MUSIC PREFERENCES, PERSONALITY STYLE, AND DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES OF ADOLESCENTS

Kelly Schwartz*

Introduction Music is important in the social and personal lives of adolescents. They cruise the streets in vehicles with pounding subwoofers; 25,000-seat concert stadiums sell out in minutes; and billions of dollars are spent each year on tapes and compact discs (Geter & Streisand, 1995). Between grades 7 and 12, adolescents spend over 10,000 hours listening to music, an amount of time similar to that spent in class by the time they graduate from high school (Davis, 1985; Mark, 1988). Many researchers have examined why music is so important to adolescents and how adolescents actively use music to satisfy particular social, emotional, and developmental needs (e.g., Arnett, Larson, & Oer, 1995; Larson & Kubey, 1983; Larson, Kubey & Colletti, 1989; Levy & Windahl, 1985; Lull ,1987; Rubin, 1994). Researchers have been particularly interested in marginalized adolescents and young adults and those who experience major psychological issues and why they prefer heavier forms of music such as heavy metal and hard rock (e.g., Hansen & Hansen, 1990a; Took & Weiss, 1994; Wass, Raup, Cerullo, Martel, Mingione, & Sperring, 1989). It is presumed that these music preferences reect the values, conicts and developmental issues with which these youth are dealing. Two groups of adolescents who have been ignored by researchers are those who have strong preferences for lighter kinds of music (e.g., pop, teen pop, dance) and those who are more eclectic or have no strong preferences for either heavy or light music. Thus, it is unknown how personality and developmental issues may contribute to the particular music preferences of these two groups of listeners. The major purpose of this study was to examine and contrast the personality characteristics and developmental issues of these three groups of adolescent listeners. Also of interest was to replicate and extend past research relating personality and developmental issues to music preferences. This is important because past research with adolescents has not typically
* Kelly Schwartz, Ph.D., serves as Assistant Professor of Behavioural Science at Nazarene University College in Calgary, Alberta, Canada

Volume 3 Number 1 Fall 2004

47

used systematic, reliable, and/or clinically valid measures of adolescent personality and developmental issues. A basic assumption underlying this area of research is that listeners gravitate to particular kinds of music because they have particular personality characteristics, issues, and/or needs that are either reected in the music they choose or that the music satises. For example, both Avery (1979) and Mainprize (1985) suggest that music preferences reect the issues, conicts, and needs that constitute adolescents psychological makeup (e.g., issues of identity, dependence-independence, separateness-connection). White (1985) emphasizes that music preferences reect listeners perceptions of themselves. Lull (1987) concludes, Young people use music to resist authority at all levels, assert their personalities, develop peer relationships and romantic entanglements, and learn about things that their parents and the schools arent telling them (p. 152). More recently, Larson (1995) argues that music preferences reect the values, images, and identications that make up an adolescents sense of self, while Arnett (1995) discusses adolescents self-socialization and how they select media products to promote a broad range of individual dierences in values, beliefs, interests, and personality characteristics. Steele and Brownes (1995) media practice model for adolescents incorporates identity, music selection, and social interaction to describe the nature of their involvement with media that, in turn, shapes their sense of themselves. Although this body of research and theory indeed indicates a relationship between music preferences and a variety of social, emotional, and developmental needs of adolescents, little is known about specic music preferences and how they may satisfy dierent needs for dierent kinds of music listeners. This is especially true for those preferring light music and those with more eclectic tastes in music. Preferences for Heavy Music Heavy music typically includes such styles as hard rock, classic rock, and heavy metal (e.g., Larson, 1995). It is usually guitar and/or drum-based, is loud and fast, and expresses a variety of intense emotions (e.g., anger, sexual aggression). Although many dierent messages are communicated in heavy music (e.g., sexual, environmental, sociopolitical), its themes are driven by moral relativity, anti-establishment values, and hypermasculinity. Several studies have found relationships between adolescents experiencing psychological issues and preferences for such music. For example, adolescents preferring heavy music have more sympathetic views of suicide, homicide, and Satanism (Wass et al., 1989), experience more 48 The Journal of Youth Ministry

