Fouling

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Jump to: navigation, search This article is about fouling in engineering. For uses of the term foul outside technology, see foul. Not to be confused with fowling.

Heat exchanger in a steam power plant, fouled by macro fouling

Condenser tube with residues of biofouling cut open!

Condenser tube with calcium carbonate scaling cut open!

"rass tube with corrosion traces cut open!

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Fouling refers to the accumulation of unwanted material on solid surfaces, most often in an a'uatic environment% #he fouling material can consist of either living organisms biofouling! or a non(living substance inorganic or organic!% Fouling is usually distinguished from other surface(growth phenomena in that it occurs on a surface of a component, system or plant performing a defined and useful function, and that the fouling process impedes or interferes with this function% )ther terms used in the literature to describe fouling include: deposit formation, encrustation, crudding, deposition, scaling, scale formation, slagging, and sludge formation% #he last six terms have a more narrow meaning than fouling within the scope of the fouling science and technology, and they also have meanings outside of this scope* therefore, they should be used with caution% Fouling phenomena are common and diverse, ranging from fouling of ship hulls, natural surfaces in the marine environment marine fouling!, fouling of heat(transfer components through ingredients contained in the cooling water or gases, and even the development of pla'ue or calculus on teeth, or deposits on solar panels on +ars, among other examples% #his article is primarily devoted to the fouling of industrial heat exchangers, although the same theory is generally applicable to other varieties of fouling% ,n the cooling technology and other technical fields, a distinction is made between macro fouling and micro fouling% )f the two, micro fouling is the one which is usually more difficult to prevent and therefore more important%

Contents
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/ Components sub0ect to fouling 1 +acro fouling 2 +icro fouling o 2%/ $recipitation fouling o 2%1 $articulate fouling o 2%2 Corrosion fouling o 2%3 Chemical reaction fouling o 2%4 5olidification fouling o 2%6 "iofouling o 2%7 Composite fouling o 2%8 Fouling on +ars 3 9uantification of fouling 4 $rogress of fouling with time 6 Fouling modelling

7 #he economic and environmental importance of fouling 8 Fouling control : 5ee also /; <eferences // =xternal links

[edit] Components subject to fouling

#he following are examples of components that may be sub0ect to fouling and the corresponding effects of fouling:

Heat exchanger surfaces ( reduces thermal efficiency, decreases heat flux, increases temperature on the hot side, decreases temperature on the cold side, induces under(deposit corrosion, increases use of cooling water* $iping, flow channels ( reduces flow, increases pressure drop, increases upstream pressure, increases energy expenditure, may cause flow oscillations, slugging in two(phase flow, cavitation* may increase flow velocity elsewhere, may induce vibrations, may cause flow blockage* 5hip hulls ( creates additional drag, increases fuel usage, reduces maximum speed*-/. #urbines ( reduces efficiency, increases probability of failure* 5olar panels ( decreases the electrical power generated* <everse osmosis membranes ( increases pressure drop, increases energy expenditure, reduces flux, membrane failure in severe cases!-1.* =lectrical heating elements ( increases temperature of the element, increases corrosion, reduces lifespan* >uclear fuel in pressuri?ed water reactors ( axial offset anomaly-2., may need to de(rate the power plant* ,n0ection@spray no??les e%g%, a no??le spraying a fuel into a furnace! ( incorrect amount in0ected, malformed 0et, component inefficiency, component failure* Aenturi tubes, orifice plates ( inaccurate or incorrect measurement of flow rate* $itot tubes in airplanes ( inaccurate or incorrect indication of airplane speed* 5park plug electrodes in cars ( engine misfiring-3.* #eeth ( promotes tooth or gum disease, decreases aesthetics%

[edit] Macro fouling

+acro fouling is caused by coarse matter of either biological or inorganic origin, for example industrially produced refuse% 5uch matter enters into the cooling water circuit through the cooling water pumps from sources like the open sea, rivers or lakes% ,n closed circuits, like cooling towers, the ingress of macro fouling into the cooling tower basin is possible through open canals or by the wind% 5ometimes, parts of the cooling tower internals detach themselves and are carried into the cooling water circuit% 5uch substances can foul the surfaces of heat exchangers and may cause deterioration of the

relevant heat transfer coefficient% #hey may also create flow blockages, redistribute the flow inside the components, or cause fretting damage% =xamples +anmade refuse* Betached internal parts of components* Clgae* +ussels* Deaves, parts of plants up to entire trunks%

[edit] Micro fouling

Cs to micro fouling, distinctions are made between:-4.

