CHAPTER 3.

THE VAPOR

3. The vapor compression cycle *1
A. Introduction and fundamental concepts
A 1. First and second laws of thermodynamics
1 The purpose ofrefrigeration is to reduce and maintain the temperature ofa substance
belm.\!thetemperatureofthe surroundings.
To accomplish this, heat must be conveyed from a lower temperature source (the
substance)to ahighertemperaturesink (thesurroundings). This, however, mustbe done
under the constraints ofthe second law ofthermodynamics: It is impossible for any
to operate in a cycle in such a way that the sale result would be a heat tran::,fer
from a cooler to a hotter body. Therefore, such a heat conveyance is possible only if
work(or, moregenerally, exergy)is suppliedtothe system.
To reach the goal we have to use a cycle operating between the lower, desired,
temperature and the higher temperature prevailing in the ambient orin ayailabie cooling
water.
This type ofcycle also is used in heat pumps. The purpose ofa heat pump is to extract
heat from a lower temperature source and reject heat to a higher temperature sink at a
useful level. The orJy difference between a refrigeration system and a heat pump lies in
the choice oftemperature levels. In the simple cases, a refrigeration system rejects heat
to thesurroundings, while aheat'pump extractsheatfrom thesurroundings.
Accordingto the first lawofthermodynamics, the heat Q1 rejected from the cycle at the
higher temperature equals to the sum oftheheat extracted at the lower temperature
and the workE (or, more generally, the energy) necessary to operate the cycle, Figure
3.01,ie.
3.01. Principle ofrefrigeration systems and heat pumps.
*/
BToth A andB); C)
" J.
t
(3.01)
Thenet energyinput \vhieh is required toliftthe heatQ2 fromthe lowerto the higher
temperature, need not necessarily be mechanical work. For example in an absorption
rerigeration system heat from a high temperature source is used to operate the cycle,
andin an ejector(vacuum) refrigerationsystemkinetic energyis used
A2. Carnot cycle
3 02 Theoretically, amongmany otherpossibilities, wecanmakeuse ofthe reversible Carnot
cycle. As Figure 3.02 depicts, the cycle is operated in the anti-clockwise direction
between the temperatures T2 and T
I
. The working fluid executes four reversible
processesinthecycle:
T
t
a
f
d c.
0(
1
t
E.
I
a-
to..z,
Fig. 3.02. The Carnot cycle in temperature-entropy (T-s) diagram.
a b: isothermal expansionat T2 whileheatQ2 istransferredtothe
workingfluid fromtheheatsource
b c: isentropiccompressionfrom T2 to Tl withoutanyheattransfer
c d: isothermal compressionat TI while heat Ql istransferredfrom the
workingfluid totheheat sink
d a isentropicexpansionfrom Tl to T2 W1Ihout anyheattransfer.
The networkinput supplied to the working fluid during the cycle is denotedE, and the
first lawof thermodynamics,Equation3.01, givesE =Ql - Q2.
A3. Principle of the vapor compression cycle
actual applications of refrigeration, operated work are
Allvaporcompressionsystemsfunctioninthatway.
The \vorking fluid ill a vapor compreSSIOn IS
are restricted to
called
operating with refrigerants
As a conclusion, two
constant in the

3. THE 'VAPOR
of one pure refrigerants. occur a
mixture is used are treated in details Chapter 5
One of the most important characteristics a pure refiigerant is how the saturated vapor
pressure depends on the temperature. Such relations are sho\vn in Figure 3 An
increased temperature results in an increased saturated vapor pressure

/ / I
. / /
'" /
x 'I' I'r I
'/ ,"t' '. 1/
j i
20
to
-60 -:20
20
Fig. 3,03. Saturated vapor pressure versus for some pure refrigerants,
The basic principle the vapor compression cycle is that a compressor maintain
appropriate pressures, PI and P2, at the two temperature levels, TI and T
2
, At the lower
temperature side a low pressure is maintained, the liquid refrigerant to be
vaporized, or evaporated. At the higher temperature side it is a pressure, forcing the
vapor to be liquefied, or condensed. During the vaporizing at the lower temperature, the
refrigerant absorbs heat, corresponding to the latent heat of vaporization, from the
refrigerated space, ie, refrigerating effect is created, In this process the temperature
of the refiigerant remains essentially constant, and the temperature is called the
evaporating temperature. During process at the higher temperature the
refrigerant rejects to ambient air, or to some other medium. In this process the
refrigerant vapor is brought back to liquid state condensation, and the
corresponding temperature is called the condensing temperature.
heat transfer place at approximateiy
cycle, as is the case in Camot
The two isentropic processes, however, are more difficult to reproduce in the
cycle .