psychological turmoil (Took & Weiss, 1994), and exhibit more anger and emotional problems (Epstein, Pratto, & Skipper, 1990) than those without such a preference. Research with young adults indicates that a preference for heavy music is associated with being hypersexual, showing less respect for women, exhibiting greater criminal and antisocial interpersonal behavior (Hansen & Hansen, 1990a), and being more risk-taking or sensation-seeking (Litle & Zuckerman, 1986). Researchers have suggested that these relationships occur because of the match between characteristics of listeners and the themes in heavy music (e.g., rejection of authority, hyperindividualism, acceptance of antisocial behavior; e.g., Arnett, 1991; Hansen & Hansen, 1990a; Klein et al., 1993). It is also likely that heavy music matches the qualities and intensity of their feelings (e.g., tough, wild, angry) associated with the themes through its pounding rhythms, fast pace, and discordant sounds. They may use heavy music to regulate their emotions in at least two ways. First, heavy music may serve to distract themselves with external stimulation (e.g., Litle & Zuckerman, 1986; McIlwraith & Josephson, 1985), thus escaping or avoiding uncomfortable and unwanted moods and feelings (e.g., Roe, 1985; Rosenbaum & Prinsky, 1987; Thompson, 1990). Secondly, by seeking validation for what they think and feel about themselves, others, and society; it assures them that they are not emotionally alone. The present study used the Millon Adolescent Personality Inventory (MAPI; Millon, Green & Meagher, 1982), a highly reliable and widely-used measure of clinically important adolescent personality dimensions, issues, and behaviors. This 20-scale inventory was used for two reasons. First, it assesses many of the dimensions suggested by past research (e.g., lack of respect, anticonformity, indierent feelings regarding others), thus permitting replication of past research using a valid measure. Second, it extends past research by including scales measuring other important personality dimensions and developmental issues that typical adolescents experience, e.g., hyper-sensitivity, feelings of rejection by peers, lack of identity integration, poor rapport with family. It was expected that adolescents with these and other characteristics (e.g., tough-mindedness, uncooperativeness, worries about scholastic abilities) would prefer heavy music, since such music has qualities that match their personal issues and feelings. Preferences for Light Music Light music typically includes such styles as pop, teen pop, and dance (e.g., Schwartz, 1992; Thompson & Larson, 1995). It ranges from slow, emotional ballads with important developmental themes Volume 3 Number 1 Fall 2004 49

to rhythmic melodies designed for dancing. For example, the lyrics in light music explore developmental themes (e.g., Larson, 1995) such as relationships (e.g., romantic, family, sexual), autonomy and identity (e.g., who am I and where am I going?), and sociability (e.g., tting in and being accepted by peers). The associated emotions and feelings touch upon the experiences of its listeners, soothe their emotional concerns, and provide validation for feelings (e.g., Larson & Kubey, 1983; Roe, 1985; Rosenbaum & Prinsky, 1987; Thompson, 1990). Past research has indicated that music listening by adolescents and adults is often related to the developmental issues inherent during adolescence. For example, teenagers having few friends prefer music with themes of loneliness and independence (Burke & Grinder, 1966). Students with greater trust in others and greater independence from peer inuence prefer music that elicits positive emotional states (e.g., love, hope) more than those who are less trusting and needing to be accepted by others (Gordon, Hakanen, & Wells, 1992). Other researchers (e.g., Avery, 1979; Larson & Kubey, 1983; Mainprize, 1985) report that adolescents listen to music with themes of autonomy, identity, love, and sexuality. What is not known, however, is whether having a preference for light music is related to the overall psychological make-up of its listeners, i.e., their personalities, developmental issues, and behaviors. That is, can one characterize adolescents who prefer listening to light music? It was expected that adolescents preferring light music would have personalities and developmental issues dierent than those preferring heavy music or having more eclectic music preferences. It was expected that those preferring light music would have personality attributes and issues that emphasize relationships, autonomy and identity, and sociability. Specically, it was expected that they would be characterized as being cooperative, sociable, reective (not impulsive), responsible, accepting of others and their families, and having condence in their academic abilities. However, they may also have particular developmental issues associated with insecurities involving self-esteem, their developing bodies, sexual relationships, and their acceptance by peers. This prole would be due to light music containing these themes and associated emotions, thus reecting and validating who they are and how they feel. Preferences for Eclectic Music A nal group of adolescents are those who do not have strong preferences for either style of music, but rather, exhibit exibility in listening to music according to mood, context, and particular needs at the time. For example, they may at times use music to reect and validate their moods, but at other times, to 50 The Journal of Youth Ministry

