S. A.

KLEIN
G r a d u a t e Student.

J. A. DUFFIE
Professor a n d Director.

Transient Considerations of Flat-Plate Solar Collectors1

The effects of thermal capacitance in the modeling of the performance of aflat plate solar collector have often been neglected because of the computation involved. But because the solar collector is inherently exposed to continuously variable weather conditions, capacitance effects may be significant. To investigate these effects, three different models of flat-plate collectors have been investigated. The first, a quasi-steady-state model, simulates the performance of a collector of zero capacitance. The second model accounts for capacitance effects by assuming that a single value of thermal capacitance can be determined for the collector as a unit. The third model divides the collector into many isothermal segments, or nodes. For all three models the heat transfer coefficients are calculated as a function of operating conditions. The results show that, when hourly meteorological data are used, the zero-capacitance model is adequate.

W. A. BECKMAN
Professor. M e m . ASME Solar Energy L a b o r a t o r y , The University o f Wisconsin, Madison. Wis.

Introduction

HE APPLICATION of flat-plate solar collectors t o water heating and residential heating and cooling systems has been shown t o be feasible [ l ] . 2 Computer simulations are being F"[S - UL(Tb - Tamb)] (1) applied t o optimize t h e design and evaluate t h e economics of these systems. Since a model of t h e solar collector must be and chosen for these simulations, several questions arise. Are t h e F" = F(WT - D)/WT + D/WT (2) zero capacitance models of Hottel and Woertz [2], Hottel and Whillier [3], and Bliss [4] adequate? Because t h e collector is where inherently exposed t o continuously variable weather conditions, F = tanh l(UL/kd)lHWT - > ) / 2 ] / [ ( [ / i / M ) I / ! ( W r - D)/2] it has been suggested that thermal capacitance effects may be S = the radiation absorbed on the collector plate significant [5, 6]. Should a collector model allowing for t h e UL = collector overall loss coefficient effects of thermal capacitance be used? As the range of flatTi local fin base temperature plate collector operating temperatures increase, is there a need WT distance between collector tubes for more detailed models? T o answer these questions several D = diameter of collector tubes different models of flat-plate collector performance have been investigated. In order t o express qu in terms of the local fluid temperature, rather than t h e local fin base temperature, the rate equation

of time. For standard tube and sheet construction, t h e Hottel Whillier, Bliss model [3, 4] (hereafter referred t o as t h e H W B model) is developed by expressing t h e collector local useful energy gain per unit area of collector as

Collector Performance Models

The "Hottel, Whillier, Bliss Zero-Capacitance" Model. A zero-capacitance model is one in which t h e effects of thermal capacitance on collector performance are neglected. T h e collector is considered t o be in equilibrium with its environment a t any instant

hoirD

(Tb -

Tf) Thus

(3)

is equated with equation (1) t o eliminate 7V qu = F'[S - UUTf where

- Tamb)]

(4)

A publication of the Solar Energy Laboratory, The University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wise. 2 Numbers in brackets designate References at end of paper. Contributed by the Solar Energy Division of T H E AMERICAN
SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEEES and presented at the Winter

/ L

vD J

(5)

The useful energy gain, Q, can be written in terms of the inlet, rather than a local fluid temperature, by integrating qu = F'[S UL(T, )] mCv ATi W dx
APRIL 19 7 4 /

Annual Meeting, Detroit, Mich., November 11-15, 1973. Paper No. 73-WA/Sol-l.

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Copyright 1974 by ASME

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over the entire collector length. 0 ThC

Then UL{Tia
b)] (7)

Tm = r i n +

AUL

[FH

F'\

(U)

[r 0 ,.t - T^] = FR[8 -

where FB mCp [1 - exp (-F'UiA/ThCp)] (8)

FR the overall efficiency factor, may be viewed as t h e ratio of the actual useful energy gain t o that obtainable from an isothermal collector maintained at TinIn practice, the H W B model is ordinarily used with a single value of UL, independent of the continuously variable wind speed and the collector and ambient temperatures; T h e model can easily be extended t o determine UL as a function of operating conditions. In order t o find a mean value of UL it is necessary to define a mean collector fluid temperature, Tm-3 Tm is found by rearranging and integrating equation (6) from the inlet t o position x along the flow direction. Thus Tx = Ta, S
S ULJTJU UL r a mb)

