Classification of Steels

Steels can be classified by a variety of different systems depending on:

The composition, such as carbon, low-alloy, or stainless steels The manufacturing methods, such as open hearth, basic oxygen process, or electric furnace methods The finishing method, such as hot rolling or cold rolling The product form, such as bar, plate, sheet, strip, tubing, or structural shape The deoxidation practice, such as killed, semikilled, capped, or rimmed steel The microstructure, such as ferritic, pearlitic, and martensitic (Fig. ! The required strength level, as specified in "S#$ standards The heat treatment, such as annealing, %uenching and tempering, and thermomechanical processing Quality descriptors, such as forging %uality and commercial %uality

Carbon Steels
#he "merican &ron and Steel &nstitute defines carbon steel as follows: Steel is considered to be carbon steel when no minimum content is specified or re%uired for chromium, cobalt, columbium 'niobium(, molybdenum, nickel, titanium, tungsten, vanadium or )irconium, or any other element to be added to obtain a desired alloying effect* when the specified minimum for copper does not exceed +.,+ per cent* or when the maximum content specified for any of the following elements does not exceed the percentages noted: manganese .-., silicon +.-+, copper +.-+. /arbon steel can be classified, according to various deoxidation practices, as rimmed, capped, semikilled, or killed steel. 0eoxidation practice and the steelmaking process will have an effect on the characteristics and properties of the steel (see the article 1Steel 2rocessing #echnology1 in this 3olume!. 4owever, variations in carbon have the greatest effect on mechanical properties, with increasing carbon content leading to increase hardness and strength (see the article 1$icrostructures, 2rocessing, and 2roperties of Steels1 in this 3olume!. "s such, carbon steels are generally categori)ed according to their carbon content. 5enerally speaking, carbon steels contain up to 67 total alloying elements and can be subdivided into low-carbon steels, mediumcarbon steels, high-carbon steels, and ultrahigh-carbon steels* each of these designations is discussed below. "s a group, carbon steels are by far the most fre%uently used steel. #ables 8 and + indicate that more than 9.7 of the steel produced and shipped in the :nited States is carbon steel.
Low-carbon steels contain up to +.;+7 /. #he largest category of this class of steel is flat-

rolled products (sheet or strip! usually in the cold-rolled and annealed condition. #he carbon content for these high-formability steels is very low, less than +. +7 /, with up to +.,7 $n. #ypical uses are in automobile body panels, tin plate, and wire products. For rolled steel structural plates and sections, the carbon content may be increased to approximately +.;+7, with higher manganese up to ..7. #hese latter materials may be used for stampings, forgings, seamless tubes, and boiler plate.
Medium-carbon steels are similar to low-carbon steels except that the carbon ranges from

+.;+ to +.-+7 and the manganese from +.-+ to .-.7. &ncreasing the carbon content to approximately +..7 with an accompanying increase in manganese allows medium-carbon steels to be used in the %uenched and tempered condition. #he uses of medium carbon-manganese steels include shafts, couplings, crankshafts, axles, gears, and forgings. Steels in the +.,+ to +.-+7 / range are also used for rails, railway wheels, and rail axles.
High-carbon steels contain from +.-+ to .++7 / with manganese contents ranging from +.;+

to +.8+7. 4igh-carbon steels are used for spring materials and high-strength wires.
Ultrahigh-carbon steels are experimental alloys containing approximately .6. to 6.+7 /.

#hese steels are thermomechanically processed to produce microstructures that consist of ultrafine, e%uiaxed grains of ferrite and a uniform distribution of fine, spherical, discontinuous proeutectoid carbide particles (<ef ;!. Such microstructures in these steels have led to

superplastic behavior (<ef ,!. 2roperties of these experimental steels are described in Forming and Forging, 3olume , of ASM Handboo , formerly 8th =dition Metals Handboo (see the "ppendix to the article 1Superplastic Sheet Forming,1 entitled 1Superplasticity in &ron->ase "lloys1!.

High-Strength Low-Alloy Steels

4igh-strength low-alloy (4S?"! steels, or microalloyed steels, are designed to provide better mechanical properties and@or greater resistance to atmospheric corrosion than conventional carbon steels. #hey are not considered to be alloy steels in the normal sense because they are designed to meet specific mechanical properties rather than a chemical composition (4S?" steels have yield strengths of more than 6A. $2a, or ,+ ksi!. #he chemical composition of a specific 4S?" steel may vary for different product thickness to meet mechanical property re%uirements. #he 4S?" steels have low carbon contents (+..+ to +.6.7 /! in order to produce ade%uate formability and weldability, and they have manganese contents up to 6.+7. Small %uantities of chromium, nickel, molybdenum, copper, nitrogen, vanadium, niobium, titanium, and )irconium are used in various combinations. #he 4S?" steels are commonly furnished in the as-rolled condition. #hey may also be supplied in a controlled-rolled, normali)ed, or precipitation-hardened condition to meet specific property re%uirements. 2rimary applications for 4S?" steels include oil and gas line pipe, ships, offshore structures, automobiles, off-highway e%uipment, and pressure vessels.
HSLA Classification. #he types of 4S?" steels commonly used include:

!eathering steels, designed to exhibit superior atmospheric corrosion resistance "ontrol#rolled steels, hot rolled according to a predetermined rolling schedule designed to develop a highly deformed austenite structure that will transform to a very fine e%uiaxed ferrite structure on cooling $earlite#reduced steels, strengthened by very fine-grain ferrite and precipitation hardening but with low carbon content and therefore little or no pearlite in the microstructure Microalloyed steels, with very small additions (generally B+. +7 each! of such elements as niobium, vanadium, and@or titanium for refinement of grain si)e and@or precipitation hardening Acicular ferrite steel, very low carbon steels with sufficient hardenability to transform on cooling to a very fine high-strength acicular ferrite (low-carbon bainite! structure rather than the usual polygonal ferrite structure %ual#phase steels, processed to a micro-structure of ferrite containing small uniformly distributed regions of high-carbon martensite, resulting in a product with low yield strength and a high rate of work hardening, thus providing a highstrength steel of superior formability

#he various types of 4S?" steels may also have small additions of calcium, rare-earth elements, or )irconium for sulfide inclusion shape control. /ompositions, properties, and applications of

these steels can be found in the articles 14igh-Strength Structural and 4igh-Strength ?ow-"lloy Steels,1 10ual-2hase Steels,1 and 14igh-Strength ?ow-"lloy Steel Forgings1 in this 3olume.

4igh- strength low-alloy (4S?"! steels are a group of low-carbon steels that utili)e small amounts of alloying elements to attain yield strengths greater than 6A. $2a (,+ ksi! in the asrolled or normali)ed condition. #hese steels have better mechanical properties and sometimes better corrosion resistance than as-rolled carbon steels. $oreover, because the higher strength of 4S?" steels can be obtained at lower carbon contents, the weldability of many 4S?" steels is comparable to or better than that of mild steel (<ef 6 !. 4igh-strength low-alloy steels are primarily hot-rolled into the usual wrought product forms (sheet, strip, bar, plate, and structural sections! and are commonly furnished in the as-hot-rolled condition. 4owever, the production of hot-rolled 4S?" products may also involve special hotmill processing that further improves the mechanical properties of some 4S?" steels and product forms. #hese processing methods include:

The controlled rolling of precipitation-strengthened 4S?" steels to obtain fine austenite grains and@or highly deformed (pancaked! austenite grains, which during cooling transform into fine ferrite grains that greatly enhance toughness while improving yield strength The accelerated cooling of, preferably, controlled-rolled 4S?" steels to produce fine ferrite grains during the transformation of austenite. #hese cooling rates cannot be rapid enough to form acicular ferrite, nor can they be slow enough so that high coiling temperatures result and thereby causing the overaging of precipitates The quenching or accelerated air or &ater cooling of low-carbon steels ( +.+97 /! that possess ade%uate hardenability to transform into low-carbon bainite (acicular ferrite!. #his microstructure offers an excellent combination of high yield strengths (6A. to -8+ $2a, or -+ to ++ ksi!, excellent weldability and formability, and high toughness (controlled rolling is necessary for low ductilebrittle transition temperatures! The normali'ing of vanadium-containing 4S?" steels to refine grain si)e, thereby improving toughness and yield strength The intercritical annealing of 4S?" steels (and also carbon-manganese steels with low carbon contents! to obtain a dual-phase microstructure (martensite islands dispersed in a ferrite matrix!. #his microstructure exhibits a lower yield strength but, because of rapid work-hardening capability, provides a better combination of ductility and tensile strength than conventional 4S?" steels (Fig. 9! and improved formability

Low-Alloy Steels

?ow-alloy steels constitute a category of ferrous materials that exhibit mechanical properties superior to plain carbon steels as the result of additions of such alloying elements as nickel, chromium, and molybdenum. #otal alloy content can range from 6.+A7 up to levels Cust below that of stainless steels, which contain a minimum of +7 /r. For many low-alloy steels, the primary function of the alloying elements is to increase hardenability in order to optimi)e mechanical properties and toughness after heat treatment. &n some cases, however, alloy additions are used to reduce environmental degradation under certain specified service conditions. "s with steels in general, low-alloy steels can be classified according to:

"hemical composition, such as nickel steels, nickel-chromium steels, molybdenum steels, chromium-molybdenum steels, and so on, as described in the section 1S"="&S& 0esignations1 in this article and as shown in #able Heat treatment, such as %uenched and tempered, normali)ed and tempered, annealed, and so on !eldability, as described in the article 1Deldability of Steels1 in this 3olume

