OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION

A Seminar Report Submitted in partial fulfilment for the award of the Degree of Bachelors of Technology In Department Of Electronics & Communication Engineering

Supervisor Mr. Lo esh Tanwar #L$%. &' $%$ (

Submitted By: !an a" "ain #)*$)SB$%M+,T*-.(

Department of Electronics & Comm nication En!ineerin! Sri Bala"i colle!e of En!ineerin!# $aip r Ra"ast%an Tec%nical Uni&ersit'# (ota Fe) *+,-

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Mr. !A/0A1 02MA3 1A4/5 a student of B.Tech. #$lectronics 6 communication $ngineering( 7th semester has submitted 8is S$M4/A3 report entitled 9&/ &!T4%AL '4B$3 %&MM2/4%AT4&/: under my guidance.

Mr. L&0$S8 TA/;A3 #L$%T23A3 &' $%$(

A(NO.LED/EMENT
4 e<press deep sense of gratitude to the management of the Sri Bala"i Tec%nical Camp s# "aip r who provide e=uipment for performing measurements without which these measurements could not have done. My than s are also due to S%ri DR0 I0N0 1%an 2Principal35 who always encouraged me to do these investigations. 4 also have to than Mr0 /0R0 Meena Sir 24OD# ECE3. 4 am also grateful to my parents5 who always advised me to wor hard and blessed me for success. PAN(A$ $AIN

2,+E,SBECM5-T+673

ii

ABSTRACT
This document is written specially for the practical aspect regarding to the theory. 4t is a well are getting theoretical and at Sri Bala"i Colle!e of En!ineerin!# "aip r5 but for being a perfectionist in the field of technology5 !ro"ect lab is must. >rateful to our college who gave us opportunity and provide pro"ect lab. This document gives all information regarding to our !ro"ect. This report is ahead a sincere attempt of summari?ing all the meaningful information that we have gathered during the periods.

iii

List of fi! re
..) $mitter characteristics of L$D ..A L$D structure ... &ptical oBp vBs %urrent characteristics ..+ Laser ..@ Laser Design ..- Animation of Laser and principle ..C Light emission @.) SnellEs law @.A SnellEs law @.. Total internal reflection @.+ Total internal reflection in a bloc of acrylic -.) Multimode stepFinde< fiber -.A Multiode gradedFinde< fiber -.. Singlemode fiber C.) Loose fiber cable C.A Tightly buffer cable C.. 3ibben cable @ @ C 7 D )) )) ). )@ )C )C A) AA AA A. A+ A+

iv

LIST OF CONTENTS %ertificate Ac nowlodgement Abstract List of figure List of contents i ii iii iv v

%hapter).8istory of optical fiber communication %hapterA. 4ntroduction of optical fiber %hapter.. Tranmitter ..) L$D ..A Laser %hapter+.3eceiver %hapter@.Basic principal of optical fiber A7 @.) Law of 3efraction
@.A SnellEs law @.. Total internal reflection @.+ %ritical angle @.@ /umrical aperature %hapter-.'iber -.) Multimode fiber -.A Singlemode fiber %hapterC.'iber cable C.) Loose fibr cable C.A Tightly buffered cable C.. 3ibben cable %hapter7.;ave division multiple<ing %hapterD. Advantage %hapter)*.Limitation %hapter)).Application %onclusion 3eferences

) A .F)) .FC CF)) )A ).F

). ).F))-F)7 )7FA* A* A)FAA A)FAA AA A.FA+ A. A.FA+ A+ A@ A-FAC A7 ADF.*

C4APTER ,

,04istor' of Fi)er Optic Tec%nolo!'

!eople have used light to transmit information for hundreds of years. 8owever5 it was not until the )D-*s5 with the invention of the laser5 that widespread interest in optical #light( systems for data communications began. The invention of the laser prompted researchers to study the potential of fiber optics for data communications5 sensing5 and other applications. Laser systems could send a much larger amount of data than telephone5 microwave5 and other electrical systems. The first e<periment with the laser involved letting the laser beam transmit freely through the air. 3esearchers also conducted e<periments letting the laser beam transmit through different types of waveguides. >lass fibers5 gasFfilled pipes5 and tubes with focusing lenses are e<amples of optical waveguides. >lass fibers soon became the preferred medium for fiber optic research. 4nitially5 the very large losses in the optical fibers prevented coa<ial cables from being replaced. Loss is the decrease in the amount of light reaching the end of the fiber. $arly fibers had losses around )5*** dBB m to ma e them impractical for communications use. 4n )D-D5 several scientists concluded that impurities in the fiber material caused the signal loss in optical fibers. The basic fiber material did not prevent the light signal from reaching the end of the fiber. These researchers believed it was possible to reduce the losses in optical fibers by removing the impurities. By removing the impurities5 construction of lowFloss optical fibers was possible. 4n )DC*5 %orning >lass ;or s made a multimode fiber with losses under A* dBB m. with +dBB m minimum attenuation #loss(. %urrently5 multimode fibers can have losses as low as *.@ dBB m at wavelengths around ).** nm.