change their moods. They may like listening to particular kinds of music with peers but other kinds when they are alone. When dealing with developmental issues, they may at times listen to the pulsating beat of rap or the discordant sounds of heavy metal (e.g., when dealing with feelings of rejection or how unfair life is). At other times, they may choose to listen to sappy, sentimental ballads, e.g., when dealing with issues of connection and longing. Thus, as one adolescent recently said to the author regarding her music preferences, Its all good! For many adolescents, particular developmental issues ebb and ow according to circumstances and are not particularly distressing or preoccupying. In fact, most adolescents negotiate their adolescence successfully without undue hardship (Gullotta, Adams, & Markstrom, 1999; Santrock, 2000). These adolescents may be better adjusted and adapt reasonably well to lifes daily hassles with family and peers and their developmental issues (e.g., identity, autonomy). It was expected that adolescents with more eclectic and balanced musical tastes would have scores on the MAPI that indicate successful negotiation of adolescence. For example, their personality dimensions and developmental issues would fall somewhere between those of adolescents preferring light and heavy music. Alternatively, it was expected that adolescents who indicate preferences for either heavy or light music qualities may demonstrate that they are experiencing more problems during their adolescence than those with eclectic tastes in music. Method Participants Adolescents from junior and senior high schools in Calgary, Alberta, participated in the study. There were 175 participants, 97 females, 78 males. Their ages ranged from 12 to 19 years of age; the mean age was approximately 16 years; the ages of females and males were not signicantly dierent. The schools were in middle-class neighborhoods; ethnicity was not systematically assessed, although the vast majority of the participants were Caucasian. Procedure and Questionnaire Questionnaires were administered in groups of 15 to 24 during regularly scheduled class times by participants whose parents had signed consent forms. Administration time was approximately 40 minutes. The questionnaire rst measured adolescents music preferences, followed by the measure of personality, developmental issues and correlated behaviors. Music preference: Finnas (1987) developed a procedure for Volume 3 Number 1 Fall 2004 51

assessing music preference based on qualities of music that listeners prefer rather than the particular styles and representative performers that often change over short periods of time. Adolescents in the present study were asked to indicate how much they enjoyed music described by 13 qualities on a ve-point Likert scale (1 - Not at all to 5 - A great deal). The qualities were romantic and dreamy, wild and violent, mild and quiet, upsetting and protesting, sad and gloomy, tough and hard, peaceful and relaxing, loud, played at a great volume, soft and tender, played with many guitars, serious and thoughtful, good-natured and kind, and played at a fast tempo. Finnas (1987) submitted these 13 qualities to factor analysis and found that they represented two categories or groups of music preference: (a) quiet, contemplative, traditional, and serious music (7 qualities), and (b) tough, wild, loud, protesting, and rockoriented music (6 qualities). For our purposes, these two categories were labeled light and heavy, respectively. These two categories are signicantly dierent and are correlated with styles or genres popular with North American adolescents (Decima Research, 1991). Schwartz (1992) found that preferences for light qualities of music correlated signicantly with more mainstream styles of music (e.g., teen pop, hip hop, and dance), while preferences for heavy qualities of music correlated signicantly with harder styles of music such as heavy metal, rock, and classic rock. In order to assess participants involvement with music, they were asked to estimate (in minutes) the amount of time they listened to music on each weekday and weekend day. A weekly total was computed by summing these amounts. Personality and developmental issues: The Millon Adolescent Personality Inventory (MAPI; Millon et al., 1982) was developed to quantify several personality characteristics and developmental issues salient during the adolescent years. This widely used, highly reliable and valid clinical scale consists of 150 true-false statements from which 20 sub-scales can be derived. These scales are divided into two groups that reect adolescent personality (personality styles) and developmental issues (expressed concerns and behavioral correlates). Eight scales assess dierent personality dimensions: Introversive, Inhibited, Cooperative, Sociable, Condent, Forceful, Respectful, and Sensitive. Twelve scales assess developmental issues and associated behaviors: Self Concept, Personal Esteem, Body Comfort, Sexual Acceptance, Peer Security, Social Tolerance, Family Rapport, Academic Condence, Impulse Control, Societal Conformity, Scholastic Achievement, and Attendance Consistency. The higher the score, the greater the probable intensity or severity of 52 The Journal of Youth Ministry

the trait or issue tapped by the scale. Standardized base rate scores on each scale can range from 0 to 100. Scores 75 and above indicate areas that are viewed as unresolved and problematic for youths, with scores between 61 and 74 indicating some similarity with those manifesting the problematic traits or issues. Base rate scores between 35 and 60 fall in the average range and usually indicate neither positive nor negative consequences. Results and Discussion The adolescents in this sample listened to music an average of 22.4 hours per week. There were no signicant dierences among male and females or between younger and older adolescents in total music listening. Means, standard deviations, and ranges for all variables used in this analysis appear in Table 1. The measure of music preference (13 qualities) was found to have adequate reliability (Chronbach alpha = .65). A factor analysis revealed two factors with eigenvalues greater than one; both factors (light and heavy music) contained the same items found by Finnas (1987). Total scores for the light and heavy categories were calculated by summing the ratings of their respective qualities and calculating the means for each participant. Participants whose mean dierence between the light and heavy categories was less than .5 were assigned to the eclectic category (30% of sample). Those with a greater dierence than .5 were assigned to the light (34% of sample) or heavy (36%) music preference categories. Analysis of variance indicated no signicant dierences among the three groups in the amount of time they spent listening to music during the week, F(2, 173) = .018, p > .05. An examination of the scores on the MAPI revealed that for each of the 20 scales, the distribution of scores was similar to the standardization of the scale; thus, the participants in this sample represented a general population of adolescents. Reliability of the measure was also adequate (Chronbachs alpha = .76). Of the 20 scales, only two yielded small but signicant age and gender dierences. Females and younger students had more issues with both self-esteem (10% greater) and school attendance (13% greater) than males and older students. Due to the absence of systematic age and gender dierences (none for the eight personality dimensions, only two of 12 for developmental issues), males and females were combined to determine the relationships between adolescents personality dimensions and developmental issues and the qualities of music they prefer. This also had the advantage of increasing the power of the statistical tests. A between-subjects multivariate analysis of variance was employed to determine the dierences in personality and Volume 3 Number 1 Fall 2004 53