>ecause of the wide variety of chemical compositions possible and the fact that some steels are used in more than one heat-treated condition, some overlap exists among the alloy steel classifications. &n this article, four maCor groups of alloy steels are addressed: ( ! low-carbon %uenched and tempered (E#! steels, (6! medium-carbon ultrahigh-strength steels, (;! bearing steels, and (,! heat-resistant chromium-molybdenum steels.
Low-carbon quenched and tempered steels combine high yield strength (from ;.+ to

+;. $2a, or .+ to .+ ksi! and high tensile strength with good notch toughness, ductility, corrosion resistance, or weldability. #he various steels have different combinations of these characteristics based on their intended applications. #he chemical compositions of typical E# low-carbon steels are given in #able 6;. $any of the steels are covered by "S#$ specifications. 4owever, a few steels, such as 4F-9+ and 4F- ++, are covered by military specifications. #he steels listed are used primarily as plate. Some of these steels, as well as other similar steels, are produced as forgings or castings. $ore detailed information on low-carbon E# steels can be found in the articles 14ardenable /arbon and ?ow-"lloy Steels1 and 14igh-Strength Structural and 4igh-Strength ?ow-"lloy Steels1 in this 3olume.
Table 23 Chemical compositions for typical low-alloy steels
#able 6. lists compositions of heat-resistant chromium-molybdenum low-alloy steels
Composition, wt%(a) Steel C Si Mn P S Ni ... Cr Mo Other Low-carbon quenched and tempered steels " . ,@" . A grade +. .-+.6 +.,+-+.9+ +.9+- . + +.+;. +.+, " +..+-+.9+ +. 9-+.69 +.+.-+. .Gr(b! +.++6. >

" . ,@" . A grade +. +-+.6+ +. .-+.;. +.-+- .++ +.+;. +.+, +.A+- .++ +.,+-+.-. +.,+-+.-+ +.+;-+.+9 3 F +. .-+..+ /u +.+++.-+.++. > " . ,@" . A grade +. .-+.6+ +.6+-+.;. +.9.- . . +.+;. +.+, +.8+- . + +.;.-+.-. +. .-+.6. +.+;-+.+9 3

< " .;; type " " .;; type / 4F-9+ +.6. +.6. +. .-+.,+ . .- ..+ +.+;. +.+, ... ... ... +.,.-+.-+ +.,.-+.-+ ... ... +. .-+.,+ . .- ..+ +.+;. +.+, +.A+- .++

+. 6-+. 9 +. .-+.;. +. +-+.,+ +.+6. +.+6. 6.++-;.6. .++- .9+ +.6+-+.-+ +.6. /u +.+; 3 +.+6 #i +. 6-+.6+ +. .-+.;. +. +-+.,+ +.+6. +.+6. 6.6.-;..+ .++- .9+ +.6+-+.-+ +.6. /u +.+; 3 +.+6 #i +.69-+.;; +.6+-+.;. +.,+-+.-+ . . . +.;9-+.,; +.6+-+.;. +.-+-+.9+ . . . +.,+-+.,- .,.- .9+ +.-.-+.8+ . . . +.,6-+.,9 +. .-+.;+ +.-+-+.8+ . . . ... ... ... ... ... +.9+- . + +. .-+.6. ... ...

4F- ++

Medium-carbon ultrahi h-stren th steels , ;+ ,;,+ ;++$ 0--a , 9 .-.-6.++ +.A+-+.8+ +.6+-+.;+

.-.-6.++ +.A+-+.8. +.;+-+.,. +.+. 3 min +.,+-+.A+ +.8+- .6+ +.8+- . + +.+.-+. + 3 ... ... +.,+-+.-+ +.+9-+. 9 +.A+-+.8+ ... ... ... +. + ... ... ... ... +.;. /u

Carburi!in bearin steels +. 9-+.6; +. .-+.;+ +.A+-+.8+ +.+;. +.+,+ +. A-+.66 +. .-+.;+ +.A+-+.8+ +.+;. +.+,+ . 6+ ;; + .6 ++ " ,9. grade " ,9. grade ;

+.+9-+. ; +.6+-+.;. +.,.-+.-+ +.+6. +.+6. ;.6.-;.A. .,+- .A. +.89- . + +. .-+.;+ +.6.-+.,. +.+6. +.+6. +.8+- .+. +.,.-+.A. +.8.- .6. +.+6. +.+6. +.8.- . + +. .-+.;. +.-.-+.8+ +.+6. +.+6. ... +.6. +.6. .;+- .-+ +.8+- .6+

"hrou h-hardened bearin steels

. +- ..+ +.6+-+.;+ +.;. /u

(a! Single values represent the maximum allowable. (b! Girconium may be replaced by cerium. Dhen cerium is added, the cerium@sulfur ratio
should be approximately ..@ , based on heat analysis. Medium-carbon ultrahigh-strength steels are structural steels with yield strengths that

can exceed ;9+ $2a (6++ ksi!. #able 6; lists typical compositions. $any of these steels are covered by S"=-"&S& designations or are proprietary compositions. 2roduct forms include billet, bar, rod, forgings, sheet, tubing, and welding wire. " review of the heat treatments and resulting properties of these steels can be found in the article 1:ltrahigh-Strength Steels1 in this 3olume.
earing steels used for ball and roller bearing applications are comprised of low-carbon (+. + to +.6+7 /! case-hardened steels and high carbon ( .+7 /! through-hardened steels (#able 6;!. $any of these steels are covered by S"=-"&S& designations. Selection and properties of these materials are discussed in the article 1>earing Steels1 in this 3olume. Chromium-molybdenum heat-resistant steels contain +.. to 87 /r and +.. to .+7 $o.

#he carbon content is usually below +.6+7. #he chromium provides improved oxidation and corrosion resistance, and the molybdenum increases strength at elevated temperatures. #hey are generally supplied in the normali)ed and tempered, %uenched and tempered, or annealed condition. /hromium-molybdenum steels are widely used in the oil and gas industries and in fossil fuel and nuclear power plants. 3arious product forms and corresponding "S#$ specifications for these steels are given in #able 6,. Hominal chemical compositions are provided in #able 6.. 4igh-temperature property data for chromium-molybdenum steels are reviewed extensively in the article 1=levated-#emperature 2roperties of Ferritic Steels1 in this 3olume.

Table 24 ASTM specifications for chromium-molybdenum steel product forms

"#pe /r$o $or in s " 96-F6 "ubes ... Pipe " ;;.-26 " ;-8-F26 " ,6--/26 " ;;.-2 6 " ;-8-F2 6 " ,6--/2 6 " ;;.-2 " ;-8-F2 " ,6--/2 Castin s ... Plate " ;9A-5r 6

/r-

$o

" 96-F 6 " ;;--F 6

...

...

" ;9A-5r 6

/r-

" 96-F " 88-# $o " ;;--F @F " " 6++-# " ., -/ / " 6 ;-#

" 6 A-D/- " ;9A-5r " ;.--5r" ;98-/6;

/r- $o

" 96-F66@F66a " 88-#66 " ;;.-266 " 6 A-D/8 " ;9A-5r66 " ;;--F66@F66" " 6++-#66 " ;-8-F266 " ;.--5r + " .,6 " ., -/66/@660 " 6 ;-#66 " ,6--/266 " 96-F6 " 88-#6 " ;;.-26 " ;;--F6 @F6 " " 6++-#6 " ;-8-F26 " 6 ;-#6 " ,6--/26 " 96-F6 b " 96-F.@F.a " ;;--F.@F." " ,A;-.+ @.+6 ... ... " 96-FA " ,A;-.+ " " 96-F8 " ;;--F8 " ,A;-.+ > ... ... ... " ;9A-5r 6

;/r- $o

;/r- $o3 ./r$o

...

... " ;9A-5r .

" 88-#. " ;;.-2. " 6 A-/S " 6++-#. " ;-8-F2. " 6 ;-#. " ,6--/2. " 6 ;-#.b " ;;.-2.b " ,6--/2.b " 6 ;-#.c " ;;.-2.c " 88-#A " ;;.-2A " 6++-#A " ;-8-F2A " 6 ;-#A " ,6--/2A ... ... ...

./r./rA/r-

$oSi $o#i $o

... ... " ;9A-5rA

8/r- $o

" 88-#8 " ;;.-28 " 6 A-/ 6 " ;9A-5r8 " 6++-#8 " ;-8-F28 " 6 ;-#8 " ,6--/28

Table 25 Nominal chemical compositions for heat-resistant chromium-molybdenum steels

Composition, %(a) "#pe /r/r/r/r6 $o $o $o $o %NS desi nation I 6 66 I .-6 I .8A I .86 I6 .8+ C Mn S P Si Cr Mo +. +-+.6+ +.;+-+.9+ +.+,+ +.+,+ +. +-+.-+ +..+-+.9+ +.,.-+.-. +. . +. . +.;+-+.-+ +.+,. +.+,. +..+ +.9+- .6. +.,.-+.-. .++- ..+ +.,.-+.-. .++- ..+ +.,.-+.-. 6.++-6..+ +.9A- . ;

+.;+-+.-+ +.+;+ +.+;+ +..+- .++

+. +-+.6+ +.;+-+.9+ +.+,+ +.+,+ +..+- .++ +. . +.;+-+.-+ +.+,+ +.+,+ +..+

/r- $o

;/r- $o ;/r- $o3 ./rA/r$o $o

(c! (b!

I; .,. I; 9;+ I, .,. I- .8. I8+8, ...

+. . +. 9 +. . +. . +. .