pIpmgs, i:jJld
3 compressIOn includes an evaporator, a
a condenser, an expansion device Additional are refrigerant,
a motor to operate the compressor. The equipment for a simple
compression system is shown in Figure 3 The refrigerant circulates in the
closed loop fonned by the four main components and is subject to the four processes
evaporation, compression, condensation, and throttling.
Fig 3.04. Equipment diagram for a simple vapor compression system.
A4. Energy equation and property diagrams
3 The cycle executed by the refrigerant in a vapor compression system readily can be
studied in a thennodynamic property diagram for the refrigerant. There are many
different types of such diagrams. Here we are going to make use of the temperature-
entropy (T-s) diagram and the pressure-enthalpy (P-h) diagram. The p-h diagram is
widely used in the refrigeration field. It has a linear scale for the enthalpy and a
logarithmic scale for the absolute pressure and it is frequently called a Jog(P)-h diagram.
3.06
The fundamental theory and concepts of the diagrams are known from the
thermodynamics and will not be repeated here.
course in
However, for the purpose of reference, we will give the energy equation for a control
volume at steady state flow. The general form, valid for both reversible and irreversible
processes, on a per unit mass basis is
3.07
q
1S to each component in
3 The indices and 2 denote the . state and outlet state, respectively, for the
fluid are replaced the appropriate notations b, C, and/or for
component to studied.
t
~ ... ---...------------------......--
-
3. THE VAPOR
fluid
In
equation
q - neta..rnount heattransferredtothe
E., - netamountofshaftworkdelivered
h = specificenthalpyfor the\vorkingfluid
',.v velocityof theworking;fluid
-
z = elevationabovean arbitrarilydatumlevel
g accelerationofgravity.
In vapor compression systems, changes In the potential energy (gz) mostly are
negligible, and so are normallychanges inthe kinetic energy(v;,h2), leaving the energy
equationLTl the sL.'l1ple form
(3.05b)
Important notice: Heat transfer and work per unit mass exposed to a process are
designatedbythe lower-case letters q and E., respectively. The unitfor q and E. is J/kgor
k:1/kg. Thetotalamountofheat transferandworkinJorkJ are designatedbythe capital
letters Qand and are obtaLT1ed from q a..Tld t bymultiplication with themass m kg
involved inthe process, e.g. Q- mq. The corresponding rates ofenergytransfer in W
ork\V are symbolized bya dot, i.e. Qand and nowthe multiplicationshall be done
withthemassflowrateill inkg/s, e.g. Q= rn.q. (Lateron, L.ll sections 3.30and3.32, two
volumetric quantitiesqv andtv J/m
3
orkJ/m
3
are introduced.)
B. Simple vapor compression cycle
B1. The simple cycle in T-s and p-h diagrams
3.06 Figure3.06shows the cycle for asimplevaporcompression system accordingto Figi.lIe
3.04 in andp-h diagrams. As explained previously, the main part ofthe cycle is
executed in the wet region (also called the liquid-vapor saturation region orthe vapor
dome), where the refrigerantundergoes and condensation. Thecompressor
andthe expansion device maintain ahigh pressure side, \viththe pressurePh and a low
pressure side, with the pressure p:. corresponding condensing and
evaporatingtemperatureare denoted T: andT
2
, respectively.
3.07 Theevaporator is a container or a pipe system wherein the refrigerant vaporize at low
temperature. The latent heat of vaporization is taken from the surroundings of
evaporator, in this casetheair a refrigeratedspace. Heat is removed from that space
andthe temperattlIe in spaceis keptata10\\', desired,
Thecompressorsucks away formed vaporandproduces such a pressure in the
that allows the vaporization to To make the heat transfer
possibIe, fro:n to the refrigerant, theboilingtemperature
I.e. to
airintherefrigeratedspace.
>
TI
I
~ s
3.
1
Fig. 3. 06. The simple cycle in T-s andp-h diagrams.
The pressure in the evaporator is called the evaporating pressure. For a pure refrigerant,
a certain evaporating pressure corresponds to a precise evaporating temperature
according to the relation between saturated vapor pressure and temperature. Figure 3.03
illustrates this relation for some refrigerants,
For example with ammonia, NH" as the refrigerant, and if the compressor maintains the
evaporating pressure equal to bar, then the evaporating temperature will be 1oGe
The evaporating temperature will decrease if the evaporating pressure is depressed,
Under steady-state conditions, the evaporator is supplied vvith a continuous stream of
refrigerant which is vaporized successively by the heat transferred from the refrigerated
space. The pressure drop in the flow direction of the refrigerant is normally small and,
consequently, the heat supply to the refrigerant takes place under essentially constant
pressure and constant temperature.
In the evaporator it is a constant-pressure, almost constant-temperature
indicated by the line a - b in the diagrams, At the iciet to the evaporator, point a, the
refrigerant consists of a wjxture of saturated liquid and saturated vapor having the
average enthalpy hg Heat transfer from the refrigerated space causes the liquid to
evaporate and change the mixiure of liquid and vapor into a saturated vapor. In practice,
however, the cold vapor usually will continue to absorb heat from the refrigerated space
and become slightly superheated before it leaves the evaporator. At the outiet, point b,
the enthalpy is h2k
evaporator,
refrigerating effect (in S\vedish kaldalstring; is
According to energy equation, Equation 3 with &t 0
.07a)
>
CO}4PP'SSIOI",'CYCLE
The effect is the quantity of mass of
refrigerated space. The for the
that
effect is same as
orkJ/k:g.
Ifthe mass flow rate ofthe refrigerant is denoted m (in kg;s) then the refrigerating
capacity (inSwedishkyleffekt) (in\V ork\V)is
(3.07b)
The,,'aporis conveyedtothe suctioninlet ofthe compressorthroughthesuction line, or
the line.
3.08 The compressor might be one ofseveral types, e.g. reciprocating, rotary, scroll, screw,
orcentrifugal compressor. The purpose ofthe compressor is to remove the vapor from
the evaporator and force it into the condenser. The compressor maintains such a low
pressure L."1 the evaporator so as to enable the refrigerant to vaporize, and at the same
time such a high pressure in the condenser allowing the refrigerant to condense at the
temperatureprevailingthere. Theworkinputto the refrigerant in the compressormakes
itpossibletolifttheheatabsorbedinthe evaporatortoahighertemperature level, \vhere
theheatcanberejectedto ambientairorto coolingwater.
The compressor creates the necessary pressure difference and together with the
expansiondevice it maintain thatdifference betweenthe 10'1-' pressure side 3..t"'1d the high
pressure side ofthe cycle.
The process in the compressor often might be considered as adiabatic, v..ith no heat
transfer. The work is cOIru'TIonly supplied by an electric motor, although internal
combustion engines (especially in systems for automobile air-conditioning), steam
engines,andsteamturbines sometimesareused.
The refrigerant enters the compressor as a slightly superheated vapor, point b. In the
theoretical cycle the compression process is assumed to be isentropic, presupposing
negligibleheatexchange \",ith the surroundings.In an isentropicprocess the entropys IS
constantandthe lineb - Cis comcideswith a line ofconstant entropy, startingatpoint b
and ending at the condensing pressurep , point C
s
. Since a work is done onthe vapor
during the compression, the enthalpy the refrigerant is increased from h
2
t; to h1k,ls,
theoretically.Fromtheenergyequation, Equation3.0Sb, the required workofisentropic
compressionona perunitmassbasisis
(3.08a)
c.u. where index d denotes
"'-1"
\Vith mass ratem, an 15
3:7
bE
ENGINEERLVG
additional \vork is to compensate
3...'1d otherlosses in
as
Let us defmea total
C3.08e)
Ek is theactualworkthatmustbesupplied;totheshaftofthe
actualcompressorpoweris
C3.08d)
The efficiency17k oftenis in therange 0,6- 0,8, andwithanadequate ofthe
whenthe inletstateb isknO\\Cl1.
in an actual case the outlet state c from the compressor can be established
It is ofinterest to calculate the outlet conditions from the compressor.
compressor operates adiabatic, i.e. without heat transfer to or from the sur-
roundings,wehave
(3.08e)
whereh;kis the enthalpyoftherefrigerantatthe true outletstatefromthe compressor
CombiningthiswithEquation3.08awecanalso
h
(3.08f)
Ifthecompressoris non-adiabatic, i.e. someheat occurs, the Equations 3.08c - f
mustbe accordingtoEquation3.05b.
The discharge or the hot gas line, deliwrs the pressure, high temperature
vaporfromthecompressortothecondenser.
3.09 The condenser be air cooled or "vater cooled or a thereof The
refrigerantcondenses thecondenser. Thepressureofthe willbe so highthatthe
available coolingmediumcanbeusedtobringthevaportocondensation.Toenablethis
heat transfer, from refrigerlli'1t to the cooling medium, condensing temperature
mustbe higher than temperature ofthe cooling medium. the relationbetween
saturated vapor pressure and temperature, Figure 3.03, it is to determine the
necessary
Forexample if
as the retrigerant,
condenser.
\vith arrm10nia
to maintain. a 11,7 bar in the
3:8
>
CHAPTER 3. THE VAPOR COMPRESSIo.V CYCLE
-
3.10
b the evaporator, process condenser an constal1!:
pressure. Even though the vapor at often might considerably
superheated, the main part the rejection occurs at constanttemperature, i.e.
condensingtemperature.
Theheat rejectedfrom the condenser to thecoolingmediumequals to the sum ofthe
heatQ2 extractedfrom therefrigerated andthe work suppliedtothe refrigerant
inthecompressor,i.e. Q; - Q2 -j--
Theprocess b the condensertakesplaceatconstantpressure as shov,llbythe line c - d.
In most cases, the discharged from the compressor is a superheated vapor, i.e. the
hotgas temperature, b point c, is above the condensbgtemperature Tl as indicated in
the diagrams. This superheated vapor is cooled to the condensbg temperature in the
entrancepartofthe condenser, thencondensationtakes place atconstanttemperature to
the saturated liquid state. The sensible heat connected to the superheat as well as the
latent heat released during the condensation are rejected from the refrigerant in the
condenser. Often it is possible to cool the warm liquid refrigerant to a temperature
below the condensing temperature. This liquid subcooling takes place through further
heatrejectionatthe end ofthe condenserorinaspecial liquid subcoolerresulting b the
liquidtemperature T" inpointd.
Theenergyequationgives for the condenser(includingliquid subcoolerifany) that the
rejected heatonaperunitmassbasis is
q;=h1k-h
s
(3.09a)
\Viththemass flowrate liz therefrigerant,thecondenser load is
(3.09b)
Thisexpressionis equivalentto
Q
'., = 0,., +E. (3.09c)
, .{
where
Q2 the refrigeratingcapacity
Ek = thepowerinputtotherefrigerantduringthecompression.
Equation3.09cis inharmonywiththe generalEquation3.01.
from the Theliquid line carriestheliquid
also is callcdthe
hand-operated expansion
LA - ',",'-"'--' u..'O-c,a"" thennostatic high float
valves,andthesimplecapillarytube.
3:9
tr
vapor, at
are
defined as the
pressuredifferencebet\veen
condenserandtheevaporator ,
toadjustthe flowrateto evaporator;keepingtheevaporatorfilled
refrigerantliquid, yetpreventingtheliquidtobecarriedoverto the compressorwhere
itmightcausedamagesthroughliquidharrL.'11er.
Bythisuncomplicatedexpansiondevice, thepressureandwiththatalso thetemperature
can be reduced from the level existing in the condenser (includh'1g subcooler) to the
levelwantedintheevaporator.
Asmentionedearlier,thecycle ahighpressuresideanda lowpressure side,andthe
boundarylinegoesat the expansiondeviceandthecompressor.
All the heatextraction,i.e. the refrigeratingeffect, occursatthe lowpressure side ofthe
cycle,andtheheatrejectiontakesplaceatthehighpressureside.
Theprocess in the expansionvalvecompletes the cycle. Here a throttling process takes
placeand wehave the wellknOWl1 conditionthat the enthalpyofthe refrigerant has the
same value before a..11.d after the reduction of the pressure. This relation is readily
obtainedfromtheenergyequation,Equation3.05b,withq- 0andEt == 0, leaving
(3.10)
Suchaprocessis usuallyreferred to as athrottlingprocess. Thethermodynamic state at
the outlet ofthe expa11sion valve, the inlet to the evaporator, is located in the
diagrambyfollowing the lineofconstantenthalpyfrompointd to the intersection with
the linerepresentingtheevaporatingpressure,pointa.
3.1
Thepressureoftherefrigerantis reducedin thethrottlingprocessandtheiiquidbegins
to vaporize, andaportion of the iiquidturns into vapor. This portion mustbe supplied
with the latentheatofvaporization. This energy is takenfrom thefluiditself, resulting
in a reduction ofthe temperature, from Ts to T
2
The low temperature ofthe cycle is
createdin theexpansiondevice/
3.1
Normally, the expansion valve is installed close to the
refrigerant passes through the valve, \ve have completedone loop ofthe cycle, 3..'1d the
courseofeventswillrepeatagain.
(Equation 3.10 does not hold for one of the most frequent applications, namely
householdrefrigerators. Thesedomesticunits areusuallyequippedwitha capillarytube
where the refrigerant. in the expansion process is brought into heat excha.'1ge with the
vaporleaving the evaporator. To this we have to
situationresemblesthatwhichis treatedinsections3A1- 42.)
3.11 Statepoint a represents amixture ofsaturated liquid, atpointaI, and
1/ rt' f
pomt a . on prope leS 0
simplifiedthroughthe introductionofthe conceptqualityofthe
3:10
b
~ ~
3, THE vAPOR CYCLE
- - - - - - - ~
tothe mass,and
e
' /'
-;- xv C
-'.1,a
'1 )
h
v
h- (l x)H xh//
(3.llb)
re 5 =(1 x}s
/
xs
//
(3.llc)
le
wherethe suffices/CLTld "referto saturatedliquidandsaturatedvapor,respectively,and
v specificvolume
h= specificenthalpy
e
s specificentropy
x=qualityof theIDlxture.
\\lithknovvnvalueofthe enthalpyhd =ha hs Vie getfor thepointa that
hs (1 - x)0. + x0.'
andrearrCLTJ.gement givesthequalityof thernLxture as
x =(h
s
J ~ )/(1'0.' - ~ =(h
s
0. (3.11d)
whereristhe latentheatof vaporizationatthetemperature
3.12 Thequantitiesof mostinterest, i.e. therefrigeratingeffect, theworkof compression,and
the heat rejected at the condenser, all can be read on the enthalpy scale in the p-h
diagram. Theyare representedbythe distancesmarkedatthebottomofthep-hdiagram
in Figure 3.06. The Equation 3.01 is clearly illustrated in this diagram; on a per unit
mass basis. In a T-s diagram the quantities are represented by areas, which will be
discussedinsection3.22.
3.12 Example: A vapor compression system operating with arnmoma, In a cycle
according to Figures 3.04 and 3.06 is to be designed for a retngerating
capacity of(h 11,6 kW when the evaporatingtemperature is t2 =-1 andthe
condensing temperature is t; ~ 30
c
C. The inlet temperature to the expansion
device is ts -- theoutlettemperaturefrom theevaporatoris =t2 -15C,
and the compressor operates adiabatically\,,-ith the total isentropic effiCIency 77k
0,75_
Calculate
b) inputto
c) the condenser Q!
d)thequalityofIhemixtureat outlet expansionvalve,x
e)theratioof therefrigeratingcapacitytothe nr;'l1pr inputto the
a) the mass t10w rateof thecirculating m
REFPJGERA
arnmomawe
The table gives =1444,21 kJ/kg - 317,89 Applying
3.07b,
m- !(h2k-hs)=11,6i(l444,21 317,89)
b) Thediagramgives 676kJ/kgandEquation3.08e
- h
2k
)h7k 1444,21,(1676 1444,21 75 -- 1753,3 kJ/kg
andaccordingto Equation3.08gthepowerinputtothecompressoris
~ m(h
1k
-h
2k
) 0,0103(1753,3-1444,21)=3.l8kW.
c) FromEquation3.09b,thecondenserloadis
m(h
lk
)-O,0103'(l -317,89)=14.78kW Q
1
h
s
whichis checkedwithEquation3.09c
11,6+3,18= 14,78kW.
d) From the p-h diagram we find x 0,14, i.e. 14% the refrigerant mass
vaporizes in the expansion valve. The accuracy ofthe result is increased by
applyingEquation3.11d,with h ~ - h2k and ~ = 131,29k1!kg,yielding
x - (h
s
- ~ Yr;' - h ~ ) (317,89 131,29)/(1444,21 131,29) 0.142.
3.
e) Theratiooftherefrigeratingcapacityto thepowerh'1put tothe compressoris a
figure ofmerit ofthe cycle, and it is called the coefficient ofperformance ofthe
refrigeration cycle, COP2. It gives the ratio ofthatwhat we gained to that whatwe
sacrificed. Inthiscasethe coefficientof IS
11,6/3,18
The refrigerating capacity is 3,65 times the power input to the compressor in this
example. Alternatively,
- 444,2)=
3:12
>
-
-
CfL4PTER 3. THE VAPOR COMPRESSIOX CYCLE
82. The coefficients of performance
a. Introduction
3.14 In a work is sacrificed in order to accomplish a refrigerating
As alreadybeensaid in section3.13e, the ratio ofthe desired refrigerating effect to the
costexpressedas workis calledthe coefficientof performanceof therefrigerationcycle,
COP2'
Independent ofthe type ofcycle, the coefficientofperformanceofarefrigeration cycle
hasthegeneraldefinition
(3.14a)
where
Q2 :::::: theheattransferredtothecycle,correspondingtotherefrigeratingeffect
E - therequirednetworkinput.
However, we can defme an additional coefficient ofperformac'1ce, nfuuely that ofthe
heat pump cycle. In such a cycle the desiredheat is the heat rejected from the cycle at
the higher temperature. Consequently, the coefficient ofperformance ofthe heat pump
cycle,COPl, is defmedas
COP
1
:::::: Q/E (3.l4b)
where
theheatrejectedfromthe cycle
E :::::: therequirednetworkinput, as above.
Ifall rejectedheatis useful,thenQl Q 1...