The energy loss from the collector plate (neglecting edgo losses) consists of radiation and convection t o the glass cover system above, and conduction through the insulation bel<% Neglecting the absorbtion of solar radiation by the glass cover(s) Hottel and Woertz [2] have shown that t h e energy loss upward through the glass cover system can be found by solving the non. linear system of N + 1 equations, where N is the number of glas3 covers. Their equations in general form become
?itop

a[Tm l/tp

T.*\

+ l/e - 1

- UTm

- TH) = 0

?"

h(Tai 2/e 0 - 1

- T0l) = 0

(12)
^/tg I

1 x \~F'Wl
rnmb)n

WULXI

T) = 0

(9) Integrating along the flow direction from inlet t o outlet we have S . mC mCvv TS UL(Tin
qLtoP

ff6,[r

J- amb J

^windV^ g

b) = 0

\!

n-m - ] <Substituting the expression for FR from equation (8) and Qu from equation (7), we obtain 3 Actually, the mean plate temperature should be used for evaluating UL, but the difference between the mean fluid temperature and the mean plate temperature is small.

uL

where the wind heat transfer coefficient, /tWmd, in Btu/hr-ft ! deg F, is 1.0 + 0.3 (windspeed in mph) and the cover-to-cover heat transfer coefficients, hi, are given by Tabor [7], T h e foregoing system of equations can be solved iteratively t o determine qLtof. The losses from the collector through the insulation below the collector plate can be written gx,"' (13)

8,/k, + l/hb

where /ibottom is the convection coefficient between the bottom

.Nomenclature.
A = collector plate surface area CA = lumped value of collector capacitance D = diameter of the collector tubes F = fin efficiency factor defined after equation (2) F' = defined by equation (5) F" = defined by equation (2) pR = overall efficiency factor defined by equation (8) ho = convection coefficient between tube wall and circulating fluid hi = convection coefficient between the ith cover and plate beneath ^bottom = convection coefficient between the bottom of the insulation and the surroundings h-vind = convection coefficient between the top glass cover and t h e air k = thermal conductivity of collector tube and plate material ki = thermal conductivity of the insulation
110 / APRIL 1 974

L = collector length (mCp) = capacitance flow rate of circulating fluid (mCp)p = thermal capacitance of the plate material, water, etc. (mCp)t, = thermal capacitance of the glass N = number of glass covers Qu = total useful energy gain qu = local useful energy gain, of collector per unit area of collector 1h = total energy loss per unit area from t h e collector plate qL*<"> = energy loss per unit area from the collector plate by convection and radiation t o the glass cover(s) above QJ bottom = energy loss per unit area from the collector plate by conduction t o the insulation below 8 = solar radiation absorbed per unit area on the collector plate surface J- amb = ambient air temperature Tb = local fin base or tube wall temperature

Tf = local fluid temperature -t gi = temperature of the i t h glass cover Tin = inlet fluid temperature Tm = mean fluid temperature -* out = exit fluid temperature Tp = collector plate temperature t = time UL = collector overall loss coefficient W = collector width WT = distance between collector tubes X = position along the flow direction P = fraction of solar radiation absorbed by the plate, S, that is absorbed by the glass = pump control indicator 7 5 = collector plate thickness Si = insulation thickness = emissivity of glass for infrared radiation tp = emissivity of the collector plate for infrared radiation a = Stefan-Boltzmann constant

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of the collector insulation and the air. Tabor [7] recommends kottom = 2 4 Btu/hr-ft 2 deg F . T h e value of bottom is not critical. The collector overall loss coefficient is defined as VL = [? top + ? b o t * o m ]/(n i Tamb) (14)

Equations (7), (8), (11), (12), (13), and (14) are solved iteratively for QuThe "One-Node Capacitance" Model. This model attempts t o include the effects of thermal capacitance in a simple fashion, by assuming t h e entire collector can be treated as a unit, insofar as capacitance effects are concerned. This model is called t h e onenode capacitance model since the collector mean temperature and capacitance are assigned t o a single node, representative of the collector unit. In an effort t o include capacitance effects, Close [8] developed m odel in which he assumes t h a t t h e capacitance is all lumped within t h e collector plate itself. With the collector fluid circulating, t h e equation he presents is 4
0 A

