os. l3-4l?

8, l4-5003, l4-5006

I THI
!"#$%& ($)$%* +,-.$ ,/ 011%)2* /,. $3% 4%"$3 +#.5-#$

I!IK KITCHI, IT A!.,
Ploin/iffe-Appelleee,
v.
CA!Y !. HI!II!T, IT A!.,
DefenJon/e-Appellon/e

AonI from fho !nIfod Sfnfos IsfrIcf Courf
for fho IsfrIcf of !fnh (o. 2:l3-cv-002l?)

MA!Y IISHOI, IT A!.,
Ploin/iffe-Appelleee,
v.
SA!!Y HOWI SMITH, IT A!.,
DefenJon/e-Appellon/e

AonI from fho !nIfod Sfnfos IsfrIcf Courf for fho
orfhorn IsfrIcf of OkInhomn, (o. 4:04-cv-00848)

I!III AM1C1 CII1A1 OI CATO ISTIT!TI A
COSTIT!TIOA! ACCO!TAII!ITY CITI!
I S!IIO!T OI I!AITIIIS-AIII!!IIS A AIII!MACI

IIIznbofh I. Wydrn* IIyn ShnIro
COSTIT!TIOA! CATO ISTIT!TI
ACCO!TAII!ITY CITI! l000 Mnssnchusoffs Avo, W
l200 l8
fh
Sf., W, Sfo 50l WnshIngfon, C 2000l
WnshIngfon, .C. 20036 (202) 842-0200
(202) 296-6889
oIIznbofhfhousconsfIfufIon.org
*Couneel of IecorJ

Couneel for Anici Curioe
Appellate Case: l3-4l78 Document: 0l0l92ll730 Date Filed: 03/04/20l4 Page: l Appellate Case: l3-4l78 Document: 0l0l92ll80l Date Filed: 03/04/20l4 Page: l
I

"#$#%&%'# (%)$(*+') ,-'"%'# #- .+/%

Tho nrfIos hnvo fIIod wIfh fho Courf bInnkof Ioffors of consonf fo
fho fIIIng of onicue curioe brIofs. AccordIngIy, Cnfo InsfIfufo nnd
ConsfIfufIonnI AccounfnbIIIfy Confor hnvo consonf fo fIIo fhIs brIof.
Appellate Case: l3-4l78 Document: 0l0l92ll730 Date Filed: 03/04/20l4 Page: 2 Appellate Case: l3-4l78 Document: 0l0l92ll80l Date Filed: 03/04/20l4 Page: 2
II

,-(0-($#% *+",/-"1(% "#$#%&%'#

Iursunnf fo !uIo 26.l of fho IodornI !uIos of AoIInfo Irocoduro,
onici sfnfo fhnf noIfhor orgnnIznfIon Is n ubIIcIy-hoId corornfIon, nor
do fhoy Issuo sfock or hnvo nronf corornfIons. Anici nro non-rofIf
50l(c)(3) orgnnIznfIons.
Appellate Case: l3-4l78 Document: 0l0l92ll730 Date Filed: 03/04/20l4 Page: 3 Appellate Case: l3-4l78 Document: 0l0l92ll80l Date Filed: 03/04/20l4 Page: 3
III

#$2/% -. ,-'#%'#"
Sfnfomonf !ognrdIng Consonf fo IIIo ......................................................... I
Corornfo IscIosuro Sfnfomonf ................................................................. II
TnbIo of Confonfs ........................................................................................ III
TnbIo of AufhorIfIos .................................................................................... Iv
Inforosf of fho Anici Curioe ....................................................................... l
Summnry of Argumonf ................................................................................ 2
Argumonf ...................................................................................................... 5
I. Tho Toxf Of Tho IqunI IrofocfIon CInuso !nnmbIguousIy
Irofocfs AII Iorsons Irom ArbIfrnry And InvIdIous
IscrImInnfIon .............................................................................. 5
II. Tho OrIgInnI MonnIng Of Tho IqunI IrofocfIon CInuso
ConfIrms Thnf Ifs Cunrnnfoo Of IqunI !Ighfs And IqunIIfy
!ndor Tho !nw AIIos IrondIy To AII Iorsons...................... l2
III. Tho IqunI IrofocfIon CInuso Cunrnnfoos AII Iorsons An
IqunI !Ighf To Mnrry Tho Iorson Of ThoIr ChoIco ............... l8
IV. Tho MnrrIngo !nws Of !fnh And OkInhomn InfrIngo Tho
IqunI !Ighf To Mnrry And Thus VIoInfo Tho Cunrnnfoo Of
Tho IqunI IrofocfIon CInuso Thnf AII Iorsons ShnII Hnvo
IqunIIfy !ndor Tho !nw .......................................................... 25

ConcIusIon .................................................................................................. 34
CorfIfIcnfo of ComIInnco .......................................................................... 35
CorfIfIcnfo of SorvIco.................................................................................. 36
ICI CorfIfIcnfIon of SorvIco ..................................................................... 3?




Appellate Case: l3-4l78 Document: 0l0l92ll730 Date Filed: 03/04/20l4 Page: 4 Appellate Case: l3-4l78 Document: 0l0l92ll80l Date Filed: 03/04/20l4 Page: 4
Iv

#$2/% -. $1#3-(+#+%"
0456
Cnsos
BorIier t. Connoll,,
ll3 !.S. 2? (l885) ................................................................................. l6
Bielop t. Ini/eJ S/o/ee ex rel. HolJer,
20l4 W! ll60l3 (.. OkIn. Jnn. l4, 20l4) ....................................... 2?
BJ. of Coun/, Conn`re, WouIuneee Coun/,, Kon. t. InIelr,
5l8 !.S. 668 (l996) .......................................................................... 28-29
BoJJie t. Connec/icu/,
40l !.S. 3?l (l9?l) ............................................................................... 24
Boe/ic t. Ioine,,
CIvII o. l3-395 (I.. Vn. Iob., l4, 20l4) ........................................... 3l
Bouere t. HorJuic/,
4?8 !.S. l86 (l986) ............................................................................... 28
Citil Iigl/e Coeee,
l09 !.S. 3 (l883) ............................................................................... 6, l6
DreJ Sco// t. SonJforJ,
60 !.S. (l9 How.) 393 (l85?) .................................................................. ?
GooJriJge t. Dep`/ of PuIlic Heol/l,
?98 .I.2d 94l (Mnss. 2003) ................................................................ 33
Heller t. Doe,
509 !.S. 3l2 (l993) .......................................................................... 28-29
HernonJec t. IoIlee,
855 .I.2d l (.Y. 2006) ...................................................................... 32

Appellate Case: l3-4l78 Document: 0l0l92ll730 Date Filed: 03/04/20l4 Page: 5 Appellate Case: l3-4l78 Document: 0l0l92ll80l Date Filed: 03/04/20l4 Page: 5
v

#$2/% -. $1#3-(+#+%" 789:;<:=6>?
0456
Ho Al Kou t. Aunon,
l2 I. Cns. 252 (C.C.. CnI. l8?9) .................................................... l6-l?
1llinoie S/o/e 1nplo,eee Council 34 t. Leuie,
4?3 I.2d 56l (?fh CIr. l9?2) ................................................................. 30
J.1.B. t. AloIono ex rel. T.B.,
5ll !.S. l2? (l994) ....................................................................... 4, 8, ll
Kerrigon t. Conn`r of PuIlic Heol/l,
95? A.2d 40? (Conn. 2008) .................................................................... 32
Ki/clen t. HerIer/,
20l3 W! 669?8?4 (. !fnh oc., 20, 20l3) ................................... 2?-28
Lourence t. Texoe,
539 !.S. 558 (2003) ............................................................................... 28
Loting t. Virginio,
388 !.S. l (l96?) ........................................................................... poeein
M.L.B. t. S.L.J.,
5l9 !.S. l02 (l996) ......................................................................... l8, 24
Mo,norJ t. Hill,
l25 !.S. l90 (l888) .......................................................................... 25-26
McDonolJ t. Ci/, of Clicogo,
l30 S. Cf. 3020 (20l0) .......................................................... 6-?, 9, l0, l3
PlonneJ Poren/looJ t. Coee,,
505 !.S. 833 (l992) ......................................................................... 29, 3l
Pleee, t. Iergueon,
l63 !.S. 53? (l896) ............................................................................... l?
Appellate Case: l3-4l78 Document: 0l0l92ll730 Date Filed: 03/04/20l4 Page: 6 Appellate Case: l3-4l78 Document: 0l0l92ll80l Date Filed: 03/04/20l4 Page: 6
vI

#$2/% -. $1#3-(+#+%" 789:;<:=6>?
0456
Pl,ler t. Doe,
45? !.S. 202 (l982) ............................................................................... l3
Ioner t. 1tone,
5l? !.S. 620 (l996) ....................................................................... poeein
Iu/on t. IepuIlicon Por/, of 1llinoie,
49? !.S. 62 (l990) ............................................................................ 28-29
Sece,e, LLC t. Vigil,
666 I.3d 6?8 (l0fh CIr. 20l2) .............................................................. 5-6
S/inner t. O/lolono ex rel. Willioneon,
3l6 !.S. 535 (l942) ...................................................................... 2, 22-25
Sni/l/line Beeclon Corp. t. AIIo// LoIe.,
os. ll-l?35?, l?3?5 (9fh CIr. Jnn. 2l, 20l4) .................................... l8
S/rouJer t. Wee/ Virginio,
l00 !.S. 303 (l880) ......................................................................... l6, 30
Turner t. Sofle,,
482 !.S. ?8 (l98?) ............................................................................. 3, 25
Ini/eJ S/o/ee t. Virginio,
5l8 !.S. 5l5 (l996) ................................................................................. 2
Ini/eJ S/o/ee t. WinJeor,
l33 S. Cf. 26?5 (20l3) ................................................................... poeein
Vornun t. Brien,
?63 .W.2d 862 (Iown 2009) ................................................................ 32
Yic/ Wo. t. Hop/ine,
ll8 !.S. 356 (l886) ................................................................................. 6
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vII

#$2/% -. $1#3-(+#+%" 789:;<:=6>?
0456
ZoIloc/i t. IeJloil,
434 !.S. 3?4 (l9?8) ...................................................................... 3, 23-26
ConsfIfufIonnI IrovIsIons, Sfnfufos, nnd !ogIsInfIvo MnforInIs
!.S. COST. nmond. XIV .................................................................... poeein
Cong. CIobo:
39
fh
Cong., l
sf
Soss. (l866):
3l8 ..................................................................................................... 20
343 ................................................................................................ l9-20
504 ..................................................................................................... l9
l090 ..................................................................................................... 8
l093 ................................................................................................ 9-l0
l263 ................................................................................................... l0
2459 ................................................................................................... l4
2462 ................................................................................................... l4
2502 ................................................................................................... l4
2539 ..................................................................................................... ?
2?66 .............................................................................................. l2-l3
296l ............................................................................................... ?, l3
n. 2l9 ............................................................................................. l3