+.;+-+.-+ +.+;+ +.+;+ +.;+-+.-+ +.+6+ +.+6+ +.;+-+.-+ +.+;+ +.+;+

+..+ +. + +..+

6.-.-;.;. +.9+- .+6.A.-;.6. +.8+- . + ,.++--.++ +.,.-+.-.

+.;+-+.-+ +.+;+ +.+;+ +..+- .++ -.++-9.++ +.,.-+.-. +.;+-+.-+ +.+;+ +.+;+ +..+- .++ 9.++- +.++ +.8+- . +

8/r- $o 8/r- $o3

+.+9-+. 6 +.;+-+.-+ +.+ + +.+6+ +.6+-+..+ 9.++-8.++ +.9.- .+.

(a! Single values are maximums. (b! "lso contains +.+6-+.+;+7 3, +.++ -+.++;7 >, and +.+ .-+.+;.7 #i. (c! "lso contains +.,+7 Hi, +. 9-+.6.7 3, +.+--+. +7 Hb, +.+;-+.+A7 H, and +.+,7
"l

Classification of Steels
Steels can be classified by a variety of different systems depending on:

The composition, such as carbon, low-alloy, or stainless steels The manufacturing methods, such as open hearth, basic oxygen process, or electric furnace methods The finishing method, such as hot rolling or cold rolling The product form, such as bar, plate, sheet, strip, tubing, or structural shape The deoxidation practice, such as killed, semikilled, capped, or rimmed steel The microstructure, such as ferritic, pearlitic, and martensitic The required strength level, as specified in "S#$ standards The heat treatment, such as annealing, %uenching and tempering, and thermomechanical processing Quality descriptors, such as forging %uality and commercial %uality

Jf the aforementioned classification systems, chemical composition is the most widely used and will be discussed below. $ore detailed information on the classification and designation of carbon and alloy steels can be found in <ef .

Carbon Steels #he "merican &ron and Steel &nstitute defines carbon steel as follows: Steel is considered to be carbon steel when no minimum content is specified or re%uired for chromium, cobalt, columbium 'niobium(, molybdenum, nickel, titanium, tungsten, vanadium or )irconium, or any other element to be added to obtain a desired alloying effect* when the specified minimum for copper does not exceed +.,+ per cent* or when the maximum content specified for any of the following elements does not exceed the percentages noted* manganese .-., silicon +.-+, copper +.-+. /arbon steel can be classified, according to various deoxidation practices, as rimmed, capped, semikilled, or killed steel. 0eoxidation practice and the steelmaking process will have an effect on the characteristics and properties of the steel. 4owever, variations in carbon have the greatest effect on mechanical properties, with increasing carbon content leading to increased hardness and strength. "s such, carbon steels are generally categori)ed according to their carbon content. 5enerally speaking, carbon steels contain up to 67 total alloying elements and can be subdivided into low-carbon steels, medium-carbon steels, and high-carbon steels. "s a group, carbon steels are by far the most fre%uently used steel. $ore than 8;7 of the steel produced and shipped in the :nited States is carbon steel.
Low-carbon steels contain up to +.;+7 /. #he largest category of this class of steel is flat-

rolled products (sheet or strip! usually in the cold-rolled and annealed condition. #he carbon content for these high-formability steels is very low, less than +. +7 /, with up to +.,7 $n. #ypical uses are in automobile body panels, tin plate, and wire products. For rolled steel structural plates and sections, the carbon content may be increased to approximately +.;+7, with higher manganese up to ..7. #hese latter materials may be used for stampings, forgings, seamless tubes, and boiler plate.
Medium-carbon steels are similar to low-carbon steels except that the carbon ranges from

+.;+ to +.-+7 and the manganese from +.-+ to .-.7. &ncreasing the carbon content to approximately +..7 with an accompanying increase in manganese allows medium-carbon steels to be used in the %uenched and tempered condition. #he uses of medium carbon-manganese steels include shafts, couplings, crankshafts, axles, gears, and forgings. Steels in the +.,+ to +.-+7 / range are also used for rails, railway wheels, and rail axles.
High-carbon steels contain from +.-+ to .++7 / with manganese contents ranging from +.;+

to +.8+7. 4igh-carbon steels are used for spring materials and high-strength wires. High-Strength Low-Alloy Steels 4igh-strength low-alloy (4S?"! steels are designed to provide better mechanical properties and@or greater resistance to atmospheric corrosion than conventional carbon steels. #hey are not considered to be alloy steels in the normal sense because they are designed to meet specific mechanical properties rather than a chemical composition (4S?" steels have yield strengths greater than 6A. $2a, or ,+ ksi!. #he chemical composition of a specific 4S?" steel may vary for different product thicknesses to meet mechanical property re%uirements. #he 4S?" steels have low carbon contents (+.+. to +.6.7 /! in order to produce ade%uate formability and

weldability, and they have manganese contents up to 6.+7. Small %uantities of chromium, nickel, molybdenum, copper, nitrogen, vanadium, niobium, titanium, and )irconium are used in various combinations. #he types of 4S?" steels commonly used include:

!eathering steels, designed to exhibit superior atmospheric corrosion resistance "ontrol#rolled steels, hot rolled according to a predetermined rolling schedule designed to develop a highly deformed austenite structure that will transform to a very fine e%uiaxed ferrite structure on cooling $earlite#reduced steels, strengthened by very fine-grain ferrite and precipitation hardening but with low carbon content and therefore little or no pearlite in the microstructure Microalloyed steels, with very small additions (generally B+. +7 each! of such elements as niobium, vanadium, and@or titanium for refinement of grain si)e and@or precipitation hardening Acicular ferrite steel, very low carbon steels with sufficient hardenability to transform on cooling to a very fine high-strength acicular ferrite (low-carbon bainite! structure rather than the usual polygonal ferrite structure %ual#phase steels, processed to a microstructure of ferrite containing small, uniformly distributed regions of high-carbon martensite, resulting in a product with low yield strength and a high rate of work hardening, thus providing a highstrength steel of superior formability

Alloy Steels "lloy steels constitute a category of ferrous materials that exhibit mechanical properties superior to plain carbon steels as the result of additions of such alloying elements as nickel, chromium, and molybdenum. #otal alloy content can range from 6.+A7 up to levels Cust below that of stainless steels, which contain a minimum of approximately 7 /r. For many alloy steels, the primary function of the alloying elements is to increase hardenability in order to optimi)e mechanical properties and toughness after heat treatment. &n some cases, however, alloy additions are used to reduce environmental degradation under certain specified service conditions. "lloy steels can be classified according to:

"hemical composition, such as nickel steels, nickel-chromium steels, molybdenum steels, chromium-molybdenum steels, and so on, as described in S"=-"&S& designations and shown in #able , Heat treatment, such as %uenched and tempered, normali)ed and tempered, annealed, and so on

Table 4 SA -A!S! system of desi"nations for carbon and alloy steels

Numerals and di its Carbon steels +xx xx 6xx .xx ;xx 6;xx 6.xx ; xx ;6xx ;;xx ;,xx ,+xx ,,xx , xx ,;xx ,;>3xx ,Axx 9 xx 9-xx 9Axx 99xx 8;xx 8,xx 8Axx 89xx ,-xx ,9xx .+xx . xx

"#pe o& steel and nominal allo# content, % 2lain carbon ($n .++ max! <esulfuri)ed <esulfuri)ed and rephosphori)ed 2lain carbon (max $n range: .++- .-.! $n .A. Hi ;..+ Hi ..++ Hi .6.* /r +.-. and +.9+ Hi .A.* /r .+A Hi ;..+* /r ..+ and ..A Hi ;.++* /r +.AA $o +.6+ and +.6. $o +.,+ and +..6 /r +..+, +.9+, and +.8.* $o +. 6, +.6+, +.6., and +.;+ Hi .96* /r +..+ and +.9+* $o +.6. Hi .96* /r +..+* $o +. 6 and +.6.* 3 +.+; min Hi .+.* /r +.,.* $o +.6+ and +.;. Hi +.;+* /r +.,+* $o +. 6 Hi +...* /r +..+* $o +.6+ Hi +...* /r +..+* $o +.6. Hi +...* /r +..+* $o +.;. Hi ;.6.* /r .6+* $o +. 6 Hi +.,.* /r +.,+* $o +. 6 Hi +...* /r +.6+* $o +.6+ Hi .++* /r +.9+* $o +.6. Hi +.9. and .96* $o +.6+ and +.6. Hi ;..+* $o +.6. /r +.6A, +.,+, +..+, and +.-. /r +.9+, +.9A, +.86, +.8., .++, and .+.

Man anese steels Nic'el steels

Nic'el-chromium steels

Mol#bdenum steels

Chromium-mol#bdenum steels Nic'el-chromium-mol#bdenum steels

Nic'el-mol#bdenum steels

Chromium steels

Chromium (bearin ) steels

.+xxx . xxx .6xxx - xx A6xx 86xx 8xx xx>xx xx?xx

/r +..+ /r .+6 /r .,. /r +.-+, +.9+, and +.8.* 3 +. + and +. . min D .A.* /r +.A. Si .,+ and 6.++* $n +.-., +.96, and +.9.* /r + and +.-. 3arious S"= grades > denotes boron steel ? denotes leaded steel / .++ min

Chromium-(anadium steels "un sten-chromium steel Silicon-man anese steels )i h-stren th low-allo# steels *oron steels Leaded steels

Hote: #he xx in the last two digits of these designations indicates that the carbon content (in hundredths of a percent! is to be inserted.

