PANTAO,FATMAZAMIA BANTUAS I-BS BIOLOGY

51.1 Osmolarity and Osmotic Balance

Osmotic pressure is a measure of concentration diff erence.

Osmotic pressure is a solutions propensity to take in water by osmosis. Osmolarity is defi ned as moles of solute per liter of solution. Cells in a hypertonic solution lose water, and cells in a hypotonic solution gain water. In an isotonic solution, cells are at equilibrium.

Osmoconformers live in marine environments.

Osmoconformers are in osmotic equilibrium with their environment. Most marine invertebrates are osmoconformers.

Blood is fi ltered through the capillaries of the glomerulus driven by blood pressure. The fi ltrate passes through the Bowmans capsule, proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule, and collecting duct (see fi gure 51.11). Blood passes from the afferent arteriole to the glomerulus, the efferent arteriole, the peritubular capillaries, and the vasa recta.

Osmoregulators control their osmolarity internally.

Water, some nutrients, and some ions are reabsorbed; other molecules are secreted.

Tissues of freshwater vertebrates are hypertonic to their environment, and those of marine vertebrates are hypotonic; both must maintain their osmolarity. Terrestrial vertebrates are all osmoregulators and have adaptations to retain water. 51.2 Osmoregulatory Organs

Invertebrates make use of specialized cells and tubules.

Glucose, amino acids, and many other molecules are reabsorbed by active transport. Water is reabsorbed osmotically in the proximal convoluted tubule and the collecting duct. Foreign molecules and some wastes are secreted from the blood capillaries and into the tubules by active transport.

Flatworms use tubular protonephridia connected to fl ame cells that draw fl uid from the body (see fi gure 51.2). Other invertebrates have nephridia open to both the inside and outside of the body for fi ltering and reabsorption (see fi gure 51.3).

Excretion of toxins and excess ions maintains homeostasis.

The kidney eliminates many potentially harmful substances including nitrogenous wastes, excess ions, and toxins. The kidneys therefore are critical to homeostasis.

Insects have a unique osmoregulatory system.

Insects have Malpighian tubules through which uric acid and wastes are secreted into the excretory organ, and water and salts are reabsorbed before excretion (see fi gure 51.4).

Each part of the mammalian nephron performs a specifi c transport function.

The vertebrate kidney fi lters then reabsorbs.

Kidneys of vertebrates produce urine by fi ltration, secretion, and selective reabsorption of water and important solutes. 51.3 Evolution of the Vertebrate Kidney The kidney is made up of a cortex, a medulla, and thousands of units called nephrons that regulate body fl uids (see fi gure 51.5).

Freshwater fi shes must retain electrolytes and keep water out.

Freshwater fi shes maintain hypertonicity by excreting large quantities dilute, hypotonic urine and reabsorbing ions (see fi gure 51.6).

Reabsorption of nutrients and NaCl occurs in the proximal tubule. The loop of Henle creates a gradient of increasing osmolarity from the cortex to the medulla. The gradient allows selective reabsorption of water from the collecting duct. A longer loop of Henle produces more concentrated urine (see fi gure 51.12). 51.6 Hormonal Control of Osmoregulatory Functions

Antidiuretic hormone causes water to be conserved.

Marine bony fi shes must excrete electrolytes and keep water in.

Saltwater fi sh maintain hypotonicity by drinking large amounts of seawater and excreting or actively transporting ions out through the gills. Their urine is isotonic to the blood.

ADH, produced by the hypothalamus, increases the permeability of the collecting duct (see fi gure 51.14), allowing greater reabsorption of water.

Aldosterone and atrial natriuretic hormone control sodium ion concentration.

Cartilaginous fi shes pump out electrolytes and retain urea.

Cartilaginous fi shes are isotonic to their environment because they retain urea, and actively pump out electrolytes. They also produce isotonic urine.

Amphibians and reptiles have osmotic adaptations to their environments.

Low Na+ levels inhibit ADH secretion, and aldosterone stimulates Na+ uptake by the distal convoluted tubule. ANH antagonizes the action of aldosterone. Chapter Review chapter 51 Osmotic Regulation a www.ravenbiology.com nd the Urinary System 1053 Balance

Freshwater amphibians and reptiles act like freshwater fi shes, and the kidneys of marine reptiles function like marine bony fi shes. Terrestrial reptiles cant produce hypertonic urine.

Osmotic pressure is a measure of concentration diff erence.

Mammals and birds are able to excrete concentrated urine and retain water.

Osmotic pressure is a solutions propensity to take in water by osmosis. Osmolarity is defi ned as moles of solute per liter of solution. Cells in a hypertonic solution lose water, and cells in a hypotonic solution gain water. In an isotonic solution, cells are at equilibrium.

Mammals and birds can excrete hypertonic urine and retain water. The degree of concentration of urine depends on the length of the loop of Henle. 51.4 Nitrogenous Wastes: Ammonia, Urea, and Uric Acid

Osmoconformers live in marine environments.

Osmoconformers are in osmotic equilibrium with their environment. Most marine invertebrates are osmoconformers.

Osmoregulators control their osmolarity internally.

Ammonia is toxic and must be quickly removed.