Table 1. Descriptive Statistics for Light and Heavy Music Preferences and MAPI Variables Variable Mean SD Range Music Qualities: Heavy Music Qualities 17.58 4.91 8-30 Light Music Qualities 5.45 77 7-33 Personality Variables: Introversive Inhibited Cooperative Sociable Condent Forceful Respectful Sensitive Self-Concept Personal Esteem Body Comfort Sexual Acceptance Peer Security Social Tolerance Family Rapport Academic Condence Impulse Control Societal Conformity Scholastic Achievement Attendance Consistency

38.01 53.79 42.05 50.91 49.95 58.98 51.53 60.24 57.24 70.52 61.79 60.15 63.29 53.54 62.01 54.00 53.98 55.21 43.82 54.47

21.85 24.80 23.26 26.51 23.27 25.08 24.58 26.31 21.33 22.41 24.91 19.45 22.52 26.74 28.79 23.13 22.40 20.88 21.07 20.16

0-97 1-113 1-100 2-115 3-106 5-109 4-109 2-108 1-109 13-109 5-111 9-97 12-116 5-121 0-125 0-108 2-115 10-115 0-95 3-110

developmentel issues among adolescents in the light, heavy, and eclectic groups. When a dierence was found, follow-up Schee tests were used to examine dierences among the groups. Table 2 presents the 20 mean MAPI scores for each music preference group and signicant group dierences. An examination of the table reveals signicant group contrasts for 13 of the 20 dimensions. Eleven of these (8 for adolescents preferring heavy music, 3 for those preferring light music) involved scores above 60, indicating important issues related to their personalities and development; 54 The Journal of Youth Ministry

adolescents with eclectic tastes in music did not have scores above 60. These results indicate that preferences for heavy and light music are associated with problematic personality dimensions and developmental issues, and that these are related to their music preferences. Adolescents with eclectic music tastes appear to have fewer diculties in negotiating their adolescence. Table 2. Music Preference MAPI Scales Light Heavy Eclectic Personality Style: Introversive 38.9 35.9 39.6 Inhibited 56.7 55.8 23.6 Cooperative 47.3** 34.9* 45.0 Sociable 45.8 54.1 52.7 Condent 47.8 47.4 55.6 Forceful 49.4* 69.1** 57.4 Respectful 60.4** 40.7* 54.9** Sensitive 56.0* 69.6** 53.5* Expressed Concerns: Self Concept 56.8 62.3** 51.6* Personal Esteem 73.1 72.1 65.8 Body Comfort 67.3 60.6 57.1 Sexual Acceptance 67.6** 55.9* 57.1* Peer Security 69.8** 58.3* 62.1 Social Tolerance 44.3* 61.5** 54.1 Family Rapport 58.1* 70.6** 57.0* Academic Condence 48.9* 60.6** 51.7 Behavioral Correlates: Impulse Control 45.7* 63.9** 51.1* Societal Conformity 47.3* 64.5** 52.8* Scholastic Achievement 38.9* 51.3** 40.2* Attendance Consistency 56.2 55.5 51.3 **Mean signicantly greater (p < .05) than *mean

F-value 0.47 1.88 4.83 &1.60 2.07 9.91 11.09 6.53 3.54 1.60 2.30 6.44 3.99 6.39 4.36 4.17 11.31 11.56 6.45 0.90

p .629 .157 .009 .205 .130 .000 .000 .002 .031 .206 .103 .002 .020 .002 .014 .017 .000 .000 .002 .409

