Chap Men

EEEB344 Electromechanical Devices
Chapter 1
1
CHAPTER 1 - Introduction to Machinery Principles
Summary:
1. Basic concept oI electrical machines Iundamentals:
Rotational component measurements
Angular Velocity, Acceleration
Torque, Work, Power
Newton`s Law oI Rotation
Magnetic Eield study
Production oI a Magnetic Eield
Magnetic Circuits
2. Magnetic Behaviour oI Eerromagnetic Materials
3. How magnetic Iield can aIIect its surroundings:
- Earaday`s Law Induced Voltage Irom a Time-Changing Magnetic
Eield.
- Production oI Induced Eorce on a Wire.
- Induced Voltage on a Conductor moving in a Magnetic Eield
4. Linear DC Machines
Chapter 1
2
Introduction
1. Electric Machines mechanical energy to electric energy or vice versa
Mechanical energy Electric energy : GENERATOR
Electric energy mechanical energy : MOTOR
2. Almost all practical motors and generators convert energy Irom one Iorm to another through the
action oI a magnetic field.
3. Only machines using magnetic Iields to perIorm such conversions will be considered in this course.
4. When we talk about machines, another related device is the transIormer. A transIormer is a device
that converts ac electric energy at one voltage level to ac electric energy at another voltage level.
5. TransIormers are usually studied together with generators and motors because they operate on the
same principle, the diIIerence is just in the action of a magnetic field to accomplish the change in
voltage level.
6. Why are electric motors and generators so common?
- electric power is a clean and eIIicient energy source that is very easy to transmit over
long distances and easy to control.
- Does not require constant ventilation and Iuel (compare to internal-combustion engine),
Iree Irom pollutant associated with combustion
1. Basic concept of electrical machines fundamentals
1.1 Rotational Motion, Newton`s Law and Power Relationship
Almost all electric machines rotate about an axis, called the shaIt oI the machines. It is important to
have a basic understanding oI rotational motion.
Angular position, - is the angle at which it is oriented, measured Irom some arbitrary reIerence point.
Its measurement units are in radians (rad) or in degrees. It is similar to the linear concept oI distance
along a line.
Conventional notation: ve value Ior anticlockwise rotation
-ve value Ior clockwise rotation
Angular Velocity, - DeIined as the velocity at which the measured point is moving. Similar to the
concept oI standard velocity where:
dr
v
dt
=
where:
r distance traverse by the body
t time taken to travel the distance r
Eor a rotating body, angular velocity is Iormulated as:
d
dt
=
(rad/s)
where:
u - Angular position/ angular distance traversed by the rotating body
t time taken Ior the rotating body to traverse the speciIied distance, 0.
Chapter 1
3
Angular acceleration, - is deIined as the rate oI change in angular velocity with respect to time. Its
Iormulation is as shown:
d
dt
=
(rad/s
2
)
Torque,
1. In linear motion, a Iorce applied to an object causes its velocity to change. In the absence oI a
net Iorce on the object, its velocity is constant. The greater the Iorce applied to the object, the
more rapidly its velocity changes.
2. Similarly in the concept oI rotation, when an object is rotating, its angular velocity is constant
unless a torque is present on it. Greater the torque, more rapid the angular velocity changes.
3. Torque is known as a rotational Iorce applied to a rotating body giving angular acceleration,
a.k.a. twisting Iorce`.
4. DeIinition oI Torque: (Nm)
Product of force applied to the obfect and the smallest distance between the line of action of the
force and the obfects axis of rotation
Eorce perpendicular distance
sin F r
=
=
u
Direction
of rotation
rsin(180 u) = rsinu
F
Work, W is deIined as the application oI Eorce through a distance. ThereIore, work may be deIined as:
W Fdr =
}
Assuming that the direction oI E is collinear (in the same direction) with the direction oI motion and
constant in magnitude, hence,
W Fr =
Applying the same concept Ior rotating bodies,
W d =
}
Assuming that t is constant,
W =
(Joules)
Chapter 1
4
net
I dl H =
}
Power, P is deIined as rate oI doing work. Hence,
dW
P
dt
=
(watts)
Applying this Ior rotating bodies,
( )
d
P
dt
d
dt
=
=
=
This equation can describe the mechanical power on the shaIt oI a motor or generator.
Newton`s Law of Rotation
Newton`s law Ior objects moving in a straight line gives a relationship between the Iorce applied to the
object and the acceleration experience by the object as the result oI Iorce applied to it. In general,
F ma =
where:
E Eorce applied
m mass oI object
a resultant acceleration oI object
Applying these concept Ior rotating bodies,
J =
(Nm)
where:
t - Torque
J moment oI inertia
o - angular acceleration
1.2 The Magnetic Field
Magnetic Iields are the fundamental mechanism by which energy is converted Irom one Iorm to
another in motors, generators and transIormers.
Eirst, we are going to look at the basic principle A current-carrying wire produces a magnetic field
in the area around it.
Production of a Magnetic Field
1. Ampere`s Law - the basic law governing the production oI a magnetic Iield by a current:
where H is the magnetic Iield intensity produced by the current I
net
and dl is a diIIerential element oI
length along the path oI integration. H is measured in Ampere-turns per meter.
Chapter 1
5
H B =
2. Consider a current currying conductor is wrapped around a Ierromagnetic core;
mean path Iength, Ic
|
N turns
CSA
3. Applying Ampere`s law, the total amount oI magnetic Iield induced will be proportional to the
amount oI current Ilowing through the conductor wound with N turns around the Ierromagnetic
material as shown. Since the core is made oI Ierromagnetic material, it is assume that a majority
oI the magnetic Iield will be conIined to the core.
4. The path oI integration in Ampere`s law is the mean path length oI the core, l
c
. The current
passing within the path oI integration I
net
is then Ni, since the coil oI wires cuts the path oI
integration N times while carrying the current i. Hence Ampere`s Law becomes,
c
c
Hl Ni
Ni
H
l
=
=
5. In this sense, H (Ampere turns per metre) is known as the eIIort required to induce a magnetic
Iield. The strength oI the magnetic Iield Ilux produced in the core also depends on the material oI
the core. Thus,
B magnetic Ilux density (webers per square meter, Tesla (T))
magnetic permeability oI material (Henrys per meter)
H magnetic Iield intensity (ampere-turns per meter)