%8A!T$3 A

A0 Intro8 ction
&ptical fiber has a number of advantages over the copper wire used to ma e connections electrically. 'or e<ample5 optical fiber5 being made of glass or plastic5 is immune to electromagnetic interference which is caused by thunderstorms. Also5 because light has a much higher fre=uency than any radio signal we can generate5 fiber has a wider bandwidth and can therefore carry more information at one time. Most telephone company longFdistance lines are now of optical fiber. Transmission on optical fiber wire re=uires repeaters at distance intervals. The glass fiber re=uires more protection within an outer cable than copper. 'or these reasons and because the installation of any new wiring is laborFintensive5 few communities yet have optical fiber wires or cables from the phone companyGs branch office to local customers. Fi)er9optic comm nication is a method of transmitting information from one place to another by sending pulses of light through an optical fiber. The light forms an electromagnetic carrier wave that is modulated to carry information. 'irst developed in the )DC*s5 fiberFoptic communication systems have revolutioni?ed the telecommunications industry and have played a ma"or role in the advent of the 4nformation Age. Because of its advantages over electrical transmission5 optical fibers have largely replaced copper wire communications in core networ s in the developed world.The process of communicating using fiberFoptics involves the following basic steps: %reating the optical signal involving the use of a transmitter5 relaying the signal along the fiber5 ensuring that the signal does not become too distorted or wea 5 receiving the optical signal5 and converting it into an electrical signal.

%8A!T$3 .

.. Transmitter
'iber optic transmitters are devices that include an L$D or laser source5 and signal conditioning electronics5 to in"ect a signal into fiber. The modulated light may be turned on or off5 or may be linearly varied in intensity between two predetermined levels. Light $mitting Diodes #L$Ds( have relatively large emitting areas and as a result are not as good light sources as laser diodes. 8owever5 they are widely used for short to moderate transmission distances because they are much more economical. Laser diodes can couple many times more power to optical fiber than L$Ds. They are primarily used for applications that re=uire the transmission of signals over long distances. 4mportant performance specifications to consider when searching for fiber optic transmitters include data rate5 transmitter rise time5 wavelength5 spectral width5 and ma<imum optical output power. Data rate is the number of data bits transmitted in bits per second. Data rate is a way of e<pressing the speed of the transceiver. 4n the appro<imation of a step function5 the transmitter rise time is the time re=uired for a signal to change from a specified )*H to D*H of full power. 3ise time is a way of e<pressing the speed of the transmitter. ;avelength refers to the output wavelength of the transceiver. The spectral width refers to the spectral width of the output signal.

70,Li!%t9emittin! Dio8e 2LED3

Light emitters are a ey element in any fiber optic system. This component converts the electrical signal into a corresponding light signal that can be in"ected into the fiber. The light emitter is an important element because it is often the most costly element in the system5 and its characteristics often strongly influence the final performance limits of a given lin .L$Ds are comple< semiconductors that convert an electrical current into light. The conversion process is fairly efficient in that it generates little heat compared to incandescent lights. L$Ds are of interest for fiber optics because of five inherent characteristics: ). They are small. A. They possess high radiance #i.e.5 They emit lots of light in a small area(. .. The emitting area is small5 comparable to the dimensions of optical fibers. .

. LightFemitting diodes use >aAlAs #gallium aluminum arsenide( for shortFwavelength devices. LongFwavelength devices generally incorporate 4n>aAs! #indium gallium arsenide phosphide(.

Li!%t Emitter Performance C%aracteristics

Several ey characteristics of L$Ds determine their usefulness in a given application. These are: !ea ;avelength: This is the wavelength at which the source emits the most power. 4t should be matched to the wavelengths that are transmitted with the least attenuation through optical fiber. The most common pea wavelength are C7*5 7@*5 and ).)* nm. Spectral ;idth: 4deally5 all the light emitted from an L$D would be at the pea wavelength5 but in practice the light is emitted in a range of wavelengths centered at the pea wavelength. This range is called the spectral width of the source. $mission !attern: The pattern of emitted light affects the amount of light that can be coupled into the optical fiber. The si?e of the emitting region should be similar to the diameter of the fiber core. !ower: The best results are usually achieved by coupling as much of a sourceGs power into the fiber as possible. The ey re=uirement is that the output power of the source be strong enough to provide sufficient power to the detector at the receiving end5 considering fiber attenuation5 coupling losses and other system constraints. 4n general5 L$Ds are less powerful than lasers. Speed: A source should turn on and off fast enough to meet the bandwidth limits of the system. The speed is given according to a sourceGs 3ise or fall time5 the time re=uired to go from )*H to D*H of pea power. L$Ds have slower rise and fall times than lasers. Linearity is another important characteristic for some applications. Linearity represents the degree to which the optical output is directly proportional to the electrical current input. Most light sources give little or no attention to linearity5 ma ing them usable only for digital applications. Analog applications re=uire close attention to linearity. /onlinearity in L$Ds causes harmonic distortion in the analog signal that is transmitted over an analog fiber optic lin . L$Ds are generally more reliable than lasers5 but both sources will degrade over time. This degradation can be caused by heat generated by the source and uneven current densities. 4n addition5 L$Ds are easier to use than lasers. L$Ds are found in a wide variety of consumer electronics products. most widely used in compact dis #%D( players. +

differ from the more common indicator L$Ds in two ways: ). The wavelength is generally in the near infrared #because the optical loss of fiber is lowest at these wavelengths(. A. The L$D emitting area is generally much smaller in order to allow the highest possible modulation bandwidth and improve the coupling efficiency with small core optical fibers. L$Ds and laser diodes are very similar devices. 4n fact5 when operating below their threshold current5 all laser diodes act as L$Ds. 'igure Aa shows the behavior of an L$D5 and 'igure Ab shows the behavior of a laser diode. The plots show the relative amount of light output versus electrical drive current. The L$D outputs light that is appro<imately linear with the drive current. /early all L$Ds e<hibit a IdroopI in the curve as shown in 'igure ..)b. This nonlinearity in the L$D limits its usefulness in analog applications.