Prole of Adolescents Preferring Heavy Music Adolescents preferring heavy music had eight scale scores signicantly higher than one or both of the other preference groups; these scores were also greater than 60, indicating that they were experiencing some problems in their development. Adolescents Volume 3 Number 1 Fall 2004 55

preferring heavy music were more tough-minded and overlyassertive in their relationships with others (Forceful scale; F (1, 174) = 9.91, p < .01) and less concerned and indierent to the feelings and reactions of others (Social Tolerance scale; F (1, 174) = 6.39, p < .01) than those preferring light music. They were more moody, pessimistic, overly sensitive, and discontented (Sensitivity scale; F (1, 174) = 6.53, p < .01) and more likely to act on their impulses and disregard the rights of others to express themselves (Impulse Control scale; F (1, 174) = 11.31, p < .01) than those preferring light music or who had more eclectic music tastes. They had more diculty in developing an integrated view of themselves, and thus were more unsure of who they were or what they will become (Self Concept scale; F (1, 174) = 3.53, p < .05) than those with more eclectic music tastes. Adolescents preferring heavy music were also more uncomfortable and experienced more problems within their families (Family Rapport scale; F (1, 174) = 4.36, p < .02) and were more disrespectful of others and the rules of society (Societal Conformity scale; F (1, 174) = 11.56, p < .01) than those preferring light music or had eclectic music tastes. And nally, they had more doubts in their ability to be successful in academic eorts (Academic Condence scale; F (1, 174) = 4.17, p < .02) than adolescents preferring light music. The ndings suggest that adolescents preferring heavy music can be characterized as independents or anti-conformists who have lower self-esteem and higher self-doubt. They tend to question others motives, abilities and rules, communicate in a blunt and insensitive manner, and resist change when others (e.g., teachers, parents) attempt to persuade them. They are also more likely to be aggressive and viewed as adolescents who are problems as opposed to those who have problems (Millon et al., 1982). These ndings support and extend past research through the use of a clinically valid measure of personality and the corresponding developmental issues. For example, previous research has indicated that a preference for heavy music has been associated with a lack of self understanding, feeling discontent, rejecting authority, having distrust and uncaring attitudes about the feelings of others, accepting antisocial behavior, having less enjoyment in cognitive endeavors, avoiding school work, and performing more poorly in school (Arnett, 1991; Gordon et al., 1992; Hakanen & Wells, 1993; Hansen & Hansen, 1990a; Yee, Britton & Thompson, 1988). Three of the ndings are of particular importance as they relate to identity, family, and emotional issues of adolescents. Adolescents preferring heavy music appear to lack a stable sense of identity, a critical developmental task during adolescence (Erikson, 1968). As a consequence, they may hold on to known 56 The Journal of Youth Ministry

confusion and discomfort (Millon et al., 1982) rather than braving the unknown world in which building and maintaining a sense of identity is dicult (Steele & Brown, 1995; White, 1985). Listening to such music may be one of the ways with which they deal with this diused identity status (Larson, 1995). By listening to music that has themes (e.g., distrust, lack of self understanding) and sounds (e.g., harsh, distorted) that match their identity issues and feelings, they share with other listeners and the performers having similar characteristics. Although performers disclaim the responsibility of being role models, they often are seen as carrying the banners of millions of young people in search of themselves. Thus, heavy music apparently tells them (a) they are not alone in this developmental task, (b) gives them a refuge for validating their confusions about identity, and (c) provides a safe context for beginning to explore and organize a sense of self (North & Hargreaves, 1999; Schave & Schave, 1989). A preference for heavy music was also associated with having higher levels of discomfort within the family and experiencing conict with parents over independence/dependence issues (Family Rapport scale). Thus, they appear more immature and have diculty in constructively relating to and communicating with their parents. This nding corroborates the observation (Martin, Clarke, & Pearce, 1993) that adolescents who describe their family relationships as not close prefer heavier forms of music. Conict and emotional disconnection within the family likely results in these adolescents seeking other means of connection and validation. Thus, they may align themselves with particular peer and/or musical groups who have similar diculties and/or use music to reect or distract them from these issues (Christensen & Roberts, 1998), thereby regulating their emotions to some degree. Finally, the ndings suggest that a preference for heavy music may reect the negative feelings associated with a lack of connectedness, feeling rejected or misunderstood by others, and experiencing problems in their formal intellectual pursuits. For such adolescents, listening to upsetting and protesting and tough and hard music likely reects the quality and intensity of their internal states and assuages their turbulent emotions. For example, knowing that others have the same feelings as they have lets them know that they are not emotionally alone and that their feelings are real (Hrynchak & Fouts, 1998). This may be particularly applicable when listening to music performed by musicians similar in age or with whom they identify; such listening may provide a compensatory sense of connection and belonging that may not be available in their immediate environment. Concomitantly, heavy music may help to distract them from volatile emotions with blaring external Volume 3 Number 1 Fall 2004 57