6. The constant may be Iurther expanded to include relative permeabilitv which can be deIined as
below:
r
o
=
where:
o
permeability oI Iree space (a.k.a. air)
7. Hence the permeability value is a combination oI the relative permeability and the permeability oI
Iree space. The value oI relative permeability is dependent upon the type oI material used. The
higher the amount permeability, the higher the amount oI Ilux induced in the core. Relative
permeability is a convenient way to compare the magnetizability oI materials.
8. Also, because the permeability oI iron is so much higher than that oI air, the majority oI the Ilux
in an iron core remains inside the core instead oI travelling through the surrounding air, which has
lower permeability. The small leakage Ilux that does leave the iron core is important in
determining the Ilux linkages between coils and the selI-inductances oI coils in transIormers and
motors.
Chapter 1
6
9. In a core such as in the Iigure,
B H
c
l
Ni
Now, to measure the total Ilux Ilowing in the Ierromagnetic core, consideration has to be made in
terms oI its cross sectional area (CSA). ThereIore,
A
BdA =
}
Where: A cross sectional area throughout the core
Assuming that the Ilux density in the Ierromagnetic core is constant throughout hence constant
A, the equation simpliIies to be:
BA =
Taking into account past derivation oI B,
c
NiA
l
=
2. Magnetics Circuits
The Ilow oI magnetic Ilux induced in the Ierromagnetic core can be made analogous to an electrical
circuit hence the name magnetic circuit.
The analogy is as Iollows:
+
-
A
R V
+
-
|
Reluctance, R
F=Ni
(mmf)
Electric Circuit Analogv Magnetic Circuit Analogv
1. ReIerring to the magnetic circuit analogy, E is denoted as magnetomotive force (mmI) which is
similar to Electromotive Iorce in an electrical circuit (emI). ThereIore, we can saIely say that E is
the prime mover or Iorce which pushes magnetic Ilux around a Ierromagnetic core at a value oI Ni
(reIer to ampere`s law). Hence E is measured in ampere turns. Hence the magnetic circuit
equivalent equation is as shown:
F R =
(similar to VIR)
2. The polarity oI the mmI will determine the direction oI Ilux. To easily determine the direction oI
Ilux, the right hand curl` rule is utilised:
a) The direction oI the curled Iingers determines the current Ilow.
b) The resulting thumb direction will show the magnetic Ilux Ilow.
Chapter 1
7
3. The element oI R in the magnetic circuit analogy is similar in concept to the electrical resistance.
It is basically the measure oI material resistance to the Ilow oI magnetic Ilux. Reluctance in this
analogy obeys the rule oI electrical resistance (Series and Parallel Rules). Reluctance is measured
in Ampere-turns per weber.
Series Reluctance,
Req R1 R2 R3 ..
Parallel Reluctance,
1 2 3
1 1 1 1
...
eq
R R R R
= + + +
4. The inverse oI electrical resistance is conductance which is a measure oI conductivity oI a
material. Hence the inverse oI reluctance is known as permeance, P where it represents the
degree at which the material permits the Ilow oI magnetic Ilux.
1
since
P
R
F
R
FP
=
=
=
Also,
,
c
c
c
c
c
NiA
l
A
Ni
l
A
F
l
A l
P R
l A
=
=
=
= =
5. By using the magnetic circuit approach, it simpliIies calculations related to the magnetic Iield in a
Ierromagnetic material, however, this approach has inaccuracy embedded into it due to
assumptions made in creating this approach (within 5 oI the real answer). Possible reason oI
inaccuracy is due to:
a) The magnetic circuit assumes that all Ilux are conIined within the core, but in reality a small
Iraction oI the Ilux escapes Irom the core into the surrounding low-permeability air, and this Ilux
is called leakage flux.
b) The reluctance calculation assumes a certain mean path length and cross sectional area (csa) oI
the core. This is alright iI the core is just one block oI Ierromagnetic material with no corners, Ior
practical Ierromagnetic cores which have corners due to its design, this assumption is not
accurate.
Chapter 1
8
c) In Ierromagnetic materials, the permeability varies with the amount oI Ilux already in the
material. The material permeability is not constant hence there is an existence oI non-linearity
of permeability.
d) Eor Ierromagnetic core which has air gaps, there are fringing effects that should be taken into
account as shown:
N
S
Example 1.1
A Ierromagnetic core is shown. Three sides oI this core are oI uniIorm width, while the Iourth side is
somewhat thinner. The depth oI the core (into the page) is 10cm, and the other dimensions are shown in
the Iigure. There is a 200 turn coil wrapped around the leIt side oI the core. Assuming relative
permeability
r
oI 2500, how much flux will be produced by a 1A input current?
Solution.
3 sides oI the core have the same csa, while the 4
th
side has a diIIerent area. Thus the core can be divided
into 2 regions:
(1) the single thinner side
(2) the other 3 sides taken together
The magnetic circuit corresponding to this core:
Chapter 1
9
Example 1.2
Eigure shows a Ierromagnetic core whose mean path length is 40cm. There is a small gap oI 0.05cm in
the structure oI the otherwise whole core. The csa oI the core is 12cm
2
, the relative permeability oI the
core is 4000, and the coil oI wire on the core has 400 turns. Assume that Iringing in the air gap increases
the eIIective csa oI the gap by 5. Given this inIormation, Iind
(a) the total reluctance oI the Ilux path (iron plus air gap)
(b) the current required to produce a Ilux density oI 0.5T in the air gap.
Solution.
The magnetic circuit corresponding to this core is shown below:
Chapter 1
10
Example 1.3
Eigure shows a simpliIied rotor and stator Ior a dc motor. The mean path length oI the stator is 50cm,
and its csa is 12cm
2
. The mean path length oI the rotor is 5 cm, and its csa also may be assumed to be
12cm
2
. Each air gap between the rotor and the stator is 0.05cm wide, and the csa oI each air gap
(including Iringing) is 14cm
2
. The iron oI the core has a relative permeability oI 2000, and there are 200
turns oI wire on the core. II the current in the wire is adjusted to be 1A, what will the resulting flux
density in the air gaps be?
Solution.
To determine the Ilux density in the air gap, it is necessary to Iirst calculate the mmI applied to the core
and the total reluctance oI the Ilux path. With this inIormation, the total Ilux in the core can be Iound.
Einally, knowing the csa oI the air gaps enables the Ilux density to be calculated.
The magnetic cct corresponding to this machine is shown below.
Chapter 1
11
Magnetic Behaviour of Ferromagnetic Materials

