MECHANICS OF COHESIVE-FRICTIONAL MATERIALS, VOL.

2, 93120 (1997)

Experimental analysis and theoretical interpretation of triaxial load controlled loose sand specimen collapses
Claudio di Prisco1 and Silvia Imposimato1
1

Dipartimento di Ingegneria Strutturale, Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, I-20133 Milano, Italy
SUMMARY

A series of triaxial load-controlled tests is performed. Finite load increments are imposed. The single load-steps are followed by a time period during which the axial load is kept constant. At low stress levels the mechanical response is stable and characterized by a continuous decrease in strain rate with time. At higher stress levels, the mechanical response changes and, subsequently, the collapse takes place. The collapse is unexpected and occurs at a stress level less than that associated with the steady state, experimentally observed by performing strain triaxial controlled tests. In order to interpret such a behaviour, a theoretical discussion is introduced. This is based on a dynamical reinterpretation of the micromechanical fabric rearrangement of granular assembly. In particular, the role played by the kinetic energy of the system, as well as that played by the anisotropy of the 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Mech. cohesive-frictional mater. 2, microstructure, have been analysed. 93120 (1997)

KEY WORDS:

loose sands; load-controlled triaxial tests; creep tests; instability; theoretical interpretation; strain-rate sensitivity

1. INTRODUCTION The present paper is an attempt to experimentally describe and theoretically justify the mechanical behaviour of loose sand in drained, load-controlled, standard triaxial tests. When this kind of laboratory test is performed, sudden collapses take place. These specimen collapses, for the rst time shown experimentally by Begemann, Koning and Linderberg,1 occur at low stress levels, which are much lower than those dening the steady state which may be reached by performing drained straincontrolled tests. In the rst part of the paper some experimental results will be illustrated. The experimental tests were performed by imposing nite load increments and by recording the strain versus time trend during the time periods following the single load steps. The collapses are sudden and not anticipated by a continuous hardening of the previous strains. They take place both when saturated and dry loose sand specimens are tested. In order to allow full water drainage, the experimental tests on saturated sand specimens were performed slowly. The sudden increase in pore pressure was recorded not before, but during the specimen collapses; this means that the presence of water is not necessary for instability to occur. Similar experimental observations were presented by Eckersley,2 though by studying model liquefying slopes and not triaxial specimens. CCC 10825010/97/02009328 $17.50 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Received 4 March 1996 Revised 23 July 1996

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Recently, similar experimental results were published by Sasitharan et al.,3,4 Skopek et al.5 In the rst papers, the authors interpreted the collapses as the consequence of an instantaneous and undrained mechanical response of the material. Instead, in the second one, because the sand specimens are dry, the authors are not able to theoretically justify the phenomenon experimentally observed. If a drained standard triaxial strain-controlled test is performed, the same material, up to the steady state, manifests a stable, continuously hardening, mechanical behaviour. Consequently, it seems evident that the same loose sand specimen may show two different mechanical responses, according to the type of test performed: strain or load-controlled. In the second part of this paper, a theoretical interpretation is proposed, which analyses the unstable phenomenon from a microdynamic point of view. In order to investigate the dynamic aspect of this unstable phenomenon, it is necessary to take into account the effects of the time factor on the mechanical response of the granular assemblies. The concept of time dependency on the mechanical behaviour of the material has already been experimentally demonstrated and theoretically considered in di Prisco and Imposimato.6 In that paper, the authors presented the experimental results obtained by performing drained standard triaxial tests, characterized by nite load increments and by different time periods between two successive load steps. As regards low stress levels, the authors showed that the asymptotical trend is not reached immediately and that during a nite time period the strain rate is not nil, even though the load is kept constant. Experimental evidence suggests that the microstructural evolution, in a single load increment, might be interpreted as a microdynamic, statistically determined phenomenon, which passing through a transient condition, reaches a steady condition. According to the authors, the collapses are caused by an unstable transient condition. In the following section, the phenomenon considered and its theoretical interpretation will be proposed as a useful tool in highlighting the static liquefaction phenomenon. The increase in pore pressure will be considered as a consequence of a previous collapse, and not as the triggering cause. By accepting this mechanical explanation, in boundary value problems, the pore pressure wave becomes only a vehicle of instability, by making the instability propagation more rapid and probable.79

2. SOME REMARKS ON STATIC LIQUEFACTION 2.1. Traditional laboratory test results Liquefaction is an important phenomenon, causing dramatic effects. The phenomenon of sand changing its behaviour from solid to liquid was recognized in the early stage of soil mechanics development. The term spontaneous liquefaction was coined by Terzaghi10 to indicate the sudden change of loose deposits of sand into ows, much like those of viscous uid, triggered by a slight disturbance. Further studies on the liquefaction phenomenon taking place under static loadings1115 concluded that the material must be loose for liquefaction to occur, i.e., contractive during shearing at large strain, and assumed that the loadings must not allow the water to ow prior to the collapse. In order to clarify the liquefaction phenomenon, both static and cyclic, undrained, strain-controlled, triaxial loading tests, on loose granular specimens, were performed by Konrad,16 Ishihara,17 and di Prisco, Matiotti and Nova.18 Over more than 20 years, a large number of monotonic undrained test results on loose sand specimens have shown that the effective stress paths are characterized by a peak in the effective triaxial plane, and by a peak of the deviatoric-axial strain curve, see Figure 1 (from Castro11).