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vIII

#$2/% -. $1#3-(+#+%" 789:;<:=6>?
0456
4l
sf
Cong., 2
nd
Soss. (l8?0):
3658 ..................................................................................................... 9
38?l ..................................................................................................... 9
42
nd
Cong., 2
nd
Soss. (l8?2):
84? ................................................................................................ l5-l6
Inforcomonf Acf of l8?0, l6 Sfnf. l40 ....................................................... 9
!IIO!T OI THI JOIT COMMITTII O !ICOST!!CTIO (l866) .............. l0

Iooks, ArfIcIos, nnd Ofhor MnforInIs
IIJAMI I. KI!ICK, THI JO!!A! OI THI JOIT COMMITTII OI
IIITII O !ICOST!!CTIO (l9l4) ................................................... ll
AKHI! !II AMA!, THI II!! OI !ICHTS: C!IATIO A !ICOST!!CTIO
(l998)...................................................................................................... ll
ChnrIos InIrmnn, Doee /le Iour/een/l AnenJnen/ 1ncorporo/e
/le Bill of Iigl/e:, 2 STA. !. !IV. 5 (l949) ........................................ l5
HI!II!T C. C!TMA, THI I!ACK IAMI!Y I S!AVI!Y A I!IIOM,
l?50-l925 (l9?6) ................................................................................... l9
IICCY COOII! AVIS, IC!ICTI STO!IIS: THI COSTIT!TIO &
IAMI!Y VA!!IS (l99?) ........................................................................... 20
Sfovon C. CnInbrosI & !IvIn IIno, Tuo Cleere for Profeeeor Bol/in`e
Originolien, l03 W. !. !. !IV. 663 (2009)........................................ 20
JIII IInIno Hnsdny, IeJerolien onJ /le Ionil, Iecone/ruc/eJ,
45 !.C.!.A. !. !IV. l29? (l998) ................................................ 20, 2l-22
Appellate Case: l3-4l78 Document: 0l0l92ll730 Date Filed: 03/04/20l4 Page: 9 Appellate Case: l3-4l78 Document: 0l0l92ll80l Date Filed: 03/04/20l4 Page: 9
Ix

#$2/% -. $1#3-(+#+%" 789:;<:=6>?
0456
I!IIOM: A OC!MITA!Y HISTO!Y OI IMACIIATIO, l86l-l86?
(I. IorIIn of nI. ods. l982) ..................................................................... 2l
Kurf T. !nsh, Tle Cone/i/u/ionol IeferenJun of 1S66. AnJreu Jolneon
onJ /le Originol Meoning of /le Pritilegee or 1nnuni/iee Clouee,
l0l CIO. !.J. l2?5 (20l3) ..................................................................... l4
!IO I. !ITWACK, III I THI STO!M SO !OC: THI AITI!MATH OI
S!AVI!Y (l9?9) ...................................................................................... 2l
JAMIS MCIHI!SO, THI IC!OIS` CIVI! WA! (l99l) ............................. 22
Cincinno/i Connerciol
Juno 2l, l866 ......................................................................................... l5
Aug. 20, l866 ......................................................................................... l5
Clicogo TriIune, Aug. 2, l866 .................................................................. l5

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l

+'#%(%"# -. #3% !"#$# $&'#!(
@

Anicue Cnfo InsfIfufo wns osfnbIIshod In l9?? ns n nonnrfIsnn
ubIIc oIIcy rosonrch foundnfIon dodIcnfod fo ndvnncIng fho rIncIIos
of IndIvIdunI IIborfy, froo mnrkofs, nnd IImIfod govornmonf. Cnfo`s
Confor for ConsfIfufIonnI SfudIos wns osfnbIIshod In l989 fo romofo
fho rIncIIos of IImIfod consfIfufIonnI govornmonf fhnf nro fho
foundnfIon of IIborfy. Townrd fhoso onds, Cnfo ubIIshos books nnd
sfudIos, conducfs conforoncos, roducos fho nnnunI Co/o Suprene Cour/
Ietieu, nnd fIIos onicue brIofs. Cnfo`s Inforosf In fhIs cnso IIos In
onforcIng fho ngo-oId rIncIIo of oqunIIfy undor fho Inw, ns onshrInod
In fho ConsfIfufIon fhrough fho IIffh nnd Iourfoonfh Amondmonfs.
Anicue ConsfIfufIonnI AccounfnbIIIfy Confor (CAC) Is n fhInk
fnnk, ubIIc Inforosf Inw fIrm, nnd ncfIon confor dodIcnfod fo fuIfIIIIng
fho rogrossIvo romIso of our ConsfIfufIon`s foxf nnd hIsfory. CAC
works In our courfs, fhrough our govornmonf, nnd wIfh IognI schoInrs
nnd fho ubIIc fo Imrovo undorsfnndIng of fho ConsfIfufIon nnd fo
rosorvo fho rIghfs, froodoms, nnd sfrucfurnI snfogunrds fhnf our

l
Anici sfnfo fhnf no counsoI for n nrfy nufhorod fhIs brIof In whoIo or In nrf, nnd
no orson ofhor fhnn onici or fhoIr counsoI mndo n monofnry confrIbufIon fo fho
brIof`s ronrnfIon or submIssIon.
Appellate Case: l3-4l78 Document: 0l0l92ll730 Date Filed: 03/04/20l4 Page: ll Appellate Case: l3-4l78 Document: 0l0l92ll80l Date Filed: 03/04/20l4 Page: ll
2

nnfIon`s chnrfor gunrnnfoos. CAC nccordIngIy hns n sfrong Inforosf In
fhIs cnso nnd In fho scoo of fho Iourfoonfh Amondmonf`s rofocfIons
for IIborfy nnd oqunIIfy.
Anici fIIod joInf brIofs In fho !.S. Suromo Courf In
Hollingeuor/l t. Perr, nnd Ini/eJ S/o/ee t. WinJeor.
"1&&$(A -. $()1&%'#
Tho foxf of fho IqunI IrofocfIon CInuso of fho Iourfoonfh
Amondmonf Is swooIng nnd unIvorsnI: o Sfnfo shnII . . . dony fo nny
orson wIfhIn Ifs jurIsdIcfIon fho oqunI rofocfIon of fho Inws. !.S.
COST. nmond. XIV, l. rnffod In l866 nnd rnfIfIod In l868, fho
CInuso wrofo Info fho ConsfIfufIon fho IdonI of oqunIIfy fIrsf InId ouf In
fho ocInrnfIon of Indoondonco, osfnbIIshIng n brond gunrnnfoo of
oqunIIfy for nII orsons nnd domnndIng fho oxfonsIon of consfIfufIonnI
rIghfs nnd rofocfIons fo ooIo onco Ignorod or oxcIudod. Ini/eJ
S/o/ee t. Virginio, 5l8 !.S. 5l5, 55? (l996). HIsfory shows fhnf fho
orIgInnI monnIng of fho IqunI IrofocfIon CInuso socuros fo nII orsons
'fho rofocfIon of oqunI Inws,` Ioner t. 1tone, 5l? !.S. 620, 634
(l996) (quofIng S/inner t. O/lolono ex rel. Willioneon, 3l6 !.S. 535,
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3

54l (l942)), rohIbIfIng nrbIfrnry nnd InvIdIous dIscrImInnfIon nnd
socurIng oqunI rIghfs for nII cInssos nnd grous of orsons.
Tho ConsfIfufIon nIso rofocfs fundnmonfnI rIghfs undor fho
subsfnnfIvo IIborfy rovIsIons of fho Iourfoonfh Amondmonf. Tho
Suromo Courf`s cnsos rofocfIng fho oqunI rIghf fo mnrry hnvo boon
roofod In bofh fho IqunI IrofocfIon CInuso`s gunrnnfoo of oqunIIfy
undor fho Inw nnd oqunIIfy of rIghfs nnd fho Iourfoonfh Amondmonf`s
rofocfIon for subsfnnfIvo IIborfy. See, e.g., Loting t. Virginio, 388 !.S.
l (l96?) (InvnIIdnfIng bnn on mnrrIngos bofwoon InforrncInI couIos
undor fho IqunI IrofocfIon nnd uo Irocoss CInusos); ZoIloc/i t.
IeJloil, 434 !.S. 3?4 (l9?8) (hoIdIng fhnf n sfnfo Inw fhnf
dIscrImInnforIIy donIod fho rIghf fo mnrry vIoInfod fho IqunI IrofocfIon
CInuso); Turner t. Sofle,, 482 !.S. ?8 (l98?) (sfrIkIng, ovon undor
rnfIonnI bnsIs rovIow, roguInfIons donyIng rIsonors` rIghf fo mnrry);
Ini/eJ S/o/ee t. WinJeor, l33 S. Cf. 26?5, 2693 (20l3) (concIudIng fhnf
ofonso of MnrrIngo Acf`s dIscrImInnfIon ngnInsf mnrrIod snmo-sox
couIos vIoInfos bnsIc duo rocoss nnd oqunI rofocfIon rIncIIos).
Tho Iourfoonfh Amondmonf`s rofocfIon of oqunIIfy nnd subsfnnfIvo
IIborfy convorgo In socurIng fo nII orsons nn oqunI rIghf fo mnrry.
Appellate Case: l3-4l78 Document: 0l0l92ll730 Date Filed: 03/04/20l4 Page: l3 Appellate Case: l3-4l78 Document: 0l0l92ll80l Date Filed: 03/04/20l4 Page: l3
4

In fhIs brIof, onici socIfIcnIIy focus on suorfIng IInInfIffs-
AoIIoos` nrgumonf for mnrrIngo oqunIIfy undor fho IqunI IrofocfIon
CInuso of fho Iourfoonfh Amondmonf. ThIs brIof wIII domonsfrnfo fhnf
fho foxf of fho IqunI IrofocfIon CInuso wns Infondod fo bo unIvorsnI In
Ifs rofocfIon of nny orson rosIdIng wIfhIn fho jurIsdIcfIon of fho
!nIfod Sfnfos; fhnf fhIs brond nnd swooIng gunrnnfoo of oqunIIfy of
rIghfs wns undorsfood nf fho fImo of fho Iourfoonfh Amondmonf`s
rnfIfIcnfIon fo rofocf nny orson, of nny grou or cInss; nnd fhnf, In
IookIng fo whnf rIghfs woro undorsfood fo bo rofocfod oqunIIy, fho
frnmors of fho Iourfoonfh Amondmonf undorsfood sfnfo-snncfIonod
mnrrIngo ns n orsonnI, IndIvIdunI rIghf fhnf musf bo mndo nvnIInbIo on
nn oqunI bnsIs fo nII orsons. As fho Suromo Courf roconfIy oxInInod
In WinJeor, |s]fnfo Inws dofInIng nnd roguInfIng mnrrIngo, of courso,
musf rosocf fho consfIfufIonnI rIghfs of orsons. l33 S. Cf. nf 269l.
Tho foxf nnd hIsfory of fho IqunI IrofocfIon CInuso mnko cIonr
fhnf fho chnIIongod mnrrIngo Inws of !fnh nnd OkInhomn
unconsfIfufIonnIIy dony fho oqunI rofocfIon of fho Inws rognrdIng
mnrrIngo fo snmo-sox couIos, nnd orofrnfo nn ImormIssIbIo Injury
fo fhoso couIos` orsonnI dIgnIfy. See J.1.B. t. AloIono ex rel. T.B.,
Appellate Case: l3-4l78 Document: 0l0l92ll730 Date Filed: 03/04/20l4 Page: l4 Appellate Case: l3-4l78 Document: 0l0l92ll80l Date Filed: 03/04/20l4 Page: l4
5