>ecause of the wide variety of chemical compositions possible and the fact that some steels are used in more than one heat-treated condition, some overlap exists among the alloy steel classifications, which include ( ! low-carbon %uenched and tempered (E#! steels, (6! mediumcarbon ultrahigh-strength steels, (;! bearing steels, and (,! heat-resistant chromium-molybdenum steels.
Low-carbon quenched and tempered steels combine high yield strength (from ;.+ to

+;. $2a, or .+ to .+ ksi! and high tensile strength with good notch toughness, ductility, corrosion resistance, or weldability. #he various steels have different combinations of these characteristics based on their intended applications. #he chemical compositions of typical E# low-carbon steels are given in #able .. $any of the steels are covered by "S#$ specifications. 4owever, a few steels, such as 4F-9+ and 4F- ++, are covered by military specifications. #he steels listed are used primarily as plate. Some of these steels, as well as other similar steels, are produced as forgings or castings.
Table 5 Chemical compositions for typical alloy steels
Composition, wt%(a) Steel " . ,@" . A grade " " . ,@" . A grade F " . ,@" . A grade < C +. .+.6 +. ++.6+ +. .+.6+ Si +.,++.9+ +. .+.;. +.6++.;. Mn P S Ni ... +.A+.++ +.8+. + Cr +..++.9+ +.,++.-. +.;.+.-. Mo Other Low-carbon quenched and tempered steels +.9+- +.+;. +.+, . + +.-+- +.+;. +.+, .++ +.9.- +.+;. +.+, . . +. 9- +.+.-+. . Gr(b!, +.++6. > +.69 +.,+- +.+;-+.+9 3, +. .-+..+ /u +.-+ +.+++.-+.++. > +. .- +.+;-+.+9 3 +.6.

" .;; type " " .;; type / 4F-9+ 4F- ++

+.6. +.6. +. 6+. 9 +. 6+.6+ +.69+.;; +.;9+.,; +.,++.,+.,6+.,9 +. 9+.6; +. A+.66 +.+9+. ; +.89. + +.8+.+. +.8.. + +. . +. . +. .

+. .+.,+ +. .+.,+ +. .+.;. +. .+.;. +.6++.;. +.6++.;. .,..9+ +. .+.;+ +. .+.;+ +. .+.;+ +.6++.;. +. .+.;+ +.,.+.A. +. .+.;. +..+ +..+ +..+.++

. .- +.+;. +.+, ..+ . .- +.+;. +.+, ..+ +. +- +.+6. +.+6. +.,+ +. +- +.+6. +.+6. +.,+ +.,++.-+ +.-++.9+ +.-.+.8+ +.-++.8+ ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

... +.A+.++ 6.++;.6. 6.6.;..+ ... .-.6.++ .-.6.++ +.,++.A+ ... ... ;.6.;.A. ... +.6. +.6.

... ... .++.9+ .++.9+ +.9+. + +.A++.8+ +.A++.8. +.8+.6+ +.,++.-+ +.A++.8+ .,+.A. .;+.-+ +.8+.6+ . +..+ 6.++6..+ ,.++-.++ 9.+++.++

+.,.+.-+ +.,.+.-+

... ...

+.6+- +.6. /u, +.+; 3, +.+6 #i +.-+ +.6+- +.6. /u, +.+; 3, +.+6 #i +.-+ +. .+.6. +.6++.;+ +.;+- +.+. 3 min +.,. +.8+- +.+.-+. + 3 . + +.+9+. 9 ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

Medium-carbon ultrahi h-stren th steels , ;+ ,;,+ ;++$ 0--a

Carburi!in bearin steels , 9 +.A+- +.+;. +.+,+ +.8+ +.A+- +.+;. +.+,+ +.8+ +.,.- +.+6. +.+6. +.-+ +.6.- +.+6. +.+6. +.,. +.8.- +.+6. +.+6. .6. +.-.- +.+6. +.+6. +.8+ +.;+- +.+,+ +.+,+ +.-+ +.;+- +.+;+ +.+;+ +.-+ +.;+- +.+;+ +.+;+ +.-+

. 6+ ;; +

"hrou h-hardened bearin steels .6 ++ " ,9. grade " ,9. grade ; ... +. + +.;. /u ...

+.6+- +.;. /u +.;+ +.9A. ; +.,.+.-. +.8+. + ... ... ...

Chromium-mol#bdenum heat-resistant steels 6 /r- $o $o ... ... ...

./r-

8/r- $o

(a! Single values represent the maximum allowable. (b! Girconium may be replaced by cerium. Dhen cerium is added, the cerium@sulfur ratio
should be approximately ..@ , based on heat analysis. Medium-carbon ultrahigh-strength steels are structural steels with yield strengths that

can exceed ;9+ $2a (6++ ksi!. #able . lists typical compositions. $any of these steels are covered by S"=-"&S& designations or are proprietary compositions. 2roduct forms include billet, bar, rod, forgings, sheet, tubing, and welding wire.

earing steels used for ball and roller bearing applications are comprised of low-carbon (+. + to +.6+7 /! case-hardened steels and high-carbon ( .+7 /! through-hardened steels (#able .!. $any of these steels are covered by S"=-"&S& designations. Chromium-molybdenum heat-resistant steels contain +.. to 87 /r and +.. to .+7 $o.

#he carbon content is usually below +.6+7. #able . lists typical compositions. #he chromium provides improved oxidation and corrosion resistance, and the molybdenum increases strength at elevated temperatures. #hey are generally supplied in the normali)ed and tempered, %uenched and tempered, or annealed condition. /hromium-molybdenum steels are widely used in the oil and gas industries and in fossil fuel and nuclear power plants. 2roduct forms include forgings, tubing, pipe, castings, and plate.

Stainless Steels
S#"&H?=SS S#==?S are iron-base alloys that contain a minimum of approximately 7 /r, the amount needed to prevent the formation of rust in unpolluted atmospheres (hence the designation stainless!. Few stainless steels contain more than ;+7 /r or less than .+7 Fe. #hey achieve their stainless characteristics through the formation of an invisible and adherent chromium-rich oxide surface film. #his oxide forms and heals itself in the presence of oxygen. Jther elements added to improve particular characteristics include nickel, molybdenum, copper, titanium, aluminum, silicon, niobium, nitrogen, sulfur, and selenium. /arbon is normally present in amounts ranging from less than +.+;7 to over .+7 in certain martensitic grades. Figure provides a useful summary of some of the compositional and property linkages in the stainless steel family.

!ig. " Compositional and property linkages in the stainless steel family of alloys

2roduction of stainless steels is a two-stage process involving the melting of scrap and ferroalloys in an electric-arc furnace followed by refining by oxygen-inert gas inCection (argon oxygen decarburi)ation! or oxygen inCection under vacuum (vacuum oxygen decarburi)ation! to adCust carbon content and remove impurities. (>oth of these processes are described in the Section 1&ron and Steelmaking 2ractices1 in this 4andbook.! #he refined molten metal is then poured into molds to form ingots, followed later by blooming or slabbing, or is poured directly into a continuous casting machine to form slabs, blooms, or billets. /ast ingots can be rolled or forged* and flat products (sheet, strip, and plate! can be produced from continuously cast slabs. #he rolled product can be drawn, bent, extruded, or spun. Stainless steels can be further shaped by machining, and they can be Coined by welding, bra)ing, soldering, and adhesive bonding. Stainless steels can also be used as an integral cladding on plain carbon or low-alloy steels, as well as some nonferrous metals and alloys.

Stainless steels are used in a wide variety of applications. $ost of the structural applications occur in the chemical and power engineering industries, which account for more than a third of the market for stainless steel products (see the following table!. #hese applications include an extremely diversified range of uses, including nuclear reactor vessels, heat exchangers, oil industry tubulars, components for chemical

processing and pulp and paper industries, furnace parts, and boilers used in fossil fuel electric power plants. #he relative importance of the maCor fields of application for stainless steel products are as follows:

+pplication ,ndustrial equipment /hemical and power engineering Food and beverage industry #ransportation "rchitecture Consumer oods 0omestic appliances, household utensils Small electrical and electronic appliances

Percenta e ;, 9 8 . 69 -

Some of these applications involve exposure to either elevated or cryogenic temperatures* austenitic stainless steels (see the following discussion! are well suited to either type of service. Classification of Stainless Steels
Stainless steels can be divided into five families. Four are based on the characteristic crystallographic structure@microstructure of the alloys in the family: martensitic, ferritic, austenitic, or duplex (austenitic plus ferritic!. #he fifth family, the precipitation-hardenable alloys, is based on the type of heat treatment used, rather than microstructure. Martensitic Stainless Steels
Characteristics and Compositions. $artensitic stainless steels are essentially Fe-/r-/

alloys that possess body-centered tetragonal (bct! crystal structure (martensitic! in the hardened condition. #hey are ferromagnetic, hardenable by heat treatments, and generally resistant to corrosion only in relatively mild environments. /hromium content is generally in the range of +.. to 97, and carbon content can exceed .67. #he chromium and carbon contents are balanced to ensure a martensitic structure. =lements such as niobium, silicon, tungsten, and vanadium can be added to modify the tempering response after hardening. Small amounts of nickel can be added to improve corrosion resistance in some media and to improve toughness. Sulfur or selenium is added to some grades to improve machinability. #able provides chemical compositions for standard ("&S&! and nonstandard grades.
Table # Chemical compositions of martensitic stainless steels

%NS NoS,+;++ S, +++ S, ,++ S, -++ S, -6; S,6+++ S,6+6+ S,66++ S,; ++ S,,++6 S,,++; S,,++,

Composition(a), % "#pe.desi nation ,+; , + , , , , -Se ,6+ ,6+F ,66 ,; ,+" ,,+> ,,+/ C +. . +. . +. . +. . +. . +. . min +. . min +.6++.6. +.6+ +.-++.A. +.A.+.8. +.8..6+ +.+9 Mn .++ .++ .++ .6. .6. .++ .6. .++ .++ .++ .++ .++ Si +..+ .++ .++ .++ .++ .++ .++ +.A. .++ .++ .++ .++ Cr ..;.+ ..;.. ..;.. 6.+,.+ 6.+,.+ 6.+,.+ 6.+,.+ Ni ... ... P +.+, +.+, S +.+; +.+; +.+; Other ... ... ...