5caling or precipitation fouling, as crystalli?ation of solid salts, oxides and hydroxides from water solutions, for example, calcium carbonate or calcium sulfate* $articulate fouling, i%e%, accumulation of particles, typically colloidal particles, on a surface* Corrosion fouling, i%e%, in(situ growth of corrosion deposits, for example, magnetite on carbon steel surfaces* Chemical reaction fouling, for example, decomposition or polymeri?ation of organic matter on heating surfaces* 5olidification fouling ( when components of the flowing fluid with a high(melting point free?e onto a subcooled surface* "iofouling, like settlements of bacteria and algae* Composite fouling, whereby fouling involves more than one foulant or fouling mechanism%

[edit] Precipitation fouling

#emperature dependence of the solubility of calcium sulfate 2 phases! in pure water% #he water is pressuri?ed so that it can be maintained in the li'uid state at the elevated temperatures% 5caling or precipitation fouling involves crystalli?ation of solid salts, oxides and hydroxides from solutions% #hese are most often water solutions, but non(a'ueous precipitation fouling is also known% $recipitation fouling is a very common problem in boilers and heat exchangers operating with hard water and often results in limescale% #hrough changes in temperature, or solvent evaporation or degasification, the concentration of salts may exceed the saturation, leading to a precipitation of solids usually crystals!% Cs an example, the e'uilibrium between the readily soluble calcium bicarbonate ( always prevailing in natural water ( and the poorly soluble calcium carbonate, the following chemical e'uation may be written:

#he calcium carbonate that forms through this reaction precipitates% Bue to the temperature dependence of the reaction, and increasing volatility of C)1 with increasing temperature, the scaling is higher at the hotter outlet of the heat exchanger than at the cooler inlet% ,n general, the dependence of the salt solubility on temperature or presence of evaporation will often be the driving force for precipitation fouling% #he important distinction is between salts with EnormalE or EretrogradeE dependence of solubility on temperature% #he salts with the EnormalE solubility increase their solubility with increasing temperature and thus will foul the cooling surfaces% #he salts with EinverseE or

EretrogradeE solubility will foul the heating surfaces% Cn example of the temperature dependence of solubility is shown in the figure% Calcium sulfate is a common precipitation foulant of heating surfaces due to its retrograde solubility% $recipitation fouling can also occur in the absence of heating or vapori?ation% For example, calcium sulfate decreases it solubility with decreasing pressure% #his can lead to precipitation fouling of reservoirs and wells in oil fields, decreasing their productivity with time%-6. Fouling of membranes in reverse osmosis systems can occur due to differential solubility of barium sulfate in solutions of different ionic strength-1.% 5imilarly, precipitation fouling can occur because of solubility changes induced by other factors, e%g%, li'uid flashing, li'uid degassing, redox potential changes, or mixing of incompatible fluid streams% #he following lists some of the industrially common phases of precipitation fouling deposits observed in practice to form from a'ueous solutions:

Calcium carbonate calcite, aragonite usually at t F G4; HC, or rarely vaterite!* Calcium sulfate anhydrite, hemihydrate, gypsum!* Calcium oxalate e%g%, beerstone!* "arium sulfate barite!* +agnesium hydroxide brucite!* magnesium oxide periclase!* 5ilicates serpentine, acmite, gyrolite, gehlenite, amorphous silica, 'uart?, cristobalite, pectolite, xonotlite!* Cluminium oxide hydroxides boehmite, gibbsite, diaspore, corundum!* Cluminosilicates analcite, cancrinite, noselite!* Copper metallic copper, cuprite, tenorite!* $hosphates hydroxyapatite!* +agnetite or nickel ferrite >iFe1)3! from extremely pure, low(iron water%-7.