1. Materials which are classiIied as non-magnetic all show a linear relationship between the Ilux
density B and coil current I. In other words, they have constant permeability. Thus, Ior example,
in Iree space, the permeability is constant. But in iron and other Ierromagnetic materials it is not
constant.
2. Eor magnetic materials, a much larger value oI B is produced in these materials than in Iree space.
ThereIore, the permeability oI magnetic materials is much higher than
o
. However, the
permeability is not linear anymore but does depend on the current over a wide range.
3. Thus, the permeability is the property of a medium that determines its magnetic
characteristics. In other words, the concept oI magnetic permeability corresponds to the ability oI
the material to permit the Ilow oI magnetic Ilux through it.
4. In electrical machines and electromechanical devices a somewhat linear relationship between B
and I is desired, which is normally approached by limiting the current.
5. Look at the magnetization curve and B-H curve. Note: The curve corresponds to an increase oI DC
current Ilow through a coil wrapped around the Ierromagnetic core (reI: Electrical Machinery
Eundamentals 4
th
Ed. Stephen J Chapman).
6. When the Ilux produced in the core is plotted versus the mmI producing it, the resulting plot looks
like this (a). This plot is called a saturation curve or a magnetization curve. A small increase in
the mmI produces a huge increase in the resulting Ilux. AIter a certain point, Iurther increases in
the mmI produce relatively smaller increases in the Ilux. Einally, there will be no change at all as
you increase mmI Iurther. The region in which the curve Ilattens out is called saturation region,
and the core is said to be saturated. The region where the Ilux changes rapidly is called the
unsaturated region. The transition region is called the knee` oI the curve.
7. Erom equation H Ni/l
c
E/l
c
and BA, it can be seen that magnetizing intensity is directly
proportional to mmI and magnetic Ilux density is directly proportional to Ilux Ior any given core.
BH slope oI curve is the permeability oI the core at that magnetizing intensity. The curve (b)
shows that the permeability is large and relatively constant in the unsaturated region and then
gradually drops to a low value as the core become heavily saturated.
8. Advantage oI using a Ierromagnetic material Ior cores in electric machines and transIormers is that
one gets more Ilux Ior a given mmI than with air (Iree space).
Chapter 1
12
9. II the resulting Ilux has to be proportional to the mmI, then the core must be operated in the
unsaturated region.
10. Generators and motors depend on magnetic Ilux to produce voltage and torque, so they need as
much Ilux as possible. So, they operate near the knee oI the magnetization curve (Ilux not linearly
related to the mmI). This non-linearity as a result gives peculiar behaviours to machines.
11. As magnetizing intensity H increased, the relative permeability Iirst increases and then starts to
drop oII.
Example 1.5
A square magnetic core has a mean path length oI 55cm and a csa oI 150cm
2
. A 200 turn coil oI wire is
wrapped around one leg oI the core. The core is made oI a material having the magnetization curve
shown below. Eind:
a) How much current is required to produce 0.012 Wb oI Ilux in the core?
b) What is the core`s relative permeability at that current level?
c) What is its reluctance?
Chapter 1
13
Energy Losses in a Ferromagnetic Core
I. Hysteresis Loss
1. Discussions made beIore concentrates on the application oI a DC current through the coil. Now
let`s move the discussion into the application oI AC current source at the coil. Using our
understanding previously, we can predict that the curve would be as shown,
|
F
1st Positive
Cycle
2nd Negative
Cycle
Theoretical ac magnetic behaviour for flux in a ferromagnetic core.
2. UnIortunately, the above assumption is only correct provided that the core is perIect` i.e. there are
no residual Ilux present during the negative cycle oI the ac current Ilow. A typical Ilux behaviour
(or known as hysteresis loop) in a Ierromagnetic core is as shown in the next page.
Chapter 1
14
Tvpical Hvsterisis loop when ac current is applied.
3. Explanation oI Hysteresis Loop
- Apply AC current. Assume Ilux in the core is initially zero.
- As current increases, the Ilux traces the path ab. (saturation curve)
- When the current decreases, the Ilux traces out a diIIerent path Irom the one when the current
increases.
- When current decreases, the Ilux traces out path bcd.
- When the current increases again, it traces out path deb.
- NOTE: the amount oI Ilux present in the core depends not only on the amount oI current
applied to the windings oI the core, but also on the previous history oI the Ilux in the core.
- HYSTERESIS is the dependence on the preceding Ilux history and the resulting Iailure to
retrace Ilux paths.
- When a large mmI is Iirst applied to the core and then removed, the Ilux path in the core will
be abc.
- When mmI is removed, the Ilux does not go to zero residual flux. This is how permanent
magnets are produced.
- To Iorce the Ilux to zero, an amount oI mmI known as coercive mmf must be applied in the
opposite direction.
Chapter 1
15
4. Why does hysteresis occur?
To understand hysteresis in a Ierromagnetic core, we have to look into the behaviour oI its
atomic structure beIore, during and aIter the presence oI a magnetic Iield.
The atoms oI iron and similar metals (cobalt, nickel, and some oI their alloys) tend to have
their magnetic Iields closely aligned with each other. Within the metal, there is an existence
oI small regions known as domains where in each domain there is a presence oI a small
magnetic Iield which randomly aligned through the metal structure.
This as shown below:
An example of a magnetic domain orientation in a metal structure before
the presence of a magnetic field.
Magnetic Iield direction in each domain is random as such that the net magnetic Iield is zero.
When mmI is applied to the core, each magnetic Iield will align with respect to the direction oI
the magnetic Iield. That explains the exponential increase oI magnetic Ilux during the early stage
oI magnetisation. As more and more domain are aligned to the magnetic Iield, the total magnetic
Ilux will maintain at a constant level hence as shown in the magnetisation curve (saturation).
When mmI is removed, the magnetic Iield in each domain will try to revert to its random state.
However, not all magnetic Iield domain`s would revert to its random state hence it remained in
its previous magnetic Iield position. This is due to the lack oI energy required to disturb the
magnetic Iield alignment.
Hence the material will retain some oI its magnetic properties (permanent magnet) up until an
external energy is applied to the material. Examples oI external energy may be in the Iorm oI
heat or large mechanical shock. That is why a permanent magnet can lose its magnetism iI it is
dropped, hit with a hammer or heated.
ThereIore, in an ac current situation, to realign the magnetic Iield in each domain during the
opposite cycle would require extra mmI (also known as coercive mmI).
This extra energy requirement is known as hysteresis loss.
The larger the material, the more energy is required hence the higher the hysteresis loss.
Area enclosed in the hysteresis loop Iormed by applying an ac current to the core is directly
proportional to the energy lost in a given ac cycle.
Chapter 1
16
dt
d
e
ind