' and
(3.14c)
3 ~ 15 F'rom the thermodynamics \ve recall that the Carnat cycle is an ideal cycle \vorth\vhile
trying to imitate. The Carnot cycle gives the maximum theoretical coefficient of
performance ofany refrigeration or heat pUlnp cycle operating between t\vo constant
temperatures. (\\lith gliding temperatures, however, the Lorenz cycle IS more
advantaf!.eous. as discussedin section 13.)
......- " ,-
Oftenthe vaporcompressioncycle shows great similarities to the Carnotcycle, butdue
to (l) irreversiblethrottlingprocess, (2) thecompressionprocessnormallyis carried
throughwith superheatedvapor, deviations exist, even ifthe compression is isentropic.
The ideal coefficient ofperformance ofa refrigeration system operating \vith a vapor
compression cycle usually is approximately 80 - ofthe value obtainable v;ith the
Camotcycle.
Since \iapor
to make comparisons between
compared to Camot
cycle, it is
the actually used cycles can be
IS one the
objectivesin this chapter.
3:1
h
We start out to of Carnot and
continueto the
b. CoefficientsofperformanceoftheCarnotrefrigeratorandheatpump
3.16 Figure 3.16 shows a Camot refrigeration cycle in a diagram, as in Figure 3.02 and
2.13 Thecycleis operatedbetweenthetemperatures T2 and T
l
.
T 1
t;!,
,-
,,
I

/
/J

/j
/
//1
s 0
Fig. 3.16. The Carnot cycle in T-s diagram.
Thegeneraldefinition of entropysis ds dq/T whereqr designatestheheattransferto a
reversible process and T is the absolute temperature at which the heat transfer occurs.
Theheattransferduringa reversibleprocesscanbeexpressed as
qr fTds (3.16a)
Applyingtheconceptof entropys, the effectfor theCarnot IS
q2 = T
2
,!1.s
andthenet workinputis
With the definition in Equation 3.14a we obtain the coefficient ofperformance ofthe
Camotrefrigerationcycleas
(3.16b) COP
Le
this ideal ofperformance is dependent only on
it IS
and
absolute temperatures. In order to obtain a high value of of
3.
importanceto
IS
with smallesttemperature difference T possible,
acrosswhich to theheatrejectionat thetemperature
3:14
>
3. 7 3. 17 of performance Camot refrigerator as function
low temperature t2 for three different constant values of the rJgh temperature
(The relation between absolute temperature T in kelvins, K, the
temperature t in degrees Celsius, is TlK -'-- 273,15.)
12
!
!
...,.
T
-1 ' f
~
I
8
~ 4 .
o
-.20 o
2 C ~ C
3.17. 1Jle coefficientofperformanceCOP2eforthe Carnotrefrigerator.
the CarnotheatpumpCOP
le
COP
2e
+ 1.
The low temperature t2 corresponds to the evaporating temperature in the practical
and that temperature must be slightly below the temperature of the refrigerated space.
Sirniiar, the high temperature t1 corresponds to the condensing temperature and must be
above the temperature of the available cooling medium In summary this gives the
fonowing fundamental principle valid for all refrigeration: A refrigeration system should
alwaysbedesignedto operate atthe highestpracticalevaporatingtemperature, andthe
condensingtemperature shouldbekeptaslowasispractical.
Violation of this rule causes waste of energy and the coefficient of performance rapidly
decreases The inserted diagram illustrates how the area representing \\'ork E is
increased at the expense of the area the refrigerating q2 when temperature
is decreased, to and the coefficient of perforrnance = rapidly
.18 . In an system is created at the
in a quick-freezer system for food preservation at t2 =
cases heat rejection takes at t1 and the
= 1 k\V. The systems are assumed to
cases,
3 5
br
the theoretical
the heat transfer rate at t1
a) According to 3.1 the coefficient of the Camet
refrigerator in the AC-system is
input is and applying Equation 3.14a
In the quick-freezer system
COP2C:; = 233,15170 3,33 and
=100/3,33 = 30.0 kW.
Consequently, it is a much more demanding task to produce this refiigerating
at -40:::C than it is at '7-10
c
e. The obvious reason to the larger po\ver to
quick-freezer system is the temperature lift, 70C, of the heat
compared to 20C in the AC-system. Those temperature lifts are necessary to
rejection at +30C possible
The heat transfer rate from the cycle is
the AC-system it is
100(1 + 1114,2) = 107 kW
and the quick-freezer system
Ql ..;.. 1/3,33) = 130 kW.
are self-evident since the rate of from the systems equals
IS
sum of the refiigerating capacity and power input, ie 01 = 02 - E, and it
for the quick-freezer system
temperature the
pump the
sho\\'s how it is possible to
by sacrificing a limited amount
equals to the sum of the heat
input. If the heat rejection
might be used for heating purposes.
from the it pump. a
to a useful level
b
3.19
3.16
can to heat a orother
soil, ground water, or lake water,
is released atalevel theroomtemperature.
Otherareas ofapplication are systems for evaporation-\.vater removal, the concentration
offmitjuices, utilizingboththe refrigeratingeffect and heat rejection The condenser
heat from the refrigeration systems in supermarkets and ice-halls frequently are utilized
for heatingtheindoorair orwater.
vanatlOn on theme is systems abie to operate as arefrigerator during the SUIn..'Tler
and as aheat pump duringthe winter. This is accomplished by an ingenious, but simple,
valve arrangement, switching the functions ofthe heat exchangers, evaporator and
thecondenser.
3.20 The coefficient ofperformance ofthe heat pump cycle, COP
1
, is already defined the
Equation 3.14b, COP! QJ/E. In a Carnot heat pump cycle, as depicted in Figure 3.16,
theheat rejection is
andthe net workinput
5 (TI T 2 } ~ S
Thecoefficient ofperformanceof theCarnot pump cyclethen is
(3.20a)
This IS agreementwiththeEquations3 14cand 3.16b,i.e.
(3.20b)
Values COP
le
can be obtained from Figure 3.17, adding unity to COP2e The
coefficient ofperformance ofthe heat pump cycle can beregarded as a multiplier telling
hmvmany timesthesacrificed workis gained as heat at the highertemperaturelevel
indicated by Equatio'1 3.20a and Figure 3.17 the desired heat can be a multifold of
sacrificed work. For sure this is tme for a Carnot cycle, and also for actual cycles,
althoughunfortunatelyto alower extent.
3 21 ResenJe space.
c. The basicvaporcompression cycle
3.22 the vapor compressIOn With the
word is meant that (1) the the as a
vapor; no (2) the compression is (3) the refrigerant
as a no As in the description the
in sections 3 06 - 3.12 weaiso presuppose(4)an adiabatic expanslOn deVice
enthalpy ofthe refrigerant, (5) no pressure drops in the and In the
31
__...tns ________________...__"..... __
3.2
and
an isentropic compression
an isentha!pic expansion starting saturated liquid,
heat exchanges.
71
j