[edit] Particulate fouling

Fouling by particles suspended in water EcrudE! or in gas progresses by a mechanism different than precipitation fouling% #his process is usually most important for colloidal particles, i%e%, particles smaller than about / Im in at least one dimension but which are much larger than atomic dimensions!% $articles are transported to the surface by a number of mechanisms and there they can attach themselves, e%g%, by flocculation or coagulation% >ote that the attachment of colloidal particles typically involves electrical forces and thus the particle behaviour defies the experience from the macroscopic world% #he probability of attachment is sometimes referred to as Esticking probabilityE, which for colloidal particles is a function of both the surface chemistry and the local thermohydraulic conditions% "eing essentially a surface chemistry phenomenon, this fouling mechanism can be very sensitive to factors that affect colloidal stability, e%g%, ?eta potential% C maximum fouling rate is usually observed when the fouling particles and the substrate exhibit opposite electrical charge, or near the point of ?ero charge of either of them%

$articles larger than those of colloidal dimensions may also foul e%g%, by sedimentation or straining in small(si?e openings% With time, the resulting surface deposit may harden through processes collectively known as Edeposit consolidationE or, collo'uially, EagingE% #he common particulate fouling deposits formed from a'ueous suspensions include:

iron oxides and iron oxyhydroxides magnetite, hematite, lepidocrocite, maghemite, goethite!* 5edimentation fouling by silt and other relatively coarse suspended matter%

Fouling by particles from gas aerosols is also of industrial significance% #he particles can be either solid or li'uid% #he common examples can be fouling by flue gases, or fouling of air(cooled components by dust in air% #he mechanisms are discussed in article on aerosol deposition%

[edit] Corrosion fouling

Corrosion deposits are created in(situ by the corrosion of the substrate% #hey are distinguished from fouling deposits, which form from material originating ex(situ% Corrosion deposits should not be confused with fouling deposits formed by ex(situ generated corrosion products% Corrosion deposits will normally have composition related to the composition of the substrate% Clso, the geometry of the metal(oxide and oxide(fluid interfaces may allow practical distinction between the corrosion and fouling deposits% Cn example of corrosion fouling can be formation of an iron oxide or oxyhydroxide deposit from corrosion of the carbon steel underneath% Corrosion fouling should not be confused with fouling corrosion, i%e%, any of the types of corrosion that may be induced by fouling%

[edit] Chemical reaction fouling

Chemical reactions may occur on contact of the chemical species in the process fluid with heat transfer surfaces% ,n such cases, the metallic surface sometimes acts as a catalyst% For example, corrosion and polymeri?ation occurs in cooling water for the chemical industry which has a minor content of hydrocarbons% 5ystems in petroleum processing are prone to polymeri?ation of olefins or deposition of heavy fractions asphaltenes, waxes, etc%!% High tube wall temperatures may lead to carboni?ing of organic matter% Food industry, for example milk processing, also experiences fouling problems by chemical reactions% Fouling through an ionic reaction with an evolution of an inorganic solid is commonly classified as precipitation fouling not chemical reaction fouling!%

[edit] Solidification fouling

5olidification fouling occurs when a component of the flowing fluid Efree?esE onto a surface forming a solid fouling deposit% =xamples may include solidification of wax

with a high melting point! from a hydrocarbon solution, or of molten ash carried in a furnace exhaust gas! onto a heat exchanger surface% #he surface needs to have a temperature below a certain threshold* therefore, it is said to be subcooled in respect to the solidification point of the foulant%

[edit] Biofouling
+ain article: "iofouling "iofouling or biological fouling is the undesirable accumulation of micro(organisms, algae and diatoms, plants, and animals on surfaces, for example shipsJ hulls, or piping and reservoirs with untreated water% #his can be accompanied by microbiologically influenced corrosion +,C!% "acteria can form biofilms or slimes% #hus the organisms can aggregate on surfaces using colloidal hydrogels of water and extracellular polymeric substances =$5! polysaccharides, lipids, nucleic acids, etc%!% #he biofilm structure is usually complex% "acterial fouling can occur under either aerobic with oxygen dissolved in water! or anaerobic no oxygen! conditions% ,n practice, aerobic bacteria prefer open systems, when both oxygen and nutrients are constantly delivered, often in warm and sunlit environments% Cnaerobic fouling more often occurs in closed systems when sufficient nutrients are present% =xamples may include sulfate(reducing bacteria or sulfur(reducing bacteria!, which produce sulfide and often cause corrosion of ferrous metals and other alloys!% 5ulfide(oxidi?ing bacteria e%g%, Ccidithiobacillus!, on the other hand, can produce sulfuric acid, and can be involved in corrosion of concrete% Kebra mussel can serve as an example of a larger animal that caused widespread fouling problem in >orth Cmerica%