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Figure 1. Standard undrained triaxial compression on a very loose sand specimen (from Castro11): (a) effective stress path; (b) stressstrain behaviour

On the other hand, the undrained triaxial cyclic tests on loose saturated sand specimens17 are characterized by a continuous increase in pore pressure, by an associated increase in stress level, and lastly, if the test is stress-controlled, by a sudden collapse. All these test results are traditionally used to clarify the liquefaction phenomenon, because undrained conditions are commonly assumed to be physically realistic, even if boundary value problems and a material like sand are considered. In order to justify the link between undrained laboratory experimental results and the physical reality of the in situ conditions, the triggering collapse disturbances and the associated mechanical response of the material must be assumed to be rapid. 2.2. Comments on undrained conditions By considering various case histories of spontaneous liquefaction, it appears difcult to recognize rapid triggering causes. Liquefaction commonly concerns local steepenings owing to erosion processes and to seepage pressures during falling tide or rapidly accumulating sediments.19 Moreover, also the rapidity of the mechanical soil response needs to be discussed. In fact, the authors have shown experimentally that the irreversible strains are delayed. With reference to loose sand triaxial specimens, the time period required to reach the nal strain is a few minutes. This effect is irrespective of the presence of water; in fact, even if dry specimens are considered, the delay phenomenon occurs. In order to closely examine this particular aspect, a triaxial compression test on a loose isotropically consolidated saturated sand specimen was performed. At the beginning, after the rst drained load controlled triaxial phase, the drainage valve was closed (point A in Figure 2(a)) and a load increment was imposed. In Figure 2(b) the trend of the pore pressure versus time is shown. A time dependency of the increase in pore pressure is evident. This trend is also shown in Figure 2(a): point B0 corresponds to the pore pressure value one minute after the load increment; point C0 to that recorded half an hour later and D0 one hour later. In undrained conditions, even though the load increment is applied almost immediately, the nal increase in pore pressure is reached only after a considerable time lag. Consequently, when the drainage valve is open, the complete undrained increase in pore pressure (point D0 ) will never be

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Figure 2. Undrained axial load increment after a drained standard triaxial compression phase on a very loose Hostun sand specimen: (a) total and effective stress path; (b) pore pressure versus time curve

reached: the value of the pore pressure increase will depend on the material permeability coefcient and the strain rate. The main factor, in reality, is the ratio between these two variables. With reference to particular boundary conditions and to particular hydromechanical characteristics of the material, in time the pore pressure values may induce dangerous collapses. Nevertheless, according to the authors, in some other cases, the instabilities may be caused by a completely different mechanical mechanism, in which the pore pressure (i.e., the water presence) does not play the role of the triggering factor.

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The aim of this paper is, precisely, to introduce this new interpretation, by analysing the experimental results briey described in the following paragraph. The doubts about the mechanism, which in situ triggers of liquefaction phenomena, as already clearly expressed by Eckersley,2 derives from laboratory experimental observations. By analysing the collapses involving the laboratory model slopes he monitored, Eckersley concluded that the ow slides can initiate under essentially static, drained conditions. The liquefaction occurs subsequently to failure initiation with excess pore pressures being generated in relatively thin shear zones. Moreover, the collapses described below by the authors, although they concern drained tests, are qualitatively very similar to those observed when undrained conditions are imposed. The collapses are unexpected and may occur very rapidly. When the specimens are saturated, it is possible to observe a sudden increase in pore pressure following the specimen failure. The material, from a macroscopic point of view, is always uniformly deformed, even after the collapse takes place. Consequently, according to the authors, the experimental results described below, together with those recently presented by other researchers,1,4,6,2023 lead directly to a reexamination of the liquefaction problem.

3. EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATIONS 3.1. Experimental programme and procedure A series of triaxial load controlled tests was performed. All the tests were carried out on specimens (140 mm high, 70 mm wide) of loose Hostun RF sand (Dr  20%). A more detailed laboratory device and test procedure description may be found in di Prisco and Imposimato.6 Two different types of triaxial tests were carried out, and are drawn in Figure 3. The rst is a drained standard triaxial compression test, obtained by increasing only the axial load and by keeping the cell pressure constant. The second is characterized initially by a standard drained triaxial compression phase, followed by a q constant effective stress path. This second phase is obtained by

Figure 3. Drained load controlled tests: standard compression and q constant stress paths.

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keeping the axial load constant and either increasing pore pressure when the specimen is saturated, or by directly decreasing the cell pressure, when the specimen is dry. All the stress paths were obtained by imposing nite incremental stress steps (Dq or Dp0 ). The time elapses between two consecutive stress increments and the magnitude of stress increments were set as variable: every test has a particular time history.

3.2. Strain controlled and load controlled tests In order to underline the difference between the mechanical response obtained by imposing straincontrol and load-control in drained standard triaxial tests, it is interesting to compare the experimental results of two different 100 kPa consolidated saturated specimens. The strain-controlled test is performed by imposing a constant axial strain rate ( 1 mm=min); whereas the load-controlled test is carried out by imposing nite axial load-increments. The axial load time history is illustrated in Figure 4. In Figure 5 the experimental results are shown. The strain-controlled test is characterized by a continuous hardening regime up to the steady state (f0 32 ). On the contrary, the load-controlled test at the stress level characterized by a mobilized friction angle of 25 suffers a sudden collapse. Up to this point, the mechanical responses of both tests are roughly the same, but the sudden instability is peculiar only to the load-controlled test. In Figure 6, the collapse points of the various load-controlled tests24 are collected, and compared with the ultimate state points obtained by means of strain-controlled loadings. In Figure 6, not only the standard triaxial test, but also the q constant test results are collected. In order to explain the large dispersion of the points corresponding to the sudden collapses, it is possible to draw the same locus in a Drqp0 space or more simply in a f0m e plane (Figure 7). But, as will be claried below, the unstable phenomenon considered cannot be completely explained by only taking into account the relative density and the effective stress state: the problem is more complex. The phenomenon is caused by a structural collapse and is a result of progressive destabilization of the grain structure. In order to explain the difference in the materials mechanical behaviour, obtained