'igure..) $mitter %haracteritics

The droop can be caused by a number of factors in the L$D semiconductor physics but is often largely due to selfFheating of the L$D chip. All L$Ds drop in efficiency as their operating temperature increases. Thus5 as the L$D is driven to higher currents5 the L$D chip gets hotter causing a drop in conversion efficiency and the droop apparent in 'igure Aa. L$Ds are typically operated at currents to about )** mA pea . &nly speciali?ed devices operate at higher current levels.

L$D Types
There are two basic types of L$D structures: edge emitters and surface emitters.

'igure ..A F L$D Structures

@ $dge emitters are more comple< and e<pensive devices5 but offer high output power levels and high speed performance. The output power is high because the emitting spot is very small5 typically .*F@* Jm5 allowing good coupling efficiency to similarly si?ed optical fibers. $dge emitters also have relatively narrow emission spectra. The fullFwidth5 halfFma<imum #';8M( is typically about CH of the central wavelength. Another variant of the edge emitter is the superradiant L$D. These devices are a cross between a conventional L$D and a laser. They usually have a very high power density and possess some internal optical gain li e a laser5 but the optical output is still incoherent5 unli e a laser. Superradiant L$Ds have very narrow emission spectra5 typically )FAH of the central wavelength and offer power levels rivaling a laser diode. These devices are popular for fiber optic gyroscope applications. The second type of L$D is the surface emitter. Surface emitters have a comparatively simple structure5 are relatively ine<pensive5 offer lowFtoFmoderate output power levels5 and are capable of lowFtoF moderate operating speeds. The total L$D chip optical output power is as high or higher than the edgeFemitting L$D5 but the emitting area is large5 causing poor coupling efficiency to the optical fiber. Adding to the coupling efficiency deficit is the fact that surfaceFemitting L$Ds are almost perfect Lambertian emitters. This means that they emit light in all directions. Thus very little of the total light goes in the re=uired direction for in"ection into an optical fiber.

LED Dri&e Circ its

L$D optical output is appro<imately proportional to drive current. &ther factors5 such as temperature5 also affect the optical output. 'igure + shows in greater detail the typical behavior of an L$D. Two curves are shown. The top curve represents a *.)H duty cycle with the pea current as shown on the hori?ontal a<is. The bottom curve shows the output with )**H duty cycle. /ote the light versus current curve droops below the linear curve.

'igure ... F &ptical &utput vs. %urrent in a L$D

7.*LASER:9
A laser is a device that emits light through a process of optical amplification based on the stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation. The term IlaserI originated as an acronym for Ilight amplification by stimulated emission of radiationI. Lasers differ from other sources of light because they emit light coherently. Spatial coherence allows a laser to be focused to a tight spot5 enabling applications li e laser cutting and lithography. Spatial coherence also allows a laser beam to stay narrow over long distances #collimation(5 enabling applications such as laser pointers. Lasers can also have high temporal coherence which allows them to have a very narrow spectrum5 i.e.5 they only emit a single color of light. Temporal coherence can be used to produce pulses of lightK as short as a femtosecond.Lasers have many important applications. They are used in common consumer devices such as DLD players5 laser printers5 and barcode scanners. They are used in medicine for laser surgery and various s in treatments5 and in industry for cutting and welding materials. They are used in military and law enforcement devices for mar ing targets and measuring range and speed. Laser lighting displays use laser light as an entertainment medium. Lasers also have many important applications in scientific research.

F n8amentals:9 Lasers are distinguished from other light sources by their coherence.
Spatial coherence is typically e<pressed through the output being a narrow beam which is diffractionFlimited5 often a soFcalled Ipencil beam.I C Temporal #or longitudinal( coherence implies a polari?ed wave at a single fre=uency whose phase is correlated over a relatively large distance #the coherence length( along the beam.A beam produced by a thermal or other incoherent light source has an instantaneous amplitude and phase which vary randomly with respect to time and position5 and thus a very short coherence length. Most soFcalled Isingle wavelengthI lasers actually produce radiation in several modes having slightly different fre=uencies #wavelengths(5 often not in a single polari?ation. And although temporal coherence implies monochromaticity5 there are even lasers that emit a broad spectrum of light5 or emit different wavelengths of light simultaneously. There are some lasers which are not single spatial mode and conse=uently their light beams diverge more than re=uired by the diffraction limit. 8owever all such devices are classified as IlasersI based on their method of producing that light: stimulated emission. Lasers are employed in applications where light of the re=uired spatial or temporal coherence could not be produced using simpler technologies.

Terminolo!'

'igure..+:FLaser

Laser beams in fog5 reflected on a car windshield The word laser started as an acronym for Ilight amplification by stimulated emission of radiationIM in modern usage IlightI broadly denotes electromagnetic radiation of any

fre=uency5 not only visible light5 hence infrared laser5 ultraviolet laser5 X-ray laser5 and so on. 7 A laser which produces light by itself is technically an optical oscillator rather than an optical amplifier as suggested by the acronym. 4t has been humorously noted that the acronym L&S$35 for Ilight oscillation by stimulated emission of radiation5I would have been more correc.N;ith the widespread use of the original acronym as a common noun5 actual optical amplifiers have come to be referred to as Ilaser amplifiersI5 notwithstanding the apparent redundancy in that designation. The bac Fformed verb to lase is fre=uently used in the field5 meaning Ito produce laser light5I especially in reference to the gain medium of a laserM when a laser is operating it is said to be Ilasing.I 'urther use of the words laser and maser in an e<tended sense5 not referring to laser technology or devices5 can be seen in usages such as astrophysical maser and atom laser.