[edit] Composite fouling

Composite fouling is common% #his type of fouling involves more than one foulant or more than one fouling mechanism-8. working simultaneously% #he multiple foulants or mechanisms may interact with each other resulting in a synergistic fouling which is not a simple arithmetic sum of the individual components%

[edit] Fouling on Mars

>C5C +ars =xploration <overs 5pirit and )pportunity! experienced presumably! abiotic fouling of solar panels by dust particles from the +artian atmosphere-:.% 5ome of the deposits subse'uently spontaneously cleaned off% #his illustrates the universal nature of the fouling phenomena%

[edit] Quantification of fouling

#he most straight(forward way to 'uantify fairly uniform fouling is by stating the average deposit surface loading, i%e%, kg of deposit per mL of surface area% #he fouling rate will then be expressed in kg@mLs, and it is obtained by dividing the deposit surface loading by the effective operating time% #he normali?ed fouling rate also in kg@mLs! will additionally account for the concentration of the foulant in the process fluid kg@kg! during preceding operations, and is useful for comparison of fouling rates between different systems% ,t is obtained by dividing the fouling rate by the foulant concentration% #he fouling rate constant m@s! can be obtained by dividing the normali?ed fouling rate by the mass density of the process fluid kg@mM!% Beposit thickness Im! and porosity N! are also often used for description of fouling amount% #he relative reduction of diameter of piping or increase of the surface roughness can be of particular interest when the impact of fouling on pressure drop is of interest% ,n heat transfer e'uipment, where the primary concern is often the effect of fouling on heat transfer, fouling can be 'uantified by the increase of the resistance to the flow of heat mLO@W! due to fouling termed Efouling resistanceE!, or by development of heat transfer coefficient W@mLO! with time% ,f under(deposit or crevice corrosion is of primary concern, it is important to note packing of confined regions with deposits or creation of occluded EcrevicesE% #he non( uniformity of deposit thickness e%g%, deposit waviness! can also be important if underdeposit corrosion of material e%g%, intergranular attack, pitting, stress corrosion cracking! is of concern% $orosity and permeability of the deposits will likely influence the probability of underdeposit corrosion% Beposit composition can also be important(even minor components of the deposits can sometimes cause severe corrosion of the underlying metal e%g%, vanadium in deposits of fired boilers causing hot corrosion!% #here is no general rule on how much deposit can be tolerated, it depends on the system% ,n many cases, a deposit even a few micrometers thick can be troublesome% C deposit in a millimeter(range thickness will be of concern in almost any application%

[edit] Progress of fouling ith time

Beposit on a surface does not always develop steadily with time% #he following fouling scenarios can be distinguished, depending on the nature of the system and the local thermohydraulic conditions at the surface:

!nduction period. 5ometimes, a near(nil fouling rate is observed when the surface is new or very clean% #his is often observed in biofouling and precipitation fouling% Cfter the Einduction periodE, the fouling rate increases% "#egative" fouling. #his can occur when fouling rate is 'uantified by monitoring heat transfer% <elatively small amounts of deposit can improve heat transfer, relative to clean surface, and give an appearance of EnegativeE fouling rate and negative total fouling amount% >egative fouling is often observed under nucleate( boiling heat(transfer conditions deposit improves bubble nucleation! or forced(

convection if the deposit increases the surface roughness and the surface is no longer Ehydraulically smoothE!% Cfter the initial period of Esurface roughness controlE, the fouling rate usually becomes strongly positive% $inear fouling. #he fouling rate can be steady with time% #his is a common case% Falling fouling. &nder this scenario, the fouling rate decreases with time, but never drops to ?ero% #he deposit thickness does not achieves a constant value% #he progress of fouling can be often described by two numbers: the initial fouling rate a tangent to the fouling curve at ?ero deposit loading or ?ero time! and the fouling rate after a long period of time an obli'ue asymptote to the fouling curve!% %s&mptotic fouling. Here, the fouling rate decreases with time, until it finally reaches ?ero% Ct this point, the deposit thickness remains constant with time a hori?ontal asymptote!% #his is often the case for relatively soft or poorly adherent deposits in areas of fast flow% #he asymptote is usually interpreted as the deposit loading at which the deposition rate e'uals the deposit removal rate% %ccelerating fouling. &nder this scenario, the fouling rate increases with time* the rate of deposit buildup accelerates with time perhaps until it becomes transport limited!% +echanistically, this scenario can develop when fouling increases the surface roughness, or when the deposit surface exhibits higher chemical propensity to fouling than the pure underlying metal% Seesa fouling% Here, fouling loading generally increases with time often assuming a generally linear or falling rate!, but, when looked at in more detail, the fouling progress is periodically interrupted and takes the form of sawtooth curve% #he periodic sharp variations in the apparent fouling amount often correspond to the moments of system shutdowns, startups or other transients in operation% #he periodic variations are often interpreted as periodic removal of some of the deposit perhaps deposit re(suspension due to pressure pulses, spalling due thermal stresses, or exfoliation due to redox transients!% 5team blanketing has been postulated to occur between the partially spalled deposits and the heat transfer surface% However, other reasons are possible, e%g%, trapping of air inside the surface deposits during shutdowns, or inaccuracy of temperature measurements during transients Etemperature streamingE!%-/;.