5ll !.S. l2?, l53 (l994) (Konnody, J., concurrIng). !Iko fho rovIsIon
of fho ofonso of MnrrIngo Acf InvnIIdnfod In WinJeor, fhoso sfnfo Inws
Imoso InoqunIIfy, domonn |snmo-sox] couIo|s], whoso mornI nnd
soxunI choIcos fho ConsfIfufIon rofocfs nnd humIIInfo|] . . .
fhousnnds of chIIdron now boIng rnIsod by snmo-sox couIos. WinJeor,
l33 S. Cf. nf 2694. Tho mnrrIngo Inws of bofh !fnh nnd OkInhomn, In
fronfIng snmo-sox nnd oosIfo-sox couIos dIfforonfIy, dony gny mon
nnd IosbInns fho IIborfy fo mnrry fho orson of fhoIr own choosIng.
Thoy fhus Inco n bndgo of InforIorIfywIfh fho fuII nufhorIfy of fho
Sfnfo bohInd Ifon snmo-sox couIos` roInfIonshIs nnd fnmIIy IIfo.
ThIs sfnfo ncfIon Is dIrocfIy subvorsIvo of fho rIncIIo of oqunIIfy nf
fho honrf of fho Iourfoonfh Amondmonf. Loting, 388 !.S. nf l2. If
donIos fho oqunI IIborfy fo ursuo ono`s own hnInoss fhnf hns guIdod
our nnfIon sInco Ifs foundIng.
$()1&%'#
+B #3% #%C# -. #3% %D1$/ 0(-#%,#+-' ,/$1"%
1'$&2+)1-1"/A 0(-#%,#" $// 0%("-'" .(-&
$(2+#($(A $'* +'E+*+-1" *+",(+&+'$#+-'

Tho InIn foxf of fho Iourfoonfh Amondmonf`s gunrnnfoo of fho
oqunI rofocfIon of fho Inws Is swooIng nnd unIvorsnI. WhIIo fho
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Amondmonf wns wrIffon nnd rnfIfIod In fho nfformnfh of fho CIvII Wnr
nnd fho ond of sInvory, If rofocfs oll orsons, n rofound rocognIfIon of
fho ossonfInI . . . oqunIIfy of nII humnn boIngs. Sece,e, LLC t. Vigil,
666 I.3d 6?8, 684 (l0fh CIr. 20l2). If socuros fho snmo rIghfs nnd snmo
rofocfIon undor fho Inw for nII mon nnd womon, of nny rnco, whofhor
young or oId, cIfIzon or nIIon, gny or sfrnIghf. See Yic/ Wo. t. Hop/ine,
ll8 !.S. 356, 369 (l886) (Thoso rovIsIons nro unIvorsnI In fhoIr
nIIcnfIon, fo nII orsons wIfhIn fho forrIforInI jurIsdIcfIon, wIfhouf
rognrd fo nny dIfforoncos of rnco, coIor, or of nnfIonnIIfy . . . .); Citil
Iigl/e Coeee, l09 !.S. 3, 3l (l883) (Tho fourfoonfh nmondmonf
oxfonds Ifs rofocfIon fo rncos nnd cInssos, nnd rohIbIfs nny sfnfo
IogIsInfIon whIch hns fho offocf of donyIng fo nny rnco or cInss, or fo nny
IndIvIdunI, fho oqunI rofocfIon of fho Inws.). o orson, undor fho
Iourfoonfh Amondmonf`s foxf, mny bo consIgnod fo fho sfnfus of n
nrInh, n sfrnngor fo |fho Sfnfo`s] Inws. Ioner, 5l? !.S. nf 635.
Tho Iourfoonfh Amondmonf`s frnmors crnffod fhIs brond
gunrnnfoo fo brIng fho ConsfIfufIon bnck Info IIno wIfh fundnmonfnI
rIncIIos of AmorIcnn oqunIIfy ns sof forfh In fho ocInrnfIon of
Indoondonco, whIch hnd boon bofrnyod nnd sfunfod by fho InsfIfufIon
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of sInvory. See McDonolJ t. Ci/, of Clicogo, l30 S. Cf. 3020, 3059
(20l0) (Thomns, J., concurrIng) (|S]Invory, nnd fho monsuros dosIgnod
fo rofocf If, woro IrroconcIInbIo wIfh fho rIncIIos of oqunIIfy . . . nnd
InnIIonnbIo rIghfs rocInImod by fho ocInrnfIon of Indoondonco nnd
omboddod In our consfIfufIonnI sfrucfuro.). Affor nonrIy n confury In
whIch fho ConsfIfufIon snncfIonod rncInI sInvory nnd fho Suromo
Courf found fhnf AfrIcnn AmorIcnns, ns nn onfIro cInss of ooIo, hnd
no rIghfs whIch fho whIfo mnn wns bound fo rosocf, DreJ Sco// t.
SonJforJ, 60 !.S. (l9 How.) 393, 40? (l85?), fho Iourfoonfh
Amondmonf codIfIod our foundIng romIso of oqunIIfy fhrough fho foxf
of fho IqunI IrofocfIon CInuso. As fho Amondmonf`s frnmors oxInInod
fImo nnd ngnIn, fho gunrnnfoo of fho oqunI rofocfIon of fho Inws wns
ossonfInIIy docInrod In fho ocInrnfIon of Indoondonco, Cong. CIobo,
39
fh
Cong., l
sf
Soss. 296l (l866), nnd wns nocossnry fo socuro fho
romIso of IIborfy for nII orsons. How cnn ho hnvo nnd onjoy oqunI
rIghfs of 'IIfo, IIborfy, nnd fho ursuIf of hnInoss` wIfhouf 'oqunI
rofocfIon of fho Inws` ThIs Is so soIf-ovIdonf nnd jusf fhnf no mnn . . .
cnn fnII fo soo nnd nrocInfo If. 1J. nf 2539.
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Tho Iourfoonfh Amondmonf, of courso, wns Infondod nof onIy fo
rosforo fho gunrnnfoo of oqunIIfy fo Ifs rIghffuI consfIfufIonnI Inco, buf
nIso fo socuro n brond, unIvorsnI gunrnnfoo of oqunI rIghfs fhnf wouId
rofocf oll orsons. WhIIo fho Amondmonf`s frnmors woro obvIousIy
focusod on onsurIng oqunIIfy undor fho Inw for nowIy frood sInvos, fhoy
wrofo fho IqunI IrofocfIon CInuso fo oIImInnfo n whoIo hosf of
dIscrImInnfory sfnfo rncfIcos, nof jusf dIscrImInnfIon on fho bnsIs of
rnco, fhroughouf fho nnfIon. ThIs brond vIow of fho scoo of fho IqunI
IrofocfIon CInuso nffIrms fhnf fho CInuso`s noufrnI hrnsIng,
oxfondIng Ifs gunrnnfoo fo 'nny orson,` J.1.B., 5ll !.S. nf l52
(Konnody, J., concurrIng), wns Infondod fo socuro oqunIIfy for nII.
Ior oxnmIo, fho Iourfoonfh Amondmonf`s frnmors wnnfod fo
gunrnnfoo oqunI rofocfIon of fho Inws fo non-cIfIzons, who fncod
orvnsIvo dIscrImInnfIon In fho wosforn !nIfod Sfnfos. Congrossmnn
John IInghnm, ono of fhoso rosonsIbIo for drnffIng fho Iourfoonfh
Amondmonf, domnndod fhnf nII orsons, whofhor cIfIzons or sfrnngors,
wIfhIn fhIs Innd . . . hnvo oqunI rofocfIon In ovory Sfnfo In fhIs !nIon
In fho rIghfs of IIfo nnd IIborfy nnd roorfy. Cong. CIobo, 39
fh
Cong.,
l
sf
Soss. l090 (l866). Indood, In l8?0, fwo yonrs nffor fho Iourfoonfh
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Amondmonf`s rnfIfIcnfIon, Congross usod Ifs oxross consfIfufIonnI
owor fo onforco fho Amondmonf`s gunrnnfoo of oqunIIfy undor fho Inw
fo nII orsons by nssIng fho Inforcomonf Acf of l8?0. ThIs Acf socurod
fo nII orsons wIfhIn fho jurIsdIcfIon of fho !nIfod Sfnfos fho snmo
rIghf . . . fo mnko nnd onforco confrncfs, fo suo, bo nrfIos, gIvo
ovIdonco, nnd fo fho fuII nnd oqunI bonofIf of nII Inws nnd rocoodIngs
for fho socurIfy of orson nnd roorfy ns Is onjoyod by whIfo cIfIzons,
nnd rofocfod ngnInsf fho dorIvnfIon of nny rIghf socurod or rofocfod
by fho Insf rocodIng socfIon of fhIs ncf, or fo dIfforonf unIshmonf,
nIns, or onnIfIos on nccounf of such orson boIng nn nIIon . . . . l6
Sfnf. l40, l44; Cong. CIobo, 4l
sf
Cong., 2
nd
Soss. 3658 (l8?0) (|W]o wIII
rofocf ChInoso nIIons or nny ofhor nIIons whom wo nIIow fo como horo,
. . .; Iof fhom bo rofocfod by nII fho Inws nnd fho snmo Inws fhnf ofhor
mon nro.); iJ. nf 38?l (obsorvIng fhnf ImmIgrnnfs woro orsons
wIfhIn fho oxross words of fho Iourfoonfh Amondmonf onfIfIod fo
fho oqunI rofocfIon of fho Inws).
In nddIfIon, whIfo !nIonIsfs noodod fho oqunI rofocfIon of fho
Inws fo onsuro fhnf Soufhorn sfnfo govornmonfs rosocfod fhoIr
fundnmonfnI rIghfs. McDonolJ, l30 S. Cf. nf 3043 (dIscussIng fho
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IIghf of whIfos In fho Soufh who oosod fho IInck Codos); Cong.
CIobo, 39
fh
Cong., l
sf
Soss. l093 (l866) (Tho ndofIon of fhIs
nmondmonf Is ossonfInI fo fho rofocfIon of fho !nIon mon who wIII
hnvo no socurIfy In fho fufuro oxcof by forco of nnfIonnI Inws gIvIng
fhom rofocfIon ngnInsf fhoso who hnvo boon In nrms ngnInsf fhom.);
iJ. nf l263 (|W]hIfo mon . . . hnvo boon drIvon from fhoIr homos, nnd
hnvo hnd fhoIr Innds confIscnfod In Sfnfo courfs, undor Sfnfo Inws, for
fho crImo of IoynIfy fo fhoIr counfry . . . .).
To socuro oqunIIfy nof onIy for fho nowIy frood sInvos buf for nII
orsons wIfhIn fho !nIfod Sfnfos, fho Iourfoonfh Amondmonf`s frnmors
choso brond unIvorsnI Inngungo socIfIcnIIy Infondod fo rohIbIf
nrbIfrnry nnd InvIdIous dIscrImInnfIon nnd socuro oqunI rIghfs for nII.
2