Standard (+,S,) rades

.6.- +.+, 6..+ ... ... ... ... +.++.++.+, +.+-

+. . +.- $o(b! min +.++.+; +. . min Se ...

+. . +.- $o(b! min +.+; +.+; +.+; +.+; +.+; +.A. $o +.A. $o +.A. $o +.A.- .6. $o* +.A..6. D* +. .-+.; 3 ...

..- +..- .+ +.+, ;.. ..+A.+ -.+9.+ -.+9.+ -.+9.+ ..;.. ..;.. .+6.. 6.+,.+ 6.+,.+ ;....+ 6.+,.+ .+6.+ -.+9.+ -.+.6.- +.+, 6..+ ... ... ... +.+, +.+, +.+,

Nonstandard rades S, ++9 S, +,+ 0&H .,8;.(c! S, - + S, 9++ S,6+ + S,6+6; S,6;++ S,,+6+ S,,+6; #ype , +S .++ .++ +.;++.9+ ..-6.. +..+ .++ .6. +.8..;. .6. .6. .++ .++ +. ++..+ .++ +..+ .++ .++ +..+ .++ .++ +.-+ ... +.+,+ +.+;+ ...

#ype , + /b (K$-;+! +. . 4#8 , - 2lus K (K$--! #ype , 9 (5reek "scolloy! #rim<ite #ype ,68 F Se ?apelloy #ype ,,+ F #ype ,,+ F Se +. A+.6; +. . +. .+.6+ +. .+.;+ +.;-+., +.6A+.;6 +.8..6+ +.8.-

+.+,+ +.+;+ +.+.-+.6+ Hb

+.;+- +.+;. +.+;. +.9+- .6+ $o* +.6.+.9+ +.;. 3* +.,-+.- D ... +.+-+ +. . +.- $o min

.9-6.6 +.+,+ +.+;+ 6..-;.. D +.6.- +.+,+ +.+;+ +.,+- .++ $o .++ ... +..+ +.A. +.A. +.+-+ +.+-+ +. . min Se* +.- Gr* +.- /u +.+6. +.+6. 6..-;.+ $o* +.6-+.; 3 +.+,+ +. +- +.+9 H +.;.

+.+,+ +.+;+ +. . min Se* +.-+

.6+

9.+

$o

(a! Single values are maximum values unless otherwise indicated. (b! Jptional. (c! 5erman (0&H! specification
#roperties and Applications. #he most commonly used alloy within the martensitic stainless

steel family is type , +, which contains approximately 6 wt7 /r and +. wt7 / to provide strength. #he carbon level and, conse%uently, strength increase in the ,6+, ,,+", ,,+>, and ,,+/ alloy series. #he latter three alloys, in particular, have an increased chromium level in order to maintain corrosion resistance. $olybdenum can be added to improve mechanical properties or corrosion resistance, as it is in type ,66 stainless steel. Hickel can be added for the same reasons in types , , and ,; . Dhen higher chromium levels are used to improve corrosion resistance, nickel also serves to maintain the desired microstructure and to prevent excessive free ferrite. #he limitations on the alloy content re%uired to maintain the desired fully martensitic structure restrict the obtainable corrosion resistance to moderate levels. &n the annealed condition, martensitic stainless steels have a tensile yield strength of approximately 6A. $2a (,+ ksi! and can be moderately hardened by cold working. 4owever, martensitic alloys are typically heat treated by both hardening and tempering to yield strength levels up to 8++ $2a (6A. ksi!, depending primarily on carbon level. #hese alloys have good ductility and toughness properties, which decrease as strength increases. 0epending on the heat treatment, hardness values range from approximately .+ 4> (9+ 4<>! for materials in the annealed condition to levels greater than -++ 4> (.9 4</! for fully hardened materials. $artensitic stainless steels are specified when the application re%uires good tensile strength, creep, and fatigue strength properties, in combination with moderate corrosion resistance and heat resistance up to approximately -.+ L/ ( 6++ LF!. &n the :nited States, low- and medium-carbon martensitic steels (for example, type , + and modified versions of this alloy! have been used primarily in steam turbines, Cet engines, and gas turbines. &n =urope, alloy 4#8 ( 6/r- $o-+.;3! has been widely used in elevated-temperature, pressure-containment applications, including steam piping and steam generator reheater and superheater tubing used in fossil fuel power plants. #ype ,6+ and similar alloys are used in cutlery, valve parts, gears, shafts, and rollers. Jther applications for higher carbon-level grades (type ,,+ grades! include cutlery, surgical and dental instruments, scissors, springs, valves, gears, shafts, cams, and ball bearings. Ferritic Stainless Steels
Characteristics and Compositions. Ferritic stainless steels are essentially iron-chromium

alloys with body-centered cubic (bcc! crystal structures. /hromium content is usually in the range of to ;+7. Some grades may contain molybdenum, silicon, aluminum, titanium, and niobium to confer particular characteristics. Sulfur or selenium can be added to improve machinability. #able 6 lists compositions of ferritic stainless steels.
Table 2 Chemical compositions of ferritic stainless steels

Composition(a), wt% %NS No- "#pe.desi nation $irst- eneration allo#s S,68++ S,;+++ S,;+6+ S,;+6; S,;,++ S,;-++ S,,6++ S,,-++ S,+.++ S,+8++ ... S,, ++ ... ... ... ... S,;+;. ... ... I, 8A+ ,68 ,;+ ,;+F ,;+FSe ,;, ,;,,6 ,,,+. ,+8 ,+8/b ,, "?,;; "?,,"?,-9 F:S,;-S ,;8 6S< 9S< ,++. 6 +. 6 +. 6 +. 6 +. 6 +. 6 +.6+ +.6+ +.+9 +.+9 +.+6
(b!

Cr ,.+- -.+ -.+- 9.+ -.+- 9.+ -.+- 9.+

Mo ... ... +....

Ni

Other ... ...

... ... ... ... . . . . . . +. . min Se

. . . . . . +.+- 2* +. . min S ... ... ...

-.+- 9.+ +.A.- .6. . . . . . . 9.+-6;.+ 6;.+-6A.+ ..- ,.. +..6.. .A.
(b!

-.+- 9.+ +.A.- .6. . . . . . . Hb M #a N . O 7/ min ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... .6(b! ... ... ... ... N ... ... ... ... . . . . . . +. +-+.;+ "l +.. . . . #i N - O / min to +.A. max +.6(b! . . . +., Hb(b! +.;(b! . . . +.A Hb(b!, +.; #i(b! +.;(b! . . . +., Hb(b!, +.. Si(b!, +., /u(b! +.6(b! . . . +.6 Hb(b!, +. #i(b! +.6(b! . . . +.6 Hb(b!, +. #i(b! . . . . . . +.6 #i(b! +.. . . . #i N +.6+ M , (/ M H! min to .+ max . . . . . . .6 "l* +.; #i . . . . . . 6.+ "l* +., #i +.. . . . 6.A.-,.6. "l* +.- #i Other +..#i +..#i +..#i +.,#i +. Hb ... ... ...

Second- eneration allo#s

+.+6(b! +.+6(b! +.+ +.+ +.+

(b! (b! (b!

9.+(b! 8.+(b! ..(b! 9.6(b! A.,(b! A.++- 8.++ 6.+ 9.+ 6.+- ,.+

+.+A +.6 +.+, +.+C +.+6 +.+6

%NS No- "#pe.desi nation "hird- eneration allo#s S,,-6S,,,++ S,,--+ S,,-;. S,,A;. S,,A6S,,9++ ... ... ... 6-- #i #ype ,,, S="-/:<= Hu $onit "? 68-,/ =->rite 6-"? 68-,-6 S4J$"/ 6--, S4J$"/ ;+-6 F:S 8+?

Cr $e Mo Ni 6- bal 9 bal 6

+.6. +.+6. +., , +. 6 +.+6 +.+6. +.+ +.+ .A +.+6.

+.+6 6A.. bal ;., +.+6. 6. bal , +.+;+ 68 bal , +.++6 6- bal +.++. 68 bal , +.++; 6- bal , +.++, 8 bal 6

.+ +.+,. (Hb M #i!

. . . +.++.