[edit] Fouling modelling

5chematics of the fouling process consisting of simultaneous foulant deposition and deposit removal% Fouling of a system can be modelled as consisting of several steps:

Peneration or ingress of the species that causes fouling Efoulant sourcingE!* Foulant transport with the stream of the process fluid most often by advection!* Foulant transport from the bulk of the process fluid to the fouling surface often by molecular or turbulent(eddy diffusion, but may also occur by inertial coasting impaction!, electrophoresis, thermophoresis, diffusiphoresis, sedimentation, evaporation, vapour diffusion with condensation, and other mechanisms!* ,nduction period, i%e%, a near(nil fouling rate at the initial period of fouling observed only for some fouling mechanisms!* Foulant crystalli?ation on the surface or attachment of the colloidal particle, or chemical reaction, or bacterial growth!* Beposit dissolution or re(entrainment of loosely attached particles!* Beposit consolidation on the surface e%g%, through )swald ripening or differential solubility in temperature gradient! or cementation, which account for deposit losing its porosity and becoming more tenacious with time* Beposit spalling, erosion wear, or exfoiliation%

Beposition consists of transport to the surface and subse'uent attachment% Beposit removal is either through deposit dissolution, particle re(entrainment, or deposit spalling, erosive wear, or exfoliation% Fouling results from foulant generation, foulant deposition, deposit removal, and deposit consolidation% For the modern model of fouling involving deposition with simultaneous deposit re( entrainment and consolidation-//., the fouling process can be represented by the following scheme:

Following the above scheme, the basic fouling e'uations can be written as follows for steady(state conditions with flow, when concentration remains constant with time!:

where: m is the mass loading of the deposit consolidated and unconsolidated! on the surface kg@m1!* t is time s!* k is the deposition rate constant m@s!* Q is the fluid density kg@m2!* Rr is the re(entrainment rate constant /@s!* mr is the mass loading of the removable i%e%, unconsolidated! fraction of the surface deposit kg@m1!* and Rc is the consolidation rate constant /@s!% #his system of e'uations can be integrated taking that m S ; and mr S ; at t S ;! to the form:

where R S Rr T Rc% #his model reproduces either linear, falling, or asymptotic fouling, depending on the relative values of k, Rr, and Rc% #he underlying physical picture for this model is that of a two(layer deposit consisting of consolidated inner layer and loose unconsolidated outer layer% 5uch a bi(layer deposit is often observed in practice% #he above model simplifies readily to the older model of simultaneous deposition and re(entrainment which neglects consolidation! when RcS;%

[edit] 'he economic and environmental importance of fouling

Fouling is ubi'uitous and generates tremendous operational losses, not unlike corrosion% For example, one estimate puts the losses due to fouling of heat exchangers in industriali?ed nations to be about ;%14N of their PB$-/1.% Cnother analysis-/2. estimated