2
Tho Iourfoonfh Amondmonf`s frnmors soffIod on fho wordIng of fho IqunI
IrofocfIon CInuso nffor nn oxhnusfIvo InvosfIgnfIon by fho JoInf CommIffoo on
!oconsfrucfIon, whIch fook fho Iond In drnffIng fho Amondmonf In Congross. Tho
JoInf CommIffoo`s Juno l866 roorf, wIdoIy rorInfod In fho ross nnd dIsfrIbufod
by Mombors of fho 39
fh
Congross fo fhoIr consfIfuonfs, McDonolJ, l30 S. Cf. nf
3039, found fhnf fho Soufhorn sfnfos rofusod fo Inco fho coIorod rnco uon forms
ovon of cIvII oqunIIfy, or foIornf|o] . . . nny cInss of ooIo frIondIy fo fho !nIon, bo
fhoy whIfo or bInck . . . . !IIO!T OI THI JOIT COMMITTII O !ICOST!!CTIO
xvII (l866). As fho oxfonsIvo fosfImony fnkon by fho JoInf CommIffoo showod, fho
frood sInvos nnd fhoIr !nIonIsf nIIIos hnd ns much chnnco of hnvIng fhoIr oqunI
rIghfs rosocfod ns n rnbbIf wouId In n don of IIons. 1J., f II, l?. AccordIngIy, fho
commIffoo chnrgod wIfh drnffIng fho Iourfoonfh Amondmonf wrofo fho IqunI
IrofocfIon CInuso fo oIImInnfo sfnfo Inws nnd rncfIcos fhnf vIoInfod fho
fundnmonfnI rIghfs of nrfIcuInr cInssos of ooIo, bnsod on moro fhnn jusf rnco.
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Tho JoInf CommIffoo fhnf drnffod fho Iourfoonfh Amondmonf rojocfod
numorous roosnIs fhnf wouId hnvo IImIfod fho Iourfoonfh
Amondmonf`s oqunIIfy gunrnnfoo fo n rohIbIfIon on Inws fhnf
dIscrImInnfod on nccounf of rnco, roforrIng fho unIvorsnI gunrnnfoo of
oqunI rofocfIon, whIch socurod oqunI rIghfs fo nII orsons, fo n rnco-
socIfIc gunrnnfoo of oqunIIfy fhnf roscrIbod rncInI dIscrImInnfIon nnd
nofhIng oIso. See IIJAMI I. KI!ICK, THI JO!!A! OI THI JOIT
COMMITTII OI IIITII O !ICOST!!CTIO 46, 50, 83 (l9l4). Whofhor
fho roosnIs woro brond In scoo or woro nnrrowIy drnffod fo rohIbIf
rncInI dIscrImInnfIon In cIvII rIghfs, fho frnmors consIsfonfIy rojocfod
IImIfIng fho Iourfoonfh Amondmonf`s oqunIIfy gunrnnfoo fo rncInI
dIscrImInnfIon. See J.1.B., 5ll !.S. nf l5l (Konnody, J., concurrIng)
(Though In somo InIfInI drnffs fho Iourfoonfh Amondmonf wns wrIffon
fo rohIbIf dIscrImInnfIon ngnInsf 'orsons bocnuso of rnco, coIor or
rovIous condIfIon of sorvIfudo,` fho Amondmonf submIffod for
consIdornfIon nnd Infor rnfIfIod confnInod moro comrohonsIvo forms.);
AKHI! !II AMA!, THI II!! OI !ICHTS: C!IATIO A !ICOST!!CTIO
260-26l n.* (l998) (|S]ocfIon l oInfodIy soko nof of rnco buf of moro
gonornI IIborfy nnd oqunIIfy.).
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Tho Iourfoonfh Amondmonf`s swooIng gunrnnfoo of oqunI
rofocfIon monnf, fIrsf nnd foromosf, oqunIIfy undor fho Inw nnd
oqunIIfy of rIghfs for nII orsons. !ndor fho InIn foxf, fhIs swooIng
gunrnnfoo unnmbIguousIy nIIos fo fho InInfIffs In fhIs cnso nnd fo nII
gny mon nnd IosbInns who wIsh fo oxorcIso fho rIghf fo mnrry fho
orson of fhoIr choIco.
++B #3% -(+)+'$/ &%$'+') -. #3% %D1$/ 0(-#%,#+-'
,/$1"% ,-'.+(&" #3$# +#" )1$($'#%% -. %D1$/
(+)3#" $'* %D1$/+#A 1'*%( #3% /$F $00/+%"
2(-$*/A #- $// 0%("-'"
Tho orIgInnI monnIng of fho IqunI IrofocfIon CInuso confIrms
whnf fho foxf mnkos cIonr: fhnf oqunIIfy of rIghfs nnd oqunIIfy undor
fho Inw nIy brondIy fo nny nnd nII orsons wIfhIn fho !nIfod Sfnfos.
Tho Iourfoonfh Amondmonf`s frnmors` own oxInnnfIons durIng
congrossIonnI dobnfos, ross covorngo of fho roosnI nnd rnfIfIcnfIon
rocoss, nnd fho Suromo Courf`s onrIIosf docIsIons InforrofIng fho
CInuso nII nffIrm fhIs bnsIc undorsfnndIng.
InfroducIng fho Amondmonf In fho Sonnfo, Jncob Hownrd
oxInInod fhnf fho IqunI IrofocfIon CInuso osfnbIIshos oqunIIfy boforo
fho Inw, nnd . . . gIvos fo fho humbIosf, fho oorosf, nnd mosf dosIsod
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. . . fho snmo rIghfs nnd fho snmo rofocfIon boforo fho Inw ns If gIvos fo
fho mosf oworfuI, fho mosf wonIfhy, or fho mosf hnughfy. Cong.
CIobo, 39
fh
Cong., l
sf
Soss. 2?66 (l866). Tho gunrnnfoo of oqunI
rofocfIon, ho wonf on, nboIIshos nII cInss IogIsInfIon In fho Sfnfos nnd
doos nwny wIfh fho InjusfIco of subjocfIng ono cnsfo of orsons fo n codo
nof nIIcnbIo fo nnofhor. . . . If rofocfs fho bInck mnn In hIs
fundnmonfnI rIghfs ns n cIfIzon wIfh fho snmo shIoId whIch If fhrows
ovor fho whIfo mnn. 1J. See oleo iJ. nf 296l (nofIng fhnf fho IqunI
IrofocfIon CInuso nImod fo uroof nnd dosfroy . . . nrfInI Sfnfo
IogIsInfIon); iJ. nf n. 2l9 (oxInInIng fhnf fho CInuso wns nocossnry
bocnuso Soufhorn sfnfos hnd nn nofIfo so dIsonsod ns sooks . . . fo
dony fo nII cInssos of Ifs cIfIzons fho rofocfIon of oqunI Inws).
Sonnfor Hownrd`s rondIng of fho Iourfoonfh Amondmonfnovor
confrovorfod durIng fho dobnfos nnd wIdoIy roorfod In mnjor
nowsnors ncross fho counfry, McDonolJ, l30 S. Cf. nf 30?4 (Thomns,
J., concurrIng)domonsfrnfod fhnf |f]ho IqunI IrofocfIon CInuso wns
Infondod fo work nofhIng Ioss fhnn fho nboIIfIon of nII cnsfo-bnsod nnd
InvIdIous cInss-bnsod IogIsInfIon, Pl,ler t. Doe, 45? !.S. 202, 2l3
(l982), onsurIng fho Inw`s noufrnIIfy whoro fho rIghfs of orsons nro nf
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sfnko. Ioner, 5l? !.S. nf 623. Indood, Hownrd`s sooch wns so cIosoIy
foIIowod fhnf ubIIc dIscussIon of fho Iourfoonfh Amondmonf
commonIy roforrod fo fho roosnI ns fho 'Hownrd Amondmonf.` Kurf
T. !nsh, Tle Cone/i/u/ionol IeferenJun of 1S66. AnJreu Jolneon onJ
/le Originol Meoning of /le Pritilegee or 1nnuni/iee Clouee, l0l CIO.
!.J. l2?5, l299-l300 (20l3).
In fho Houso, fho frnmors, foo, omhnsIzod fhnf oqunIIfy of rIghfs
nnd oqunIIfy undor fho Inw woro fho fouchsfono of fho oqunI rofocfIon
gunrnnfoo. Thnddous Sfovons obsorvod fhnf |w]hnfovor Inw rofocfs
fho whIfo mnn shnII nfford 'oqunI` rofocfIon fo fho bInck mnn.
Whnfovor monns of rodross Is nffordod fo ono shnII bo nffordod fo nII,
Cong. CIobo, 39
fh
Cong., l
sf
Soss. 2459 (l866), whIIo fufuro IrosIdonf
Jnmos CnrfIoId oxInInod fhnf fho CInuso h|o]Id ovor ovory AmorIcnn
cIfIzon, wIfhouf rognrd fo coIor, fho rofocfIng shIoId of fho Inw. 1J. nf
2462. Tho InIn monnIng of oqunI rofocfIon, frnmor nffor frnmor
oxInInod, wns fhnf fho Inw whIch oornfos uon ono mnn shnII
oornfo equoll, uon nII, iJ. nf 2459 (omhnsIs In orIgInnI), fhoroby
socurIng nn oqunIIfy of rIghfs fo nII cIfIzons of fho !nIfod Sfnfos, nnd of
nII orsons wIfhIn fhoIr jurIsdIcfIon. 1J. nf 2502.
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owsnor covorngo of fho dobnfos ovor rnfIfIcnfIon of fho
Iourfoonfh Amondmonf confIrms fhIs snmo bnsIc undorsfnndIng of fho
oqunI rofocfIon gunrnnfoo. In nn nrfIcIo onfIfIod Tho ConsfIfufIonnI
Amondmonf, ubIIshod shorfIy nffor Congross sonf fho Iourfoonfh
Amondmonf fo fho sfnfos for rnfIfIcnfIon, fho Cincinno/i Connerciol
oxInInod fhnf fho Iourfoonfh Amondmonf wrofo Info fho ConsfIfufIon
fho gronf omocrnfIc rIncIIo of oqunIIfy boforo fho Inw, InvnIIdnfIng
nII IogIsInfIon hosfIIo fo nny cInss. Cincinno/i Connerciol, Juno 2l,
l866, nf 4. WIfh fhIs socfIon ongrnffod uon fho ConsfIfufIon, If wIII bo
ImossIbIo for nny !ogIsInfuro fo onncf socInI codos for ono cInss of Ifs
cIfIzons . . . . 1J. Iross covorngo omhnsIzod fhnf fho Amondmonf uf
In fho fundnmonfnI Inw fho docInrnfIon fhnf nII cIfIzons woro onfIfIod fo
oqunI rIghfs In fhIs !oubIIc, Clicogo TriIune, Aug. 2, l866, .2,
IncIng nII fhroughouf fho Innd uon fho snmo foofIng of oqunIIfy
boforo fho Inw, In ordor fo rovonf unoqunI IogIsInfIon . . . . Cincinno/i
Connerciol, Aug. 20, l866, .2. See ChnrIos InIrmnn, Doee /le
Iour/een/l AnenJnen/ 1ncorporo/e /le Bill of Iigl/e:, 2 STA. !. !IV.
5, ?2-?5 (l949) (dIscussIng ross covorngo).
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In shorf, If wns commonIy undorsfood nf fho fImo fho Iourfoonfh
Amondmonf wns rnfIfIod fhnf fho IqunI IrofocfIon CInuso wns
Infondod fo romofo oqunIIfy In fho Sfnfos, nnd fo fnko from fho Sfnfos
fho owor fo mnko cInss IogIsInfIon nnd fo cronfo InoqunIIfy nmong fhoIr
ooIo. Cong. CIobo, 42
nd
Cong., 2
nd
Soss. 84? (l8?2).
ConsIsfonf wIfh fhIs hIsfory nnd fho cIonr nnd unoquIvocnI
consfIfufIonnI foxf, fho Suromo Courf quIckIy confIrmod fho brond
ronch of fho IqunI IrofocfIon CInuso`s gunrnnfoo of oqunIIfy undor fho
Inw nnd oqunIIfy of rIghfs. In l880, fho Courf oxInInod fhnf |f]ho
Iourfoonfh Amondmonf mnkos no nffomf fo onumornfo fho rIghfs If
|Is] dosIgnod fo rofocf. If sonks In gonornI forms, nnd fhoso nro ns
comrohonsIvo ns ossIbIo. Ifs Inngungo Is rohIbIfory; buf ovory
rohIbIfIon ImIIos fho oxIsfonco of rIghfs nnd ImmunIfIos, romInonf
nmong whIch Is nn ImmunIfy from InoqunIIfy of IognI rofocfIon, oIfhor
for IIfo, IIborfy, or roorfy. S/rouJer t. Wee/ Virginio, l00 !.S. 303,
3l0 (l880). See oleo BorIier t. Connoll,, ll3 !.S. 2?, 3l (l885) (Tho
fourfoonfh nmondmonf . . . undoubfodIy Infondod . . . fhnf oqunI
rofocfIon nnd socurIfy shouId bo gIvon fo nII undor IIko cIrcumsfnncos
In fho onjoymonf of fhoIr orsonnI nnd cIvII rIghfs; fhnf nII orsons
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l?