Design

'igure..@ Design of laser

%omponents of a typical laser: ). >ain medium A. Laser pumping energy .. 8igh reflector +. &utput coupler @. Laser beam

A laser consists of a gain medium5 a mechanism to supply energy to it5 and something to provide optical feedbac .The gain medium is a material with properties that allow it to amplify light by stimulated emission. Light of a specific wavelength that passes through the gain medium is amplified #increases in power(. 'or the gain medium to amplify light5 it needs to be supplied with energy. This process is called pumping. The energy is typically supplied as an electrical current5 or as light at a different wavelength. !ump light may be provided by a flash lamp or by another laser. The most common type of laser uses feedbac from an optical cavityKa pair of mirrors on either end of the gain medium. Light bounces bac and forth between the mirrors5 passing through the gain medium and being amplified each time. Typically one of the two mirrors5 the output coupler5 is partially transparent. Some of the light escapes through this mirror. Depending on the design of the cavity #whether the mirrors are flat or curved(5 the light coming out of the laser may spread out or form a narrow beam. This type of device is sometimes called a laser oscillator in analogy to electronic oscillators5 in which an electronic amplifier receives electrical feedbac that causes it to produce a signal.Most practical lasers contain additional elements that affect properties of the emitted light such as the polari?ation5 the wavelength5 and the shape of the beam.

Laser physics
$lectrons and how they interact with electromagnetic fields are important in our understanding of chemistry and physics.

Stim late8 emission

4n the classical view5 the energy of an electron orbiting an atomic nucleus is larger for orbits further from the nucleus of an atom. 8owever5 =uantum mechanical effects force electrons to ta e on discrete positions in orbitals. Thus5 electrons are found in specific energy levels of an atom5 two of which are shown below:

)*

'igure ..- Light $mission in laser

;hen an electron absorbs energy either from light #photons( or heat #phonons(5 it receives that incident =uantum of energy. But transitions are only allowed in between discrete energy levels such as the two shown above. This leads to emission lines and absorption lines. ;hen an electron is e<cited from a lower to a higher energy level5 it will not stay that way forever. An electron in an e<cited state may decay to a lower energy state which is not occupied5 according to a particular time constant characteri?ing that transition. ;hen such an electron decays without e<ternal influence5 emitting a photon5 that is called Ispontaneous emissionI. The phase associated with the photon that is emitted is random. A material with many atoms in such an e<cited state may thus result in radiation which is very spectrally limited #centered around one wavelength of light(5 but the individual photons would have no common phase relationship and would emanate in random directions. This is the mechanism of fluorescence and thermal emission.An e<ternal electromagnetic field at a fre=uency associated with a transition can affect the =uantum mechanical state of the atom. As the electron in the atom ma es a transition between two stationary states #neither of which shows a dipole field(5 it enters a transition state which does have a dipole field5 and which acts li e a small electric dipole5 and this dipole oscillates at a characteristic fre=uency.

))

C4APTER -0Recei&ers
'iber optic receivers are instruments that convert light into electrical signals. They contain a photodiode semiconductor5 signal conditioning circuitry5 and an amplifier. 'iber optic receivers use three types of photodiodes: positiveFnegative #!/( "unctions5 positiveF intrinsicFnegative #!4/( photodiodes5 and avalanche photodiodes #A!D(. !4/ photodiodes have a large5 neutrallyFdoped region between the pFdoped and nFdoped regions. A!Ds are !4/ photodiodes that operate with high reverseFbias voltages. 4n short wavelength fiber optic receivers #+** nm to ))** nm(5 the photodiode is made of silicon #Si(. 4n long wavelength systems #D** nm to )C** nm(5 the photodiode is made of indium gallium arsenide #4n>aAs(. ;ith lowFimpedance amplifiers5 bandwidth and receiver noise decrease with resistance. ;ith transFimpedance amplifiers5 the bandwidth of the receiver is affected by the gain of the amplifier. Typically5 fiber optic receivers include a removable adaptor for connections to other devices. Data outputs include transistorF transistor logic #TTL(5 emitterFcoupled logic #$%L(5 video5 radio fre=uency #3'(5 and complementary metal o<ide semiconductor #%M&S( signals. Also5 it uses many types of connectors.

,* C4APTER ; ;0 BASIC PRINCIPAL OF OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION

;0,T%e La< of Refraction

;hen light travels from one medium to another5 it generally bends5 or refracts. The law of refraction gives us a way of predicting the amount of bend. This law is more complicated than that for reflection5 but an understanding of refraction will be necessary for our future discussion of lenses and their applications. The law of refraction is also nown as SnellGs Law5 named for ;illobrord Snell5 who discovered the law in )-A).

;0*Snell=s La<
Li e with reflection5 refraction also involves the angles that the incident ray and the refracted ray ma e with the normal to the surface at the point of refraction. 2nli e reflection5 refraction also depends on the media through which the light rays are travelling. This dependence is made e<plicit in SnellGs Law via refractive indices, numbers which are constant for given media). SnellGs Law is given in the following diagram.

