Chapter 16 Nonlinear Problems in FEA_________________________________________

CHAPTER 16 NONLINEAR PROBLEMS IN FEA In many cases the civil engineering structures are designed to be kept on purpose into the linear-elastic state, when specific safety or technical conditions are required concerning their deformation or material behavior. However, most design codes, especially those dedicated to building structures subjected to exceptional dynamic loads, are based on the nonlinear behavior hypothesis. The development of plastic regions is taken into account, as dissipaters of the earthquake induced energy. Failure mechanisms are previewed, based on some plastic hinges development, with prescribed locations and ductility. Generally, in mechanical analyses, the nonlinear behavior is related to 3 main reasons: the material status changing; the material nonlinearities; the geometric nonlinearities.

Structures or structural components exhibit sometimes nonlinear behavior that is status-dependent. A tension-only cable is either slack or taut; a skating support is either in contact or not. The status change might be directly related to load, to temperature or it might be determined by some external cause. The nonlinear stress-strain relationship is a common cause of nonlinear material behavior. Many factors can influence the materials stress-strain properties, including the load history (as in elastic-plastic response), the environmental conditions (such as temperature) and the amount of time that a load is applied (as in creep response). If a structure experiences large deformations under prescribed loads, the progressive changing of its geometric configuration can cause a nonlinear response a geometric nonlinearity. Usually, this is the case of flexible structures subjected to loads applied normal on their main direction (stability problems, buckling).

152

______________________Basics of the Finite Element Method Applied in Civil Engineering

16.1 MATERIAL NONLINEARITIES. INTRODUCTION The finite element formulation is based on the linear differential equation system, leading to the standard quadratic form of the functional. In linear elastic solid mechanics this implies: a linear form of the strain displacements relationship

x =
-

u u v ;L; xy = + ; , or, in condensed form, = B x x y

a linear form of the stress-strain relationship

= E( 0 ) + 0 . Similar linear expressions were used for analyzing steady state seepage phenomena or other analogous field problems. Based on these hypotheses, the finite element method finally guides to the solution of the algebraic system Ka = R where K is the characteristic matrix of the domain, a the nodal unknowns vector and R the load vector or the boundary constrains vector. In many problems of practical interest the linearity of one or both kinds is not preserved: complex constitutive relationships, non-linear elasticity, plasticity, creep, turbulent seepage, etc. For solid mechanics problems, the materials behavior supersedes the simple linear elasticity assumption. The stress strain relationship, which is no longer linear and sometimes also depends on time, can be expressed in a general form:
M (, , t ) = 0 (16.1)

In these circumstances, the final equation system has itself a nonlinear form: K (a) a = R (16.2)

153

Chapter 16 Nonlinear Problems in FEA_________________________________________

Frequently the problem can be dealt without reorganizing the standard finite element formulation. In the solution process the material constants are adjusted to satisfy the appropriate constitutive law in the frame of an equivalent "linear" problem, by a "trial and error estimation" process. This comes to an iterative solution procedure, as it will be shown in this chapter. Concerning the involvement of parameter time, the nonlinear problems may be rate independent, such as non-linear elasticity or plasticity (where time is not involved), or rate dependent, as creep and visco-plasticity (where time is an independent parameter witch defines the materials behavior). Note that in linear problems, the solution is always unique, while in non linear problems, if a solution is achieved, it may not necessarily be the sought one. The constitutive laws relating stresses to strains, as well as the strain changes, are frequently path dependent. Consequently, small-step incremental approaches are essential to obtain physically significant answers. For the load step number i the solution starts from an equilibrium situation where the load vector
R i = R i 1 + R i

(16.3)

If the load increments Ri are kept reasonably small the path dependent phenomenon can be followed. The actual characteristic matrix of the domain for the loading increment Ri is Ki. Consequently, repeated solutions of linear equations K a = R are used.
16.2 NON-LINEAR MATERIAL MODELS

The non-linear elastic model, also called variable elastic, is characterized by a non-linear relationship between stresses and strains, written as = () . There are no irrecoverable strains (deformations) on load removal. Sometimes the relationship can be expressed in an explicit form, while sometimes only an implicit expression is available. A peculiar case is the socalled bilinear elastic model, useful for ground, rock or earth-fill solid models. The passage from one elastic constant E1 to the other E2 is done according to the strain level reached in each region of the model. Either
154

______________________Basics of the Finite Element Method Applied in Civil Engineering

stiffening or softening phenomena may be assigned to the materials behavior.

a.