Fig. 1 Zero-capacitance temperature profile before and after a step change in radiation (solid lines) and an assumed transient temperature profile for the T-node collector (dotted line)

^ at

= F"[S -

UL(Tm

r o m b )] - ^

(Tm - r , )

(15)
Tf =

j y _ (p?%'

T Ut L

(18)

One limitation of this model is t h e assumption t h a t t h e temperature distribution along the length of t h e collector is linear. As seen from equation (9), the zero-capacitance temperature distribution is exponential in nature, although for small temperature rises from t h e collector inlet t o outlet, t h e distribution may be accurately approximated as linear. Another limitation of this model is t h a t t h e fluid and tube base are at t h e same temperature. In effect, he assumed a large heat transfer coefficient between t h e fluid and t h e tube wall. Close's model m a y be improved by assuming t h a t t h e capacitance of t h e collector is lumped within t h e tubes, rather t h a n at the plate. Then t h e energy received at the base of t h e plate fin, q, will be t h e same as t h a t for the zero capacitance model as given by equation (1). I t is then possible t o express this energy in terms of t h e local fluid temperature as was done in the zero-capacitance model (equation (4)). An energy balance on a differential tube element in t h e flow direction yields WCA ^ = F'W[S - UL{T, - Tamb)] - mCv ^ Z>x (16)

where t h e z superscript implies the zero-capacitance model. Integration along the collector length gives a relationship between Tm and Tout, Tm = Thus 1 CL

J. out

J out

)/:

xdx

(19)

r u t - T0ntz = 2[Tm - 2 V ]

(20)

Substituting equations (7) and (20) into equation (17) yields CA ^ dt = F'[S VL(Tm - r a m b ) ] - Q f - ^ A A iTm - T V ) (21) When the p u m p circulating fluid through the collector is off, Quz and rhCp are zero. In addition, F' = 1.0 since the collector is isothermal when no fluid is circulating. Equation (21) may be written t o include t h e effect of the pump control on the mean collector fluid temperature, dT CA~ at + y\F'[S Qul 2mCp , = (1 - 7)[S UL{Tm - Tamb)]

bt

which is a partial differential equation for the fluid temperature as a function of time and position. Since the solution of this partial differential equation is extremely difficult, an approximate solution will be obtained. Integration of equation (16) along the collector length yields
OA

. - 2V)]

(22)

dt

= F'[S -

UL(Tm

i amb )J

l-*out

Tin]

(17) where 7 = 0 if t h e pump is off and 1 if t h e pump is on. Values for the lumped collector capacitance, CA, normally range between 0.4 and 1.5 Btu/ft 2 - deg F depending on the collector's materials of construction, number of glass covers, and operating conditions. T h e lumped collector capacitance is not simply t h e sum of the mass times capacitance per unit collector area of each of t h e materials of construction, since some materials may change in temperature only a fraction of the amount that the fluid temperature changes. I t is thus necessary t o assign "weighting factors" t o each of the collector's materials such that the weighting factor multiplied by t h e actual capacitance of a collector material will be its "effective" capacitance, and thus its contribution t o the lumped collector capacitance. In practice, t h e weighting factors cannot be directly assigned since, as in the case of the glass covers, they depend upon windspeed, as well as the collector and ambient temperatures. I t is possible, however, t o estimate a mean value of t h e weighting factors, based on the expected range of operating conditions. For a flat-plate collector of nominal design in a typical water APRIL 1 9 7 4 / 111

In order t o solve equation (17), the temperature of t h e fluid leaving the collector, T0ut, must be related t o Tm, the mean fluid temperature. Close assumed the linear temperature distribution Tm = (Tin + Toat)/2. (Substituting this relation into equation (17) yields his model, equation (15).) In Fig. 1 t h e zero-capacitance collector temperature distribution, corresponding t o two different radiation intensities, is shown. During a step change from one intensity t o another, the transient temperature distribution will lie between the two ! Wo-capacitance temperature distributions as shown b y t h e dotted line. If it is assumed that the shapes of t h e zero-capacitance and transient temperature distributions are such t h a t the difference between the zero-capacitance and transient local temperatures Is linear the local temperature of t h e "1-node" collector is then * Close actually had F in his equation instead of F". When D is all relative to WT, F, and F" are nearly equal.