stimulation (e.g., Litle et al., 1986; McIlwraith & Josephson, 1985), thus escaping or avoiding uncomfortable moods and developmental issues (e.g., Roe, 1985; Rosenbaum et al., 1987; Thompson, 1990). Prole of Adolescents Preferring Light Music Adolescents preferring light music had three scale scores signicantly higher than one or both of the other preference groups; these scores were also greater than 60, indicating some diculty in negotiating their adolescence. Adolescents preferring light music were overly responsible, rule-conscious, and conforming in their relationships with others (Respectful scale; F (1, 174) = 11.09, p < .01) than those preferring heavy music or having more eclectic music tastes. They were also struggling more with their developing sexuality and felt more uncomfortable toward sexual relationships (Sexual Acceptance scale; F (1, 174) = 6.44, p < .01) than the other two groups. And nally, they were more concerned about being accepted by their peers and/or tting in with their peers (Peer Security scale; F (1, 174) = 3.99, p < .05) than those preferring heavy music. The ndings suggest that adolescents preferring light music can be described as being somewhat preoccupied with trying to do the right and proper things while still keeping their emotions closely in check. In addition, although they are fairly serious-minded, ecient, and rule-conscious, they have two areas of particular developmental concern, namely their sexuality and relationships with peers. That is, they appear to have diculty in reconciling childhood beliefs with new sexual stirrings as well as in negotiating the balance between independence from and dependency on peers. Although researchers have not specically examined the personalities and developmental issues of adolescents preferring light music, the ndings are consistent those of Brown, White, and Nikopolou (1993) who found that intrigued listeners surround themselves with sexual media content (presumably to explore the issues and feelings for themselves), and Larson (1995) who reported that many of the themes of soft rock and Top 40 involve codependency in peer relationships. Adolescents preferring light music appear to be dealing with their new sexual impulses and the conicting values surrounding the expression of sexuality; they are also trying to negotiate a balance between autonomy and being in relationship with peers, all the while wishing to appear in control of their emotions. Since peer acceptance is of paramount importance during adolescence, they also share with other listeners and performers who may be experiencing the same issues, with popular and mainstream music serving as the common ground (Frith, 1981; Lull, 1992). These developmental issues likely produce a variety of negative and/or conicting emotions, e.g., 58 The Journal of Youth Ministry

anxiety, tenderness, excitement, confusion. Listening to light music provides validation for these emotions (e.g., Larson & Kubey, 1983; Roe, 1985; Rosenbaum et al., 1987; Thompson, 1990) and likely helps them to regulate and express them (Arnett, 1995), e.g., by soothing disruptive feelings, letting them know they are not emotionally alone. Thus, light music may provide an emotionally safe vehicle for easing their transition into becoming more independent, expressive adults and nding meaningful connections (through music) with others. Prole of Adolescents Having Eclectic Music Tastes An examination of Table 1 reveals no signicant betweengroup dierences in which the eclectic groups scored above 60. This indicates that the eclectic group experienced fewer issues associated with their personalities and/or in their development. Also, for 10 of the 13 signicant between-group dierences, the eclectic group scale scores were between those of the light and heavy preference groups. This suggests that the eclectic group likely exemplies more typical development, with those indicating specic preferences for either light or heavy music experiencing more developmental problems as a result of their personality styles and developmental issues. Past research has ignored this important group of eclectic music listeners. Adolescents who are more eclectic in their music tastes appear to be better adjusted and seem to be negotiating their adolescence successfully. For example, in contrast to the other two groups, they are not experiencing signicant issues with regards to self concept, dealing with authority, worrying about their sexuality and peer relationships, having problems with their families, nor experiencing academic concerns. This suggests that they likely use music thoughtfully and exibly according to mood (e.g., to reect and validate, to change), context (e.g., alone, with peers), and particular needs at the time (e.g., relationship, autonomy). It is unknown, however, whether eclectic taste in music facilitates adolescent adjustment and/or whether those who are well-adjusted have eclectic tastes in music. Through learning more about this group, we may better understand the relationship between music listening and positive adolescent adjustment outcomes (e.g., positive family and peer relationships, scholastic performance, sexuality). The overall pattern of ndings of this study indicates that each of the three music preference groups has a unique prole of personality dimensions and developmental issues. This has important implications. First, knowing the music preferences of adolescents may be useful in assessing their internal reality; it is a window into their world. Their music preferences may not only reect the values, attitudes, and the feelings they experience (e.g., Volume 3 Number 1 Fall 2004 59