E2 E1

softening

b.
E2

hardening

E ( )

E1

Fig. 16.1 The nonlinear elastic model. The bilinear approach for softening (a) or hardening (b).

The elastic-plastic model is characterized by an elastic behavior up to a stress limit y (called yielding stress), followed by a non-univoque stress strain relationship and the presence of irrecoverable strains on load removal. Usually, simplified elastic ideal plastic models are used. More complicated models take into account the stress stiffening phenomenon. The loss of strength due to pick stress exceeding is also available. The attached mechanical scheme is built on a spring connected to a friction-sliding skate.

y
E

y
= ( p ) p p y
a.
E

p p =?

b.

Fig. 16.2 The elastic-plastic model. The elastic ideal plastic behavior (a) and the strength loss after pick stress (b).

155

Chapter 16 Nonlinear Problems in FEA_________________________________________

The viscous-plastic model is an elastic plastic model where the parameter time is explicitly involved. In plastic state, the stress limit is related to the strain (deformation) rate. Until the y is reached, the solid exhibits only elastic strains. Beyond the y level, an instantaneous load increment R is followed by permanent strains developing in time. The attached mechanical scheme is built on a spring connected to a combination of a friction-sliding skate and a Maxwell piston. p

y
E
t

e
vp

t
Fig. 16.3 The visco-plastic model. Stress and strain evolution in time.

The viscous-elastic model is characterized by an elastic material behavior associated with long term (time dependent) deformations regardless the stress level. The strain rate depends on the load history. On unloading, the elastic deformations disappear instantaneously while the viscous deformations vanish in time. The attached mechanical scheme is built on a spring connected to a combination of a spring and a Maxwell piston.

( =

ve

e ve

t Fig. 16.4 The visco-elastic model. Stress and strain evolution in time.

156

______________________Basics of the Finite Element Method Applied in Civil Engineering

16.3 NON-LINEAR ELASTICITY (or the variable elastic behavior) 16.3.1 The procedure of tangential elasticity matrices
If, from the constitutive low = () , the elasticity matrix E is available in an explicit form d E( ) = = Et (16.4) d then Et is called the tangent elasticity matrix. The corresponding stiffness matrix, calculated by the known expression
k ( ) = BT E( )BdV
Ve

(16.5)

is called the tangent stiffness matrix. Once the tangential matrices are defined (assuming that such a definition is available in an explicit form), the materials behavior can be modeled by an iterative process.

d Et ,i = d i

Fig. 16.5 The procedure of tangential elasticity matrices.

For an arbitrary stress level 0 (chosen in the expected stress range, based on engineering judgment) the tangent elasticity and stiffness matrices are calculated for all the elements in the mesh, using the previous expressions. After assembling the master stiffness matrix, the nodal displacements 1 are obtained by solving the equation system*
* In this case, the index 1 has the meaning of first iteration, not the one of the displacement components for node 1.
157

Chapter 16 Nonlinear Problems in FEA_________________________________________

K ( 0 )1 = R

(16.6)

and, for each element, the new state of stress becomes

1 = E( 0 )B1

(16.7)

The new state of stress modifies the corresponding tangent matrices. The iterative process can be described in the following general form:
i = E( i1 )Bi K ( i )i +1 = R

(16.8) (16.9)

from which i +1 is calculated. For a convergent process, the error between successive iterations expressed as
e = i +1 i

(16.10)

should gradually decrease. Usually, a norm is associated to the error and the iteration process is carried out until the norm is sufficiently small. The norm, which is a scalar, can be defined as e = max ei or
e = eT e

(16.11)

with the associated condition e (where is a conveniently chosen parameter). The process is simple and intuitive but has two main disadvantages: the convergence is not always achieved; the stiffness matrices computations and the assembling process should be carried out for every iteration.