shouId bo oqunIIy onfIfIod fo ursuo fhoIr hnInoss . . . .); Citil Iigl/e
Coeee, l09 !.S. nf 24 (|C]Inss IogIsInfIon . . . |Is] obnoxIous fo fho
rohIbIfIons of fho Iourfoonfh Amondmonf . . . .); Ho Al Kou t.
Aunon, l2 I. Cns. 252, 256 (C.C.. CnI. l8?9) (IIoId, J.) (|H]osfIIo nnd
dIscrImInnfIng IogIsInfIon by n sfnfo ngnInsf orsons of nny cInss, socf,
crood or nnfIon, In whnfovor form . . . Is forbIddon by fho fourfoonfh
nmondmonf . . . .).
3

Suromo Courf rocodonf fodny fIrmIy osfnbIIshos fhnf fho IqunI
IrofocfIon CInuso roquIros noufrnIIfy whoro fho rIghfs of orsons nro
nf sfnko, forbIddIng sfnfos from sIngIIng ouf n corfnIn cInss of cIfIzons
for dIsfnvorod IognI sfnfus or gonornI hnrdshIs . . . . Ioner, 5l? !.S.
nf 623, 633. Tho consfIfufIonnI gunrnnfoo of oqunI rofocfIon

3
In Pleee, t. Iergueon, l63 !.S. 53? (l896), fho Suromo Courf furnod Ifs bnck on
fhoso rIncIIos, uhoIdIng onforcod rncInI sogrognfIon on fho fhoory fhnf Inws
roquIrIng fho sonrnfIon of AfrIcnn AmorIcnns nnd whIfo orsons In ubIIc Incos
do nof . . . ImIy fho InforIorIfy of oIfhor rnco fo fho ofhor . . . . 1J. nf 544. JusfIco
HnrInn, nIono fnIfhfuI fo fho Iourfoonfh Amondmonf`s foxf nnd hIsfory,
domonsfrnfod fhnf onforcod rncInI sogrognfIon vIoInfod fho Iourfoonfh
Amondmonf`s gunrnnfoo of oqunIIfy undor fho Inw nnd oqunIIfy of rIghfs: |I]n fho
oyo of fho Inw, fhoro Is In fhIs counfry no suorIor, domInnnf ruIIng cInss of cIfIzons.
Thoro Is no cnsfo horo. Our consfIfufIon Is coIor-bIInd, nnd noIfhor knows nor
foIornfos cInssos nmong cIfIzons. In rosocf of cIvII rIghfs, nII cIfIzons nro oqunI
boforo fho Inw. . . . 1J. nf 559 (HnrInn, J., dIssonfIng).
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l8

wIfhdrnws from Covornmonf fho owor fo dogrndo or domonn,
rovonfIng sfnfos from ncfIng fo dIsnrngo nnd Injuro gny nnd
IosbInns couIos, dony fhoIr oqunI dIgnIfy, nnd fronf fhoIr IovIng
roInfIonshIs ns Ioss rosocfod fhnn ofhors. WinJeor, ll3 S. Cf. nf
2695, 2696; Sni/l/line Beeclon Corp. t. AIIo// LoIe., os. ll-l?35?,
l?3?3, sII o. nf 25 (9fh CIr. Jnn. 2l, 20l4) (oxInInIng fhnf WinJeor
roquIros courfs fo onsuro fhnf our mosf fundnmonfnI InsfIfufIons
noIfhor sond nor roInforco mossngos of sfIgmn or socond cInss sfnfus).
!ndor fho IqunI IrofocfIon CInuso, sfnfos mny nof dony fo gny mon or
IosbInns rIghfs bnsIc fo ordInnry cIvIc IIfo In n froo socIofy, Ioner, 5l?
!.S. nf 63l, fo mnko fhom unoqunI fo ovoryono oIso. 1J. nf 635.
+++B #3% %D1$/ 0(-#%,#+-' ,/$1"% )1$($'#%%" $//
0%("-'" $' %D1$/ (+)3# #- &$((A #3% 0%("-'
-. #3%+( ,3-+,%
Tho frnmors of fho Iourfoonfh Amondmonf rocognIzod fho rIghf fo
mnrry ns n bnsIc cIvII rIghf of nII orsons, ono of fho vIfnI orsonnI
rIghfs ossonfInI fo fho ordorIy ursuIf of hnInoss . . . . Loting, 388
!.S. nf l2. Tho oqunIIfy of rIghfs socurod by fho Iourfoonfh
Amondmonf`s IqunI IrofocfIon CInuso fhus unquosfIonnbIy IncIudos
fho oqunI rIghf fo mnrry fho orson of ono`s choIco, shoIforod by fho
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l9

Iourfoonfh Amondmonf ngnInsf fho Sfnfo`s unwnrrnnfod usurnfIon,
dIsrognrd, or dIsrosocf. M.L.B. t. S.L.J, 5l9 !.S. l02, ll6 (l996).
Tho frnmors furfhor rocognIzod fho rIghf fo mnrry fho orson of
ono`s choosIng ns n crucInI comononf of froodom nnd IIborfyn rIghf
fhnf hnd Iong boon donIod undor fho InsfIfufIon of sInvory. SInvos dId
nof hnvo fho rIghf fo mnrry, nnd sInvos In IovIng roInfIonshIs oufsIdo
fho rofocfIon of fho Inw woro fImo nnd ngnIn sonrnfod whon ono sInvo
wns soId fo n dIsfnnf nrf of fho Soufh. See HI!II!T C. C!TMA, THI
I!ACK IAMI!Y I S!AVI!Y A I!IIOM, l?50-l925, nf 3l8 (l9?6). As
Son. Jncob Hownrd oxInInod, n sInvo hnd nof fho rIghf fo bocomo n
husbnnd or fnfhor In fho oyo of fho Inw, ho hnd no chIId, ho wns nof nf
IIborfy fo InduIgo fho nnfurnI nffocfIons of fho humnn honrf for chIIdron,
for wIfo, or ovon for frIond. Cong. CIobo, 39
fh
Cong., l
sf
Soss. 504
(l866).
In fho Iourfoonfh Amondmonf, fho frnmors fhus soughf fo
gunrnnfoo fo fho nowIy frood sInvos fho rIghf fo mnrry fhnf fhoy hnd
Iong boon donIod. Tho nffrIbufos of n froomnn nccordIng fo fho
unIvorsnI undorsfnndIng of fho AmorIcnn ooIo, Son. Jncob Hownrd
obsorvod, IncIudod fho rIghf of hnvIng n fnmIIy, n wIfo, chIIdron, homo.
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20

1J. Tho frnmors InsIsfod fhnf fho oor mnn, whoso wIfo mny bo
drossod In n chon cnIIco, Is ns much onfIfIod fo hnvo hor rofocfod by
oqunI Inw ns Is fho rIch mnn fo hnvo hIs jowoIod brIdo rofocfod by fho
Inws of fho Innd. 1J. nf 343. Ivon oononfs of fho Iourfoonfh
Amondmonf rocognIzod fhnf mnrrIngo nccordIng fo ono`s choIco Is n
cIvII rIghf. 1J. nf 3l8. See oleo IICCY COOII! AVIS, IC!ICTI
STO!IIS: THI COSTIT!TIO & IAMI!Y VA!!IS 39 (l99?) (Sonkor nffor
sonkor ronouncod mnrrIngo rIghfs fundnmonfnI nnd rosoIvod fhnf
froodom In fho !nIfod Sfnfos wouId onfnII fho rIghf fo mnrry.); Sfovon
C. CnInbrosI & !IvIn IIno, Tuo Cleere for Profeeeor Bol/in`e
Originolien, l03 W. !. !. !IV. 663, 6?0 (2009) (Tho common Inw . . .
hnd Iong rocognIzod n rIghf of mnrrIngo, nnd If wouId bo nsfonIshIng If
fhnf rIghf woro nof nIso doscrIbod In l868 ns hnvIng boon
fundnmonfnI.); JIII IInIno Hnsdny, IeJerolien onJ /le Ionil,
Iecone/ruc/eJ, 45 !.C.!.A. !. !IV. l29?, l338 (l998) (nofIng frnmors`
judgmonf fhnf fho froodom romIsod by nboIIfIon wns uIfImnfoIy
worfhIoss wIfhouf fho rIghf fo mnrry, fo rnIso n fnmIIy, nnd fo mnInfnIn
n homo).
4