=
dt
d
N e
ind

=
II. Eddy Current Loss
1. A time-changing Ilux induces voltage within a Ierromagnetic core.
2. These voltages cause swirls oI current to Ilow within the core eddy currents.
3. Energy is dissipated (in the Iorm oI heat) because these eddy currents are Ilowing in a resistive
material (iron)
4. The amount oI energy lost to eddy currents is proportional to the size of the paths they Iollow
within the core.
5. To reduce energy loss, Ierromagnetic core should be broken up into small strips, or laminations,
and build the core up out oI these strips. An insulating oxide or resin is used between the strips, so
that the current paths Ior eddy currents are limited to small areas.
Conclusion:
Core loss is extremely important in practice, since it greatly aIIects operating temperatures, eIIiciencies,
and ratings oI magnetic devices.
3. How Magnetic Field can affect its surroundings
3.1 FARADAY`S LAW - Induced Voltage from a Time-Changing Magnetic Field
BeIore, we looked at the production oI a magnetic Iield and on its properties. Now, we will look at the
various ways in which an existing magnetic Iield can aIIect its surroundings.
1. Earaday`s Law:
If a flux passes through a turn of a coil of wire, voltage will be induced in the turn of the wire that is
directlv proportional to the rate of change in the flux with respect of time
II there is N number oI turns in the coil with the same amount oI Ilux Ilowing through it, hence:
where: N number oI turns oI wire in coil.
Note the negative sign at the equation above which is in accordance to Lenz` Law which states:
The direction of the build-up voltage in the coil is as such that if the coils were short circuited, it would
produce current that would cause a flux opposing the original flux change.
Chapter 1
17
_
=
=
N
i
i ind
e e
1
_
=
=
N
i
i
dt
d
1
|
.
|
'
=
_
=
N
i
i
dt
d
1
Examine the Iigure below:

II the Ilux shown is increasing in strength, then the voltage built up in the coil will tend to
establish a flux that will oppose the increase.
A current Ilowing as shown in the Iigure would produce a Ilux opposing the increase.
So, the voltage on the coil must be built up with the polarity required to drive the current through
the external circuit. So, -e
ind
NOTE: In Chapman, the minus sign is oIten leIt out because the polarity oI the resulting voltage
can be determined Irom physical considerations.
2. Equation e
ind
-d /dt assumes that exactly the same Ilux is present in each turn oI the
coil. This is not true, since there is leakage Ilux. This equation will give valid answer iI the
windings are tightly coupled, so that the vast majority oI the Ilux passing thru one turn oI the coil
does indeed pass through all oI them.
3. Now consider the induced voltage in the ith turn oI the coil,
i
i
d
e
dt
=
Since there is N number oI turns,
The equation above may be rewritten into,
ind
d
e
dt
=
where (Ilux linkage) is deIined as:
1
N
i
i

=
=
_
(weber-turns)
Chapter 1
18
4. Earaday`s law is the Iundamental property oI magnetic Iields involved in transIormer operation.
5. Lenz`s Law in transIormers is used to predict the polarity oI the voltages induced in transIormer
windings.
3.2 Production of Induced Force on a Wire.
1. A current carrying conductor present in a uniIorm magnetic Iield oI Ilux density B, would produce
a Iorce to the conductor/wire. Dependent upon the direction oI the surrounding magnetic Iield, the
Iorce induced is given by:
( )
F i l B =
where:
i represents the current Ilow in the conductor
l length oI wire, with direction oI l deIined to be in the direction oI current Ilow
B magnetic Iield density
2. The direction oI the Iorce is given by the right-hand rule. Direction oI the Iorce depends on the
direction oI current Ilow and the direction oI the surrounding magnetic Iield. A rule oI thumb to
determine the direction can be Iound using the right-hand rule as shown below:
Thumb
(resultant force)
ndex Finger
(current direction)
Middle
Finger
(Magnetic Flux Direction)
Right Hand rule
3. The induced Iorce Iormula shown earlier is true iI the current carrying conductor is perpendicular
to the direction oI the magnetic Iield. II the current carrying conductor is position at an angle to the
magnetic Iield, the Iormula is modiIied to be as Iollows:
sin F ilB =
Where: u - angle between the conductor and the direction oI the magnetic Iield.
4. In summary, this phenomenon is the basis oI an electric motor where torque or rotational Iorce oI
the motor is the eIIect oI the stator Iield current and the magnetic Iield oI the rotor.
Example 1.7
The Iigure shows a wire carrying a current in the presence oI a
magnetic Iield. The magnetic Ilux density is 0.25T, directed into the
page. II the wire is 1m long and carries 0.5A oI current in the
direction Irom the top oI the page to the bottom, what are the
magnitude and direction oI the Iorce induced on the wire?
Chapter 1
19
3.3 Induced Voltage on a Conductor Moving in a Magnetic Field
1. II a conductor moves or cuts` through a magnetic Iield, voltage will be induced between the
terminals oI the conductor at which the magnitude oI the induced voltage is dependent upon the
velocity oI the wire assuming that the magnetic Iield is constant. This can be summarised in terms
oI Iormulation as shown:
e
ind
(v x B) l
where:
v velocity oI the wire
B magnetic Iield density
length oI the wire in the magnetic Iield
2. Note: The value oI l (length) is dependent upon the angle at which the wire cuts through the
magnetic Iield. Hence a more complete Iormula will be as Iollows:
e
ind
(v x B)l cos0
where:
u - angle between the conductor and the direction oI ( )
3. The induction oI voltages in a wire moving in a magnetic Iield is Iundamental to the operation oI all
types oI generators.
Example 1.8
The Iigure shows a conductor moving with a velocity oI
5m/s to the right in the presence oI a magnetic Iield. The
Ilux density is 0.5T into the page, and the wire is 1m length,
oriented as shown. What are the magnitude and polarity oI
the resulting induced voltage?
Example 1.9
Eigure shows a conductor moving with a velocity oI 10m/s
to the right in a magnetic Iield. The Ilux density is 0.5T, out
oI the page, and the wire is 1m in length. What are the
magnitude and polarity oI the resulting induced voltage?
Chapter 1
20
4. The Linear DC Machine
Linear DC machine is the simplest Iorm oI DC machine which is easy to understand and it operates
according to the same principles and exhibits the same behaviour as motors and generators. Consider the
Iollowing:
V
B
Switch
R
e
ind
+
-
B
Equations needed to understand linear DC machines are as Iollows:
Production of Force on a current carrying conductor
( ) F i l B =
Voltage induced on a current carrying conductor moving in a magnetic field
e
ind
(v x B) l
Kirchoff`s voltage law
0
0
B ind
B ind
J iR e
J e iR
=
= + =
Newton`s Law for motion
E
net
ma
Chapter 1
21
Starting the Linear DC Machine
1. To start the machine, the switch is closed.
2. Current will Ilow in the circuit and the equation can be derived Irom KirchoII`s law:
,
B ind
B ind
Since J iR e
J e
i
R
= +
=
At this moment, the induced voltage is 0 due to no movement oI the wire (the bar is at rest).
3. As the current Ilows down through the bar, a Iorce will be induced on the bar. (Section 1.6 a current