+.++; ;+ bal 6 +. 9 +.++A

. . . +.++9. +. .Hb

(a! Single values are maximum unless otherwise indicated. (b! #ypical value
#he ferritic alloys are ferromagnetic. #hey can have good ductility and formability, but hightemperature strengths are relatively poor compared to those of the austenitic grades. #oughness

may be somewhat limited at low temperatures and in heavy sections. :nlike the martensitic stainless steels, the ferritic stainless steels cannot be strengthened by heat treatment. "lso, because the strain-hardening rates of ferrite are relatively low and cold work significantly lowers ductility, the ferritic stainless steels are not often strengthened by cold work.
#roperties and Applications. #ypical annealed yield and tensile strengths for ferritic

stainless steels are ;. to .. ksi (6,+ to ;9+ $2a! and -+ to 9. ksi (, . to .9. $2a!, respectively. 0uctilities tend to range between 6+ and ;.7. 4igher strengths, up to A. ksi (. . $2a! for yield strength and 8. ksi (-.. $2a! for tensile strength, are obtained in the more highly alloyed 1superferritic1 steels shown in Fig. . Dhereas the martensitic stainless steels offer only moderate corrosion resistance, that of the ferritic stainless steels can range from moderate for the low-to-medium, chromium-content alloys to outstanding for the superferritics such as type ,,, and :HS Ho. S,,-6A, S,,-;., S,,--+, S,,A++, and S,,9++. #he low-chromium ( 7! alloys, such as types ,+. and ,+8, have fair corrosion and oxidation resistance and good fabricability at low cost. #ype ,+8, the most widely used ferritic stainless steel, has gained wide acceptance for use in automotive exhaust systems. #he intermediate-chromium ( - to 97! alloys include type ,;+, which resists mild oxidi)ing acids and organic acids and is used in food-handling e%uipment, and type ,;,, which includes a molybdenum addition for improved corrosion resistance and is used for automotive trim. #he high-chromium ( 8 to ;+7! alloys, which include types ,,6 and ,,- as well as the superferritics, are used for applications that re%uire a high level of corrosion and oxidation resistance. >y controlling interstitial element content via argon oxygen decarburi)ation ("J0! processing, it is possible to produce grades with unusually high chromium and molybdenum (up to ,..7! contents and very low carbon contents (as low as +.+ 7!. Such highly alloyed superferritics offer exceptional resistance to locali)ed corrosion induced by exposure to a%ueous chlorides. ?ocali)ed corrosion, such as pitting, crevice corrosion, and stress-corrosion cracking (S//! are problems that plague many austenitic stainless steels. #herefore, the superferritics are often used in heat exchangers and piping systems for chloride-bearing a%ueous solutions and seawater. Austenitic Stainless Steels
Characteristics and Compositions. "ustenitic stainless steels constitute the largest stainless

family in terms of number of alloys and usage. ?ike the ferritic alloys, they cannot be hardened by heat treatment. 4owever, their similarity ends there. #he austenitic stainless steels are essentially nonmagnetic in the annealed condition and can be hardened only by cold working. #hey usually possess excellent cryogenic properties and good high-temperature strength and oxidation resistance. /hromium content generally varies from - to 6-7* nickel content is less than or e%ual to approximately ;.7* and manganese content is less than or e%ual to .7. #he 6++ series steels contain nitrogen, , to .7 $n, and lower nickel contents (up to A7 Hi!. #he ;++ series steels contain larger amounts of nickel and up to 67 $n. $olybdenum, copper, silicon, aluminum, titanium, and niobium can be added to confer certain characteristics, such as halide pitting resistance or oxidation resistance. #able ; provides chemical compositions for standard ("&S&! and nonstandard grades.

Table 3 Chemical compositions of austenitic stainless steels

Composition(a), % %NS No- "#pe.desi nation Standard (+,S,) rades S6+ ++ 6+ S6+6++ 6+6 S6+.++ 6+. S;+ ++ ;+ S;+6++ ;+6 S;+6 . ;+6> S;+;++ ;+; S;+;6; ;+;Se S;+,++ ;+, S;+,+8 ;+,4 S;+,+; ;+,? S;+,.; ;+,?H S;+,;+ ;+6/u S;+,. ;+,H +. . ...-A.. .++ .++ .++ .++ .++ 6.+-;.+ .++ .++ .++ .++ .++ .++ .++ .++ .++ .++ .++ .++ ..+ ..+ -.+9.+ A.+8.+ -..9.+ -.+9.+ ;..-... +.+,.+--.+ +.+.+- .A. +.++.+; +.6. H +.+; +.6. H +.+; +.;6-+.,+ H ... ... ... C Mn Si Cr Ni P S Other

+. . A..- +.+ +. 6+.6. +. . +. . +. . +. . +. . +.+9 +.+,+. + +.+; +.+; +.+9 +.+9 +. 6 +.+9 +.6+ +.+9 +.6. +.+9 +.6. +.+9 ,.+... 6.+ 6.+ 6.+ 6.+ 6.+ 6.+ 6.+ 6.+ 6.+ 6.+ 6.+ 6.+ 6.+ 6.+ 6.+ 6.+ 6.+ 6.+ 6.+

-.+-9.+ +.+,. +.+;

A.+- 9.+- +.+ +.+,. +.+; 8.+ A.+- 9.+- +.+ +.+,. +.+; 8.+ A.+- 9.+- +.+ +.6+ 8.+ A.+- 9.+- +.+ +.6+ 8.+ +. . +.- $o(b! min

+.+- +. . min Se ... ... ...

9.+- 9.+- +.. +.+,. +.+; 6+.+ 9.+- 9.+- +.. +.+,. +.+; 6+.+ 9.+- 9.+- 6.+ +.+,. +.+; 6+.+

9.+- 9.+- 6.+ +.+,. +.+; +. +-+. - H 6+.+ A.+- 9.+- +.+ +.+,. +.+; ;.+-,.+ /u 8.+ 9.+- 9.+- +.. +.+,. +.+; +. +-+. - H 6+.+ A.+8.+ 8.+6 .+ 66.+6,.+ 66.+6,.+ 6,.+6-.+ 6,.+6-.+ +..- +.+,. +.+; ;.+ +.+- +.+,. +.+; 6.+ 6.+- +.+,. +.+; ..+ 6.+- +.+,. +.+; ..+ 8.+- +.+,. +.+; 66.+ 8.+- +.+,. +.+; 66.+ 8.+- +.+,. +.+; 66.+ ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

S;+.++ ;+. S;+9++ ;+9 S;+8++ ;+8 S;+8+9 ;+8S S; +++ ; + S; ++9 ; +S S; ,++ ; , S; -++ ; -

..-;.+ 6;.+6-.+ .++ -.+9.+

+.+- +.+,. +.+; 6.+-;.+ $o ,.+

S; -6+ ; -F S; -+8 ; -4 S; -+; ; -? S; -.; ; -?H S; -. ; -H

+.+9 +.+,+. + +.+; +.+; +.+9 +.+9 +.+; +.+9 +.+,+. + +.+9 +.+9 +.+,+. + +.+9 +.+,+. + +.+9

6.+ 6.+ 6.+ 6.+ 6.+ 6.+ 6.+ 6.+ 6.+ 6.+ 6.+ 6.+ 6.+ 6.+ 6.+

.++ .++ .++ .++ .++ .++ .++ .++ .++ +.A... .++ .++ .++ .++ .++

-.+9.+ -.+9.+ -.+9.+ -.+9.+ -.+9.+ 9.+6+.+ 9.+6+.+

+.+,.+

+.6+

+. + min

.A.-6.. $o

+.+- +.+,. +.+; 6.+-;.+ $o ,.+ +.+- +.+,. +.+; 6.+-;.+ $o ,.+ +.+- +.+,. +.+; 6.+-;.+ $o* +. +-+. ,.+ H +.+- +.+,. +.+; 6.+-;.+ $o* +. +-+. ,.+ H .+- +.+,. +.+; ;.+-,.+ $o ..+ .+- +.+,. +.+; ;.+-,.+ $o ..+

S; A++ ; A S; A+; ; A? S;6 ++ ;6 S;6 +8 ;6 4 H+9;;+ ;;+ S;,A++ ;,A S;,A+8 ;,A4 S;,9++ ;,9 S;,9+8 ;,94 S;9,++ ;9, Nonstandard rades S6+ 5all-#ough

A.+- 8.+- 6.+ +.+,. +.+; . O 7/ min #i 8.+ A.+- 8.+- 6.+ +.+,. +.+; . O 7/ min #i 8.+ A.+6+.+ ;,.+;A.+ +.+, +.+; ... + O 7/ min Hb

A.+- 8.+- ;.+ +.+,. +.+; 8.+

A.+- 8.+- ;.+ +.+,. +.+; 9 O 7/ min, .+ max 8.+ Hb A.+- 8.+- ;.+ +.+,. +.+; +.6 /o* + O 7/ min 8.+ Hb* +. + #a A.+- 8.+- ;.+ +.+,. +.+; +.6 /o* + O 7/ min, 8.+ .+ max Hb* +. + #a ..+A.+ ..+9.+ -.+9.+ 6+..6;.. A.+9.. A.+8.+ A.+- +.+,. +.+; 8.+ ...

+. . +.+9

,.++-.++ ..+--.. ,.+--.+

;.++,.++ .++ .++

,.++- +.+,+ +.+,+ +.+9-+.6+ H -.++ ..+--.. +.+,+ +. 9- +.. $o* .A.-6.6. /u +.;. ..- +.+,+ +.+;+ ..-;.+ $o* +.6-+., H* ;.. +. -+.; Hb* +. -+.; 3 +.A. +.+,. +.+;+ +.;. H

S6+;++ 6+; =G (K$- !

S6+8 + Hitronic .+ (K$- 8! +.+S6 ,++ #enelon (K$-; ! S6 ,-+ /ryogenic #enelon (K$- ,! S6 .++ =sshete 6.+ S6 -++ #ype 6 - (K$- A! +. 6 +. 6 +. . +.+9

,..- +.;- .+ -.+ ,.+-.+ ...-A.+ A..-8.+ A..-8.+ .++ .6+ .++ .++

..+--.+ +.+-+ +.+;+ +.;.-+..+ H .+ +.+,+ +.+;+ +.++;-+.++8 >* +.A..6. Hb* +. .-+.,+ 3

,.+- 8.+-.+ A..66.+ A..66.+

..+-A.+ +.+,. +.+;+ 6.+-;.+ $o* +.6.-+..+ H A..-8.+ +.+,. +.+;+ 6.+-;.+ $o* +.6.-+..+ H

S6 -+; #ype 6 - ? (K$- 9! +.+;

S6 9++ Hitronic -+

+. +

A.+-8.+ ;..-,.. .++ .++ .++ .++ .++ .++ .;+ +.A. .++ ;.A;,.; ;..+

-.+9.+ 8.+6 .. 8.++6 ..+ A.+8.++ -..+8..+ A..8..