When animals catabolize amino acids and nucleic acids they produce toxic nitrogenous wastes (see fi gure 51.8). In fi shes and gilled amphibians, abundant water is used to fl ush ammonia quickly from the body, or it is eliminated through gills.

Tissues of freshwater vertebrates are hypertonic to their environment, and those of marine vertebrates are hypotonic; both must maintain their osmolarity. Terrestrial vertebrates are all osmoregulators and have adaptations to retain water. 51.2 Osmoregulatory Organs

Invertebrates make use of specialized cells and tubules.

Urea and uric acid are less toxic but have diff erent solubilities.

Mammals convert ammonia to urea, which is less toxic. Urea requires less water, but requires energy to manufacture. Birds and terrestrial reptiles convert ammonia to uric acid. Uric acid is the least toxic and requires the least water to eliminate, but is the most energetically expensive. 51.5 The Mammalian Kidney (see figure 51.10)

Flatworms use tubular protonephridia connected to fl ame cells that draw fl uid from the body (see fi gure 51.2). Other invertebrates have nephridia open to both the inside and outside of the body for fi ltering and reabsorption (see fi gure 51.3).

Insects have a unique osmoregulatory system.

Insects have Malpighian tubules through which uric acid and wastes are secreted into the excretory organ, and water and salts are reabsorbed before excretion (see fi gure 51.4).

The nephron is the filtering unit of the kidney.

The vertebrate kidney fi lters then reabsorbs.

Kidneys of vertebrates produce urine by fi ltration, secretion, and

selective reabsorption of water and important solutes. 51.3 Evolution of the Vertebrate Kidney The kidney is made up of a cortex, a medulla, and thousands of units called nephrons that regulate body fl uids (see fi gure 51.5). Freshwater fi shes maintain hypertonicity by excreting large quantities dilute, hypotonic urine and reabsorbing ions (see fi gure 51.6).

Freshwater fi shes must retain electrolytes and keep water out.

blood pressure. The fi ltrate passes through the Bowmans capsule, proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule, and collecting duct (see fi gure 51.11). Blood passes from the afferent arteriole to the glomerulus, the efferent arteriole, the peritubular capillaries, and the vasa recta.

Marine bony fi shes must excrete electrolytes and keep water in.

Saltwater fi sh maintain hypotonicity by drinking large amounts of seawater and excreting or actively transporting ions out through the gills. Their urine is isotonic to the blood.

Water, some nutrients, and some ions are reabsorbed; other molecules are secreted.

Cartilaginous fi shes pump out electrolytes and retain urea.

Cartilaginous fi shes are isotonic to their environment because they retain urea, and actively pump out electrolytes. They also produce isotonic urine.

Glucose, amino acids, and many other molecules are reabsorbed by active transport. Water is reabsorbed osmotically in the proximal convoluted tubule and the collecting duct. Foreign molecules and some wastes are secreted from the blood capillaries and into the tubules by active transport.

Excretion of toxins and excess ions maintains homeostasis.

The kidney eliminates many potentially harmful substances including nitrogenous wastes, excess ions, and toxins. The kidneys therefore are critical to homeostasis.

Amphibians and reptiles have osmotic adaptations to their environments.

Freshwater amphibians and reptiles act like freshwater fi shes, and the kidneys of marine reptiles function like marine bony fi shes. Terrestrial reptiles cant produce hypertonic urine.

Each part of the mammalian nephron performs a specifi c transport function.

Mammals and birds are able to excrete concentrated urine and retain water.

Mammals and birds can excrete hypertonic urine and retain water. The degree of concentration of urine depends on the length of the loop of Henle. 51.4 Nitrogenous Wastes: Ammonia, Urea, and Uric Acid

Ammonia is toxic and must be quickly removed.

When animals catabolize amino acids and nucleic acids they produce toxic nitrogenous wastes (see fi gure 51.8). In fi shes and gilled amphibians, abundant water is used to fl ush ammonia quickly from the body, or it is eliminated through gills.

Reabsorption of nutrients and NaCl occurs in the proximal tubule. The loop of Henle creates a gradient of increasing osmolarity from the cortex to the medulla. The gradient allows selective reabsorption of water from the collecting duct. A longer loop of Henle produces more concentrated urine (see fi gure 51.12). 51.6 Hormonal Control of Osmoregulatory Functions

Antidiuretic hormone causes water to be conserved.

Urea and uric acid are less toxic but have diff erent solubilities.

Mammals convert ammonia to urea, which is less toxic. Urea requires less water, but requires energy to manufacture. Birds and terrestrial reptiles convert ammonia to uric acid. Uric acid is the least toxic and requires the least water to eliminate, but is the most energetically expensive. 51.5 The Mammalian Kidney (see figure 51.10)

ADH, produced by the hypothalamus, increases the permeability of the collecting duct (see fi gure 51.14), allowing greater reabsorption of water.

Aldosterone and atrial natriuretic hormone control sodium ion concentration.

The nephron is the filtering unit of the kidney.

Blood is fi ltered through the capillaries of the glomerulus driven by

Low Na+ levels inhibit ADH secretion, and aldosterone stimulates Na+ uptake by the distal convoluted tubule. ANH antagonizes the action of aldosterone. Chapter Review chapter 51 Osmotic Regulation a www.ravenbiology.com nd the Urinary System 1053