Figure 4. Drained standard triaxial tests [s0c 100 kPa (T100d)]: axial loadtime history

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Figure 5. Comparison between two drained standard triaxial compression tests performed by controlling the axial strain or the axial load: [s0c 100kPa] (T100d): (a) deviatoric stress versus axialstrain curves; (b) volumetric behaviour

by performing strain and load-controlled tests, it is necessary to outline the main aspects of the two test procedures. When a strain-controlled test at constant strain rate is carried out, the system is kinematically controlled: no global axial acceleration is allowed. On the contrary, when a load-controlled (i.e. creep) test is performed, the system is free to accelerate and evolve without any kinematical constraint. In order to highlight the causes of instability, in the following section the load controlled test will be described more accurately.

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Figure 6. Comparison between collapse points in load-controlled tests and steady-state locus

3.3. Load-controlled tests: stable and unstable mechanical responses The load-controlled tests were carried out by imposing nite load increments. The load increments are followed by time periods at constant stress level. Among the 20 tests performed, the test T100a will be analysed. The relative load time history is illustrated in Figure 8(a), and in Figure 8(b) the corresponding mechanical response is drawn. In order to highlight the nature of the phenomenon, it may be interesting to compare the material mechanical response to the load increments at different stress levels.

Figure 7. Mobilized friction angles versus void ratio values relative to collapse points

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Figure 8. (Test T100a), standard triaxial test, [s0c 100 kPa]: (a) loadtime history; (b) stressstrain behaviour

In Figure 9(a) the rst seven increments are considered. The axial strain versus time curves show stable and clearly time dependent mechanical behaviour.6 The static disturbance induces a delayed deformative response, which has been dened as delayed plasticity. The transient regime takes many minutes, and the internal structure continues to evolve subsequently, too. The micro-structural rearrangement, when it takes place, is not immediate but delayed. When the mobilized friction angle of 22.3 is reached, the type of response illustrated in Figure 9(b) is observed for the rst time.

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Figure 9. (Test T100a), standard triaxial test, [s0c 100 kPa]: (a) dq 2 kPa, stable mechanical behaviour; (b) dq 2 kPa, unstable mechanical behaviour; (c) dq 2 kPa, collapse increment

Initially, the axial strain rate increases, even if the effective axial stress remains constant. However, after a while, the asymptotical value of strain is reached. At a stress level, characterized by a mobilized friction angle of 25 , the collapse takes place (Figure 9(c)). Each experimental load controlled test, both standard triaxial and q constant, is characterized by the same mechanical trend (Figure 10). At a low stress level, the axial strain rate continuously decreases (curve a). By increasing the stress level, the system initially accelerates, but subsequently a strain asymptotical stabilization takes place (curve b), and lastly collapse occurs (curve c).

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Figure 9. (continued )

By assuming the traditional mechanical denition of stability,25 it is possible to dene the material mechanical behaviour, described by curve c, as unstable. In fact, the continuity of the material response is lost. Small stress disturbances cause large strain increments. If no instability occurred, the steady state would be reached and, by increasing the stress level, strain increments would continuously increase. On the contrary, when such an instability occurs, a gap between the previous load step and the unstable one (Figure 9(c)) may be observed. If curve B of Figure 9(b) is considered, together with the previous and the subsequent load steps (A and C, respectively (Figure 11)), it appears evident that curve C is more rigid than curves A and B. This means that the incipient instability (seen in curve B) induces a more stable micro-structure and consequently a more rigid macroresponse in the subsequent load steps. Moreover, it is important to observe that the incipient material instability recorded is associated with compactive volumetric behaviour (see section 4.5). In order to demonstrate that the instability phenomenon previously shown is not linked to the rapidity of the load test considered, many different load-controlled tests were performed. Among these the collapse obtained by means of a q constant test performed very slowly will be illustrated. Moreover, this experimental result clearly shows that the onset of instability is not due to a rapid increase in pore pressure.

Figure 10. Schematical mechanical responses to a generic axial load increment

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Figure 11. Comparison between the unstable mechanical behaviour and the mechanical behaviour corresponding to the previous and the successive load increments

The collapse takes place very slowly (Figure 12); acceleration is continuously positive, though initially almost nil. The collapse occurs some hours after the load increment has been applied. The pore pressure increases when the collapse has already taken place. Before that point, no increase in pore pressure can be observed. Therefore the phenomenon may be assumed to be unrelated to the presence of water. 3.4. Axial strain rate and axial strain acceleration analysis In order to highlight the actual nature of the phenomenon, it would be very interesting to describe, during the single time periods between two consecutive load increments, the internal fabric.

