De La Salle University Dasmarias College of Engineering, Architecture and Technology Engineering Department

Professional Electives I (EEET428) Research #1: Photo-voltaic

Juan Pocholo F. Belza EEE 41

Date Submitted: February 28, 2014

Engr, Leslie Divina Instructor

PHOTOVOLTAICS
Photovoltaic (PV) is a method of generating electrical power by converting solar radiation in to electrical energy; it is clean and environmentally-friendly as CO2 is not a by-product of PV energy production. The power generation takes place in what are known as solar cells, connected together to form solar panels or modules which are arranged in arrays. The solar cells produce direct current (DC) electricity from daylight which can be used locally, stored in batteries, or transformed by an inverter in to an alternating current (AC) and fed into electricity networks or grids. Photovoltaic arrays on a flat roof capitalize on the orientation giving a maximum energy yield for the roof area; which makes a lot more sense than ground based installations with the associated soil sealing The photoelectric effect was first noted by a French physicist, Edmund Bequerel, in 1839, who found that certain materials would produce small amounts of electric current when exposed to light. In 1905, Albert Einstein described the nature of light and the photoelectric effect on which photovoltaic technology is based, for which he later won a Nobel prize in physics. The first photovoltaic module was built by Bell Laboratories in 1954. It was billed as a solar battery and was mostly just a curiosity as it was too expensive to gain widespread use. In the 1960s, the space industry began to make the first serious use of the technology to provide power aboard spacecraft. Through the space programs, the technology advanced, its reliability was established, and the cost began to decline. During the energy crisis in the 1970s, photovoltaic technology gained recognition as a source of power for non-space applications.

HOW PHOTOVOLTAICS WORKS

Solar photovoltaic is an elegant technology which produces electricity from sunlight without moving parts. In a photovoltaic cell, sunlight detaches electrons from their host silicon atoms. Tiny packets of light energy called photons are captured by electrons, and impart enough energy to kick the electron free of its host atom. Near the upper surface of the cell is a one way membrane called a PN-junction. The PNjunction is formed by diffusing tiny quantities of phosphorus to a depth of about one micrometre into a thin wafer of silicon. When a free electron crosses the PN-junction it cannot easily return, causing a negative voltage to appear on the surface facing the sun (and a positive voltage on the rear surface). The front and rear surfaces can be connected together via an external circuit in order to extract current, voltage and power from the solar cell. Solar cells are packaged behind glass to form photovoltaic modules, which have typical service lives of 20 to 40 years.

FIGURE: AN ARRANGEMENT OF PHOTOVOLTAIC PANELS - ARIZONA (USA) In many circumstances, photovoltaic modules mounted on building roofs can produce as much electricity as the building consumes. A typical module will generate about 200 kilowatt hours (AC) per square meter per year, so a collector area of 25-50m2 is needed to power a reasonably energy-efficient Australian house. Such a house exports more electricity to the grid during the day than it imports at night.

An additional 10m2 is required to offset the annual greenhouse gas emissions of a fuel efficient car emitting 0.2kg of carbon dioxide per km and driving 10,000km per year.

IN THE MARKET
The world solar market is dominated by Photovoltaics, and most of the worlds PV market is serviced by crystalline silicon solar cells. Up until now PV has found widespread use in niche markets such as consumer electronics, remote area power supplies and satellites. The cost of PV has dropped dramatically as the industry has scaled up manufacturing and incrementally improved the technology with new materials. Installation costs have come down too with more experienced and trained installers. However, the U.S. still remains behind other nations that have stronger national policies to shift energy use from fossil fuels to solar. Globally, the U.S. is the fourth largest market for PV installations behind world leaders Germany, Japan and Spain. In recent years there have been dramatic falls in the cost of solar PV and the industry has expanded immensely. Panel prices are now below $1000 per kilowatt and system prices are $2000-3000 per kilowatt. Solar PV electricity is now less expensive than both domestic and commercial retail electricity from the grid. It is approaching cost-competitiveness with wholesale conventional electricity in many places. Most modern solar cells are made from either crystalline silicon or thin-film semiconductor material. Silicon cells are more efficient at converting sunlight to electricity, but generally have higher manufacturing costs. Thin-film materials typically have lower efficiencies, but can be simpler and less costly to manufacture. A specialized category of solar cells - called multi-junction or tandem cells - are used in applications requiring very low weight and very high efficiencies, such as satellites and military applications. All types of PV systems are widely used today in a variety of applications. The cost of photovoltaic systems can be confidently expected to continue to decline for decades. Current worldwide PV module sales are 30-40 gigawatts per year (approximately equal to the power capacity of the Australian electricity system). In 2012 about one gigawatt was installed in Australia, and nearly one million Australian houses have photovoltaic systems on their roofs. Demand is likely to decline in 2013 following the end of subsidies for purchasing panels, but will resume a long-term growth trend from 2014 because the cost of solar electricity is well below the retail commercial and domestic tariff everywhere in Australia.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Advantages

Electricity produced by solar cells is clean and silent. Because they do not use fuel other than sunshine, PV systems do not release any harmful air or water pollution into the environment, deplete natural resources, or endanger animal or human health.

Photovoltaic systems are quiet and visually unobtrusive. Small-scale solar plants can take advantage of unused space on rooftops of existing buildings. PV cells were originally developed for use in space, where repair is extremely expensive, if not impossible. PV still powers nearly every satellite circling the earth because it operates reliably for long periods of time with virtually no maintenance.

Solar energy is a locally available renewable resource. It does not need to be imported from other regions of the country or across the world. This reduces environmental impacts associated with transportation and also reduces our dependence on imported oil. And, unlike fuels that are mined and harvested, when we use solar energy to produce electricity we do not deplete or alter the resource.

A PV system can be constructed to any size based on energy requirements. Furthermore, the owner of a PV system can enlarge or move it if his or her energy needs change. For instance, homeowners can add modules every few years as their energy usage and financial resources grow. Ranchers can use mobile trailer-mounted pumping systems to water cattle as the cattle are rotated to different fields.

Disadvantages

Some toxic chemicals, like cadmium and arsenic, are used in the PV production process. These environmental impacts are minor and can be easily controlled through recycling and proper disposal.

Solar energy is somewhat more expensive to produce than conventional sources of energy due in part to the cost of manufacturing PV devices and in part to the conversion efficiencies of the

equipment. As the conversion efficiencies continue to increase and the manufacturing costs continue to come down, PV will become increasingly cost competitive with conventional fuels.

Solar power is a variable energy source, with energy production dependent on the sun. Solar facilities may produce no power at all some of the time, which could lead to an energy shortage if too much of a region's power comeS from solar power.

REFERENCE:

Bauder. Photovoltaics (February 22, 2014).

http://www.bauder.co.uk/photovoltaics-and-rooflights/photovoltaic-energy/what-is-photovoltaics Knier, G. How do Photovoltaics Work? (February 22, 2014). http://science.nasa.gov/sciencenews/science-at-nasa/2002/solarcells/ Blakers, A. (26 March 2013)Explainer: what is photovoltaic solar energy? (February 22, 2014). http://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-photovoltaic-solar-energy-12924 Solar Energy Industries Association (SEIA). Photovoltaic (Solar Electric) (February 22, 2014). http://www.seia.org/policy/solar-technology/photovoltaic-solar-electric Advantages and disadvantages of Photovoltaics (February 22, 2014). http://www.energybc.ca/cache/solarpv/www.cetonline.org/Renewables/PV_pro_con.html