The tangent stiffness matrix procedure, as well as other iterative algorithms defining the material behavior, is improved when the load is applied gradually (in steps). A small-step incremental approach is essential to obtain physically significant answers. The iterative process is usually convergent

158

______________________Basics of the Finite Element Method Applied in Civil Engineering

and the stress strain evolution gives useful information about the structures behavior during gradual loading. For a load increment R i , the algorithm follows the sequence: at element level, due to previous loading increments a i 1 state of stress is induced and the tangent matrices are calculated
Et = E( i 1 )
k t = B Et BdV
T e

(16.12) (16.13)

at structural level (assembling process and solution) K = k t and

K i = R i , from which the relative displacements i are calculated; returning to element level i = Et B i i = i 1 + i
(16.14) (16.15)

The procedure corresponds to the Euler method in numerical analysis. The question is how small the load increment R i must be, in order to attain the appropriate solution? A better precision in modeling the nonlinear behavior can be achieved using the modified Euler method. After evaluating i and i , an improvement (or smoothing) phase is introduced: the tangent matrices are reevaluated for the loading increment R i :

1 ) i 1 + i i =(

with 0 < < 1

e

(16.16) (16.17)

T E t = E( i ) and k t = B E t BdV

the assembling and solution phases are repeated

K = k t
159

Chapter 16 Nonlinear Problems in FEA_________________________________________

K i = R i from which the relative displacements i are calculated; i = E( i ) B i The new increments i and i are used for the actualization of displacements i and stresses i . The result represents the initial state for
the following load step R i +1 .

16.3.2 The initial stress method (the procedure of residual stress transfer)
If the stress-strain relationship does not allow an analytical definition of the tangential elasticity matrix, but stresses can be defined in terms of strains as

= f () ,

(16.18)

the nonlinear behavior can be modeled by successive correction of stresses (i.e. vanishing the corresponding unbalanced force vector). Admitting a known, constant elasticity matrix, the global stiffness matrix of the structure is calculated:
k E = BT E BdV and K E = k E .
e

Solving the algebraic system

KE = R

the displacements are calculated and then, for each element, the strains and stresses: E = B and E = E E . The two states of stress, the calculated one and the one given by the stress-strain relationship, do not coincide. The necessary stress correction (see figure 16.6.a)

0 = f ( E ) E E

(16.19)

160

______________________Basics of the Finite Element Method Applied in Civil Engineering

can be considered as an initial state of stress, corresponding to an unbalanced force term given by
r = BT 0 dV
e

(16.20)

For structural equilibrium, these nodal residual forces should be redistributed:

R = r

(16.21)

It follows K E = R from where the displacement increment is calculated.

1 2

E
1

a.

1 2

b.

1 2

Fig. 16.6 The iterative procedure for: a). the initial stress method; b) .the initial strain method.

Knowing all the displacement increments , the strain and stress corrections can be evaluated at element level. For each element the unbalanced stress vector 0 will have a new value. If 0 is still significant, a new correction phase is required. If the unbalanced stress yields smaller then an acceptable error (norm), the analysis ends. Remarks:

161

Chapter 16 Nonlinear Problems in FEA_________________________________________

in each iteration the global stiffness matrix is constant and consequently the stiffness matrix is inverted only once, for the first step; the following steps require only a back substitution i = K 1R i ; the procedure can be associated successfully with loads applied incrementally.

16.3.3 The initial strain method (the procedure of residual strain transfer)

If the constitutive low has such a form that allows the evaluation of strains in terms of stresses

= f ( )

(16.22)

the non-linear behavior is modeled by successive corrections of strains. Essentially, the iterative process is similar with the previous one. The elasticity and stiffness matrices are assumed to be known. Solving the algebraic system according to the structural equilibrium, the stains and stresses can be calculated in the elastic behavior hypothesis. Solving the equation system K E = R the displacement vector is calculated, followed by strains E = B and stresses E = E E . Because the calculated strains do not coincide with those expressed by the constitutive low = f () , the following correction is necessary (see figure 16.6.b):
0 = f ( E ) E

(16.23)

The correction can be considered as an initial strain in the element, leading to an unbalanced force term:
r = BT E 0 dV
e

(16.24)

162

______________________Basics of the Finite Element Method Applied in Civil Engineering

The sum of unbalanced load vectors over the whole model has to be redistributed (transferred) in order to achieve the structural equilibrium. In an iterative process, the succeeding corrections i can lead to the acceptable solution:
0,i = f (EBi ) i
ri = BT E 0,i dV i +1 = K 1 ri
e

(16.25)

i +1 = B i +1 i + 1 = i + i + 1 16.4 THE NEWTON-RAPHSON PROCEDURE The Newton-Raphson procedure is a general tool used in nonlinear FEA, when the matrices involved do not remain constant during the modeled phenomenon. As the finite element process yields the usual set of simultaneous equations K a = R and the characteristic matrix is itself a function of the unknown DOF or their derivatives, the equation system is nonlinear. The Newton-Raphson method is an iterative process of solving nonlinear equations and can be written as:
a r KT i a i = R R i ai +1 = ai + a