4
In fho dobnfos durIng fho 39
fh
Congross, onIy ono mombor of fho Houso, !o.
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2l

Indood, fow rIghfs woro moro rocIous fo fho nowIy frood sInvos
fhnn fho rIghf fo mnrry. WIfh fho nboIIfIon of sInvory, ox-sInvos
fhomsoIvos rossod for coromonIos nnd IognI rogIsfrnfIons fhnf nf onco
coIobrnfod fho now socurIfy of bInck fnmIIy IIfo nnd broughf fhoIr mosf
InfImnfo fIos Info conformIfy wIfh fho sfnndnrds of froodom. II
I!IIOM: A OC!MITA!Y HISTO!Y OI IMACIIATIO, l86l-l86?, nf
660 (I. IorIIn of nI. ods. l982). |M]nss woddIng coromonIos InvoIvIng
ns mnny ns sovonfy couIos nf n fImo bocnmo n common sIghf In fho
osfwnr Soufh. !IO I. !ITWACK, III I THI STO!M SO !OC: THI
AITI!MATH OI S!AVI!Y 240 (l9?9).
Tho nowIy frood sInvos rojoIcod fo fInnIIy, nf Iong Insf, hnvo fho
rIghf fo mnrry fho orson of fhoIr choIco rofocfod nnd socurod by Inw.
As ono AfrIcnn AmorIcnn soIdIor uf If, I rnIso Cod for fhIs dny! I
hnvo Iong boon rnyIng for If. Tho MnrrIngo Covonnnf Is nf fho
foundnfIon of nII our rIghfs. In sInvory wo couId nof hnvo IognIIsod
mnrrIngo: now wo hnvo If. II I!IIOM: A OC!MITA!Y HISTO!Y nf
6?2 (omhnsIs omIffod). On Jnnunry l, l866, AfrIcnn AmorIcnns cnIIod

MouIfon, donIod fhnf fho rIghf fo mnrry wns n rofocfod rIghf, |b]uf ho know fhnf
ho wns In fho mInorIfy. . . . !oconsfrucfIon`s ndvocnfos woro Infonf on cronfIng . . .
consfIfufIonnI rofocfIon for fnmIIInI rIghfs . . . . Hnsdny, 45 !.C.!.A. !. !IV. nf
l350.
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22

fho fIrsf nnnIvorsnry of fho ImnncInfIon IrocInmnfIon n dny of
grnfIfudo for fho froodom of mnfrImony. IormorIy, fhoro wns no
socurIfy for our domosfIc hnInoss. . . . Iuf now wo cnn mnrry nnd IIvo
fogofhor fIII wo dIo . . . . Hnsdny, 45 !.C.!.A. !. !IV. nf l338 n.l46. In
shorf, fho rIghf fo mnrry by fho nufhorIfy nnd rofocfIon of !nw,
confIrmod fhnf fho nowIy frood sInvos, fInnIIy, woro bogInnIng fo bo
rognrdod nnd fronfod ns humnn boIngs. JAMIS MCIHI!SO, THI
IC!OIS` CIVI! WA! 604 (l99l).
In wrIfIng Info fho Iourfoonfh Amondmonf n roquIromonf of
oqunIIfy undor fho Inw nnd oqunIIfy of bnsIc rIghfs for nII orsons
whIch IncIudod fho rIghf fo mnrryfho Amondmonf`s frnmors onsurod
fhnf dIscrImInnfory sfnfo Inws wouId nof sfnnd In fho wny of AmorIcnns
oxorcIsIng fhoIr rIghf fo mnrry fho orson of fhoIr own choosIng. !nws
fhnf dIscrImInnfo nnd dony fo mombors of corfnIn grous fho rIghf fo
mnrry fho orson of fhoIr choIco fhus confrnvono fho orIgInnI monnIng
of fho Iourfoonfh Amondmonf.
Tho Suromo Courf hns mnny fImos vIndIcnfod fhIs rIncIIo.
Mosf fnmousIy, In Loting t. Virginio, fho Courf InvnIIdnfod fho Inws of
VIrgInIn nnd fIffoon ofhor sfnfos fhnf oufInwod InforrncInI mnrrIngo.
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23

ObsorvIng fhnf mnrrIngo Is ono of fho 'bnsIc cIvII rIghfs of mnn,`
Loting, 388 !.S. nf l2 (quofIng S/inner, 3l6 !.S. nf 54l), fho Courf
hoId fho donInI of fho fundnmonfnI froodom fo mnrry soIoIy bocnuso
of rncInI cInssIfIcnfIons vIoInfos fho confrnI monnIng of fho IqunI
IrofocfIon CInuso. 1J.
5
Tho Iourfoonfh Amondmonf roquIros fhnf fho
froodom of choIco fo mnrry nof bo rosfrIcfod by InvIdIous rncInI
dIscrImInnfIons. !ndor our ConsfIfufIon, fho froodom fo mnrry or nof
mnrry, n orson of nnofhor rnco rosIdos wIfh fho IndIvIdunI . . . . 1J.
To uso nnofhor oxnmIo, In ZoIloc/i t. IeJloil, 434 !.S. 3?4
(l9?8), fho Suromo Courf hoId fhnf n WIsconsIn sfnfufo fhnf donIod
fho rIghf fo mnrry fo nronfs who hnd fnIIod fo snfIsfy ro-oxIsfIng chIId
suorf obIIgnfIons vIoInfod fho IqunI IrofocfIon CInuso, omhnsIzIng
fhnf fho rIghf fo mnrry Is of fundnmonfnI Imorfnnco for nII
IndIvIdunIs. 1J. nf 384. ZoIloc/i oxInInod fhnf Loting`s hoIdIng dId
nof doond on fho confoxf of rncInI dIscrImInnfIon, buf rnfhor fhnf

5
Loting rosfod on fwo Indoondonf grounds: fhnf VIrgInIn`s mnrrIngo Inw vIoInfod
fho IqunI IrofocfIon CInuso by dIscrImInnfIng on fho bnsIs of rnco nnd nIso fhnf If
vIoInfod fho subsfnnfIvo nsocfs of fho uo Irocoss CInuso by donyIng fho rIghf fo
mnrry fho orson of ono`s choosIng. In fhIs brIof, whIch focusos on fho foxfunI nnd
hIsforIcnI ronsons for InvnIIdnfIng sfnfo mnrrIngo Inws fhnf fronf snmo-sox couIos
dIfforonfIy fhnn oosIfo-sox couIos, wo roIy on Loting sImIy fo show fhnf fho
rIghf fo mnrry fho orson of ono`s choosIng musf bo rovIdod oqunIIy fo nII. Our
focus Is on mnrrIngo oqunIIfy, nof fho sImIInrIfIos or dIfforoncossuch ns fhoy mny
bobofwoon dIsfIncfIons bnsod on rnco nnd soxunI orIonfnfIon, rosocfIvoIy.
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24

fho Inws nrbIfrnrIIy dorIvod fho couIo of n fundnmonfnI IIborfy . . . ,
fho froodom fo mnrry. 1J. nf 383-84. AIyIng sfrIcf scrufIny, fho
Courf InvnIIdnfod fho sfnfufo`s dIscrImInnfory donInI of fho rIghf fo
mnrry fo nronfs who hnd fnIIod fo ny chIId suorf, fIndIng If Imosod
n sorIous InfrusIon Info . . . froodom of choIco In nn nron In whIch wo
hnvo hoId such froodom fo bo fundnmonfnI. 1J. nf 38?. Iocnuso fho
IqunI IrofocfIon CInuso socurod nn oqunI rIghf fo mnrry fo nII orsons,
fho govornmonf couId nof ursuo Ifs IogIfImnfo Inforosf In onsurIng
nymonf of chIId suorf obIIgnfIons by unnocossnrIIy ImIng|Ing] on
fho rIghf fo mnrry. 1J. nf 388. See oleo M.L.B., 5l9 !.S. nf ll?
(ChoIcos nbouf mnrrIngo . . . nro nmong nssocInfIonnI rIghfs fhIs Courf
hns rnnkod ns 'of bnsIc Imorfnnco In our socIofy,` rIghfs shoIforod by
fho Iourfoonfh Amondmonf ngnInsf fho Sfnfo`s unwnrrnnfod
usurnfIon, dIsrognrd, or dIsrosocf.) (quofIng BoJJie t. Connec/icu/,
40l !.S. 3?l, 3?6 (l9?l)).
Iofh fho Iourfoonfh Amondmonf`s foxf nnd hIsfory nnd Suromo
Courf rocodonf fhus osfnbIIsh fhnf fho IqunI IrofocfIon CInuso
commnnds fho oqunIIfy of rIghfs, IncIudIng fho rIghf fo mnrry. !nws
fhnf dony fho fundnmonfnI rIghf fo mnrry fo corfnIn cInssos of ooIo
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25

nro subjocf fo sfrIcf scrufIny nnd musf bo nnrrowIy fnIIorod fo sorvo n
comoIIIng sfnfo Inforosf. See ZoIloc/i, 434 !.S. nf 388; eee oleo
S/inner, 3l6 !.S. nf 54l (nIyIng sfrIcf scrufIny undor fho IqunI
IrofocfIon CInuso fo IogIsInfIon InvoIvIng ono of fho bnsIc cIvII rIghfs of
mnn . . . Iosf unwIffIngIy or ofhorwIso InvIdIous dIscrImInnfIons nro
mndo ngnInsf grous or fyos of IndIvIdunIs In vIoInfIon of fho
consfIfufIonnI gunrnnfoo of jusf nnd oqunI Inws). See generoll, !fnh
IInInfIffs-AoIIoos Ir. nf 39 n.9, 48-63 (nrguIng fhnf hoIghfonod
scrufIny nIIos In fhIs cnso).
6

+EB #3% &$((+$)% /$F" -. 1#$3 $'* -G/$3-&$
+'.(+')% #3% %D1$/ (+)3# #- &$((A $'* #31"
E+-/$#% #3% )1$($'#%% -. #3% %D1$/
0(-#%,#+-' ,/$1"% #3$# $// 0%("-'" "3$//
3$E% %D1$/+#A 1'*%( #3% /$F
Tho mnrrIngo Inws of !fnh nnd OkInhomn vIoInfo bnsIc, woII-
soffIod oqunI rofocfIon rIncIIos. Iy forbIddIng IovIng, commIffod