Fig. 3.22. The basic cycle in and p-h diagrams.
With reference to the definition of entropy, Equation 3.16a, refrigerating effect for
the basic cycle is given by the area under the line a - b in the T-s and heat
rejected in the condenser ql is given by the area under line Cis f - d. The required
work of compression Cd qt - q2 is represented by the difference between the t\\'o areas.
These quantities are decisive for the coefficients of performance and are marked as areas
in the diagram and as distances in the p-h diagram.
The cycle ai, - b e - f - d - ais in the diagram is a hypothetical Carnot cycle operating
between the evaporating temperature and condensing temperature I1 The Camot
would an increase of the refrigerating effect, by the area under the line ais - a,
and give a reduction of the work of compression, by the same area and also by the
almost triangular area e - Cis f - e.
Due to the throttling process, the vapor compression cycle is irreversible To eliminate
the irreversibilities in the throttling process it would be necessary to replace this adiabatic
expansion by an isentropic. In such a process the refrigerant 'would deliver a work during
expansion in a smail turbine or another device. This work would be utilized to cover a
ponioD the \vork of compression In addition the point a be moved to the in
the diagrams, to point ai,) a more favorable, lower quality x at the inlet to the
evaporator, an increase of the q2, , lS
necessary equipment not is avaiiable. a simple irreversible
1S and the cycle is misleadingly referred to as
small and since
The area e - Cis - f e the additional from
that hot temperature, in point Cis) is above the condensing temperature
b
- - ~ - ....
-
superheat ';'york be at
g
a qualityx correspondingto same entropy as in pointf, and the
n
o
would a straight from:.point g to point f in T-s diagram. In general,
however, it is not advisable to operate with such a wet compression since liquid
droplets would cause excessive wear in the compressor. In this context it is worth
mentioning that some refrigerants have a wet region (vapor dome) formed in the T-5
diagram in such a ,>vay that anisentropic,compressionstartingwith saturated vaporends
upinthewetregion, withoutsuperheatingof thevapor.
For the basic vapor compression cycle, as defined in Figure 3.22, coefficient of
perfonnanceof therefrigerant the refrigerationcycleis
.23)
This ratiois dependentontheevaporatingtemperature the condensingtemperature tI,
and the shape ofthe refrigerant property diagram. Table 3 shows COP
2d
for some
refrigerants at t2 =c ~ 15ce, t 1 +30e. As in Figure 3.22 the outlet condition from the
evaporator is saturated vapor (no superheat in point b) and from the condenser it is
saturatedliquid (no subcoolinginpointd), andthecompression is isentropic
Table 3.23. Basic cycle, t1 = -to30
c
e, t] -15C (See also Appendix B).
Refrigerant COP
2d r;Cd
Refrigerant
COP2.J
TIed
.-----..~ .
Rll 5,03 0,877 R 134a 4,60 0,803
R 4,95 0,863 R290. 4, 0,
R 717 ~ B 3 ) 4,76 0,830 R 502 4,35 0,758
R 12 4,70 0,819 R 718 (thO) 4,10 0,715
R 4,66 0,812 R 744(CO
2
) 2,56 0,446
- ~ - . - - - - - - - - ~ - ...
324 Thetable also givesvalues of theCarnat elficiency of the refrigerant r;Cd defined as
where T2/(T1 T
2
). This efficiency gives the deviation from the coefficient of
performance the Carnot refrigeration cycle. In summary, at t2 = SoC and t: =
j.3 the Carnot efficiency ofthe refrigerant is approximately 80 - for most
refrigerants.
The
pump mode.
used in a heat pump then
pump the efficiency is COP1d!COP1C where
4 ?1
i.-'.l IS
Compared to aCarnot heat
T that is
-_..>--------------_...._--_..._....._-_..
319
7JCd (l-
the of Itis
which clearly is greater than
TJCd since TJCd always is lowerthanunity
3.25 The Camot efficiency ofthe refrigerant 7JCd in a basic cycle is not a constant but is a
function ofthe evaporating temperature t2 and the condensing temperature tl. Fig.Jre
3.25 shows the influence oft2 and tl on 77c,;,. for some refrigerants Under normal
conditionsforrefrigerationthe difference betweentherefrigerantsis notexcessive.
f,o
0,9
08
>
c,:;.
-60
.loOt;
Fig. 3.25. The Camot efficiency of the refrigerant 77Cd in a basic cycle as a function
of the evaporating temperature t2 and the condensing temperature t
l
.
d. Theactualvaporcompressioncycle
3 The definition COP2d inEquation3.23,
.26a)
IS fully applicable also to a cycle operating with superheated vapor at the evaporator
outlet and subcooled liquid at the inlet to the expansion \vith
to Figure 3 Also the efficiency
IS
performanceof theCamotrefrigerator, i.e.
b
q
1
CHAPTER 3. THEVAYOR
--_._ __._--- .._.
3.26a presumes an isentropic compressor. In an cycle
performance be lo\vered due to different types of losses. We
already introduced the total isentropic compression efficiency 17k in Equation 3. 08b,
giving the actual shaft work to the compressor as
(3.26c)
Based on this shaft work the coefficient of performance is
(326d)
This expression enabies calculation of the necessary shaft power as
(3.26e)
3.27 The required shaft power delivered from the motor is denoted Em. A belt transmission is
sometimes used between the motor and the compressor. Then
(3.27a)
where
Ek the shaft power delivered to the compressor
17mt = efficiency of the transmission.
Figure 3.27 shows typical values of 17mt for belt If the motor has a direct
coupling to the compressor, without any belt transmission, then 17mt = 1. Normally this is
the case in large systems and also in hermetic compressors.