As in reflection5 we measure the angles

'igure @.) SnellEs law ,7

from the normal to the surface5 at the point of contact. The constants n are the indices of refraction for the corresponding media. Tables of refractive indices for many substances have been compiled. n for Light of ;avelength -** nm Substance Air #) atmosphere pressure5 * degrees %( ;ater #A* degrees %( %rown >lass 'lint >lass 3efractive 4nde<5 n ).***AD )... ).@A ).--

Say5 in our simple e<ample above5 that we shine a light of wavelength -** nm from water into air5 so that it ma es a .* o angle with the normal of the boundary. Suppose we wish to find the angle x that the outgoing ray ma es with the boundary. Then5 SnellGs Law gives )... x O +)o 3efraction certainly e<plains why fishing with a rod is a sport5 while fishing with a spear is not A more complicated illustration of SnellGs Law proves something that seems intuitively correct5 but is not obvious directly. 4f you stand behind a window made of uniform glass5 sin .*o O ).***AD sin x

then you now by now that the images of the things on the other side of the window have been refracted. Assuming that the air on both sides of your window have the same refractive indices5 we have the following situation:

'igure@.A SnellEs law

;e find that the incoming and outgoing light beams are actually parallel. 3earranging SnellGs Law5 with i and r being the incident and refracted angles5 n)sin#i( O nAsin#r( #n)BnA(sin#i( O sin#r(

)@ a =ualitative description of refraction becomes clear. ;hen we are travelling from an area of higher inde< to an area of lower inde<5 the ratio n)BnA is greater than one5 so that the angle r will be greater than the angle iM i.e. the refracted ray is bent away from the normal. ;hen light travels from an area of lower inde< to an area of higher inde<5 the ratio is less than one5 and the refracted ray is smaller than the incident oneM hence the incident ray is bent toward the normal as it hits the boundary. &f course5 refraction can also occur in a nonFrectangular ob"ect #indeed5 the ob"ects that we are interested in5 lenses5 are not rectangular at all(. The calculation of the normal direction is harder under these circumstances5 but the behaviour is still predicted by SnellGs Law.

Calc latin! n
>iven a transparent substance5 we can always find its inde< of refraction by using a setup li e the e<ample above. Surrounding the substance of un nown inde< n with a material with a nown inde< of refraction5 we can find the un nown n by measuring angles and applying SnellGs Law. 8owever5 calculating ns in this way5 an obvious =uestion arises. 8ow did the first inde< get calculatedP ;e could always choose an arbitrary substance as a meterstic 5 and calculate all other indices in terms of this base. 8owever5 indices of refraction arise in Ma<wellGs e=uations for electromagnetic wavesM that5 in fact5 is how they are defined. ;e shall not delve into these e=uations hereM instead we will note that n for air is very close to )5 and that we can therefore easily calcuate n for any other substance using our setup above.

;07Total Internal Reflection

An interesting case of refraction can occur when light travels from a medium of larger to smaller inde<. The light ray can actually bend so much that it never goes beyond the boundary between the two media. This case of refraction is called total internal reflection.

)-

'igure@.. Total internal reflection

4n the above diagram5 imagine that we are trying to send a beam of light from a region with refractive inde< n) to a region with inde< nA and that nA Q n1. 4f x)5 xA are the angles made with the normal for the incident and refracted rays5 then SnellGs Law yields Since nA Q n)5 we could potentially get an argument for the arcsin function that is greater than )M an invalid value. The critical angle is the first angle for which the incident ray does not leave the first region5 namely when the IrefractedI angle is D* o. Any incident angle greater than the critical angle will conse=uently be reflected from the boundary instead of being refracted. 'or concreteness5 pretend that we are shining light from water to air. To find the critical angle5 we set xA O D*o. 2sing SnellGs Law5 we see that any incident angle greater than about +)o will not leave the water.

Total internal reflection

'igure@.+ Total internal reflection

)C The larger the angle to the normal5 the smaller is the fraction of light transmitted rather than reflected5 until the angle at which total internal reflection occurs. #The color of the rays is to help distinguish the rays5 and is not meant to indicate any color dependence.(

'igure@.@:FTotal internal reflection in a bloc of acrylic

Total internal reflection is a phenomenon that happens when a propagating wave stri es a medium boundary at an angle larger than a particular critical angle with respect to the normal to the surface. 4f the refractive inde< is lower on the other side of the boundary and the incident angle is greater than the critical angle5 the wave cannot pass through and is entirely reflected. The critical angle is the angle of incidence above which the total internal reflectance occurs. This is particularly common as an optical phenomenon5 where light waves are involved5 but it occurs with many types of waves5 such as electromagnetic waves in general or sound waves. ;hen a wave crosses a boundary between materials with different inds of refractive indices5 the wave will be partially refracted at the boundary surface5 and partially reflected. 8owever5 if the angle of incidence is greater #i.e. the direction of propagation or ray is closer to being parallel to the boundary( than the critical angle R the angle of incidence at which light is refracted such that it travels along the boundary R then the wave will not cross the boundary and instead be totally reflected bac internally. This can only occur where the wave travels from a medium with a higher refractive inde< #n)( to one with a lower refractive inde< #nA(. 'or e<ample5 it will occur with light when passing from glass to air5 but not when passing from air to glass.