6
In Turner t. Sofle,, 482 !.S. ?8 (l98?), fho Suromo Courf dId nof nIy sfrIcf
scrufIny, nIyIng Insfond ronsonnbIonoss rovIow bocnuso fho chnIIongo nroso In fho
rIson confoxf. Ivon undor fhIs doforonfInI sfnndnrd of rovIow, howovor, fho Courf
nonofhoIoss found fhnf fho sfnfo hnd no IogIfImnfo bnsIs for donyIng rIsonors fho
rIghf fo mnrry fho orson of fhoIr own choosIng. CorfnInIy, If fho rIghf fo mnrry Is
so fundnmonfnI fhnf fhoro Is no ronsonnbIo bnsIs for donyIng fho rIghf fo
Incnrcornfod rIsonors, fhoro Is no bnsIs undor nny sfnndnrd of scrufInybuf
osocInIIy undor sfrIcf scrufInyfor donyIng fhnf rIghf fo commIffod, IovIng, snmo-
sox couIos. See !fnh IInInfIffs-AoIIoos Ir. nf 63-86 (domonsfrnfIng fhnf !fnh`s
Inw cnnnof survIvo rnfIonnI bnsIs rovIow, much Ioss hoIghfonod scrufIny).
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26

snmo-sox couIos from nrfIcInfIng In fho fho mosf Imorfnnf roInfIon
In IIfo, nnd fho foundnfIon of fho fnmIIy In our socIofy, Mo,norJ t.
Hill, l25 !.S. l90, 205, 2ll (l888), quo/eJ in ZoIloc/i, 434 !.S. nf 386,
fhoso sfnfo Inws confrnvono fho IqunI IrofocfIon CInuso`s confrnI
gunrnnfoo of oqunIIfy undor fho Inw nnd oqunI rIghfs rofIocfod In bofh
fho foxf nnd hIsfory of fho Iourfoonfh Amondmonf. Thoso sfnfo Inws
osfnbIIsh n cInss-bnsod bndgo of InforIorIfy fhnf dIsnrngo nnd Injuro
fho orsonnI dIgnIfy nnd IIborfy of gny mon nnd IosbInns nnd fhoIr
fnmIIIos, fronfIng fhoIr IovIng roInfIonshIs ns Ioss rosocfod fhnn
ofhors. WinJeor, l33 S. Cf. nf 2696.
onyIng gny mon nnd IosbInns fho rIghf fo mnrry fho orson of
fhoIr choosIng Is InconsIsfonf wIfh fho foxf of fho IqunI IrofocfIon
CInuso, whIch socuros oqunIIfy of rIghfs fo nII orsons, rognrdIoss of
soxunI orIonfnfIon, eee WinJeor, eupro; Ioner, eupro, nnd Ifs hIsfory,
whIch domonsfrnfos fhnf fho rIghf fo mnrry fho orson of ono`s choosIng
Is n bnsIc nnd fundnmonfnI rIghf, gunrnnfood fo nII orsons undor fho
Iourfoonfh Amondmonf. Tho chnIIongod sfnfo Inws nro rohIbIfod cInss
IogIsInfIon, sfnfus-bnsod onncfmonf|s] fhnf dony snmo-sox couIos fho
rIghf fo mnrry In ordor fo fo mnko fhom unoqunI fo ovoryono oIso.
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2?

Ioner, 5l? !.S. nf 635. !ndor !fnh nnd OkInhomn Inw, mon nnd
womon who Iovo nnd chooso fo mnrry somoono of fho snmo sox do nof
sfnnd oqunI boforo fho Inw nnd do nof rocoIvo Ifs oqunI rofocfIon.
o consfIfufIonnIIy IogIfImnfo rnfIonnIoIof nIono nny comoIIIng
sfnfo InforosfjusfIfIos fhoso sfnfos` rofusnIs fo nccord gny mon nnd
IosbInns fho rIghf fo mnrry fho orson of fhoIr choosIng. As In WinJeor,
l33 S. Cf. nf 2696, no IogIfImnfo uroso ovorcomos fho uroso nnd
offocf fo dIsnrngo nnd fo Injuro, snmo-sox couIos In commIffod, IovIng
roInfIonshIs, whoso mornI nnd soxunI choIcos fho ConsfIfufIon
rofocfs. 1J. nf 2694. Inr from furfhorIng nny IogIfImnfo sfnfo gonIs
connocfod fo mnrrIngo, fhoso dIscrImInnfory Inws dIssorvo fhom,
humIIInf|Ing] . . . fhousnnds of chIIdron now boIng rnIsod by snmo sox
couIos nnd mnk|Ing] If ovon moro dIffIcuIf for fho chIIdron fo
undorsfnnd fho InfogrIfy nnd cIosonoss of fhoIr own fnmIIy . . . . 1J. In
sum, ns fho courfs boIow roorIy hoId, fhoso sfnfo rohIbIfIons cronfo
nn nrbIfrnry oxcIusIon bnsod on fho mnjorIfy`s dIsnrovnI, Bielop t.
Ini/eJ S/o/ee ex rel. HolJer, 20l4 W! ll60l3, nf *32 (.. OkIn. Jnn.
l4, 20l4), fhnf orofunfos InoqunIIfy, domonns fho dIgnIfy of snmo-
sox couIos, nnd don|Ios] ono of fho mosf frndIfIonnI nsocfs of
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28

mnrrIngo: fho rIghf fo form n fnmIIy fhnf Is sfrongfhonod by n
nrfnorshI bnsod on Iovo, InfImncy, nnd shnrod rosonsIbIIIfIos.
Ki/clen t. HerIer/, 20l3 W! 669?8?4, nf *29 (. !fnh oc., 20, 20l3).
Confrnry fo fho nrgumonfs suggosfod by fho sfnfos In suorf of
fhoIr dIscrImInnfory mnrrIngo Inws, fho foxf nnd fIrsf rIncIIos fho
frnmors wrofo Info fho Iourfoonfh Amondmonf confroI fhIs Courf`s
consfIfufIonnI nnnIysIs, nof urorfod frndIfIonnI undorsfnndIngs of
mnrrIngo. o frndIfIon cnn suorsodo fho ConsfIfufIon. Iu/on t.
IepuIlicon Por/, of 1llinoie, 49? !.S. 62, 95 n.l (l990) (ScnIIn, J.,
dIssonfIng). See Lourence t. Texoe, 539 !.S. 558, 5??-?8 (2003) ('|T]ho
fncf fhnf fho govornIng mnjorIfy In n Sfnfo hns frndIfIonnIIy vIowod n
nrfIcuInr rncfIco ns ImmornI Is nof n suffIcIonf ronson for uhoIdIng n
Inw rohIbIfIng fho rncfIco; noIfhor hIsfory or frndIfIon couId snvo n
Inw rohIbIfIng mIscogonnfIon from consfIfufIonnI nffnck.`) (quofIng
Bouere t. HorJuic/, 4?8 !.S. l86, 2l6 (l986) (Sfovons, J., dIssonfIng));
BJ. of Coun/, Conn`re, WouIuneee Coun/,, Kon. t. InIelr, 5l8 !.S.
668, 68l (l996) (rojocfIng n socInI oxcofIon fo fho IIrsf
Amondmonf`s rofocfIon of oIIfIcnI sooch bnsod on n 'Iong nnd
unbrokon frndIfIon` of nIIocnfIon of govornmonf confrncfs on fho bnsIs
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29

of oIIfIcnI bIns) (cIfnfIon omIffod); Heller t. Doe, 509 !.S. 3l2, 326
(l993) (AncIonf IInongo of n IognI concof doos nof gIvo If ImmunIfy
from nffnck . . . .); Iu/on, 49? !.S. nf 92 (Sfovons, J., concurrIng) (Tho
frndIfIon fhnf Is roIovnnf In fhoso cnsos Is fho AmorIcnn commIfmonf fo
oxnmIno nnd rooxnmIno nsf nnd rosonf rncfIcos ngnInsf fho bnsIc
rIncIIos ombodIod In fho ConsfIfufIon.).
?
If n so-cnIIod frndIfIon or
hIsfory of dIscrImInnfIon woro suffIcIonf fo jusfIfy orofunfIng fho
dIscrImInnfory rncfIco, our ubIIc schooIs, drInkIng founfnIns, nnd
swImmIng ooIs wouId sfIII bo sogrognfod by rnco.
Thoso rIncIIos nIy wIfh socInI forco fo fho IqunI IrofocfIon
CInuso, whIch chnngod fho ConsfIfufIon from ono fhnf snncfIonod
InoqunIIfy fo ono fhnf rohIbIfod If. Tho vory oInf of fho CInuso wns fo
sfo dond In Ifs frncks fho sfnfo frndIfIon of donyIng fo AfrIcnn
AmorIcnnsnnd ofhor dIsfnvorod grousoqunI rIghfs undor fho Inw.
As fnr ns fho IqunI IrofocfIon CInuso Is concornod, dIscrImInnfory

?
ThIs Is fruo ovon of frndIfIons oxIsfIng nf fho fImo of fho rnfIfIcnfIon of fho
Iourfoonfh Amondmonf. See PlonneJ Poren/looJ t. Coee,, 505 !.S. 833, 848
(l992) (rojocfIng fho Idon fhnf fho socIfIc rncfIcos of Sfnfos nf fho fImo of fho
ndofIon of fho Iourfoonfh Amondmonf mnrks fho oufor IImIfs of fho subsfnnfIvo
shoro of IIborfy whIch fho Iourfoonfh Amondmonf rofocfs); Iu/on, 49? !.S. nf
82 n.2 (Sfovons, J., concurrIng) (rojocfIng fho nrgumonf fhnf moro IongovIfy cnn
ImmunIzo from consfIfufIonnI rovIow sfnfo conducf fhnf wouId ofhorwIso vIoInfo fho
IIrsf Amondmonf).
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30