Figure 12. Collapse occurrence after a long time period

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Unfortunately, using ordinary geotechnical laboratory devices, this cannot be done. Consequently, the following analyses will be made only by interpreting the external measures (the phenomenon consequences) and not by considering the microstructural causes. As previously observed, when a load-controlled or creep test is performed, the problem must be dynamically analysed: the trend of the kinetical variables such as axial-strain rate and axial-strain acceleration must be described. In order to compare the stable and unstable material responses, the rst seven load steps are shown in Figure 13. While in Figure 14, the unstable response is illustrated together with the previous load step (Figure 9(a)). In Figure 13, it is evident that the load-increment causes a strain rate increase (points Ai). This is followed by a continuous decrease up to the subsequent load increment. The peak velocities, which are recorded a minute after increasing the axial load, will continue to grow gradually. With reference to increasing stress levels and by keeping the time period elapsing between two succeeding load increments constant, the material strain response becomes more rapid. Nevertheless, the single material response to the load disturbance remains stable, in fact the loose sand specimen mechanical behaviour is continuous and characterized by typical exponential decay. In the same manner, if we draw the acceleration trend relative to the load steps of Figures 9(a) and 11, the curves of Figures 15 and 16 are obtained. In Figure 16 the unstable load step and the previous one are compared. From Figure 16, it appears evident that when instability takes place, the system accelerates over a signicant period of time. 3.5. Dry sand specimens: further experimental observations Recently, by conducting a series of q-constant, load-controlled, triaxial tests, on dry loose Ottawa sand specimens, Skopek et al.5 concluded that the structural collapse of very loose dry sand is a result of progressive destabilization of the grain structure. The same conclusions on dry loose sand specimens may be obtained, by analysing the experimental results of Figure 17(c). The relative stress path is illustrated in Figure 17(a), while the p0

Figure 13. Axial strain-rate versus time: load increments corresponding to those illustrated in Figure 9(a)

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Figure 14. Axial strain-rate versus time: load increments corresponding to the unstable response and the previous one

versus time curve is shown in Figure 17(b). Similar results were obtained by performing loadcontrolled, standard compression, triaxial tests on dry loose sand specimens. The collapse point of Figure 17(a) corresponds with a mobilized friction angle of 23 . The axial strain versus time curve, illustrated in Figure 17(c), is relative to the phase of the test characterized by a constant value of q (from point B to C of Figure 17(a)). The points of the curve are relative to the instant of time corresponding to the load increment application. The particular strain versus time behaviour shows an initial rigid mechanical response. This is followed by more considerable strain increments. This may be claried by interpreting the material mechanical behaviour in the light of elastoplasticity. In fact, initially the response may be assumed to be elastic and, subsequently, to be elastoplastic.

Figure 15. Axial strain acceleration corresponding to the load increments of Figure 9(a)

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Figure 16. Axial strain-acceleration versus time: load increments corresponding to the unstable response and the previous one

The loose sand specimens designated as dry, are not actually completely dry, because of the preparation method. In fact, to obtain the desired relative density, the traditional method introduced by Bjerrum, Kringstad and Kummeneje26 was used. Before the specimen preparation, a small percentage of water (2% in weight) is added. Consequently, the specimens are not completely dry and obviously, because of suction forces, this may cause a different mechanical response in comparison with the saturated specimens. By taking into account Figure 17, it is evident that the material behaves qualitatively as if it were saturated. However, the stress level at which the collapses take place is quantitatively different. In particular, if we compare the collapse points of the saturated specimens and the dry ones, it is possible to conclude that suction makes the microstructure more stable, and this effect is highlighted by the increase in the mobilized friction angle at which sudden collapses occur.

4. THEORETICAL INTERPRETATION The phenomenon shown experimentally in section 3 may be dened as delayed instability and, consequently, may be interpreted as an unstable creep. Generally, delayed instability is classied as tertiary creep and considered as peculiar to cohesive materials; in fact, they are studied within the framework of fracture mechanics and are assumed to be the ultimate result of unstable fracture propagation. On the contrary, as regards granular assemblies, a theoretical framework, capable of justifying the instability considered, does not exist. Therefore, in order to conceive constitutive models which are able to reproduce such an unstable phenomenon, the problem of microstructure evolution from a probabilistic point of view has been tackled. The aim of the following paragraphs is to extend the applicability of the traditional elastoviscoplastic theory to dynamic problems. In fact, according to the authors, when load-controlled tests are performed, the microstructure evolution cannot be considered as quasi-static, but must be interpreted dynamically. Within the framework of strain-hardening elastoplasticity, this implies the redenition

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Figure 17. Load controlled triaxial q constant test on dry very loose Hostun sand specimen: (a) stress path; (b) mean pressure time history; (c) axial strain versus time curve relative to the q constant phase

of the hardening rules which govern state variable evolution. In the following, a new constitutive model is not presented, but only a logical path is outlined. In this perspective, the theoretical attempt presented below lays no claim to being exhaustive, but rather seeks to give rise to scientic debate. The interpretation outlined in Sections 4.24.4 makes use principally of two variables to describe system evolution: the congurational entropy Sc and the kinetic energy Ec. Sc and Ec are assumed to determine, respectively, how and whether the granular system evolves.