;0-Critical An!le:9
4f we consider we notice larger so does the angle *A. Because of the refraction effect other delay in communication will be due to communication e=uipment ng5 encoding the voice of the fiber. ray propagation in a fiber. ;e need one more school physics. This is SnellGs law. )7 ;here n denotes the refractive inde< of the material.*)B*A are angles in respective medium. 8igher 3efractive 4nde< means denser medium. light enters in lighter medium from denser it inclines light enters in denser medium from lighter it inclines away 4f we consider we notice above that as the angle *) becomes larger so does the angle *A. Because of the refraction effect *A.other delay in communication will be due to communication e=uipment ;e need one more *)B*A are angles in respective medium. 8igher 3efractive 4nde< means denser medium. light enters in lighter medium from denser it inclines light enters in denser medium from lighter it inclines away becomes larger and *A. becomes larger more =uic ly than *) .At some point *A will reach D*S while *) is still well less than that. This is called the 9critical angle:. ;hen *)is increased further then refraction ceases and the light starts to be reflected rather than refracted. Thus light is perfectly reflected at an interface between two materials of different refractive inde< if: ). The light is incident on the interface from the side of higher refractive inde<. A. The angle is greater than a specific value called the 9critical angle:. >lass refractive inde< is ).@* #critical angle is +).7(5 Diamond critical angle is A+.+ degree. A guided ray #also bound ray or trapped ray( is a ray of light in a multiFmode optical fiber5 which is confined by the core. 'or step inde< fiber5 light entering the fiber will be guided if it falls within the acceptance cone of the fiber5 that is if it ma es an angle with the fiber a<is that is less than the acceptance angle5

nosina>?2n,*9n**3#
where is the angle the ray ma es with the fiber a<is5 before entering the fiber5

no is the refractive inde< along the central a<is of the fiber5 and nc is the refractive inde< of the cladding. This result can be derived from SnellGs law by considering the critical angle.

)D 3ays that fall within this angular range are reflected from the coreFcladding boundary by total internal reflection5 and so are confined by the core. The confinement of light by the fiber can also be described in terms of bound modes or guided modes. This treatment is necessary when considering singlemode fiber5 since the ray model does not accurately describe the propagation of light in this type of fiber.

;0;N merical apert re 2NA3:9

#/umerical aperture( &ne of the most often =uoted characteristics of an optical fiber is its 9/umerical Aperture:. The /A is intended as a measure of the light capturing ability of the fiber. 8owever5 it is used for many other purposes. 'or e<ample it may be used as a measure of the amount of loss that we might e<pect on a bend of a

particular radius etc.

A* %8A!T$3 60Fi)er
'iber is the medium to guide the light form the transmitter to the receiver. 4t is classified into two types depending on the way the light is transmitted: multimode fiber and singleF mode fiber.

60,M ltimo8e Fi)er

Multimode fiber designed to transmit more than one light at a time. 'iber diameter ranges from @*FtoF)** micron. Multimode fibers can be divided in to two categories Multimode StepFinde< 'iber and Multimode >radedFinde< 'iber. 4n Multimode StepFinde< 'iber the lights are sent at angles lower than the critical angle or straight #or simply the angle is ?ero(. Any light angle e<ceed the critical angle will cause it to penetrate through cladding #refracted( and being lost as shown in 'igure ). &bviously light with lower angle which has less number of reflection5 reach the end faster than those with larger angle and this will result in unstable wave light. To avoid this

problem there should be spacing between the light pulses5 but this will limit the bandwidth and because of that it is used for very short distance.

'igure -.)5 Multimode StepFinde< 'iber

The Multimode >radedFinde< 'iber designed to reduce the problem in Multimode StepF4nde< fiber by ma ing all the beams reaching the receiver at the same time. This can be done by slowing down the ones with shorter distance and increasing the speed for ones with longer distance5 see 'igure A. This is done in fiber implementation by increasing its refractive inde< at the center and gradually decreases it toward the edges. 4n the 'igure A we can see the light near the edges is curved until it is reflected5 this is due to the refraction caused by the change in density. A)

'igure -.)5 Multimode >radedF4nde< 'iber

60*Sin!le9Mo8e Fi)er
4n singleFmode5 only one light is transmitted in the fiber which diameter ranges from 7.. to )* microns5 see 'igure .. Since there is only one light the problem associated with the multimode fiber does not e<ist and by this we can have a higher transmission rate and also it can be used for longer distance. To utili?e the fiber a ;aveFDivisionF Multiple<ing #;DM( is used as it will be described later. This type of fiber has been improved over years and that result in three types of singleF mode fiber. The first is /on DispersionFShifted 'iber #/DS'( which was used to transmit light with wave length ).)* nm5 but some systems use it with a wave length of )@@* nm and this wave length causes dispersion #losing pulse mode( with this type of fibers. The second type is DispersionFShifted 'iber #DS'(5 in this type the dispersion is shifted so

that the dispersion at the wave length )@@* nm is ?ero and in this way we could solve the problem of the first. But system with D;DM #Dense ;avelength Division Multiple<ing( found to be nonlinear with this type of fiber. The term Dense ;avelength Division Multiple<ing #D;DM( came from the tremendously increase in use of ;DM. The third type is /on TeroFDispersionFShifted 'ibers #/TFDS'( which is designed to solve the problems with the previous two.

'igure-. A5 SingleFMode 'iber

AA %8A!T$3 C

@0Fi)er Ca)les
As with copper wires optical fiber need to be protected from the surrounding environment. >rouping fibers into one cable has other advantages as well which are $ase of 8andling5 !rotection5 %rush 3esistance and Degradation. 'iber cables fall into three basic categories: loose tube cable5 tightly buffered fiber and ribbon cables.