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heater application, the lumped capacitance, CA, is approximately 0.5, 0.7, and 0.85 B t u / d e g P-ft 2 collector area for a 1, 2, or 3 glass cover collector, respectively.

* = [i^r+i^i+ hl{T* ~ r ' > ] / ( r ' - r'> (25>

fe = _

Comparison of the HWB Zero-Capacitance Model and the One-Node Model

It is convenient to consider the effects of collector thermal capacitance as the sum of two contributions. First, there is the "collector storage" effect, resulting from the energy required t o heat the collector to its final operating temperature. Second, there is the "transient" effect, resulting from fluctuations of meteorological conditions. In an actual collector, these two effects result in a net energy lossthat is, less useful energy gain when compared t o the zero-capacitance predictions. Hottel and Woertz [2] noted t h a t the storage effect is somewhat less than would be expected because the early morning radiation is t o o small in magnitude t o yield a useful energy gain, but is sufficient to raise the collector temperature. The storage effect is then largely dependent upon t h e difference between the temperature at which the collector fluid begins circulating in the morning and stops circulating in the late afternoon. These temperatures are largely controlled by the system energy storage capacity and the particular load supplied by t h e system. T h e one-node model has been developed to predict the collector storage effect. From examination of a large number of computer simulations of solar water heater systems, as described in reference [9], the collector storage effect generally results in a 1 percent to 5 percent daily decrease in the useful energy gain compared to t h a t predicted by the zero-capacitance model. The transient effect is defined as the difference between the collector energy losses experienced by an actual collector and those predicted by a zero-capacitance model integrated over the period of operation. This difference occurs because the plate temperature and therefore the collector energy losses predicted by the zero-capacitance model may be incorrect if meteorological fluctuations are sufficiently rapid. Because of the simplification of a single lumped value of collector capacitance, the plate temperature predicted by the one-node model during rapid meteorological fluctations m a y not adequately represent the actual collector temperature. For this reason, the one-node model has not been used to estimate the transient effect. A "Multi-Node" Model. The one-node model has been shown to be useful in prediting the performance of the collector, including the storage effect due t o the thermal capacitance. To determine the transient effect of thermal capacitance, a more complicated model is needed. Such a model can be developed by considering the collector to consist of multiple nodes, each with a single temperature and capacitance. This model is referred t o as a "multi-node" model. Consider the simple case of a two-node model in which nodes are positioned at t h e collector plate and at a single glass cover. For the sake of simplicity, we will assume t h a t the mean collector temperature is the algebraic average of the inlet and outlet fluid temperature. An energy balance can be written at each node t o yield

(*w^r+fcwi,,d

(26

>

Both hi and fe are weakly temperature dependent, hi is strongly dependent upon wind speed as a result of the previously noted empirical relation given by Hottel and Woertz. Equations (23) and (24) can be solved numerically t o yield the collector plate and glass temperatures at any time. If the collector has no thermal capacity, the left-hand side of equations (23) and (24) would be zero, and the equations could be solved algebraically to yield the zero capacitance plate and glass ten*, peratures. In the multi-node model, the energy loss from the collector plate is hi(.Tp T) integrated over a time interval. 6 qL = f h(TP ~ Tg)dt (27)

This energy loss can be compared to that occurring if the plate and glass have zero capacitance.