for 1;;6! the economical loss due to boiler and turbine fouling in China utilities at 3%68 billion dollars, which is about ;%/6:N the country PB$ % #he losses initially result from impaired heat transfer, corrosion damage in particular under(deposit and crevice corrosion!, increased pressure drop, flow blockages, flow redistribution inside components, flow instabilities, induced vibrations possibly leading to other problems, e%g%, fatigue-/3.!, fretting, premature failure of electrical heating elements, and a large number of other often unanticipated problems% ,n addition, the ecological costs should be but typically are not! considered% #he ecological costs arise from the use of biocides for the avoidance of biofouling, from the increased fuel input to compensate for the reduced output caused by fouling, and an increased use of cooling water in once(through cooling systems% For example, EnormalE fouling at a conventionally fired 4;; +W net electrical power! power station unit accounts for output losses of the steam turbine of 4 +W and more% ,n a /,2;; +W nuclear power station, typical losses could be 1; +W and up up to /;;N if the station shuts down due to fouling(induced component degradation!% ,n seawater desalination plants, fouling may reduce the gained output ratio by two(digit percentages% #he gained output ratio is an e'uivalent that puts the mass of generated distillate in relation to the steam used in the process%! #he extra electrical consumption in compressor(operated coolers is also easily in the two(digit area% ,n addition to the operational costs, also the capital cost increases because the heat exchangers have to be designed in larger si?es to compensate for the heat(transfer loss due to fouling% #o the output losses listed above, one needs to add the cost of down(time re'uired to inspect, clean, and repair the components millions of dollars per day of shutdown in lost revenue in a typical power plant!, and the cost of actually doing this maintenance% Finally, fouling is often a root cause of serious degradation problems that may limit the life of components or entire plants%

[edit] Fouling control

#he most fundamental and usually preferred method of controlling fouling is to prevent the ingress of the fouling species into the cooling water circuit% ,n steam power stations and other ma0or industrial installations of water technology, macro fouling is avoided by way of pre(filtration and cooling water debris filters% ,n the case of micro fouling, water purification is achieved with extensive methods of water treatment, microfiltration, membrane technology reverse osmosis, electrodeioni?ation! or ion(exchange resins% #he generation of the corrosion products in the water piping systems is often minimi?ed by controlling the pH of the process fluid typically alkani?ation with ammonia, morpholine, ethanolamine or sodium phosphate!, control of oxygen dissolved in water for example, by addition of hydra?ine!, or addition of corrosion inhibitors% For water systems at relatively low temperatures, the applied biocides may be classified as follows: inorganic chlorine and bromide compounds, chlorine and bromide cleavers, o?one and oxygen cleavers, unoxidi?able biocides% )ne of the most important unoxidi?able biocides is a mixture of chloromethyl(isothia?olinone and methyl(

isothia?olinone% Clso applied are dibrom nitrilopropionamide and 'uaternary ammonium compounds% For underwater ship hulls bottom paints are applied% Chemical fouling inhibitors-/4. can reduce fouling in many systems, mainly by interfering with the crystalli?ation, attachment, or consolidation steps of the fouling process% =xamples for water systems are: chelating agents for example, =B#C!, long(chain aliphatic amines or polyamines for example, octadecylamine, helamin, and other Efilm( formingE amines!, organic phosphonic acids for example, /(hydroxyethylidene(/,/( diphosphonic acid, known as H=B$!, or polyelectrolytes for example, polyacrylic acid-/6., polymethacrylic acid, usually with a molecular weight lower than /;;;;!% For fired boilers, aluminum or magnesium additives can elevate the melting point of ash and promote creation of deposits which are easier to remove% 5ee also process chemicals% +agnetic water treatment has been a sub0ect of controversy as to its effectiveness for fouling control since /:4;s% #he prevailing opinion is that it simply Edoes not workE-/7.% >evertheless, some studies suggest that it may be effective under some conditions to reduce buildup of calcium carbonate deposits-/8.% )n the component design level, fouling can often but not always! be minimi?ed by maintaining a relatively high for example, 1 m@s! and uniform fluid velocity throughout the component% 5tagnant regions need to be eliminated% Components are normally overdesigned to accommodate the fouling anticipated between cleanings% However, a significant overdesign can be a design error because it may lead to increased fouling due to reduced velocities% $eriodic on(line pressure pulses or backflow can be effective if the capability is carefully incorporated at the design time% "lowdown capability is always incorporated into steam generators or evaporators to control the accumulation of non( volatile impurities that cause or aggravate fouling% Dow(fouling surfaces for example, very smooth, implanted with ions, or of low surface energy like #eflon! are an option for some applications% +odern components are typically re'uired to be designed for ease of inspection of internals and periodic cleaning% )n(line fouling monitoring systems are designed for some application so that blowing or cleaning can be applied before unpredictable shutdown is necessary or damage occurs% Chemical or mechanical cleaning processes for the removal of deposits and scales are recommended when fouling reaches the point of impacting the system performance or an onset of significant fouling(induced degradation e%g%, by corrosion!% #hese processes comprise pickling with acids and metal complexing agents, cleaning with high(velocity water 0ets Ewater lancingE!,recirculating sponge rubber balls, or propelling offline mechanical Ebullet(typeE tube cleaners% Whereas chemical cleaning causes environmental problems through the handling, application, storage and disposal of chemicals, the mechanical cleaning by means of circulating cleaning balls or offline Ebullet(typeE cleaning can be a more environmentally(friendly alternative% ,n some heat(transfer applications, mechanical mitigation with dynamic scraped surface heat exchangers is an option% Clso ultrasonic or abrasive cleaning methods are available for many specific applications%