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Figure 17. (continued )

Thanks to some simplifying assumptions, in Sections 4.4.3 the approach proposed is shown to be capable of justifying the kind of instability under consideration. Naturally, according to the authors, the validity of these theoretical observations will have to be conrmed by their application to constitutive relationships; nevertheless, in this paper such applications are not presented so that the approach may not lose its general applicability. 4.1. Stability denition According to Liapunovs denition of stability, if small consequences correspond to small disturbances, the system is dened as stable. This denition may be mathematically converted into a continuous dependence of solution on data. Therefore, in this sense, the collapses previously illustrated are the ultimate consequences of an unstable mechanical response. For instance, if we compare the experimental mechanical responses corresponding to steps A and B of Figure 11, it appears evident that a discontinuity takes place. The inputs are continuous, but the response is discontinuous. On the contrary, when the material reaches the steady state, by means of straincontrolled loadings, the mechanical response appears to be very different. In this case, the mechanical behaviour is stable, because the dependency of the mechanical response on disturbances remains continuous. As anticipated in the introduction, the unstable phenomena considered will be theoretically interpreted by taking into account the time dependency of the granular materials mechanical behaviour. This time dependency may be observed whether the mechanical response be stable or unstable. The difference seems to consist in the evolution trend. From the analysis of the experimental results shown above (Figure 9), it seems that, as the axial load is kept constant and if the response is stable (Figure 9(a)), the axial strain rate continuously decreases whereas, if the response is unstable (Figure 9(b)), the strain rate increases. Nevertheless, this difference is only apparent. In reality, when the time period following a single instantaneous load increment is taken into account, the axial velocity initially increases and subsequently continuously decreases. The experimental results illustrated in Figure 9(a) do not show such behaviour. The initial acceleration takes

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place during the rst minute and consequently is not recorded. The linear interpolation of experimental data does not allow us to describe the actual initial trend (Figure 9(a)). The initial system acceleration may take a few seconds when the mechanical response is stable, or several minutes when instability occurs. The experimental results, obtained by Delage et al..,21 characterized by more accurate time recordings, conrm the initial axial acceleration, with reference to all load increments. Therefore, with reference to the single axial-strain versus time trends, the difference between stable and unstable mechanical responses is not qualitative but only quantitative. The correct way to evaluate the instability occurrence is based on the analysis of the overall mechanical behaviour during the load test. In order to adapt Liapunovs denition of stability to granular assemblies, it may be useful to interpret the different grain microcongurations as points of a set, and to relate them to the points dened in a space in which the co-ordinates are the state variables. This link is meaningful if, and only if, a representative volume continues to exist. This is true if no strain localization takes place. Consequently, drained strain localization is excluded a priori, because the considered phenomenon appears to be globally diffused and not localized. With reference to granular continua, it may be useful to dene as state variables, for instance, the relative density (a scalar variable), and tensors (aij) describing the directional characteristics of the material. With regard to these, many authors27,28 have recently introduced different tensors, which describe directional properties of the microstructure, which may be used as state variables. Between the points dening the single microcongurations, and those to which they correspond, dened in the space of state variables, there is no one to one correspondence (Figure 18). A single point in the state variable space corresponds to an enormous number of different microcongurations. Having theoretically introduced a one to one relationship between the starting set and the points belonging to the state variable space, and since it is possible to make this space topological, using any mathematical denition of distance, it now becomes possible to apply Liapunovs denition of stability thermodynamically interpreted to granular assemblies: A granular system is dened as stable, when the distance between the starting and the nishing point, dened in the state variable space, continuously decreases in direct proportion to the decrease in the size of the load disturbance, of whatever kind it may be. 4.2. Congurational entropy In order to describe how the system evolves, the congurational entropy29 Sc may be introduced. The congurational entropy is assumed to be a function of the probability P of occurrence of a certain

Figure 18. Schematic correspondence between the set of microcongurations and the hyper-space of the state variables

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state described by a point Ai in the state variable space (section 4.1): Sc i S c P i

The value of Pi is obtained by summing the pik over the set of k microcongurations corresponding to the same point Ai , where pik are the single probabilities associated with the microcongurations k: Pi

Pp
Ni

k 1

ik

where Ni is the number of microcongurations belonging to the i set. In the following section, a simplifying denition of p and P is proposed. This is necessary because of the complexity of the system. The aim consists of highlighting the variables upon which Sc depends, by disregarding a description of such a dependency. 4.2.1. Density of probability p. If we consider a xed representative volume of sand, which is lled with a great and variable number of grains, it is possible to afrm that the number of microcongurations that may be generated, depends only on the dimensions of the elemental volume and on the geometrical characteristics of grains. We can choose to dene these different microstates geometrically, without any hypothesis as to how the specimen is lled. In this case, the density of probability p, associated with each microconguration, is the same. This ceases to be true when the gravity force is considered or the material is assumed to be subjected to a certain state of stress. In fact, should this be the case the equilibrium acts as a constraint and the density of probability p must be redened. Some microcongurations miss any possibility of existing, because the microstructure must sustain its own weight and the state of stress applied. Moreover, among the possible microcongurations some are characterized by high values of p, others by lower ones. In order to dene the value of p associated to a certain microconguration and to a particular effective state or stress, i.e., to dene the following dependency: p p1 s0ij

it is possible to introduce the method described below. We may assume the density of probability p associated with a certain microconguation (Figure 19), dened by the measure of the surrounding domain of s0i * j (which is dened in the effective state of stress), held by the maximum hyper-spherical domain within which the microconguration

Figure 19. Hyperspace of the effective state of stress: domain containing the states of effective stress which may be statically sustained by the microconguration considered

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considered may exist (that is where the equilibrium condition is statically satised). The system may or may not be balanced, depending on the geometry and on the mechanical properties of grains. 4.2.2. Probability P. Corresponding to a certain sand and to a given effective state of stress (s0i * j ), in section 4.2 a denition of p has been introduced. P has been dened as the sum of the p values associated with all the microcongurations belonging to the same set. Once the set of micro-conguration is dened, from section 4.2.1 the value of P may be derived. As we have introduced a relationship between the microcongurations and the points belonging to the state variable space, the sum previously dened is meaningful and a value of P may be associated with each point dened in the state variable space. As observed in section 4.2.1, if the granular assembly is considered only from a geometrical point of view ( i.e., disregarding the mechanical aspects) the density of probability p is the same for each microconguration. However, it is important to observe that the number of elements which form each set of microcongurations, is variable. In particular, among the sets associated to the points characterized by the same value of relative density Dr, the sets associated with random microcongurational distributions of grains (isotropic microcongurations) are larger. Consequently, if we consider the points characterized by the same value of Dr, we observe that the probability P connected to the points characterized by isotropic microstates is greater. This is no longer true when the material is loaded and an effective state of stress is applied.