@0,Loose Tube Cable

4n loose tube design5 a coated fiber is contained in a tube5 with inner diameter much larger than the fiber diameter. To ma e the fiber move freely inside the tube5 it is installed in a loose heli< and also by this the fiber can be protected from the stresses applied to the cable in installation or service5 including effects of changing temperature. Loose tubes can be used without any filling. 8owever if they are to be used outdoors5 they are normally filled with a "elly li e material. The gel acts as a buffer5 eeping out moisture and letting the fibers move in the tube5

'igureC. )5Loose Tube %able

@0*Ti!%tl' B ffere8 Ca)le

4n Tightly Buffered %able the fiber is coated then encased in plastic layer. The coating is a soft plastic that allows deformation and reduces forces applied to the fiber. The resulted fiber is then surrounded by a harder plastic5 to provide physical protection5 'igure @. Tight buffering assures that the fibers are in precisely predictable positions5 ma ing it easier to install connectors. A ma"or advantage of tight buffered cable for indoor use is its compatibility with fire and electrical codes. Although losses are somewhat higher than in loose tube cables5 indoor transmission distances are short enough that itGs not a problem. A.

'igure C.A5 Tightly Buffered %able

@07Ri))on Ca)les
3ibbon %ables have small variation form the tight buffer cables. 4n 3ibbon cable design5 the fiber is coated as the case in tight buffer cable. Then a group of the coated fibers is arranged in parallel and then all the fibers are coated with plastic to form a multifibre ribbon. This differs from the tight buffered cables in that one plastic layer encases many parallel fibers5 see fibers. 2p to )A ribbons can be stac ed together to form the core of a cable. The simple structure ma es a ribbon cable easy to splice in the

fieldM a single splice can connect multiple fibers. Multifibers connectors can also be installed readily.

'igure C..5 3ibbon %ables

A+

%8A!T$3 7

A0.a&e Di&ision M ltipleBin! 2.DM3

;ith ;DM it is possible to send multiple optical signals from deferent source at the same time on one optical fiber. The data stream from each Source is assigned an optical wavelength. The multiple<er modulates each data stream from each Source. After the modulation process the resulting optical signal generated for each Source data stream is placed on its assigned wavelength. The resulted signals are simultaneously sent through the fiber. At the 2ser end the multiple<er receives a composite signal. 4t separates the signal into the original signals according to their different wavelengths by using prisms. These signals are further demodulated. The resulting separated data streams are then provided to the respective 2sers. The difficult part of the multiple<ing process is at the receiver side #demultiple<ing(. The designers have to put into their considerations for the crosstal and channel separation in the demultiple<ing. The crosstal specification e<presses how well the demultiple<er maintains portFtoFport separation. That is each channel should appear

only at its intended port. %hannel separation describes ability for the demultiple<er to distinguish different wavelengths. 4n most demultiple<er5 the wavelengths must be widely separated allowing light to travel in either direction without the penalty found in splitters.

A@ %8A!T$3 D C0A8&anta!e of Optical fi)er:9

'iber optic transmission systems a fiber optic transmitter and receiver5 %onnected by fiber optic cable offer a wide range of benefits not offered by traditional copper wire or coa<ial cable. These include:

Less EBpensi&e:F 'irst5 fiber optics are less e<pensive than copper wire. This is
because many miles of optical cable are easier and less e<pensive to install than the same amount of copper wire or cable.

T%inner:F 'iber optics is thinner than copper wire cables5 so they will fit in smaller5
more crowded places. This is important for underground cable systems5 li e in cities5 where space needs to be shared with sewer pipes5 power wires5 and subway systems.

4i!%er Carr'in! Capacit':9 More information can also be carried over fiber optic
systems. This can be especially important for computers5 since a computer has to send so

much information at one time. Also5 more phone lines can be in one optical fiber. Many people use the same optical cable for phone conversations at the same time.

Less si!nal 8e!ra8ation:F 4nformation gets lost over distances an any ind of wire.
But5 fiber optic cables donEt lose as much signal #information( as other inds of wires and cables.

Use Li!%t Si!nals:F Because fiber optics use light signals instead of electricity5 the
signals donEt interfere with each other. This ma es the signals clearer and easier to understand.

Lo< Po<er :F&ptical fiber signals are created using lowFpower transmitters because
the signal degrades less #instead of highF power electric transmitters used for copper wires(. Lower power use saves money for users and providers. A-

Di!ital Si!nals:9 %omputer networ s need digital information5 since fiber optic cables
send information digitallyM they are the best thing to use for computer networ s.

Non9flamma)le:9 Since fiber optics send light instead of electricity5 fiber optics are
nonFflammable. This means there is not a fire ha?ard. 'iber optics also does not cause electric shoc s5 because they do not carry electricity.

Li!%t <ei!%t:F 'iber optics is easier to install and transport than copper wires. That is
good news for technicians

FleBi)le:9 Since fiber optics is more fle<ible5 they can go around corners and into
tighter places than traditional cable. This is important in computer and very big office networ s.

Ot%er )enefits are:9

The fiber is totally immune to virtually all inds of interference5 including

lightning5 and will not conduct electricity. 4t can thereF fore come in direct contact

with high voltage electrical e=uipment and power lines. 4t will also not create ground loops of any ind.

As the basic fiber is made of glass5 it will not corrode and is unaffected by most chemicals. 4t can be buried directly in most inds of soil or e<posed to most corrosive atmospheres in chemical plants without significant concern.

'iber optic cables are virtually unaffected by outdoor atmospheric conditions5 allowing them to be lashed directly to telephone poles or e<isting electrical cables without concern for e<traneous signal pic up.

'iber optic cable is ideal for secure communications systems because it is very difficult to tap but very easy to monitor. 4n addition5 there is absolutely no electrical radiation from a fiber.