9.+-8.+ +.+,+ +.+;+ +.+9-+. 9 H ...-A.. +.+-+ +.+;+ +. .-+.,+ H ...+- +.+-+ +.+;+ +. .-+.,+ H A..+ 6..+- +.+-+ +.+;+ +.6+-+.,+ H ;.A. +..+- +.+-+ +.+;+ +.6+-+.,+ H 6..+ ... +.+,. +.+;+ +..- .. $o* +..- .. /u* +.,-+.- H +.6. +.- $o min ... +. . H* +.+, /e

S6 8++ Hitronic ,+ (K$- +! +.+9 9.+- +.+ S6 8+, 6 ---8 ?/ S6,+++ Hitronic ;; ( 9-; $n! S6, ++ Hitronic ;6 ( 9-6 $n! S696++ 9- 9 2lus +.+, +.+9 +. . +. . +. . +.+. +.+9 +.+,+. + +.+ 9 +.6+ +.+.+. + +.+9 +.+9 +.6+ 9.+++.++ ..+,..+ .++,.++ A.+8.+ 6..-,.. +.-+ 6.++ 6.++ 6.++ +.9+ +.9+ 6.++ 6.++ .++

S;+; + ;+; 2lus K (K$-.! S;+, . $3$"(c! S;+,6, ;+,>&(d! S;+,.6 ;+, 4H (K$-6 ! S;+-++ /ronifer 9 . ?/Si S;+- . <" 9. 4(c! S;+9 . 6.; $" S;+8,+ #ype ;+8 S /b S; +,+ #ype ; + /b S; 6., 6., S$J

A.+- A.+- +.+ +.+6+ 8.+ 9.. 9.+6+.++ 8..+ ...

6.++- +.+,. +.+;+ +. + H* .++- .6. > ..++

9.+- 9.+- +.. +.+,. +.+;+ +. --+.;+ H 6+.+ A.+9.. 9.. ,.+- +.+6+ +.+6+ +.6 $o ... ,..+ ... ... .+ "l +.+- +.+,+ +.+;+ +. ,-+.6+ H* +.+;-+.+9 6.+ /e* .+ "l 6.+- +.+,. +.+;+ + O 7/ min to . + ..+ max Hb 8.+- +.+,. +.+;+ + O 7/ min to . + 66.+ max Hb M #a A..+- +.+;+ +.+ + -.++--..+ $o* +..+9..+ .++ /u* +. 9+-+.66+ H +.+- +.+,. +.+;+ . O 7(/ M H! min to ,.+ +.A+ max #i* 6.+-;.+ $o* +. + H +.+- +.+,. +.+;+ + O 7/ min to . + ,.+ max Hb M #a* 6.+-;.+ $o* +. + H +.++- +.+;+ +.+ . ;.++-,.++ /u* 6.++,.++ ;.++ $o ;..- +.+,. +.+;+ ,.+-..+ $o* +. + H A.. ;..- +.+,. +.+;+ ,.+-..+ $o* +. +-+.6+ A.. H .+- +.+;+ +.+;+ +. +-+.66 H ..+ ,..- +.+,+ +.+ + ..-6.. $o* +. -+., #i* -.. +.++. H* +.+. /o A..- +.+;+ +.+;+ ...

.,-6.+ 6+.+66.+ .++ ..+ +.9+ 66.+6,.+ 6,.+6-.+ 8..+6+..+ -.+9.+ -.+9.+ -.++9.6. 9.+6+.+ A.+6+.+ 9.+6 .+ 6..,.. A.+-

S; -;. #ype ; - #i

+.+9

6.++

.++

S; -,+ #ype ; - /b

+.+9

6.++

.++

...

#ype ; - 4E

+.+;+ +.+; +.+; +.+; +.+;+.+. +.+9

6.++ 6.++ 6.++ 6.++

.++ .++ +.A. .++

S; A6. #ype ; A ?$ S; A6A- ,-, ?H

S; A.; #ype ; A ?H S;A+++ #ype ;A+ S;9 ++ 9- 9-6 (K$- .!

.-.- +..- .+ 6.;. 6.++ ..-6..

8.+ S-;++9 6 -,H S-;+ 6 6 -6H S-;+ A 6 - 6H S-;+ 9 6;-9H S-; 89 8-8 0? +.,9+..9 9.+++.++ +.6. 6+.+66.+ 8.6.6 ..+ 6+.+66.+ 66.+6,.+

9.. ;.6.- +.+;+ +.+,- +.69-+..+ H ,..+ +.+8 ..+- +.+.+ +.+,- +.6+-+.,+ H 6.A. +.+8 +..+- +.+; 6..+ +.+; +. .-+.6. H

+..+- A.+-8..+ +.6. +.-+ +. .+.6. +.69+.;9 +.69+.;. +.+A .++..+ ..+;..+ +.A...+ 6.++ +.A+.6. +.-++.8+ +.+;+.9 .++

A.+-8.+ +.+, +.+ . +.69-+.;. H* +..+ /o .+ +.+,+ +.+;+ .+- .A. $o* +. -+.;. #i* .+- .A. D* +.6.+.-+ Hb

9.+- 9.+6 .+ 8.+6 .+ 66..6..+ 66.+6-.++ 6-.+69.+ 6+.+66.+ 6+.+66.+ 8.+6;.+ 8.+6;.+ 8.+6;.+ 6,.+6-.+ 66.+6,.+

H+9+6+ 6+/b-;

;6.+- +.+,. +.+;. 6.+-;.+ $o* ;.+-,.+ ;9.+ /u* 9 O 7/ min to .++ max Hb ;..+- +.+;. +.+;. ;..+-..++ $o* +..+,+.+ ..+ /u* +. .-+.;. Hb ;;.+;A.6+ +.+; +.+; ..++--.A+ $o* 6.++,.++ /u

H+9+6, 6+$o-, H+9+6- 6+$o-H+9+69 Sanicro 69 H+9;-- "?--K H+9;-A "?--KH H+9A++ PS-A++

+.+; +.+; +.+6 +.+;. +.+;+ +.+,

.++ .++ 6.++ 6.++ 6.++ 6.++

+..+ +..+ .++ .++ .++ .++

68..- +.+6+ +.+ . ;.+-,.+ $o* +.-- ., /u ;6.. 6;..- +.+;+ +.+;+ -.+-A.+ $o 6... 6;..+- +.+,+ +.+;+ -.+-A.+ $o* +. 9-+.6. 6...+ H 6,.+- +.+,+ +.+;+ ,.;-..+ $o* 9 O 7/ 6-.+ min to +.. max Hb* +.. /u* +.++. 2b* +.+;. S ;+.+- +.+,. +.+ . +. .-+.-+ #i* +. .-+.-+ ;..+ "l 6;.+- +.+,. +.+;. ,.+-..+ $o* .+-6.+ /u 69.+ 8.+- +.+,. +.+;+ -.+-A.+ $o* +.9- .. 6 .+ /u* +. +-+.6+ H 6-.+- +.+;+ +.+ . 6..-;.. /u* +.,-+.A #i* 69.+ 6..-;.+ $o

H+99++ #ype ;;6 H+98+, 8+,? H+986. /ronifer 86. h$o ... /ronifer 6;69

+.+ +.+6 +.+6 +.+,

..+ 6.++ .++ +.A.

.++ .++ +..+ +.A.

merely indicates the form to be used. #roperties and Applications. #he yield strengths of chromium-nickel austenitic stainless

(a! Single values are maximum values unless otherwise indicated. (b! Jptional. (c! Hominal compositions. (d! :HS designation has not been specified* this designation appears in "S#$ " 99A and

steels are rather modest and are comparable to those of mild steels. #ypical minimum mechanical properties of annealed ;++ series steels are yield strengths of 6+. to 6A. $2a (;+ to ,+ ksi!, ultimate tensile strengths of .6+ to A-+ $2a (A. to + ksi!, and elongations of ,+ to -+7. "nnealed 6++ series alloys have higher yield strengths ranging from ;,. to ,9+ $2a (.+ to A+ ksi!. 4igher strengths are possible in cold-worked forms, especially in drawn wire, in which a tensile strength of 6++ $2a ( A. ksi! or higher is possible. Figure 6 compares the work-

hardening characteristics of ;++ series and type ,;+ (ferritic! grades. #he 6++ series have workhardening characteristics similar to types ;+ and ;+6 in Fig. 6.