4.3. Micro-structural evolution 4.3.1. Kinetic Energy. If we consider load-controlled tests and, in particular, one load-increment and the subsequent time period during which the state of stress is kept constant, we may observe the following:

 If the current microstructure cannot statically exist under an increased state of stress (i.e., the current microstructure cannot sustain the increased state of stress), the grains accelerate and a system evolution takes place. As time passes during this process, each grain develops its own momentum.
The introduction of the internal kinetic energy Ec allows us to produce a rough description of the kinetic aspects of the dynamic evolution of the system. Ec is dened as the integral over the representative volume of the overall kinetic energy of grains. This is strictly related to the specic load disturbance and to the dissipated energy along contacts. In fact, it develops during microrearrangements and is dissipated by the interparticle frictional slidings. The internal kinetic energy depends on the disturbances size and type but, in particular, on the vulnerability of the current granular fabric. It may be interesting to clarify the relationship between Ec and the strain rates, which are recorded during experimental tests by interpreting the loose sand triaxial specimen as a unique macroelement. This relationship is difcult to determine because, a priori, the two quantities cannot be assumed to coincide but, if no turbulence takes place within the specimen, the link becomes explicit. In fact, if we assume the displacement eld to be homogeneous within the specimen, from the boundary condition it is possible to derive an internal kinematic description of the continuum. On the other hand, if any turbulence takes place, homogeneity within the specimen is lost and the boundary conditions are not sufcient to derive the internal displacement eld.

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In the following, Ec will be interpreted as a useful tool in describing the onset of turbulence. According to the authors, the instability takes place when the turbulence is not dumped, but itself feeds. 4.3.2. State Variable evolution. In section 4.2 we have introduced the congurational entropy Sc by statically describing the granular system. In fact, the denitions of p and P introduced above were related only to static quantities and the system, as previously described, was assumed to be motionless. On the other hand, in the present section the microstructural evolution is taken into consideration and the congurational entropy itself will allow us to describe such an evolution. This is possible because the variable Sc has been dened as a monotonic increasing function of the probability P. Consequently, the coincidence between the most probable state and the state which most frequently happens is translated in the following condition on Sc :

 In the state variable space, the granular system evolves towards the point characterized by the current relative maximum value of Sc within the innitesimal surroundings of the initial state. Sc represents the variable which determines the way the granular system evolves, in the same way as Ec determines the evolution itself. In fact, the system stops evolving when Ec goes down to zero.
4.3.3. Further remarks. The evolution of a granular system is necessarily associated with a strain increment. On the other hand, a strain increment is not necessarily associated with a state variable evolution. For instance, we may obtain considerable strain increments, even though the image point of the internal state of the material does not change. This is possible if the strain increments are caused by the evolution of the fabric within the same set of microstructures. This happens when the material reaches the so-called steady state. This means that the system, dened in the state variable space, does not recognize any path which allows an increase in Sc in the innitesimal surroundings of the current state. On the contrary, up to this condition, a state variable evolution takes place, but by increasing the stress level this evolution takes place more slowly. It is interesting to observe that, even if the strains associated with the steady state are considerable, according to the thermodynamical denition introduced in section 4.1, the system remains stable. In fact, according to the denition of steady state, the distance between the starting and the nishing point, dened in the state variable space, associated with load disturbance, goes down to zero. Only by analysing the phenomenon in the interior of the state variable space, is it possible to highlight a clear separation between stable and unstable behaviour. In fact, by considering only the strain variables, the mechanical behaviour of the material may be wrongly interpreted.

4.4. Instability analysis In section 4.1 the occurrence of the instability has been described. In this paragraph the authors propose a new approach that, thanks to the denition of the congurational entropy Sc previously introduced, highlights the mechanical instabilities experimentally shown in section 3. The new theoretical approach is based on the assumption that the density of probability p (dened in section 4.2.1) depends on the kinetic variables describing the motion of each grain. In fact, during the granular system evolution, the denition of p cannot remain static, but must become dynamic and thus the evolution of the system becomes dependent on the time factor. In section 4.3 the evolution of the micro-structure has been taken into account, nevertheless this has been assumed to be quasi-static. This means that the kinetic energy is not nil, but is small enough

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not to inuence the mechanical behaviour of the material at all (i.e., to be negligible in determining Sc ). In fact, in the denition of p introduced in section 4.2.1, no kinematic variable appears. The extension of this theoretical approach to real phenomena, implies disregarding any dynamic effect on the mechanical behaviour of the material. Such an assumption is implicit in all the elastoplastic constitutive models but also in the elastoviscoplastic ones. In the latter the evolution of the state variables takes place with time, but is not dependent on kinetic variables. 4.4.1. A simplied dynamic denition of p. When a load-controlled test is considered, as the loadincrement may be assumed to be impulsive, an accurate dynamic description of the system response must be outlined. From a probabilistic point of view, this entails a dynamic description of the density of probability p. In the following, the authors will assume that the dynamic description of the system may be simplied and that the value of p is a function only of the effective state of stress (section 4.2.1), of the micro-inertia and of the kinetic energy Ec (section 4.3.1). This implies that the momenta of grains are disregarded. The direct dependency of p on Ec may be physically interpreted by means of a very simple hydraulic analogy. As happens in uid ows, the increase in Ec may cause turbulent motions in the continuum and these are assumed to inuence the mechanical behaviour of the material. Then, we may write: p p1 s0i j ; micro-inertiaep2 Ec

where p1 is the extension of p dened in equation (3) (section 4.2.1) to the dynamic case, while p2 will be described below. By means of equation (4), we assume that the density of probability p is a function of two independent factors:

 the equilibrium condition (dynamically adapted),  the possible onset of turbulence.