(16.26) (16.27)

where K T i is the tangent characteristic matrix corresponding to iteration i and R ir is the vector of restoring loads (corresponding to the element internal loads), in the same iteration.
r Both K T i and R i are evaluated based on the values of a i . The right-hand side term of the first equation (16.26) is the residual or the out-of-balance load vector (the amount of systems out of equilibrium). Obviously, more then one iteration is needed to reach the convergent solution. The algorithm is following the subsequent steps:

163

Chapter 16 Nonlinear Problems in FEA_________________________________________

1. assume a known value a 0 , usually the convergent solution from the previous load step; for the first load step, a 0 may be 0; 2. compute the update tangent matrix K T i and the restoring load vector

R ir from the configuration ai ; 3. calculate the DOF increment a i from the equation system; 4. add ai to ai in order to obtain the next approximation a i +1 ; 5. repeat steps 2 to 4 until convergence is obtained.
The solution obtained at the end of the iteration process should correspond to the load level R. The restoring vector, computed from the current state, would equal the applied load within a prescribed tolerance. None of the intermediate equations are in equilibrium. For path-dependent nonlinearities such as plasticity, the solution process requires also some intermediate steps where equilibrium is achieved, in order to follow the load path. This requirement is carried out by applying the load in increments (steps) and performing the Newton-Raphson iteration at each step. The procedure guaranties convergence if and only if the solution at any iteration is near the exact solution. When the characteristic matrix is updated every iteration, the process is termed as the full Newton-Raphson solution. When the characteristic matrix is updated less frequently, the procedure is called the modified NewtonRaphson method. Finally, when using the same initial matrix for all iterations (without updating), the procedure is called the initial NewtonRaphson method. The last two have a slower convergence but require less matrix reformulation and inversion. The iterative process continues until the convergence is achieved for each load increment. Convergence is assumed when the vector norm such as R and/or a (which are scalar measures) are less than a tolerance times a reference value Rref:
R < R R ref

(16.28)

164

______________________Basics of the Finite Element Method Applied in Civil Engineering

the out of balance convergence requirement, or

a < a a ref

(16.29)

the DOF increment convergence requirement.

16.5 PREDICTOR AND ADAPTIVE DESCENT

The tangent matrix and the restoring vector used for the start of each load step are usually based on the current DOF solution. On applying the Newton-Raphson method, some computer codes have integrated a predictor subroutine, which extrapolates the previous DOF history in order to take a better guess of the next solution. In static analyses, the prediction is based on the DOF increments accumulated over the previous load step, factored by the load (or time) step size:

a n = a n 1 + a n

(16.30)

In the relationship (16.30) a n is the DOF increment accumulated over the previous load (time) step, n the current load (or time) step, a n = a i
1
kiter

and is defined as:

l n l n 1

(16.31)

where ln and ln1 are the current and previous load (or time) step sizes respectively. For rate dependent problems, the prediction is based on the following formula:
& n1l n a n = a n1 + (1 )a

(16.32)

& n1 the current DOF rates and a where a n1 is the current DOF vector, a load (or time) integration parameter.

165

Chapter 16 Nonlinear Problems in FEA_________________________________________

The adaptive descent is a technique which switches to a stiffer characteristic matrix if convergence difficulties are encountered and switches back to the full tangent as the solution converges. The matrix used in the Newton-Raphsom process is defined as a sum of two matrices:
S KT 1 )K T i = K + (

(16.33)

where K S is the secant matrix, K T the tangent matrix and the descent parameter. The subroutine adjusts the descent parameter during the equilibrium iterations as follows: 1. each step is started with the tangent matrix ( = 0); 2. if, over equilibrium iterations, the residual increases indicating divergence, the current solution is removed, the descent parameter is set to = 1 and the iteration is redone using the secant matrix; 3. if, after a prescribed number of iterations, the residual decreases, indicating a convergent solution, the descent parameter is reduced gradually (for example with a factor equal to 4); after a number of convergent iterations is set to zero again (the tangent matrix is used). When an ill-conditioned matrix is encountered during iteration (with a negative main diagonal term), the computer code removes the solution and bisects the load (or time) step. The adaptive descent can be used by default in any plasticity or large strain nonlinearities problem, but only with the full Newton-Raphson method, which updates the matrix iteration by iteration.

166