Avery, 1979; Mainprize, 1985; Steele & Brown, 1995), but also their ability to successfully negotiate a number of developmental issues. This may help parents, teachers and counselors in establishing dialogue and facilitating adolescents in their dealing with normal developmental issues. Additional research that validates music preference as a measure of developmental issues is needed. Second, supporting both popular conjecture and previous empirical research, heavy investments in various forms of music appears to be reective of adolescents who may be struggling quite signicantly with personality dimensions and/or developmental issues pertinent to adolescence. Thus, although the results of this study do not imply causal directionality between music listening and adolescent functioning, it is possible that exposing adolescents with distinct preferences for either heavy or light music to a greater variety of music may promote greater self-exploration, validation, and normalization of other developmental issues. This is consistent with the views of Hansen et al. (1990a) who believe that repeated exposure to music cultivates existing personal attributes, and Steele et al. (1995) who suggest that such new experiences may inuence adolescents self-awareness. Thus, by expanding adolescents appreciation and enjoyment of a wider range of music, music may be used as a tool to enhance their development. Further research is required to conrm this conjecture.

References Arnett, J. J. 1991. Adolescence and heavy metal music: From the mouths of metalheads. Youth and Society, 23(1), 76-98. Arnett, J. J. 1995. Adolescents uses of media for self-socialization. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 24 (5), 519-533. Avery, R. 1979. Adolescents use of the mass media. American Behavioral Scientist, 23, 53-70. Brown, J. D., White, A. B., & Nikopoulou, L. 1993. Disinterest, intrigue and resistance: Early adolescent girls use of sexual media content. In Greenberg, B., Brown, J. D., and BuerkelRothfuss, N. (eds.), Media, Sex, and the Adolescent. Kresskill, NJ: Hampton Press. Burke, R., & Grinder, R. E. 1966. Personality-oriented themes and listening patterns in teen-age music and their relation to certain academic and peer variables. The School Review, 74, 196-211. Cattell, R. B., & Saunders, D. R. 1954. Music preferences and personality diagnosis: A factorization. Journal of Social 60 The Journal of Youth Ministry

Psychology, 39, 3-24. Christenson, P. G., & Roberts, D. F. 1989, September. Popular music in early adolescence. Paper presented at the Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development. Christenson, P. G., & Roberts, D. F. 1998. Its not only rock & roll: Popular music in the lives of adolescents. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press, Inc. Comstock, G., & Strasburger, V. C. 1990. Deceptive appearances: Television violence and aggressive behavior. Journal of Adolescent Health Care, 11, 31-44. Conger, J. J. 1977. Parent-child relationships, social change and adolescent vulnerability. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 2, 93-97. Davis, S. 1985. Pop lyrics: A mirror and molder of society. Et Cetera, Summer, 167-169. Decima Research. 1991. Street beat: A syndicated Decima lifestyle survey of the Canadian market 12-19 years. Toronto, ON: Federal Department of Health and Welfare. Epstein, J. S., Pratto, D. J., & Skipper, J. K. 1990. Teenagers, behavioral problems, and preferences for heavy metal and rap music: A case study of a Southern middle school. Deviant Behavior, 11, 381-394. Erikson, E. 1968. Identity: Youth and Crisis. New York: W.W. Norton Finnas, L. 1987. Do young people misjudge each others musical taste? Psychology of Music, 15 (2), 152-166. Frith, S. 1983. Sound eects: Youth, liesure, and the politics of rock. London: Constable. Gantz, W., Gartenberg, H., Pearson, M., & Schiller, S. 1978. Gratications and expectations associated with popular music among adolescents. Popular Music and Society, 6(1), 81-89. Geter, T., & Streisand, B. 1995. Recording sound sales: The music industry rocks and rolls to the newest nancial rhythms. U.S. News and World Report, 25th September, 67-72. Gordon, T., Hakanen, E., & Wells, A. 1992, May. Music preferences and the use of music to manage emotional states: Correlates with self-concept among adolescents. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Communication Association, Miami, FL. Greeson, L., & Williams, R. 1986. Social implications of music videos for youth. Youth & Society, 18 (2), 177-189. Grossberg, L. 1984. Another boring day in paradise: Rock and roll and the empowerment of everyday life. Popular Music, 4, 225-258. Gullotta, T. P., Adams, G. R., & Markstrom, C. A. 1999. The Volume 3 Number 1 Fall 2004 61