In the rst term, the micro-inertiae allow the granular system to sustain dynamically some effective states of stress excluded in static conditions. More simply, thanks to micro-inertiae in dynamic conditions, the number of possible micro-congurations changes and the value of p1 (dened in section 4.2.1) changes, too. Instead, the second term p2 of equation (4) may be interpreted as a modulating function, which takes into account the disorder induced by turbulence. p2 may be assumed to be a constant function of unit value, when Ec is sufciently small, in all other cases p2 is a weight function. This is characterized by larger values corresponding to disordered microstructures and smaller values corresponding to ordered microstructures. 4.4.2. Drained triaxial strain controlled tests. As the authors in the previous sections underlined the possible importance of the Ec variable in the description of the granular system evolution, it may be interesting to discuss the possible strain-rate dependence of the materials mechanical behaviour. Some experimental results, obtained by performing strain controlled standard triaxial compression tests, are illustrated in Figure 20. The three curves are relative to the same type of test on specimens characterized by the same initial relative density but these tests were performed by imposing different strain rates. The experimental curves show a clear dependency of the mechanical response on the strain rate. Naturally, this dependency can neither be reproduced by means of a traditional elasto-plastic constitutive model, nor by means of an elasto-viscoplastic one (for instance Perjna30). By using an elastoviscoplastic constitutive model and by increasing the strain rate, an initial more rigid behaviour

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Figure 20. Strain controlled standard triaxial tests on saturated very loose Hostun sand specimen, performed at different strain rates: (a) stressstrain behviour; (b) olumetric curve.

would be obtained. Moreover, the value of the q limit would not be inuenced by the value of strain rate. Such experimental results may be theoretically interpreted only by a global discussion of the inuence of the strain rate on the microstructural evolution. First of all, we must assume that the kinetic energy Ec is constant, during constant strain rate tests. This is possible because the granular system capability of dissipating energy allows us to exclude that a quantity of energy is stored as grains vibrational energy. Therefore, we may assume that, also with

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reference to high values of strain rate, a monotonic dependence of the external value of Ec on the internal one exists. Moreover during strain controlled loadings, characterized by a constant axial strain rate, we can disregard the values of the micro-inertial terms. In Section 4.4.1 we have observed that, by changing Ec , p2 and p change too. In particular, by increasing Ec , the probability of p associated with more disordered microstructures increases. Consequently, by increasing the strain rate (i.e., by increasing the Ec ), it derives a different path in the state variable space and a steady state characterized by a less ordered microstructure. Generally, the system has two different possibilities to satisfy the equilibrium condition: to improve the contact distribution along the direction of maximum stress (i.e., by inducing the directional rearrangement of the microstructure-induced anisotropy) or by increasing the global number of contacts (by increasing the relative density). The increase in Ec is assumed to partially inhibit the induced anisotropy. Consequently, a denser microstructure is obtained. In fact, in Figure 20(b), the experimental curves show a compaction inuenced by the strain rate. In particular, by increasing the strain rate, the compaction increases. Instead, by analysing the axial stress-strain curves of Figure 20(a) and Figure 21, we may observe that, by increasing the strain rate, the maximum q value decreases. This seems to suggest us the following observation:

 the increase in relative density is not large enough to balance the decrease in contact surfaces along the direction of maximum stress.
These experimental results seem to imply a curious softening behaviour of the material linked to the strain rate and not envisaged, by performing a constant strain rate test. Such a strain rate dependency is analogous to that analysed by Rice and Ruina31 with reference to the stability of fault slip. From equation (4) of section 4.4.1. we may conclude that the increase in Ec causes a change in the path followed by the granular system. This causes two different effects:

Figure 21. Straincontrolled tests: asymptotic values of q corresponding to different axial strain-rates

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 the ultimate state of the system is denser  the maximum q value is lower.
Both these effects may be justied, by assuming an ultimate state, described in the state variable space which is less ordered and a slightly denser. 4.4.3. Instability occurrence. By simplifying the approach outlined in section 4.4.2, the system evolution may be described schematically by means of two different variables:

 Dr y
where Dr is the relative density (a state variable) and y is not a state variable, but a scalar quantity introduced for simplicity which may be explained as follows. By introducing in the effective stress space a state variable tensor aij (section 4.1) which describes the anisotropy of the material, we may dene the scalar quantity y as follows:

y ys0hk ; aij

y may be interpreted as the eccentricity of s0ij with reference to the current aij . Therefore, each microstructure evolution may be schematically classied as in Figure 22. Point I represents the current state of the material and each arrow denes the direction of possible evolution. Type 1 is characterized by an increase in y and a decrease in Dr; type 2 by an increase in y and Dr; and type 3 by a decrease in y and an increase in Dr. During a standard triaxial compression test on loose sand specimens, when the mechanical behaviour is stable, the evolution type 2 is followed by the system. On the other hand, according to the authors, when the instability occurs, evolution type 3 takes place. In order to highlight when and why this kind of evolution occurs and why it is unstable, it is necessary to describe the system evolution during the time period following the load increment which causes the unstable mechanical response. We assume that the system initially is motionless. Subsequently, at the time instant t0 successive to the load-increment, the micro-inertial terms may be not negligible, but Ec may be assumed to be nil. From equation (4) it derives that the current path is characterized by an increase in Dr and in y (Path number 2). Then, Ec increases and the values of p associated with more disordered microstructures increase too. After a certain period of time, because of the disturbance caused by the Ec developing, among the values of the density of probability p associated with the microcongurations belonging to the innitesimal surroundings of the current microconguration, the maximum corresponds to a less ordered internal fabric (path number 3).

Figure 22. System evolution: stable and unstable paths.

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If the micro-inertial terms are nil, within the quadrant 3, a line may be drawn separating the possible and the impossible states (section 4.4.1). When these terms are not negligible, this limit rotates clockwise. According to the authors, during the time period following the load increment mentioned previously, point J, possibly thanks to the micro-inertial terms, becomes the most probable. When evolution type 3 is chosen by the system, even if the density increases, the increase in density may be not enough to replace the contacts lost along the direction of the maximum stress caused by the negative anisotropic evolution. In this case, because of the decrease in the number of contacts along the direction of maximum stress, both the micro-inertial term and the Ec may increase. The system continues to accelerate and the point image in the state variable space continuously changes. According to the denition given in section 4.1, this behaviour may be dened as unstable, because corresponding to a small load disturbance, a great distance between the starting and the nishing points (dened in the state variable space) is obtained. The phenomenon is self-feeding, because the path causes an acceleration and an increase in Ec automatically. The collapses may occur slowly or quickly, but the mechanism does not change. During the collapse, when the microstructure becomes isotropic enough, the increase in relative density (i.e., the increase in number of contacts) allows the system to decelerate. Ec decreases and, consequently, the phenomenon stops. In this manner, we may assume that the instabilities experimentally shown are caused by the dependency of the mechanical behaviour of loose sand on the kinetic energy. 4.4.4. Further remarks. In section 4.4.2 the increase in the relative density Dr associated with the instability phenomenon was analysed. As observed experimentally (section 3.3), if a loose sand specimen is saturated, a rapid increase in pore pressure takes place. The presence of water during collapse causes a decrease in the effective mean pressure and consequently an increase in the effective stress level. This combines with the dynamic factor described above in determining the unstable mechanical behaviour of the granular system. When the liquefaction phenomenon is considered with reference to boundary value problems, the propagation of the instability must be taken into account. Therefore, when the propagation of this type of instability in saturated soils is analysed, it is important to consider both the mechanical factors previously mentioned: the dynamic effect and the subsequent rapid increase in pore pressure.

5. CONCLUSIONS Sudden and unexpected collapses, taking place during experimental drained load controlled triaxial tests on loose Hostun sand specimens, were shown. From an experimental point of view, it was underlined that these instabilities are not necessarily linked to the presence of water within the sand specimens. In fact, these collapses may occur whether saturated or dry loose sand specimens are tested. The instability considered appears to be strictly linked to the load-control, i.e., it may be interpreted as an unstable creep phenomenon. In order to justify the experimental results shown above from a theoretical point of view, the authors tried to highlight the factors inuencing the mechanical behaviour of the material. The mechanical response was associated with the microstructural evolution of the granular system and, according to the authors, such an evolution may be described theoretically by means of the congurational entropy Sc and the kinetic energy Ec .

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Sc was interpreted as the variable determining the way in which the granular system evolves at the macrolevel, while Ec determines whether this evolution takes place. The congurational entropy associated with a certain point in the state variable space was assumed to be dependent on the effective state of stress and of the current kinetic energy Ec . In fact, the density of probability p at the microlevel, introduced in order to dene the congurational entropy Sc at macrolevel, was assumed to be a function of two independent probabilistic constraints:

 the equilibrium condition (dynamically adapted)  the energetic content.

The simplifying assumptions introduced allowed the authors to outline the dynamic aspects of the unstable phenomenon, by paying particular attention to the inuence of the energetic content of the system on its own evolution. In the light of these considerations, the incapability of reproducing the instability considered, shown by the elastoplastic and elastoviscoplastic constitutive models commonly implemented, may be justied. In fact, these constitutive relationships assume the process of fabric evolution to be quasi-static. This appears to be unrealistic with reference to the phenomenon considered and, in this paper, the authors have tried to introduce a new way of dening the rules which govern such an evolution. The whole theoretical interpretation has been developed by analysing laboratory experimental test results. Any extension of this approach, in order to interpret boundary value problems (spontaneous liquefactions, ow slides), should be coupled to a more accurate analysis of the phenomenon propagation, both in dry and saturated continua.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was conducted within the framework of Project 2, localization phenomena in geomechanics, of the A.L.E.R.T. Geomaterials Programme, funded by the E.U. (Human Capital and Mobility). Financial support from Italian C.N.R. and M.U.R.S.T. is also gratefully acknowledged. Moreover, the authors would like to acknowledge Prof. R. Nova for his helpful and precious support, Prof. I. Vardoulakis for his hints, Ing. F. Calvetti for pleasant discussions and Dr. S. Losasso for his careful linguistic observations.
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