[edit] See also

"oiler Cooling tower Corrosion Fouling +itigation Hard water Heat exchanger 5team generator nuclear power! #ube cleaning Water treatment

[edit] (eferences
/% ) E+arine fouling and its preventionE* prepared for "ureau of 5hips, >avy Bept, Woods
Hole )ceanographic ,nstitution, &nited 5tates, >avy Bept% "ureau of 5hip, /:41% pdf! 1% U a b 5iobhVn Francesca =% "oerlage, E5caling and $articulate Fouling in +embrane Filtration 5ystemsE, #aylor W Francis* 1;;/, ,5"> :;48;:131: Poogle books! 2% ) Joshua +% Hawkes, E#he 5imulation and 5tudy of Conditions Deading to Cxial )ffset Cnomaly in $ressuri?ed Water <eactorsE, Peorgia ,nstitute of #echnology +aster of 5cience #hesis, Becember 1;;3% pdf! 3% ) E5park $lug FacesE, brochure E"osch 5park $lugs ;2;7E, $art / pdf! 4% ) #%<% "ott, EFouling of Heat =xchangers Chemical =ngineering +onographs!E, =lsevier 5cience, /::4% 6% ) J% +oghadasi, H% +Xller(5teinhagen, +% Jamialahmadi, and C% 5harif, E5cale Beposition in $orous +edia and their <emoval by =B#C ,n0ection E, =C, =ngineering Conferences ,nternational 5ymposium 5eries, Heat =xchanger Fouling and Cleaning A,,, July /Y6, 1;;7 ( #omar, $ortugal% pdf! 7% ) E+odeling $W< Fuel Corrosion $roduct Beposition and Prowth $rocesses 4!E, #echnical <eport /;;:723, =lectric $ower <esearch ,nstitute, $alo Clto, California, &5C, 1;;3% 8% ) Hong Du, EComposite Fouling of Heat =xchanger 5urfacesE, >ova 5cience "ooks, >ew Zork, 1;;7% :% ) +ars $athfinder ( Bust 5ettling +C=! /;% ) E5team Penerator #hermal $erformance Begradation Case 5tudiesE, <eport #<( //;;/8, =lectric $ower <esearch ,nstitute, $alo Clto, California, &5C, /::8 abstract!% //% ) C%W% #urner, 5%J% Olimas, E+odelling the =ffect of 5urface Chemistry on $article Fouling &nder Flow("oiling ConditionsE, $roceeding of Heat =xchanger Fouling: Fundamental Cpproaches and #echnical 5olutions, 1;;/, July 8Y/2, Bavos, 5wit?erland, C=CD <eport /1/7/% /1% ) H% +ueller(5teinhagen, +%<% +alayeri and C%$% Watkinson, EFouling of Heat =xchanger((>ew Cpproaches to 5olve )ld $roblemE, Heat #ransfer =ngineering, 16 1!, 1;;4% /2% ) [u Khi(+ing, KHC>P Khong("in, and ZC>P 5han(<ang, ECosts due to utility fouling in ChinaE, =C, =ngineering Conferences ,nternational 5ymposium 5eries, Heat =xchanger Fouling and Cleaning A,,, July /Y6, 1;;7 ( #omar, $ortugal% pdf! /3% ) Herve ")B,>=C& and #hierry 5)DD,=<, E#ube support plate clogging up of French steam generatorsE, =urosafe webpage

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[edit] *+ternal lin,s

Crude )il Fouling research )n(line W ,n(situ fouling@biofilm@scales@slime monitoring C JgreenJ Cntifouling alternative to Chlorine fouling monitor instrumentation to 'uantify problems and solutions http:@@economictimes%indiatimes%com@articleshow@msid(271;426,flstry(/%cms #he =conomic #imes: Cleantech firms gearing up for bigger opportunities in biofouling

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