------
motors, versus the morar shaft power, t
b
321
where
eSlimate
often
1 --
access to
thermodynamic properties ofthe refrigerant.
3
motor is
themotoris an
=E
m
ultimate interest IS
where
:l]elm =efficiencyofthe motor.
Figure3.27 also shows valuesof for well performingalternatingcurrentmotors.
Nmvwecandefinethe total coefficient ofperformanceoftherefrigeration as
(3.28a)
withEquations3.26eand3.27bweobtain
(3.28b)
withEquation3.26b
(3.28c)
can sum.marized as

lSd'
j"", )
(328e)
:l]Ct is called the total Carnat The Equations 328aand 3.28d
(3.28f)
T
2
) is the coefficient ofperformance
reliable values of :1]0 from
ofelectricity necessary to operate the
the magnitude rye,;::;;; 0,5. l'v10re
definition ofryet is based on
T1, not onthe heat source
Carnotrefrigerator.
it is possible to
without detailed
svstems

ngure.J
'"
b
322
CHAPTER 3. THE
~ ~ . ~ ~ .
83. Volumetric behavior
a. Introduction
3.29 The Equations 3. 07b. 3. 0 8 ~ and 3. 09b the refrigerating capacity Q2' isentropic
compressor power Ed, and condenser load 0: as the mass flow rate ril multiplied
the relevant change in enthalpy. Under many circumstances, however, it is more
convenient to base the analysis on the volume flow rate V at the compressor inlet
2
(Especially this is true for positive displacement compressors where this flow roughly is a
constant if the compressor runs at a fixed speed of revolutions. Often these compressors
are rated and characterized in terms of the theoretical value of the swept volume per unit
time.)
b. Volumetric refrigerating effect
3 From Equation 3.07b the refrigerating effect is
(3.30a)
where
m= mass flow rate of the circulating refrigerant
h2k hs = enthalpy change in the evaporator
The necessary volume flow rate at the compressor inlet is
(330b)
where
V2k specific volume of the refrigerant at the compressor inlet
Combining Equations 3.3 Oa and b gives that
(3.30c)
where qv is called the volumetric refrigerating effect. With the unit kJ/kg for the enthalpy
and m
3
/kg for the specific volume, the unit for qv is kJ!m
3
The volumetric refrigerating
effect is the refrigerating effect per unit of swept volume.
\Vith access to thermodynamic properties of refrigerants it is easy to calculate values
Figtlre 3 3 - d show qv for some refrigerants as a function of the evaporating
temperature t2 for some different values of the temperature t, at the inlet to the expansion
see Figure 3 06. solid lines are valid for the case that the refrigerant leaves
evaporator as a saturated In to 3
the broken apply to a case with superheated = 18C, at
outlet. (More data can be found in
..,
..J
- ....>-------------------------.--..- .. ~ ~ ~ .
I
i
i
:
:
l J
R 12
i
: :
:
i
:
:
:'
J J
: ,
: , : :
.J J i :LJ ____ t:h" r:2
!
:
:
:
j
:
t, "c
i LiLt
:1000
----
i
L

A A..J
:
I !
! !

30

. i ! i i
=:;: ts;' '. 4
i
:
: [
:
:
1
(C,,:&X E:

i

!
:
c
1 i
:
: !
: : : i
! i
zX/
: :
:
!
1
I !

:

!
i ..i
j
200.0
i :

:
!
i ! !
: i
I
:
!
:
:

i
J
i
: :
!
j
:.
1 .:

i
I
i i
j

: i i
i i L
i
I
: I ! i I
i
i
:
!
!
i
:
:
-3C - 20 ,e
500C
BGG
500
200
R 22 :
.1
,
500::
I
I
i
-,CC
i

! ! J..J ! !(/L1
: I
i
:
: :
i :
:
:
:
! i
:
:
!
I ! :
i :
i
I

: -'-
:
I
!
1
: -'-
:
j
j
J
:
J
Kec:
EO:
3.30a b. Volumetric
h
R12 R
CHAPTER 3. THE

:
! !
!
!
T
!
! !
)
iii' i
!
i
!
i
i !!'. I! I I . ! . --"
! i ! !' i:'!
-3D
so-oc
I.
!
! ! 7/1')(/ i!
Iii 1 ; i!. /'V//i i
I iii ! iii!V/v/ T
! ! ! i i ! /Y'/ i
! I . I i I'I i I'
i
, : i II I Ii! I I
- 30 - 20
3.30c - d Volumetric refrigeratmg e.tfect q., R
rate
the refrigerating
the
volumetric refi;igerating effect
the
3
From
found that the capacity varies considerably with
temperature, The retrigerating capacity decreases when the evaporating temperature is
lov'lered, Thereason for this is that the specific volume V2k rapidly increases because
the reduction in the saturated vapor pressure at the lower temperature, This is in
agreement with the conclusions in sections 2,07 - 08, Of course, deviations in the
enthalpychangeh2k - hs contributetothe phenomenon, butto afar less extent
The disadvantage with unnecessarily low evaporating temperature is even more
pronouncedin an actual system, Thevolumetric efficiency ofthe compressor, defined as
the ratio ofactual sweptvolume to the theoretical rated value, also decreases when the
compression ratio Pl/P2 increases, This reduces the volume flo\v rate and by that
furthertherefrigeratingcapacity Q2 '
In SUflh'l1ary, in order to define a cycle in a fairly clear way the following temperatures
should be specified: the evaporating temperature t2, the condensing temperature the
temperatureattheinletto theexpansiondevicet
s
, andthe temperatureat the compressor
inlet l2k.
3.31 Inthe Equations330b- c designates the actual volume flow rate at the compressor
inlet For a positive displacement compressorthis actualvalue always is smallerthanthe
theoretical sweptvolumeflow Themainreason tothisisthatsuch compressors have
a clearance volume wbch not is 'displaced through the exhaust-valve during the
operation. Forapistoncompressor, thegastrapped in the clearance volume bet\veenthe
cylinder head and the piston at top position reexpands during the intake stroke,
Consequently, the actual volume flow ratefrom the suction line is reduced, One ofthe
mpst important factors governing the value of the volumetric efficiency is the
compressionratioPI/P2. Therelations aredetailed in sections 7J 7 - 7,20.
Thevolumetricefficiency 17s is definedas
V
2
17$
.31
V
s
and withEquation33Gbweobtain 17, = fit or
m
and finally withEquation3,30a or
3
=refrigeratingcapacity
b
3. THE r<4POR
= efficiency
?7 = theoretical flow of the
IS
voiumetric effect according to Equation 3"
IS
c. Volumetric compression work
)f
3J 2 Equation 3 08f gives the isentropic compressor pmver as
(
" ,.,,., ,
J.).::.a)
and viith =tit 'V2k from Equation 3JOb we define the volumetric compression work Ec
e
as
s
e
(
,J " . "''lb' J ~ )
where hn:.,is - h2k enthalpy change in the isentropic compression
V2k = specific volume at the compressor inlet.
for the volumetric refrigerating effect qv, the unit for Gv is kJ/m
3
.
Fif,rure 332a - d illustrate how &..: varies with the evaporating temperature t2 and the
condensing temperature tl for some refrigerants. As in Figure 3.30a - d the solid lines are
valid for the case with no superheat, t2, while the broken lines apply to the case \vith
= 18C at the evaporator outlet. (See also Appendix B).
The curvature with a maximum may surprise, but is simple to explain since at
evaporating temperatures the specific volume V2k be excessive due to the
pressure, whiie at high evaporating temperatures the change in enthalpy h1k,is h
2
.1::. will be
smaIL In both cases the volumetric cOmpression v,rork will be small, resulting in a
maximum at some intermediate value of the evaporating temperature. If \'olume flow
rate is a constant, then the power Ed is proportional to &..:. Some practical
implications arising from this condition are discussed in section 7.13
It is also seen that the influence of the inlet temperature ta to the compressor on the
volumetric compression work is rather limited. Actually, if the refrigerant vapor obeyed
the ideal gas equation of state, p'v R T, the influence would be
3.33 \Ve have defined the total isentropic efficiency in Equation 3.08b as 7(K = which is
ratio of the isentropic work Cd = hlk,is - h2k to the actual shaft \vork Ck supplied to the
compressor. deflrjtion is equivalent to
J3a)
IS isentropic to and IS
supplied to compressor shaft, ' e.
,33b)
__.. b..__________~ ___...___....~
3
REFRIGERATING El.fGINEERING
__ __--'---------__
IT