?i* = I /ii(7V - Te')dt

(28)

Jo
The transient loss is the difference between the losses calculated by equations (27) and , (28) and has been examined for step changes in both solar radiation (simulating the sun going behind a cloud) and in wind speed. T h e result from a large number of numerical experiments on a one cover collector model is that fluctuations in solar radiation lead t o a transient loss of less than 0.5 percent of the useful energy gain. 6 T h e loss is nearly zero if the glass does not absorb solar radiation. This same cancellation of effects is not observed for fluctuations in wind speed. The reason for this is t h a t the conductance, ht, is dependent upon the wind speed. T h e time constant (the characteristic time required to respond t o a perturbation) of any node is the capacitance of t h a t node divided by the sum of the conductances associated with the node. Thus the time constant for the glass cover changes with variations in wind speed. As a result, the glass cools faster when the wind speed increases than it heats when the wind speed decreases, leading to a larger energy loss than that predicted if all thermal capacity is ignored. A numerical experiment was performed in which the wind speed was varied from 0 to 10 mph at rates of 1 t o 64 steps per hr. For a nominal one glass cover collector with 5 percent absorbtion of incident solar radiation by the glass, the transient loss effect was a maximum of 5 percent of the useful energy gain. 7 However, this effect is essentially negligible for wind fluctuations which normally occur in practice.

Conclusions
T h e multi-node model can be extended to simulate the performance of flat plate collectors with more than one glass cover by the addition of a node at each cover. In addition, nodes can be positioned for each material at intervals along the flow direction permitting the temperature profile through the collector to be calculated. Energy balances at each node determine a complex set of simultaneous differential equations which must be solved numerically. In such a formulation, it is important to

(mCP) ~? = S - hi(Tp - T0) ~ ^ ^ at A

(Tp - TV)

(23)

{mCp), = S/3 + hi(Tp - T) - foiT, ~ Tamb) at

(24)
6 The loss through the bottom insulation is small and has bee" neglected in this analysis. 6 For two and three cover collector models the transient loss is les* than 0.5 percent also. 7 For two and three cover collector models this transient loss isles' than 1 percent.

where ft is the fraction of solar energy absorbed by the plate t h a t is absorbed by the glass, and hi and fe are heat transfer conductances which account for both radiative and convective heat transfer. In particular, 112 /APRIL 1 974

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n ote t h a t the time constant for all the nodes of a multi-node jjiodel is on the order of a few minutes. Observations of meteorological conditions at intervals much larger than the time constant will not permit the full transient effects of collector performance t o be calculated. Generally speaking, the best meteorological data available are at hourly intervals. Using these data, no collector model, regardless of complexity, would be capable of predicting the transient performance of the collector. Thus we conclude t h a t the one-node model is as complex a model as needed t o predict the performance of flat plate solar collectors based on hourly meteorological data. In fact, the H W B zerocapacitance model will provide almost as good a prediction as the one-node model with less computational effort. T h e use of more complex models cannot be justified when adequate meteorological data are not available.

References
1 Tybout, R. A., and L6f, G. O. G., "Solar House Heating," Natural Resources Journal, Vol. 10, 1970, p. 268. 2 Hottel, H. C., and Woertz, B. B., "The Performance of FlatPlate Solar Heat Collectors," TKANS. ASME, Vol. 64, 1942, p. 91. 3 Hottel, H. C., and Whillier, A., "Evaluation of Flat-Plate Solar Collector Performance," Proceedings of the Conference on the Use of Solar Energy, University of Arizona, Vol. II, 1958, p. 74. 4 Bliss, R. W., Jr., "The Derivation of Several 'Plate Efficiency Factors' Useful in the Design of Fla1>Plate Solar Heat Collectors," Solar Energy Journal, Vol. 3, 1959, p. 55. 5 Tabor, H., "Solar Energy Collector Design," Bulletin of the Research Council of Israel, Vol. 5C, 1955, p. 5. 6 Hottel, H. C., "Performance of Flat-Plate Solar Energy Collectors," Proceedings of the Symposium on Space Heating With Solar Energy, M.I.T, 1950, pp. 58-71. 7 Tabor, H., "Radiation, Convection, and Conduction Coefficients in Solar Collectors," Bulletin of the Research Council of Israel, Vol. 6C, 1958, p. 155. 8 Close, D. J., "A Design Approach for Solar Processes," Solar Energy Journal, Vol. 11, 1967,p. 112. 9 Gutierrez, G., et al., "Simulation of Forced Circulation Water Heaters; Effects of Auxiliary Energy Supply, Load Type, and Storage Capacity," submitted for publication in the Solar Energy Journal, 1973.

Acknowledgment
The authors wish to express their appreciation to the National Science Foundation R A N N Program for financial assistance under grant GI-34029.

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