 100% and it is due to the contact zone which is larger than without pre-tension. This enhances the collaboration between the backing-plate and the ange even without friction effect. The Table 8 shows that for a T-stub with backing-plate, the pre-tension increases the initial stiffness in an important way for all the studied T-stubs.

Z. Al-Khatab, A. Boucha r / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 63 (2007) 16031615 [6] Bursi OS, Jaspart JP. Basic issues in the nite element simulation of extended end-plate connections. Computers & Structures 1998;69: 36182. [7] Zoetemeijer P. A design method for the tension side of statically loaded bolted beam to column connections. Heron 20, no. 1. Delft (Holland): Delft University of Technology; 1974. [8] Moore DB, Sims PAC. Preliminary investigations into the behaviour of extended end-plate steel connections with backing-plates. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 1986;6:95122. [9] Pynn onen J, Granstr om A. Beam to column connections with backingplates. Report 86:6. Swedish Institute of Steel Construction; 1986. [10] Boucha r A, Alkhatab Z, Meuleman S, Muzeau J-P. Numerical analysis of the inuence of backing-plates on T-stub behaviour. In: Proceedings of the 9th Nordic steel construction conference. 2001. p. 83542. [11] Alkhatab Z, Boucha r A, Muzeau J-P. Analysis of the role of backingplate on T-stub mechanical behaviour. In: Proceedings of the 3rd European

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conference on steel structures. 2002. p. 120918. [12] Bursi OS, Jaspart JP. Benchmarks for nite element modelling of bolted steel connections. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 1997;43(12): 1742. [13] Piluso V, Faella C, Gianvittorio R. Ultimate behaviour of bolted T-stubs, II: Model validation. Journal of Structural Engineering 2001;127(6): 694704. [14] Alkhatab Z. Analysis of the behaviour of steel joints strengthened by backing-plates, numerical approach and experimental calibration. Ph.D. thesis. Clermont 2 (France): Blaise Pascal University; 2003 [in French]. [15] Mistakidis ES, Baniotopoulos CC, Bisbos ES. Steel T-stub connections under static bending: An effective 2D numerical model. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 1997;44(12):5167. [16] Pasquet P. User Manualnite element software package Cast3m. CEA. Saclay. 1998 [in French, English information on web site].