E,
I
R12
60
-':'0 - 30 -2G -10 ... tC
E,
Fig. 3.32a - b. Volumetric compresslOn work Ev for R 12 and R 22,
328
h
h
E,
2 0 C 4 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ L ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
-,c -30 -20 - iO
compression Vvork Sv R Fig 3. -d.
b
.j/ s
s v
where actual shaft power
1], = volumetric efficiency
17k = total isentropic efficiency
Vs = theoretical swept volume flow
sv = volumetric compression work according to Equation 3.32b.
Nota bene, dividing Equation 3.33c by Equation 33 Ic renders in Equation 3.26e
of course, COP
2d
= q,jSv.
Relations for estimation of the efficiency ratio lJJ1(" for piston compressors are presented
in section 720.
84. Effects of subcooling and superheating
a. Introduction
3.34 A.11 the equations concerning the ~ p r compression cycle given so far in this chapter are.
written in a general form applicable to the cycle depicted in Figure 3.06 Especially the
effects of (1) subcooling the refrigerant liquid before it enters the expansion device,
superheating the refrigerant vapor before it leaves the evaporator are included in the
treatment. Nevertheless, those effects are of special interest and they are worth a deeper
discussion i\nattempt will be done to illustrate how different types of extensions of the
basic cycle will influence on qv in Equation 330c, Sv in Equation 332b, COP2a In
Equation 3.26a, and the corresponding COP
ld
= COP
2d
+1for the heat pump cycle.
335 A.s basis for comparisons we take the values valid for a basic cycle according to
322, which is reproduced in the p-h diagram in Figure 3.35 with slightly changed
For the basic cycle the volumetric refrigerating effect qv is
.3
the volumetric compression work &; is
3
3:3
notations.
b
pat
a certain of at
superheat can be created while the vapor flows
outsideof refrigerated space.
In refrigerating mode it must distinguished between internal and external vapor
superheat. Internal superheat means that it is created inside ofthe refrigerated space,
whiie external superheat meansthatit placeoutside of therefrigerated space.
339 Figure3.39showsavaporcompressioncyclewithsuctionvaporsuperheat
p
, f
Fig. 3.39. Cycle with suction vapor superheat.
Inthe caseof internal vaporsuperheatthevolumetricrefrigeratingeffect is
q, (h2k - h{ )/V2k. Theincreaseinqv comparedtothebasiccycleis
h,k h{ . 100
= ( . - 1)--
(3.39a)
Y
2. 1_" h' t t
V
2
k. '1:2k - 1 2k 1
expressed in percent perdegree Celsius superheat The refrigerating effect increases by
the distance but also the specific volume increases, from to V2k
Consequently, the value of can be positive or negative, and is nonnally rather
oftenintherangeO)%/oC (Moredataarefound in AppendixB).
Thecoefficientofperformanceoftherefrigeration is
COP2d - h{), - h
2k
) correspondingtotheincrease
In per degree Celsius Not only the refrigerating
1
compressionVlorK fact that the
3:33
b
is raised is
mdicated in section3
a per unit mass inlet
Equation 7.1 is seenin increasing
lines constantentropyat temperatures. a specificcase
closeto value OCV2 Sincethe volumetriccompressionworkcan be expressed as &v
theincrease in Ev is closetoY2 which often is small is also
and byEquation 7.13a.
Againit is as an exerciseto that the increase in COP
ld
for the heat pump cycle
isY3,COP2d
/
COPld v;hereCOP2d and COP'd are thevaluesforthe cyde
3 In the case ofexternal vapor superheat, created outside ofthe refrigerated the
volumetric compressionwork Ev as well as theincreaseY2 - ,Y3 is the same as in the case
with internal vaporsuperheat however, the useful refrigerating effect only is the
distance h ~ ~ h{ asin thebasiccycle. The coefficientof performanceofthe refrigeration
cycleis COP
2d
= J ~ ~ h{) /(hik,is - h
2k
) and
h:.' 100
_._.. __",_k _ 1),__~ ...._
- ~ k t2
givesthe increasecomparedto thebasiccycle, Ofcourse,Y4 always is negative and
magnitude
The volumetric refrigerating effect is qv s.."COP2d, hencethe increase compared to the
basiccycle is closetoY2 - ormoreroughlyto OOiT
2k
.
In a refrigeration system, external vapor superheatis an eXiremely negativeburden, It is
detrimental not only to the coefficient of performance but. also to the volumetric
refrigeratingeffect, leadingto ademand ofa compressorwithlargersweptvolume flow.
In addition the condenser load increases giving raise to a need ofa condenser
surfaceandmorecoolingmedium.
For heat pumpthe distinction between internal and exiernal vapor superheat has no
mearnng
d. Liquid-suctionheatexchanger
3.41 A method employed to create subcooling of refrigerant liquid before it enters
.the expansion device and at the same time superheating the vapor it reaches the
compressor, is to make use ofa liquid-suction heat exchanger. illustrated in
3.41, in such a heat exchanger the vapor leaving the evaporator is utilized to
thewarm liquidleavingthecondenser.
Since mass flowrate IS atthetwo
(34
\vhich also can expressedas
41
- t
s
) = , . 1
h
""
CHAPTER 3,
-
he

I
p
ite I
Co",de,,-sc: r
SO
co
If,.
?
!
iii:. :5 "
r" 1
I
r
I
Ie
e
n
3.41. Cycle with liquid-suction heat exchanger.
'.vhere c
p
) and are the specific heat capacity at constant pressure the liquid and
vapor(gas), respectivel::r (NormallyCp,l >Cp,g, then(i1 - t,) <(t2k tzn
Theuseful refrigeratingeffectin theevaporatoris q2 = whichis equivaientto
h
2ic
- h{ .The refrigerating effectthen IS qv (h
2k
- h{ as is the case
for a cycle with internal vapor superheat according to section 3.39. Also all the other
expressionsgivenin that section, forYz, COP2d, and COP
1d
, applyto the case
aliquid-suctionheatexchanger.
3.42 the factorsY2 and )'3 are negative, the use ofa liquid-suction heat exchanger has a
detrimentalinfluenceonthecycleperformanceas such, whilepositivevalues ofY2 andY3
ofcourseare beneficial. The values ofY2 and however, usually are small and the use
ofa heatexchangerseldomcanbejustifiedonthis basis.
However, the use a liquid-suction exchanger 15 a to avoid heavily
detrimental influence ofexternal superheat in sections 3.38 and 3
This type of exchanger often is used in systems with iong or uninsulated suction
lines between evaporator and compressor. OVving to the raised temperature
suctionvaportheheattransfertothe pipingsfrom thesurroundings wi.ll be diminished or
fbJlv eliminated_ Insteadof'.vastingthecorresponding refrigerating effecthil; the
surroundings, it is to subcoo! liquid refrigerant at the high side An
additional advantage is reduced problems with condensing moisture on the
surface.
343 statements are m
b
3. and extensions
3
Liquid subcooling
Internal vapor superheat
External vapor superheat
Y3,COP
z
iCOP
ld
Y3,COP
2
iCOPld
Values of factors
refrigerants,
and y.i are given in tables of Appendix B for a number of
3.
3
h
p
C. Two stage cycles
C1. Introduction
3
Refrigerating cycles v,,1th large temperature lift, i. e. large difference between condensing
and evaporating temperatures, t1 and . make two-stage schemes more and more
attractive Already at moderate temperature difference lifts, say t2 - t2 > 50:::C, such
schemes better efficiency than ordinary one-stage cycle.
f
One-stage compression systems will result in unfavorable operating conditions due to the
large pressure ratios for the compressor at large temperature lifts With piston type
compressors the highest acceptable pressure ratio is 8 to 10. With a condensing
temperature of ....30C this corresponds for refrigerant R22 to a lowest evaporator
temperature of-32 to -37C; for :Nn3 it corresponds to -26 to -30
c
C and for R134a to
to -32C. There are other types of compressors that have better ability to operate at
large pressure ratio but the possibility to improve the efficiency of the cycle make two-
stage (or multi-stage) systems interesting also for such cases.
3.45
In this part of the chapter a number of different schemes will be discussed. Methods will
be shown for simple calculations of such schemes. The choice of intermediate
temperature, tm (or intermediate pressure, pm) will be discussed and relations given
the optimum tm for minimum energy demand. Finally examples on cycle performance \vill
be shown.
treatment will be made based on t\VO stage cycles and comparisons with (IDe-stage.
However, the discussion about methods of treatment are equally applicable to multistage
schemes.
C2. Different cycles
3
Two stage compression
A basic refrigerating scheme is given in Figure 3.46, where a two stage compression is
arranged. This will obviously reduce the pressure ratio for each compressor. It is
beneficia: to arrange with an inter-cooler for the gas between the two compression stages
by which the inlet temperature to the second compressor stage is Imvered.
The potential benefits with a two stage compression is shovvn for a idealized case in,
Table 3.46. The symbol EL and EH are used for the work of the Imv and high pressure
compressor, while denotes the work for a compressor operating in one stage. The
table give ratio for isentropic compression,' hence no considerat:on
is given to the effiCIency differenCes fOf \vith different pressure
ratio. The assumption is made that the working fluid is an ideal (two different K-
that the compression is an . that
arranged so that the' gas same stages Furthermore the
intermediate pressure IS chosen so that the pressure IS equal stages (hence
= p2) These assumptions are those usually discussed in textbooks in
3
thermodynamics For the applications In
are fulfilled in The benefits two-stage considerably
better what is indicated in the table, when taking the influence of the compressor
efficiencies account
Table 3.46 Potential benefits (ratio (EL";EnJIE1-SugJ with two stage: compression
with ideal gas, isentropic compression, equal pressure ratio and inter-
to inlet ...
Overall
0,837
0,904
15
0,809
25
0,774
50
0,682
0,838
lnp
I
I
h
Figure 3.46. A refrigerating cycle with two stage compression The
figure ShOH' the cycle in an hJn(p) -diagram.
Two stage throttling
In refrigeration two-stage compression
mcrease is by combining the two compression with two stage
for Pf"T,(""lc,r,
a way of the throttling losses.
3:38
h
3
)ns
To
hll'
30r
a c>uu.!J"..
cycle is shown in figure 3
is not normally in prjictice) a
special"sub-cooling"compressor in the
is introduced. This compressor
on
handles "flash-gas" formed after the first
~
throttling stage.. The equivalent ofthis
"economizer"schemeswherethe"flash" gas
is introducedbetweencompressorstages(or
a one-stage compressor at a point where
thecompressionhas reachedan intermediate
pressure, see e.. g. 7..35) ..
Figure 3..47. A refrigerating cycle with
twostagethrottling.
3..48 A combination ofthe schemes figure 3..46 and 3..47 is the one ShO\vl1 in figure 3.48a,
whichis aclassical arrangement. In principlethesame performance is achieved by hd.vtu/:',
a sub-cooling heat exchanger as indicated figure 3A8b ofthe liquid instead ofthe two
stagethrottlingasshowninthefirst scheme.
Question: Is the in theh-In(p)-diagramthe samefor both arrangements? Makeyour own
commentstothisandthinkaboutwhichinfluencethis canhave.
kH
lnp
h.
3. a two
throttlingwiththe cycleinanh,ln(p) -diagrwrlc
3.. 39
b
Figure3. 48b. Two stage compressionsystem withaliquidsub-cooler
3.49 A disadvantage ofthe cycle in 3.48 is that the inlet gas temperature to the second
compression stage may be relatively high. Especiallywith ammonia as refugerant this is
sometimes a problem. The standard solution for this case is to use an arrangement as
shov.'l1 in Figure 3.49. Here the gas is arranged to pass through the liquid in the
intennediate vessel between the throttling stages. This is a so called "bubble through"
inter-cooling arrangement. By the direct contact between the gas and the liquid gas
will have a temperaturecloseto saturation, i.e. a temperature-= t
m
, at inlet to the second
stagecompressor.
lnp
/