Ilowing through a wire in the presence oI a magnetic Iield induces a Iorce in the wire).
( )
sin90
F i l B
ilB
ilB
=
=
=
Direction oI movement: Right
4. When the bar starts to move, its velocity will increase, and a voltage appears across the bar.
Direction oI induced potential: positive upwards
5. Due to the presence oI motion and induced potential (e
ind
), the current Ilowing in the bar will reduce
(according to KirchhoII`s voltage law). The result oI this action is that eventually the bar will reach
a constant steady-state speed where the net Iorce on the bar is zero. This occurs when e
ind
has risen
all the way up to equal V
B
. This is given by:
B ind steadv state
B
steadv state
J e v Bl
J
v
Bl
= =
=
ilB
vBl
l B v e
ind
=
=
=
90 sin
) (
Chapter 1
22
6. The above equation is true assuming that R is very small. The bar will continue to move along at
this no-load speed Iorever unless some external Iorce disturbs it. Summarization oI the starting oI
linear DC machine is sketched in the Iigure below:
Chapter 1
23
R
e J
i
ind B
+
`=
The Linear DC Machine as a Motor
1. Assume the linear machine is initially running at the no-load steady state condition (as beIore).
2. What happen when an external load is applied? See Iigure below:
3. A Iorce E
load
is applied to the bar opposing the direction oI motion. Since the bar was initially at
steady state, application oI the Iorce E
load
will result in a net Iorce on the bar in the direction
opposite the direction oI motion.
net load ind
F F F =
4. Thus, the bar will slow down (the resulting acceleration a F
net
/m is negative). As soon as that
happen, the induced voltage on the bar drops (e
ind
v Bl).
5. When the induced voltage drops, the current Ilow in the bar will rise:
6. Thus, the induced Iorce will rise too. (F
ind
i lB)
7. Einal result the induced Iorce will rise until it is equal and opposite to the load Iorce, and the bar
again travels in steady state condition, but at a lower speed. See graphs below:
Chapter 1
24
8. Now, there is an induced Iorce in the direction oI motion and power is being converted Irom
electrical to mechanical form to keep the bar moving.
9. The power converted is P
conv
e
ind
I F
ind
v An amount oI electric power equal to e
ind
i is
consumed and is replaced by the mechanical power F
ind
v MOTOR
10. The power converted in a real rotating motor is: P
conv
t
ind
e
Chapter 1
25
The Linear DC Machine as a Generator
1. Assume the linear machine is operating under no-load steady-state condition. A Iorce in the
direction oI motion is applied.
2. The applied Iorce will cause the bar to accelerate in the direction oI motion, and the velocity v will
increase.
3. When the velocity increase, e
ind
V Bl will increase and will be larger than V
B
.
4. When e
ind
~ V
B
the current reverses direction.
5. Since the current now Ilows up through the bar, it induces a Iorce in the bar (F
ind
ilB to the leIt).
This induced Iorce opposes the applied Iorce on the bar.
6. End result the induced Iorce will be equal and opposite to the applied Iorce, and the bar will
move at a higher speed than beIore. The linear machine no is converting mechanical power F
ind
v
to electrical power e
ind
i GENERATOR
7. The amount oI power converted : P
conv
t
ind
e
NOTE:
- The same machine acts as both motor and generator. The only diIIerence is whether the
externally applied Iorce is in the direction oI motion (generator) or opposite to the direction
oI motion (motor).
- Electrically, e
ind
~ V
B
generator
- e
ind
V
B
motor
- whether the machine is a motor or a generator, both induced Iorce (motor action) or induced
voltage (generator action) is present at all times.
- Both actions are present, and it is only the relative directions oI the external forces with
respect to the direction of motion that determine whether the overall machine behaves as a
motor or as a generator.
- The machine was a generator when it moved rapidly and a motor when it moved more
slowly. But, whether it was a motor or a generator, it always moved in the same direction.
- There is a merely a small change in operating speed and a reversal oI current Ilow.
Chapter 1
26
A
R
J
i
B
start
2500
1 . 0
250
= = =
Starting problems with the Linear Machine
1. Look at the Iigure here:
2. This machine is supplied by a 250V dc source and internal resistance R is 0.1 ohm.
3. At starting, the speed oI the bar is zero, e
ind
0. The current Ilow at start is:
4. This current is very high (10x in excess oI the rated current).
5. How to prevent? insert an extra resistance into the circuit during starting to limit current Ilow
until e
ind
builds up enough to limit it, as shown here:
Chapter 1
27
Example 1.10
The linear dc machine is as shown in (a).
(a) What is the machine`s maximum starting current? What is the steady state velocity at no load?
(b) Suppose a 30N Iorce pointing to the right were applied to the bar (Iigure b). What would the
steady-state speed be? How much power would the bar be producing or consuming? How much
power would the bar be producing or consuming? Is the machine acting as a motor or a
generator?
(c) Now suppose a 30N Iorce pointing to the leIt were applied to the bar (Iigure c). What would the
new steady-state speed be? Is the machine a motor or generator now?
Chapter 2
1
CHAPTER 2 - TRANSFORMERS
Summary:
1. Types and Construction oI TransIormers
2. The Ideal TransIormer
Power in an Ideal TransIormer