AC %8A!T$3 )* ,+0Limitations of Optical Fi)er:9 ). The terminating e=uipment is still costly as compared to copper wire.
A. Delicate so has to be handled carefully. .. %ommunication is not totally in optical domain5 so repeated electric to optical to electrical conversion is needed. +. &ptical amplifiers5 splitters5 M2,FD$M2, are still in development stages. @. Tapping is not possible. Speciali?ed e=uipment is needed to tap a fiber. -. &ptical fiber splicing is a speciali?ed techni=ue and needs e<pertly trained manpower. C. The splicing and testing e=uipments are very e<pensive as compared to copper e=uipments. 7. Bending %ables D. >amma 3adiation )*. $lectrical 'ields )). Shar s $at the %able )A. >ophers #and Termites( 3eally Do $at the %able

A7

%8A!T$3 )) ,,0Some Application

Due to the advantages of fiber optic over the traditional connectivity networ s5 networ s are being changed to the new technology of fiber optic. 8ere is some applications use fiber optics for the communication: Long 8aul telecommunication systems on land and at sea to carry many simultaneous telephone calls #or other signals( over long distances. These include ocean spanning submarine cables and national bac bone networ s for telephone and computer data transmission. 4nteroffice trun s that carry many telephone conversations simultaneously between local and regional switching facilities. %onnections between the telephone /B; and antennas for mobile telephone service. Lin s among computers and high resolution videoFterminals used for such purposes as computer aided design. Transmission of signals within ships and aircraft. Local area /etwor s operating at high speeds or over large areas5 and bac bone systems connecting slower local area /etwor s. 8igh speed interconnections between computer and peripherals devices5 or between computers5 or even within segments of single large Long 8aul telecommunication systems on land and at sea to carry many simultaneous

telephone calls #or other signals( over long distances. These include ocean spanning submarine cables and national bac bone networ s for telephone and computer data transmission. 4nteroffice trun s that carry many telephone conversations simultaneously between local and regional switching facilities. %onnections between the telephone /B; and antennas for mobile telephone service. Lin s among computers and high resolution videoFterminals used for such purposes as computer aided design.

AD Transmission of signals within ships and aircraft. Local area /etwor s operating at high speeds or over large areas5 and bac bone systems connecting slower local area /etwor s. 8igh speed interconnections between computer and peripherals devices5 or between computers5 or even within segments of single large %able TL5%%TL 5&ptical 'iber Sensors5 ,Fray 4maging 5/ight Lision &ther uses of optical fibers 'ibers are widely used in illumination applications. They are used as light guides in medical and other applications where bright light Some buildings5 optical fibers are used to route sunlight from the roof to other parts of the building . &ptical fiber illumination is also used for decorative applications5 including signs5 art5 and artificial %hristmas trees. &ptical fiber is also used in imaging optics i.e. an endoscope5 which is used to view ob"ects through a small hole. Medical endoscopes are used for minimally invasive e<ploratory or surgical procedures #endoscopy(. 4ndustrial endoscopes are used for inspecting anything hard to reach5 such as "et engine interiors. 4n spectroscopy5 optical fiber bundles are used to transmit light from a spectrometer to a substance which cannot be placed inside the spectrometer itself5 in order to analy?e its composition.

A spectrometer analy?es substances by bouncing light off of and through them. By using fibers5 a spectrometer can be used to study ob"ects that are too large to fit inside5 or gasses5 or reactions which occur in pressure vessels.

.* Concl sion:9
The age of optical communications is a new era. 4n several ways fiber optics is a pivotal brea through from the electric communication we have been accustomed to. 4nstead of electrons moving bac and forth over a regular copper or metallic wire to carry signals5 light waves navigate tiny fibres of glass or plastic to accomplish the same purpose. ;ith a bandwidth and information capacity a thousand times greater than that of copper circuits5 fiber optics may soon provide us with all the communication technology we could want in a lifetime5 at a cost efficient price At present there are many optical fiber communication lin s throughout the world without using optical solutions. ;hen we introduce optical solutions as light pulses through the fibers5 we can achieve high =uality telecommunication at a lower cost. ;e can e<pect a great revolution in optical fiber communication within a few years by means of solutions.

.) 0References:9
'rom paper written by 8arry 1. 3. Dutton for 4nternational Technical Support &rgani?ation titled as 2nderstanding &ptical %ommunications by 4BM. http:BBen.wi ipedia.orgBwi iB&pticalUfiber http:BBwww.fiberFoptics.infoBarticlesBwdm.htm http:BBwww.arcelect.comBfibercable.htm 'rom paper &ptical fiber communicationKAn overview by M #Department of !hysics(5 Anna 2niversity. A32M2>AM

.A

Sources
). http:BBwww.telebyteusa.comBfoprimerBfoch..htm A. http:BBwww.fiberFoptics.infoBarticlesBwdm.htm .. http:BBwww.arcelect.comBfibercable.htm +. http:BBwww.fiberFoptics.infoBarticlesBfiberFtypes.htm @. http:BBwww.a shoptifibre.comBinteractBfa=.htm -. http:BBwww.americantechsupply.comBhowfiberopticswor s.htm C. http:BBen.wi ipedia.orgBwi iB'iberFopticUcommunication 7. http:BBwww.fiberinstrumentsales.comBcommunicatorB+.*-BimagesBloos eUtubeUfiber."pg D. http:BBwww.fiberinstrumentsales.comBcommunicatorB+.*-BimagesBribb onUfiberUopticUcable."pg