adolescent experience. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Hahn, M. E. 1954. A proposed technique for investigating the relationship between musical preferences and personality structure. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Kansas. Hakanen, E., & Wells, A. 1993. Music preference and taste cultures among adolescents. Popular Music and Society, 17(1), 55-69. Hansen, C. H. 1989. Priming sex-role stereotypic event schemas with rock music videos: Eects on impression favourability, trait inferences, and recall of a subsequent male-female interaction. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 10 (4), 371391. Hansen, C. H., & Hansen, R. D. 1988. How rock music videos can change what is seen when boy meets girl: Priming stereotypic appraisal of social interactions. Sex Roles, 19 (56), 287-316. Hansen, C. H., & Hansen, R. D. 1990a. Cultivation of personality and social reality through music: Individual dierences among fans of punk and heavy metal music. Unpublished manuscript, Oakland University. Hansen, C. H., & Hansen, R. D. 1990b. Rock music videos and antisocial behavior. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 11, 357-369. Hrynchak, D., & Fouts, G. 1998. Perception of aect attunement by adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 21, 43-48. Keston, M. J., & Pinto, I. M. 1955. Possible factors inuencing music preference. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 86, 101-113. Klein, J. D., Brown, J. D., Childers, K. W., Oliveri, J., Porter, C., & Dykers, C. 1993. Adolescents risky behavior and mass media use. Pediatrics, 92, 24-31. Lamb, D. 1986. Psychotherapy with adolescent girls. New York: Plenum Press. Larson, R. 1995. Secrets in the bedroom: Adolescents private use of media. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 24 (5), 535-550. Larson, R., & Kubey, R. 1983. Television and music: Contrasting media in adolescents life. Youth and Society, 15(1), 13-31. Larson, R., Kubey, R., & Colletti, J. 1989. Changing channels: Early adolescent media choices and shifting investments in family and friends. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 18 (4), 212224. Levy, M., & Windahl, S. 1985. The concept of audience activity. In Rosengren, K. E., Palmgreen, P., & Wenner, L. (eds.), Media Gratication Research: Current Perspectives. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Litle, P., & Zuckerman, M. 1986. Sensation seeking and music 62 The Journal of Youth Ministry

preference. Personality and Individual Dierences, 7 (4), 575577. Lull, J. 1987. Listeners communicative properties of music. In J. Lull, (Ed.), Popular music and communication. (pp. 140-174). Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Lull, J. 1992. Popular music and communication: An introduction. In J. Lull, (Ed.), Popular music and communication (2nd ed., pp. 1-32). Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Mainprize, S. 1985. Interpreting adolescents music. Journal of Child Care, 2, 55-62. Mark, A. 1988. Metaphoric lyrics as a bridge for the adolescents world. Adolescence, 23, 313-323. Martin, G., Clarke, M., & Pearce, C. 1993. Adolescent suicide: Music preference as an indicator of vulnerability. Journal of the Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 32(3), 530-535. McIlwraith, R. D., & Josephson, W. L. 1985. Movies, books, music, and adult fantasy life. Journal of Communication, 35, 167179. Menconi, A. 1990. Todays music: A window to your childs soul. Elgin, IL: David C. Cook Publishing Co. Millon, T., Green, C. J., & Meagher, R. B. 1982. Millon adolescent personality inventory. Minneapolis, MN: National Computer Systems, Inc. Nicholi, A. M. 1988. The adolescent. In A. M. Nicholi (Ed.), The new Harvard guide to psychiatry (pp. 637-664). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. North, A.C., & Hargreaves, D. J., 1999. Music and adolescent identity. Music Education Research, 1(1), 75-92. Polskin, H. 1991, August 3. MTV at 10. TV Guide, pp.-8. Radocy, R. E., & Boyle, J. D. 1979. Psychological foundations of musical behavior. Springeld, IL: Charles C. Thomas Publishers. Roe, K. 1985. Swedish youth and music: Listening patterns and motivations. Communication Research, 12, 353-362. Rosenbaum, J., & Prinsky, L. 1987. Sex, violence, and rock n roll: Youths perceptions of popular music. Popular Music and Society, 11, 79-89. Rubin, A. M. 1994. Media uses and eects: A uses-and-gratications perspective. In Bryant, J., and Zillman, D., (eds.), Media Eects: Advances in Theory and Research. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Santrock, J. W. 2000. Adolescence. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill. Schave, D., & Schave, B. 1989. Early adolescence and the search for self: A developmental perspective. New York: Praeger. Schwartz, K. 1992. Adolescents and their music: An analysis of Volume 3 Number 1 Fall 2004 63

variables related to adolescents music listening, involvement, and preferences. Masters Thesis, University of Calgary. Schwartz, K., & Fouts, G. 1998, April. Personality of adolescents and amount of time listening to music. Paper presented to the Western Psychological Association, Albuquerque, NM. Steele, J. R., & Browne, J. D. 1995. Adolescent room culture: Studying the media in the context of everyday life. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 24 (5), 551-576. Strasberger, V.C. 1990. Television and adolescents: Sex, drugs, rock n roll. Adolescent Medicine: State of the Art Reviews, 1, 161-194.

Editors Note For the rst two years the Journal of Youth Ministry was only a webbased publication. This article was originally published on-line and is reprinted here because of its focus on research.

64

The Journal of Youth Ministry