Impedance transIormation through a transIormer
Analysis oI circuits containing ideal transIormer
3. Theory oI operation oI real single-phase transIormers.
The voltage ratio across a transIormer
The magnetization current in a Real TransIormer
The current ratio on a transIormer and the Dot Convention
4. The Equivalent Circuit oI a TransIormer.
Exact equivalent circuit
Approximate equivalent circuit
Determining the values pI components in the transIormer model
5. The Per-Unit System oI Measurement
6. TransIormer voltage regulation and eIIiciency
The transIormer phasor diagram
TransIormer eIIiciency
7. Three phase transIormers
Chapter 2
2
1. Types and Construction of Transformers
Types oI cores Ior power transIormer (both types are constructed Irom thin laminations electrically
isolated Irom each other minimize eddy currents)
i) Core Form : a simple rectangular laminated piece oI steel with the transIormer windings
wrapped around two sides oI the rectangle.
ii) Shell Form : a three legged laminated core with the windings wrapped around the centre leg.
The primary and secondary windings are wrapped one on top oI the other with the low-voltage winding
innermost, due to 2 purposes:
i) It simpliIies the problem oI insulating the high-voltage winding Irom the core.
ii) It results in much less leakage Ilux
Types oI transIormers:
i) Step up/Unit transIormers Usually located at the output oI a generator. Its Iunction is to step up
the voltage level so that transmission oI power is possible.
ii) Step down/Substation transIormers Located at main distribution or secondary level
transmission substations. Its Iunction is to lower the voltage levels Ior distribution 1
st
level
purposes.
iii) Distribution TransIormers located at small distribution substation. It lowers the voltage levels
Ior 2
nd
level distribution purposes.
iv) Special Purpose TransIormers - E.g. Potential TransIormer (PT) , Current TransIormer (CT)
Chapter 2
3
, )
, )
a
N
N
t v
t v
s
p
s
p
= =
, )
, ) a t i
t i
s
p
1
=
2. The Ideal Transformer
1. DeIinition a lossless device with an input winding and an output winding.
2. Eigures below show an ideal transIormer and schematic symbols oI a transIormer.
3. The transIormer has N
p
turns oI wire on its primary side and N
s
turns oI wire on its secondary
sides. The relationship between the primary and secondary voltage is as Iollows:
where a is the turns ratio oI the transIormer.
4. The relationship between primary and secondary current is:
N
p
i
p
(t) N
s
i
s
(t)
5. Note that since both type oI relations gives a constant ratio, hence the transIormer only changes
ONLY the magnitude value oI current and voltage. Phase angles are not aIIected.
6. The dot convention in schematic diagram Ior transIormers has the Iollowing relationship:
i) II the primary voltage is ve at the dotted end oI the winding wrt the undotted end, then the
secondary voltage will be positive at the dotted end also. Voltage polarities are the same wrt
the dots on each side oI the core.
ii) II the primary current oI the transIormer Ilows into the dotted end oI the primary winding,
the secondary current will Ilow out oI the dotted end oI the secondary winding.
Chapter 2
4
, ) cos
p
p
out
aI
a
J
P =
L
L
L
I
J
Z =
Power in an Ideal Transformer
1. The power supplied to the transIormer by the primary circuit:
P
in
V
p
I
p
cos 0
p
Where 0
p
the angle between the primary voltage and the primary current. The power supplied by
the transIormer secondary circuit to its loads is given by:
P
out
V
s
I
s
cos 0
s
Where 0
s
the angle between the secondary voltage and the secondary current.
2. The primary and secondary windings oI an ideal transIormer have the SAME power Iactor
because voltage and current angles are unaIIected 0
p
- 0
s
0
3. How does power going into the primary circuit compare to the power coming out?
P
out
V
s
I
s
cos 0
Also, V
s
V
p
/a and I
s
a I
p
So,
P
out
V
p
I
p
cos 0 P
in
The same idea can be applied Ior reactive power Q and apparent power S.
Output power Input power
Impedance Transformation through a Transformer
1. The impedance oI a device or an element is deIined as the ratio oI the phasor voltage across it to
the phasor current Ilowing through it:
2. DeIinition oI impedance and impedance scaling through a transIormer:
Chapter 2
5
S
S
L
I
J
Z =
P
P
L
I
J
Z = '
S
S
S
S
P
P
L
I
J
a
a I
aJ
I
J
Z
2
/
' = = =
3. Hence, the impedance oI the load is:
4. The apparent impedance oI the primary circuit oI the transIormer is:
5. Since primary voltage can be expressed as V
P
aV
S
, and primary current as I
P
I
S
/a, thus the
apparent impedance oI the primary is
Z
L
` a
2
Z
L
Analysis of Circuits containing Ideal Transformers
The easiest way Ior circuit analysis that has a transIormer incorporated is by simpliIying the transIormer
into an equivalent circuit.
Example 2.1
A generator rated at 480V, 60 Hz is connected a transmission line with an impedance oI 0.18j0.24O. At
the end oI the transmission line there is a load oI 4j3O.
(a) II the power system is exactly as described above in Eigure (a), what will the voltage at the load
be? What will the transmission line losses be?
(b) Suppose a 1:10 step-up transIormer is placed at the generator end oI the transmission line and a
10:1 step-down transIormer is placed at the load end oI the line (Eigure (b)). What will the load
voltage be now? What will the transmission line losses be now?
Chapter 2
6
dt
d
e
ind