frndIfIons nro no nrf of our nnfIon`s consfIfufIonnI frndIfIons. Cf.
InIelr, 5l8 !.S. nf 68l (oxInInIng fhnf n frndIfIon of oIIfIcnI bIns In
confrncfIng Is nof . . . fho sfuff ouf of whIch fho Courf`s rIncIIos nro fo
bo formod) (cIfnfIon nnd quofnfIon mnrks omIffod).
InfonfIonnIIy drnffIng fho IqunI IrofocfIon CInuso In brond,
unIvorsnI forms, fho frnmors of fho Iourfoonfh Amondmonf doIIbornfoIy
fnrgofod fho onfIro rnngo of unoqunI Inws, IncIudIng n hosf of
IongsfnndIng, dIscrImInnfory sfnfo rncfIcos. Af fho fImo of Ifs
rnfIfIcnfIon, dIscrImInnfIon ngnInsf fho nowIy frood sInvos, ns woII ns
ofhor orsons, hnd boon hnbIfunI. If wns woII known fhnf In somo
Sfnfos Inws mnkIng such dIscrImInnfIons fhon oxIsfod, nnd ofhors
mIghf woII bo oxocfod. S/rouJer, l00 !.S. nf 306. CnrvIng ouf of fho
foxf of fho Iourfoonfh Amondmonf nn oxcofIon for frndIfIonnI forms of
dIscrImInnfIon wouId hnvo sfrnngIod fho IqunI IrofocfIon CInuso In Ifs
crIb, subvorfIng Ifs confrnI monnIng. See 1llinoie S/o/e 1nplo,eee
Council 34 t. Leuie, 4?3 I.2d 56l, 568 n.l4 (?fh CIr. l9?2) (Sfovons, J.)
(|I]f fho ngo of n ornIcIous rncfIco woro n suffIcIonf ronson for Ifs
confInuod nccofnnco, fho consfIfufIonnI nffnck on rncInI dIscrImInnfIon
wouId . . . hnvo boon doomod fo fnIIuro.). Thus, frndIfIon cnnnof snvo
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3l

n sfnfo Inw or oIIcy fhnf confrnvonos fho IqunI IrofocfIon CInuso`s
commnnd of oqunIIfy undor fho Inw nnd oqunIIfy of rIghfs for nII
orsons.
Tho Suromo Courf`s cnsos vIndIcnfIng fho oqunI rIghf of nII
orsons fo mnrry hnvo Iong rocognIzod fhIs bnsIc oInf. Ior mnny yonrs
In fhIs counfry, sfnfos rohIbIfod mnrrIngos bofwoon orsons of
dIfforonf rncos, buf Loting hoId fhnf such n frndIfIonnI concof of
mnrrIngo vIoInfod fho Iourfoonfh Amondmonf bocnuso rosfrIcfIng fho
froodom fo mnrry soIoIy bocnuso of rncInI cInssIfIcnfIons vIoInfos fho
confrnI monnIng of fho IqunI IrofocfIon CInuso. Loting, 388 !.S. nf
l2. See oleo Coee,, 505 !.S. nf 980 n.l (ScnIIn, J., dIssonfIng) (donyIng
fhnf ndhoronco fo frndIfIon wouId roquIro us fo uhoId Inws ngnInsf
InforrncInI mnrrIngo bocnuso such n frndIfIon Is confrndIcfod I, o
/ex/nn IqunI IrofocfIon CInuso fhnf oxIIcIfIy osfnbIIshos rncInI
oqunIIfy ns n consfIfufIonnI vnIuo.) (omhnsIs In orIgInnI). |T]rndIfIon
nIono cnnnof jusfIfy donyIng snmo-sox couIos fho rIghf fo mnrry nny
moro fhnn If couId jusfIfy VIrgInIn`s bnn on InforrncInI mnrrIngo.
Boe/ic t. Ioine,, CIvII o. l3-395, sII o. nf 26 (I.. Vn. Iob., l4,
20l4).
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32

If Is fhus of no consfIfufIonnI roIovnnco fhnf fho mnrrIngos Info
whIch IInInfIffs wIsh fo onfor hnvo Iong boon donIod IognI rocognIfIon.
As fho Suromo Courf confIrmod In Loting, hIsfory Is n vnIId sourco of
InquIry for IdonfIfyIng bnsIc nnd fundnmonfnI consfIfufIonnI rIghfs nnd
rofocfIons, buf hIsforIcnI frndIfIon cnnnof bo usod In nn IqunI
IrofocfIon CInuso nnnIysIs fo jusfIfy n Inw or rncfIco fhnf donIos nny
grou fho oqunI rofocfIon of fho Inws. onInI of fho oqunI rIghf fo
mnrryIIko ofhor fundnmonfnI consfIfufIonnI rofocfIons'cnnnof bo
jusfIfIod on fho bnsIs of 'hIsfory.` . . . SImIy uf, n hIsfory or frndIfIon of
dIscrImInnfIonno mnffor how onfronchoddoos nof mnko fho
dIscrImInnfIon consfIfufIonnI.` Kerrigon t. Conn`r of PuIlic Heol/l,
95? A.2d 40?, 4?8 (Conn. 2008) (quofIng HernonJec t. IoIlee, 855
.I.2d l, 33 (.Y. 2006) (Knyo, C.J., dIssonfIng)). See oleo Vornun t.
Brien, ?63 .W.2d 862, 898-899 (Iown 2009) (concIudIng fhnf somo
undorIyIng ronson ofhor fhnn fho rosorvnfIon of frndIfIon musf bo
IdonfIfIod bocnuso |w]hon n corfnIn frndIfIon Is usod ns bofh fho
govornmonfnI objocfIvo nnd fho cInssIfIcnfIon fo furfhor fhnf objocfIvo,
fho oqunI rofocfIon nnnIysIs Is frnnsformod Info fho cIrcuInr quosfIon
of whofhor fho cInssIfIcnfIon nccomIIshos fho govornmonfnI objocfIvo,
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33

whIch objocfIvo Is fo mnInfnIn fho cInssIfIcnfIon.); GooJriJge t. Dep`/ of
PuIlic Heol/l, ?98 .I.2d 94l, 9?3 (Mnss. 2003) (Cronnoy, J.,
concurrIng) (|T]ho mnnfrn of frndIfIon . . . cnn|nof] jusfIfy fho
orofunfIon of n hIornrchy In whIch couIos of fho snmo sox nnd fhoIr
fnmIIIos nro doomod Ioss worfhy of socInI nnd IognI rocognIfIon fhnn
couIos of fho oosIfo sox nnd fhoIr fnmIIIos.).
As fho foxf nnd hIsfory of fho Iourfoonfh Amondmonf show, fho
IqunI IrofocfIon CInuso gunrnnfoos fo nII orsonsrognrdIoss of rnco,
soxunI orIonfnfIon, or ofhor grou chnrncforIsfIcsoqunIIfy of rIghfs,
IncIudIng fho fundnmonfnI rIghf fo mnrry fho orson of fhoIr choosIng.
Tho chnIIongod !fnh nnd OkInhomn Inws confIIcf wIfh fhIs
fundnmonfnI consfIfufIonnI rIncIIo, nnd fho Iowor courfs woro corrocf
fo hnvo InvnIIdnfod fhom.
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34

,-',/1"+-'
Tho judgmonf of fho dIsfrIcf courfs shouId bo nffIrmod.

!osocffuIIy submIffod,
/s/ IIIznbofh I. Wydrn

IIIznbofh I. Wydrn* IIyn ShnIro
COSTIT!TIOA! CATO ISTIT!TI
ACCO!TAII!ITY CITI! l000 Mnssnchusoffs Avo, W
l200 l8
fh
Sf., W, Sfo 50l WnshIngfon, C 2000l
WnshIngfon, .C. 20036 (202) 842-0200
(202) 296-6889
oIIznbofhfhousconsfIfufIon.org
*Couneel of IecorJ
Couneel for Anici Curioe
nfod: Mnrch 4, 20l4
Appellate Case: l3-4l78 Document: 0l0l92ll730 Date Filed: 03/04/20l4 Page: 44 Appellate Case: l3-4l78 Document: 0l0l92ll80l Date Filed: 03/04/20l4 Page: 44
35

,%(#+.+,$#% -. ,-&0/+$',%
I horoby corfIfy fhnf fhIs brIof comIIos wIfh fho fyo-voIumo
IImIfnfIon of Iod. !. A. I. 32(n)(?)(I) nnd Iod. !. A. I. 29(d)
bocnuso If confnIns ?,000 words, oxcIudIng fho nrfs of fho brIof
oxomfod by Iod. !. A. I. 32(n)(?)(I)(III).
I furfhor corfIfy fhnf fho nffnchod brIof onici curioe comIIos wIfh
fho fyofnco roquIromonfs of Iod. !. A. I. 32(n)(5)nnd fho fyo-sfyIo
roquIromonfs of Iod. !. A. I. 32(n)(6), bocnuso If hns boon ronrod
In n roorfIonnIIy sncod fyofnco usIng MIcrosoff Word l4-oInf
Confury SchooIbook fonf.
Ixocufod fhIs 4
fh
dny of Mnrch, 20l4.
/s/ IIIznbofh I. Wydrn___
IIIznbofh I. Wydrn
Couneel for Anici Curioe
Appellate Case: l3-4l78 Document: 0l0l92ll730 Date Filed: 03/04/20l4 Page: 45 Appellate Case: l3-4l78 Document: 0l0l92ll80l Date Filed: 03/04/20l4 Page: 45
36

,%(#+.+,$#% -. "%(E+,%
I horoby corfIfy fhnf I oIocfronIcnIIy fIIod fho forogoIng wIfh fho
CIork of fho Courf for fho !nIfod Sfnfos Courf of AonIs for fho Tonfh
CIrcuIf by usIng fho noIInfo CM/ICI sysfom on Mnrch 4, 20l4.
I corfIfy fhnf nII nrfIos In fho cnso nro rogIsforod CM/ICI usors
nnd fhnf sorvIco wIII bo nccomIIshod by fho noIInfo CM/ICI sysfom.
Ixocufod fhIs 4
fh
dny of Mnrch, 20l4.
/s/ IIIznbofh I. Wydrn___
IIIznbofh I. Wydrn
Couneel for Anici Curioe
Appellate Case: l3-4l78 Document: 0l0l92ll730 Date Filed: 03/04/20l4 Page: 46 Appellate Case: l3-4l78 Document: 0l0l92ll80l Date Filed: 03/04/20l4 Page: 46
3?

%,. ,%(#+.+,$#+-'
Iursunnf fo SocfIon II(I) of fho Courf`s CM/ICI !sor`s MnnunI,
fho undorsIgnod corfIfIos:
l. AII roquIrod rIvncy rodncfIons hnvo boon mndo;
2. Hnrd coIos of fho forogoIng brIof roquIrod fo bo submIffod fo
fho cIork`s offIco nro oxncf coIos of fho brIof ns fIIod vIn ICI; nnd
3. Tho brIof fIIod vIn ICI wns scnnnod for vIrusos usIng WIndows
ofondor nnd I-Socuro ISI WorksfnfIon SocurIfy l0.00 nnd nccordIng
fo fhnf soffwnro Is froo of vIrusos.
Ixocufod fhIs 4
fh
dny of Mnrch, 20l4.
/s/ IIIznbofh I. Wydrn___
IIIznbofh I. Wydrn
Couneel for Anici Curioe



Appellate Case: l3-4l78 Document: 0l0l92ll730 Date Filed: 03/04/20l4 Page: 47 Appellate Case: l3-4l78 Document: 0l0l92ll80l Date Filed: 03/04/20l4 Page: 47