!ig. $ Typical effect of cold rolling on the tensile strength of selected stainless steels

=ven the leanest austenitic stainless steels (e.g., types ;+6 and ;+,! offer general corrosion resistance in the atmosphere, in many a%ueous media, in the presence of foods, and in oxidi)ing acids such as nitric acid. #ypes ;6 and ;,A are essentially type ;+, with additions of either titanium or niobium, respectively, which stabili)e carbides against sensiti)ation (see the subsection 1#hermally &nduced =mbrittlement1 !. #he addition of molybdenum in types ; -@; -? (Fig. ! provides pitting resistance in phosphoric and acetic acids and dilute chloride solutions, as well as corrosion resistance in sulfurous acid. "n even higher molybdenum content, as in type ; -? (;7!, and even richer alloys further enhance pitting resistance. Hitrogen is added to enhance strength at room temperature and, especially, at cryogenic temperatures (e.g., type ;+,H!. Hitrogen is also added to reduce the rate of chromium carbide precipitation and, therefore, the susceptibility to sensiti)ation. &t is also added to molybdenum-containing alloys to increase resistance to chloride-induced pitting and crevice corrosion. 4igher amounts of chromium and@or nickel are used to enhance high-temperature oxidation resistance (e.g., types ;+8, ; +, and ;;+!. /opper and nickel can be added to improve resistance to reducing acids, such as sulfuric acid (type ;6+!. Some of the more corrosion-resistant alloys, such as H+9+6+ (6+/b-;! have nickel contents high enough (;6 to ;A7! to rate :HS classification as nickel-base alloys. "lloys containing nickel, molybdenum ( -7!, and nitrogen (+. . to +.6.7! are sometimes referred to as 1superaustenitics,1 as shown in Fig. . #hese alloys were developed for improved resistance to chloride corrosion. Duplex Stainless Steels
Characteristics and Compositions. 0uplex stainless steels are two-phase alloys based on

the Fe-/r-Hi system. #hese materials typically comprise approximately e%ual proportions of ferrite and austenite phases in their microstructure and are characteri)ed by their low carbon contents (B+.+;7! and additions of molybdenum, nitrogen, tungsten, and copper. #ypical chromium and nickel contents are 6+ to ;+7 and . to 97, respectively. #able , gives compositions of duplex stainless steels. #he specific advantages offered by duplex stainless steels over conventional ;++ series stainless steels are strength (approximately twice that of austenitic

stainless steels!, improved toughness and ductility (compared to ferritic grades!, and superior chloride S// resistance and pitting resistance.
Table 4 Chemical compositions of duple$ stainless steels
Composition(b), % %NS number(a) "#pe.desi nation C S; 6++@. . . S; 6-+@;866S; .++@;86 . ,,?H ... ... Mn S P Si .++ Cr Ni Mo N/ Other ... +.+; 6.++ +.+; +.+,. +.+; +.+; 6,.+- ...--.. .6-6.+ +. ,6-.+ +.6+

.++ +.+;+ +.+;+ +.A. .6- +.+; +.+; 6.+ .,6.+ .++ .+ .+ .+ .+

6,.+- ...-A.. 6..-;.. +. +- +. +-+..+ D, 6-.+ +.;+ +.6+-+.9+ /u 9.+8.+ ,.6.- 6..-;.+ +.+...6. +. + ... ...

S; 9+;@;86+8 :<,.H S;6;+,@;86;+ 6;+, S;6..+@;86.. S;6A.+@;86A. 6.+A S;6A-+@;86A- Geron ++ S;68++@. . . #ype ;68 ...

+.+; 6.++ +.+6 +.+; +.+; 6.. +.+; +.+; +.+; +.+.. .6 .+ +.+, +.+, +.+; +.+, +.+6 +.+;. +.+ +.+;

6 .+- ,..--.. 6..-;.. +.+96;.+ +.6+ 6 ..- ;.+-... +.+.6,.. +.-+

+.+.- +.+.-+.-+ /u +.6+ ..-6.. /u +.. /u +..- .+ /u, +..- .+ D ... ...

6,.+- ,..--.. 6.8-;.8 +. +6A.+ +.6. 6,.+- -.+-9.+ ;.+-..+ +.6,6-.+ +.;6 6,.+- -.+-9.+ ;.+-,.+ +.;+ 6-.+ 6;.+- 6..-..+ .+-6.+ 69.+
(b!

.++ +.+; +.+, +.A. +.+;. +.-+

S;68.+@;868. A $o 2lus

+.+; 6.++ +.+

6-.+- ;..-..6 .+-6.. +. .68.+ +.;.

(a! /ertain :HS numbers for duplex grades have been replaced. For example, (b! Hot specified

S;68.+@;868. means that the original :HS Ho. (S;68.+! has been replaced by S;868..

#roperties and Applications. 0uplex stainless steels are capable of tensile yield strengths

ranging from ..+ to -8+ $2a (9+ to ++ ksi!. #he high yield strength offers designers the use of thin-wall material (which can lead to maCor reductions in weight! with ade%uate pressurecontaining and load-bearing capacity. #he high alloy content and the presence of a ferritic matrix render duplex stainless steels susceptible to embrittlement and loss of mechanical strength, particularly toughness, through prolonged exposure to elevated temperatures. For this reason, the upper temperature of application is generally less than ;++ L/ (.A+ LF!. "s with all stainless steels, composition also plays a maCor role in the corrosion resistance of duplex stainless steels. 2itting corrosion resistance is most easily affected. #o determine the extent of pitting corrosion resistance offered by the material, the pitting resistance e%uivalent (2<=! is commonly used. #he 2<= is calculated by adding the weight percentages of elements that affect pitting corrosion resistance--namely, chromium, molybdenum, and nitrogen--and then normali)ing them with respect to the effect of 7 /r. #he most commonly used formula for pitting resistance e%uivalent is:

2<= N 7/r M ;.;(7$o! M -(7H!

(0q 1)

"s indicated in the following table, the 2<= values for duplex stainless steels range from approximately 6, for grades containing no molybdenum to greater than ,+ for the more highly alloyed (Fe-6./r-AHi-;..$o-+.6.H-D-/u! grades:

%NS number P20 ran e S; 6++ S; 6-+ S; .++ S; 9+; S;6;+, S;6..+ S;6A.+ S;6A-+ S;68++ ;+.6-;..9 ;;.8-,6., 6A. -;+.. ;+..-;A.9 66..-68.A ;..6-,;.8 ;A.A-,A.,+(min! 6-.;-;,.-

0uplex stainless steels have found widespread use in a range of industries, particularly the oil and gas, petrochemical, and pulp and paper industries. #hey are commonly used in a%ueous, chloridecontaining environments and as replacements for austenitic stainless steels that have suffered from either chloride S// or pitting during service. Precipitation-Hardening Stainless Steels
Characteristics and Compositions. 2recipitation-hardenable (24! stainless steels are

chromium-nickel grades that can be hardened by an aging treatment. #hese grades are classified as austenitic (e.g., "-69-!, semiaustenitic (e.g., A-A24!, or martensitic (e.g., A-,24!. #he classification is determined by their solution-annealed microstructure. #he semiaustenitic alloys are subse%uently heat treated so that the austenite transforms to martensite. /old work is sometimes used to facilitate the aging reaction. 3arious alloying elements, such as aluminum, titanium, niobium, or copper, are used to achieve aging. #able . lists compositions of 24 stainless steels.
Table 5 Chemical compositions of precipitation-hardenin" stainless steels
Composition(a), % %NS No- +llo# Martensitic t#pes S ;9++ 24 ;-9 $o S ..++ .-.24 +.+. +.+A +. + .++ +. + 6.6.- A..-9.. 6.+-6.. +.+ ;.6. ... +.++9 +.8+- .;. "l* +.+ H C Mn Si Cr Ni Mo P S Other

.++ ,.+- ... ;..-...

+.+, +.+; 6..-,.. /u* +. .-+.,. Hb

S A,++

A-,24

+.+A +.+. +.+.

.++ .++ +..+

.++ ..+- A.. ;.+-..+

...

+.+, +.+; ;.+-..+ /u* +. .-+.,. Hb .6.- .A. /u* 9 O 7/ min Hb ..-6.. /u* +.9- ., #i* +. +.. Hb

S,.+++ /ustom ,.+ S,..++ /ustom ,.. Semiaustenitic t#pes S .A++ 24 .-A $o S AA++ A-A24

.++ ,.+- -.+ ..+-A.+ +..- .+ +.+; +.+; +..+ .+- 6.. A..-8.. +..+ +.+, +.+;

+.+8 +.+8 +.+A+. +. ++. . +.+9

.++ .++

.++ ,.+- -.+ -..+- 6.+-;.+ +.+, +.+, +.A.- ..+ "l A.A. .++ -.+- 9.+ -..+A.A. ... +.+, +.+, +.A.- ..+ "l

S;.+++ "$-;.+ S;..++ "$-;.. +ustenitic t#pes S--69- "-69-

+..+- +..+ -.+- A.+ ,.+-..+ 6..+- +.+, +.+; +.+A-+. ; H .6. ;.6. +..+- +..+ ..+- -.+ ,.+-..+ 6..+- +.+, +.+; +.+A-+. ; H .6. ;.6. 6.++ .++ ;..- -.+ 6,.+6A.+ +.+6 ,.. 68.. .+- .. +.+6. +.+6. .8+-6.;. #i* +.;. max "l* +. +-+..+ 3* +.++;+-+.+ ++ > .6. +.++- +.++6 6. . #i* +.6. "l* +.6A 3* +.++ . >

...

P>I-A.(b! +.+ .

+.+.

(a! Single values are maximum values unless otherwise indicated. (b! #ypical values
#roperties and Applications. ?ike the hardenable ,++ series martensitic stainless steels, 24

alloys can attain high tensile yield strengths, up to A++ $2a (6.+ ksi!. /old working prior to aging can result in even higher strengths. #he 24 grades generally have good ductility and toughness with moderate-to-good corrosion resistance. " better combination of strength and corrosion resistance is achieved than with the ,++ series martensitic alloys. #hese improved properties are related to their higher chromium, nickel, and molybdenum contents, as well as their restricted carbon (+.+,+ max! levels. #he low carbon content of the martensitic 24 stainless steels is especially critical for toughness and good ductility. >ecause of their high strengths, most of the applications for 24 stainless steels are in the aerospace and other high-technology industries.