/


h
3. of and stage
"bubble through"inter-cooling, withthe cyclein anh, dzagram.
b
t
CHAPTER 3. COA1PRESSIOX CYCLE
It IS Ob\'10U5 applications
3
where there are loads at two
different levels 3.48 ,and
3.49 can be used to both loads
in an effective way indicated in
Figure 3.50 this is arranged by having
an intennediate evaporator connected
to the suction line of the stage
compressor. The intennediate
temperature (pressure) between the
throttling stages must be controlled to a
level which 1S suitable the
intennediate load.
FIgure 3.50. Scheme of {,vo
evaporators at /'11,'0 temperature levels.
3 51 Another classical scheme, a so called cascade system, is given in 3.51. Compared
to the previous schemes this system offers the possibility to use different in the two
The refiigerant for the low temperature stage can be chosen so that the operating
pressures in the cycle w'ill be at a suitable level also for very low temperatures In the
evaporator. This has the advantage in tenns of the volumetric capacity for the 101,',,'
temperature stage - reducing sizing of piping and "size" of low temperature compressor
compared to the situation if a regular scheme had been used with the' same refrigerant In
both stages. The disadvantage of the scheme is that an additional temperature difference
is introduced benveen the two stages due to the heat exchanger "Nf' in 3.51.
lnp
I
a ilro stage ". For simpl{jication.
in rhe two stages are shown same hln(p)-diagram, as if the
was used Normally this is not case.
3:4
t
3
35l.
notat belower in the tempe:ature stage: Assume
stageoperates between-40.. with The pressures of
be about 10 and 26,5 bar. WIth 'Nrh in the hIgh temperature stage operatmg oetween -
15 and +30 the pressures will be 2,9 to 11,7 bar. The vapor volume flow for the low
stage COz-compressorwill be smaller than to high side amIllonia compressor due to
the different refrigerants. A system ofthis type. will result in more compact units on the
lowtemperaturesidethaninaconventionaltwo stagesystem.
A specialproblemthatmust be solved is how to handle astand by situation: Ifthe plant
ofsome reason is stopped the temperatures in the lowtemperature stage will increase
and so will thepressures Thissituationmustbe caredfor, andthereare different ways to
solveit.
Comparativeoverview
3 52 Fora casewith condensingtemperaturet1 == 30Cand an evaporatortemperaturet2
35C overalltheoretical results areshown in table 3.52 Anumber ofdifferent cycles are
analyzed in the figure. For ali two stage systems shown, the intermediate pressure is
chosen so that it will correspond to tm =: -5C. Idealized cycles are assumed with
isentropic compression processes with a number ofdifferent refrigerants Numbers are
givenfor
- theidealCOPof the cycles(COP2d)defined asCOPd,2o,tage
- theidealvolumetriccoolingcapacityq'i, two stage= Q2U/(V2L
comparedtothe numbers for the single stage cycle (case 1)Datain the figure also give
the ratios between the volumeflow to the high and to the low stage compressor (ratio
V
2H
to V2LJ forthe different two stage schemes.
Notice that no consideration has been made to account for the influence of the
compressor perfonnance. In practice this will have a considerable in..f1uence, increasing
the benefits oftwo-stag'e alternatives as will be discussed later on, see the example in
3.66
Severalconclusions canbedrawnformthedatain the figure. One important conclusion
is that the two stage throttling is a very effective way to increase the efficiency ofthe
cycles, especially with organic refrigerants (all in thetable except ammonia, R717) The
scheme \-vith the "sub-cooling compressor", (scheme no 4), gives almost the same cycle
efficiency as the full two stage schemes, ( no 3 and 5) for these refrigerants For
ammonia, the situation is some\vhat different: With 1';1-13 the tV.,lO stage throttling,
(scheme no 4), gives about halftheimprovements comparedto the scheme no 5. Notice
also that the schemeno 5 is moreeffective than no 3 for arnmorja, while the differences
betweenthetwocycles (5 and3) for the otherrefrigerantsare small.
The phenomenon discussed
dominating ofcycle'
ofammoniathe
ects, ofcourse the fact
case
throttling
b
3
NH3 R12 R22 RS02 R134a R152a
t
/--\
\2J[it-_.-,;.....-

lB
T,
J
..
rD
(
I
I
I
i
i
U
.,.
V
2H

Ti
I
........
,
V2.L
i
I
,
E =1
d CD I
!
n - t
{Cd CD I
a = I
"'1/ CD f
@
qv CD
,
2.77 2.74 2.73 2.47 2.66 2.76
0.756 0.748 0.675 0.726 0.754
886 549 925 902 478 485
LOO LOa LOO LOO LOO
0.74 0.73 0.74 0.77 0.76
0.35 0.37 0.36 0.31 0.32.
LI6 us 1. 22 us US
0.82 O. 'JI 0.88 0.97 0.97 0.92.
0.40 0.44 C.45 0.49 0.40 0.40
l.08 l.L6 1.14 l.22 U8 l.lS
l.l0 1.20 Li8 1 27 1.20
0.04 0.09 C.08 0.13 0.09 0.08
1.14 1.16 L 15 L22. 1.18 us
!""\
0.88
""' A-
U.-";Jf G.97
'"'?
.'::1-
G.!.':::' C.SO
,-., i'''"''
-+0 0.40
3
C3. Relations
made in similar way as
1S seen in case a cascade
consistsof twoone-stagecycles. althoughinterconnectedso thatthecondenserpmver
3.54
cycles. Thisfact, of
two
...... -' ~ ...... .
thelowtemperature stageis equal to the evaporatorload on the high temperaturestage.
Still the same type principle can be used also for the other schemes for t\vo-stage
systems.
Hence, data for the lowtemperature stage is estimated as a one stage system operating
between the evaporator temperature, t
2
, and a condensing temperature, t
m
) w.hich is
determined bythe intermediatepressure,pm
355 The refrigerant massflow rate in the low temperature stage is thus given by, (symbols
areexplainedin Figure3.49):
m.
Inordertocalculatetherefrigerantmassflow inthehightemperature stageit is useful to
make an energy balance around a system including the intennediate liquid receiver and
the connectingpiping (as also indicatedinfigure 3.49). The same result is also achieved
ifone considers that the load for the high temperature stage ((7H ) is the sum ofall
energyinputto the lowtemperaturestage Ch +E
Id
) including any coolingload at the
intermediate level (Q,m) Hencewecan write
3.55b
where Qm = Q,+Eli +Chm
Thelatterexpression can.also bewritten:
where 3.55d
Thesymbol COP
L
is the coefficient ofperformanceforthe
= Ch/EkL
3.56 Thevolumetricrefrigerantvaporflow rateforthe temperaturestageis given
3
v =
is the a
evaporatortemperature, t2 and liquid temperaturebeforethrottling
we
b
-----.. . . ~ .....-..-
...
_.... __ Q2H
3
=
) q',H
IS the volumetric cooling capacity for a cycle operating between intermediate
f
"evaporator" temperature t2 = tm and a liquid temperature before throttiing tsH
(nonnally slightly lower than the system condensing temperature tl)'
4000
2000
/":::-OD
1evo
400
f--'
--4-_

'--+--,-

,
,
,
, '
,
, ,
,
/
,
i ,
I ''/ ,I
,
r
-'
,
II , .



--J
=-
-- I /
.v 1/__
Co /

I'y /
/' '/ /
y
,
!i / / i
I
i
,
"
II /
I i
,
,
j II / :
I
, , , :
!
/ / '/
I
' I'
,
,
"
,
/ II
_-'
,
'/
/
IZ 7:1
1/7,
,
,
I; y
Ii
i
,
i
'f /--j
';
: i
:
,
i
;v /11--1
I i
i
i
i
,
:
--;- ,
, , , ,
r::----=,/ -----1/
.... _-" -- -':;:-::-:=-.:.- . -'--------
-----
------ *--':/-;I
'-- I - - i. __ ---'-------- .--,.
-, "-%01':
---'-- .. ._-.._-
.... -
.. :.
.--r-----,:._____
..i-._ .
,-



... - T-=-,

. :.
_.L
.- ...

J-::

--::---=.1::::::::::--:



'---:i
:.1 --
r
--- - - . .-1
-j----
[/,,, - .
..-.
i-- -,-
l -
- f ":---,-:,---
i
. .
-:-----i -
. -
,
-
60
o
3. 56a,
for /1
3
---..

and 1\113 and R12 are given in figures 3.56a 3.560.
-
CoO
500
300
'.
-'To
/
/ / ~ / ; , . , O
';'f
/ / /-/
'/ /..1.
/ / V
/ / /'
5000
I5 (){I
3. 56b. etnc refrigerant
3
-
3.
is to between
3
temperature stages. For a case with
equations 356 a and
357
Thjs ratio is illustrated in figure 3. . For this diagram it is assumed that ~ r n 0 and the
factor x is determined as if the low stage compressor operates with isentropic
compression (hence x = b-lI COP
dL
\vith COP
dL
as for an ideal cycle, compare 3.
Curves are given for R22 and R 717 with different values of t2 but for all cases the
condensing temperature is assumed tl 30(,
Why is this ratio interesting? - p'or a practical case the intermediate pressure will be
determined by the balance between the low and high stage compressors, Itis hence
indicative of the "size" the high stage compressor in relation to the low stage.
Example: For a case with t1 = 30
c
eand (2 -40cC and ""lth intermediate temperature
-1 aoe we find from Figure 3.57 that for
)itl3 the volume flow ratio is V
lL
0,35
while for R22 it is V
2H
rV
2L
== 0,44.
1
0,8
~ 3
t) 08
/
- b::; ~ j -30 -20 -/0
I-
'-rn
....
-----.--..~ - - - - - ...~ - - -
358 We must
the compressors
and high
and ilsL
stagecompressors we can
3
3 59 In a similar fashion thepower to operate the compressors are calculated from relations
wehavelearnedfrom theanalysis of onestagecycles, seee.g. equations3.32aand 3.33b
or the approach shown in 3.26. Rewriting equation 3.26e for our case, introducing the
relationsforlowand hightemperaturestagesweget
3.59a
3.59b and
where COP2dL and COP2dH are the coefficient ofperformance ofthe refrigerant cycles
defined as in point 3.23 for theiow and high temperaturestages, respectively. These are
defined assuming isentropic compression, which also is the basis for the total isentropic
efficiencies, rtKL and T/k:...:;, forthetwo compressorsintroducedin the equations.
3 For the two stage cycle we can introduce a total coefficient ofperformance,
defined as
3.60a
Using the relations of3 59a-b we can obviously (by inverting the equation) derive the
following expressionfor COP2st4ge:
x
- - - ~ i ------ 360b
COP2s1age
This is valid for the case that there is no extra cooling load the intermediate
temperature level(G", == 0).
3.61 The coefficients ofperformance, COP
2dL
and COP
2dH
, can conveniently be expressed
also by using the concept ofrefrigerant Camot efficiency, 17Cd, as introduced in point
3.34. By this concept we can hence calculate COP2dL and from the followir,g
expressIOns:
:::
3 a
T
- - ~ ~ : - 3 Ib
T T
... ~ .1 rr:

--
the
1.00
o.
0.90
0.85
0.80 +
0.75
0.70
0.60
,for in low
and R22 are shown in figJre 3.61 .
"'0
0
<is
.....
cu
:>.
Go)
C
cu
u
::=
cu
cu
u
:>.
u
...
0
c
....
<is
0
-60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 o 10
Evaporatortemperature, DC
1.00
"0
0
0,95
<is
...
cu
0.00
>.
t)
c
cu
0.85
i;::
-
t)
0.80
cu
cu
t)
0,75
>.
t)
...
0,70
0
c
....
<is 0.65
()
0.60
-60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 o 10
Evaporatortemperature, DC
Figure 3.61. Refrigerant elficienc}', 'lCd, for wzth t; tJ for ammonia
(upper curves) R22 part of [he diagram)
Optimumintermediatepressure
the pressure should
to two stage
for
chosen to
as mentioned
J ~ - J . This means

to
objective it can
intermediatetemperature that
are equal and temperature stages) is the arithmetic
temperaturestl and t2 rulegives hencethattm should
m
and cycleefficiencies
mean value the
chosenas
tro (t1+t2)/2 3
Forthepracticalcasethereis, however, astrongi11f1uence of compressor'-Lil;""',"'-,!,",,,
Experience show that the efficiency ofthe low stage compressor is considerably lower
thanthat thehighstage, or 77kL <T/kK Thiswilltendtolowertheoptimumt
m
,
3,63 In order to derive to an expression for the best choice ofintermediate pressure (tem-
perature)\ve musthencetakeinto accountthecompressorefficiencies as weU asthe
ciencyoftherefrigerant cycle, Thelatterinfluenceishere simplifiedto linearexpressions
as
3.63a and
\vhichrelationsweherehaveintroducedtwoparameters,aL aH.
It can now be shown that the highest COP2st;;ge is achieved if the intermediate
temperatureis chosenaccordingto the following expression:
where Z
-
-
l+Z
3.63b
we have aL aH and rrKL T/kH thenZ :::::; I and the equation 3.63bwill give same
result asthesimplerelation 3.62
3. Example: Let us assume a case using ammonia as refrigerant with t2 -40C and tl =
- 3 Thelowstagecompressorhasanefficiencyofi?kL 0,60 and onthe high sidewe
have T/klf 0,70, From the diagrams in figure 361, assuming [m -10C, for the cycles
we can read that the Carnot efficiency for the cycles are 1]CdL 0,88 and 1]CdH'- 0,85.
Thesenumbers correspondto (1-0,88)/30 = 0,0038 andaH (1-0,85)/40
h
'11' 0.0040 /070 b .
T IS WL gIve Z:::: .' . 1-'-::::I 03 Eq.3.673 givenow:
0,0038 V '
______..._'______1_. -=--____1, = 269_99
,
259K -14
0,0040 1+1,03
(Theinfluence ofthe assumptionwe did in the calculations ofa intermediate temperature for the
t", -lOce, has a
Thisresult canbe 3. from whichweget to the simple rule
as bestvalue.
is not sensiti....e ifthe actual IS
Theequation3. is moreof a theoretical interestin
total COP
a
sense.
degrees off
t
CHAPTER 3. COMPRESSIOX
Example
3 As mentioned the
stage compressors
units This is partly
increased heat transfer
conclude this treatment
to
to
a
eftlciencies have a Especially
lower efficiencies than is for high stage
lower mean pressure in compressor, partly due to
cold gas entering low compressor. To
for an example will be shown. The foliO\ving empirical
relations for the compressor efficiencies have been used:
Isentropic compressor (Pierre, Kylteknik ak, KTH, p
k _
7]K?:-(6/,6
. 100
where k ?: 0,95 for a recmroc2ltln compressor (with bore 125 mm and stroke 90mm)
P: = exit pressure = condensing pressure for intermediate for the
low stage compressor)
p: = inlet pressure intermediate pressure for the evaporator
pressure for the low compressor).
I)
For the compressor volumetric a simple empirical relation are used. to Ll'tis ,ve
can estimate the volumetric from the relation (Kimura, The Journal of Refrigeration,
no 5 p 116):
TjS ?: 0,95-
where, for arnmonia: n?: 1,28
for high stage compressors: X P,/Pm hence = the pressure ratio
for low st:1.ge compressors: X P,,/(P2 - OJ) where pressures are in bar.
Results are shown in figures 3.66 a-d. For all cases ammorua IS as the
and the condensing temperature is 11 :::: 30e.
of the intermediate temperature tm on the total need for
and on the COP is shown in 3.66 a - b for a case v"ith
volumes
simple rule of3.62 would give tm = -SoC for minimum
(maximum COP2st1lge). As seen from the in figure 3.66b the minimum occurs at a
few lower value - but the minimum is quite flat. The curve for the total
compressor swept volumes (figure 3.66a) show a similar result.
A two system is more complex than a one-stage system. For large temperature
lifts, a two stage system will result in a lower total demand for swept volume in
compressors than a one stage system. This is shown in a more clear \vay in the diagram
of figure 3 The curves for one and two solutions intersects, for this example,
at t2 about (for the case with t; = 30 means that for lower evaporator
temperature than this, the two stage solution will less total compressor swept
volume than the one stage solution oft\\'o compressors)
, indicate in a similar way
two systems are
the irnprovement a tv,'o
temperature
cases, but the benefit is
30C. For evaporator
is more than

REFPJGERA Tll,'G ENGINEERING
improvements
refrigerant cycle as compressor efficiencies) IS less
impressive than what canbe expected in practice when the compressor efficiencies are
takenintoaccounL

5-

""
Q
>
interme(ji-ate tsrttperature, tm, ?C
3.66 a: Injluence of the intermediate temperature
volumes incompressors.
I 0,002 ......
-40 -20 -10 o 10 20 30
on the total need for swept
O,g
0,8
0.7
0.6
0,5
0,4
0-
0
<;:2
0,3
"...
0,2
0 1 0
n
'-'
-40
Intermedfate
3:52
3.666 on
CYCLE 3. THE VAPOR

-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 o
Evaporator temperature, c
Figure 3.66c Demand/or swept volumes in compressors as afunction ofthe
evaporator temperature for one stage and Mo stage cycles
0,6
Q2
-50 -40 ..30 -20 -10 o
Evaporator
0,8
0,7
---(EL+EH}compsl
......Eone-stage ,d!C2
N
0,5
Q
w
:1
0,4
D...
0

0,3
0,2
0,1
0

3:54