=
_
=
=
N
i
i
1

N
=
dt
d
N e
ind

=
}
= dt t v
N
P
P
) (
1
3. Theory of Operation of Real Single-Phase Transformers

Ideal transIormers may never exist due to the Iact that there are losses associated to the operation oI
transIormers. Hence there is a need to actually look into losses and calculation oI real single phase
transIormers.
Assume that there is a transIormer with its primary windings connected to a varying single phase voltage
supply, and the output is open circuit.
Right aIter we activate the power supply, Ilux will be generated in the primary coils, based upon
Earaday`s law,
where is the Ilux linkage in the coil across which the voltage is being induced. The Ilux linkage is the
sum oI the Ilux passing through each turn in the coil added over all the turns oI the coil.
This relation is true provided on the assumption that the Ilux induced at each turn is at the same
magnitude and direction. But in reality, the Ilux value at each turn may vary due to the position oI the
coil it selI, at certain positions, there may be a higher Ilux level due to combination oI other Ilux Irom
other turns oI the primary winding.
Hence the most suitable approach is to actually average the Ilux level as
Hence Earaday`s law may be rewritten as:
The voltage ratio across a Transformer
I the voltage source is v
p
(t), how will the transIormer react to this applied voltage?
Based upon Earaday`s Law, looking at the primary side oI the transIormer, we can determine the average
Ilux level based upon the number oI turns; where,
Chapter 2
7
LP M P
+ =
dt
d
N
dt
d
N
dt
d
N t v
LP
P
M
P
P
P P

+ = = ) (
) ( ) ( ) ( t e t e t v
LP P P
+ =
dt
d
N t e
M
P P

= ) (
S
S M
P
P
N
t e
dt
d
N
t e ) ( ) (
= =

a
N
N
t e
t e
S
P
S
P
= =
) (
) (
This relation means that the average Ilux at the primary winding is proportional to the voltage level at the
primary side divided by the number oI turns at the primary winding. This generated Ilux will travel to the
secondary side hence inducing potential across the secondary terminal.
Eor an ideal transIormer, we assume that 100 oI Ilux would travel to the secondary windings. However,
in reality, there are Ilux which does not reach the secondary coil, in this case the Ilux leaks out oI the
transIormer core into the surrounding. This leak is termed as flux leakage.
Taking into account the leakage Ilux, the Ilux that reaches the secondary side is termed as mutual flux.
Looking at the secondary side, there are similar division oI Ilux; hence the overall picture oI Ilux Ilow
may be seen as below:
Primary Side:
P
total average primary Ilux

M
Ilux component linking both rpimary and secondary coils

LP
primary leakage Ilux

Eor the secondary side, similar division applies.
Hence, looking back at Earaday`s Law,
Or this equation may be rewritten into:
The same may be written Ior the secondary voltage.
The primary voltage due to the mutual Ilux is given by
And the same goes Ior the secondary (just replace P` with S`)
Erom these two relationships (primary and secondary voltage), we have
ThereIore,
Chapter 2
8
Magnetization Current in a Real transformer
Although the output oI the transIormer is open circuit, there will still be current Ilow in the primary
windings. The current components may be divided into 2 components:
1) Magnetization current, i
M
current required to produce Ilux in the core.
2) Core-loss current, i
he
current required to compensate hysteresis and eddy current losses.
We know that the relation between current and Ilux is proportional since,
F Ni R
R
i
N
= =
=
ThereIore, in theory, iI the Ilux produce in core is sinusoidal, thereIore the current should also be a
perIect sinusoidal. UnIortunately, this is not true since the transIormer will reach to a state oI near
saturation at the top oI the Ilux cycle. Hence at this point, more current is required to produce a certain
amount oI Ilux.
II the values oI current required to produce a given Ilux are compared to the Ilux in the core at diIIerent
times, it is possible to construct a sketch oI the magnetization current in the winding on the core. This is
shown below:
Chapter 2
9
Hence we can say that current in a transIormer has the Iollowing characteristics:
1. It is not sinusoidal but a combination oI high Irequency oscillation on top oI the Iundamental
Irequency due to magnetic saturation.
2. The current lags the voltage at 90
o
3. At saturation, the high Irequency components will be extreme as such that harmonic problems
will occur.
Looking at the core-loss current, it again is dependent upon hysteresis and eddy current Ilow. Since Eddy
current is dependent upon the rate oI change oI Ilux, hence we can also say that the core-loss current is
greater as the alternating Ilux goes past the 0 Wb. ThereIore the core-loss current has the Iollowing
characteristics:
a) When Ilux is at 0Wb, core-loss current is at a maximum hence it is in phase with the voltage
applied at the primary windings.
b) Core-loss current is non-linear due to the non-linearity eIIects oI hysteresis.
Now since that the transIormer is not connected to any load, we can say that the total current Ilow into
the primary windings is known as the excitation current.
ex m h e
i i i
+
= +
Chapter 2
10
a N
N
i
i
P
S
S
P
1
= =
Current Ratio on a Transformer and the Dot Convention.
Now, a load is connected to the secondary oI the transIormer.
The dots help determine the polarity oI the voltages and currents in the core withot having to examine
physically the windings.
A current flowing into the dotted end of a winding produces a positive magnetomotive force, while a
current flowing into the undotted end of a winding produces a negative magnetomotive force.
In the Iigure above, the net magnetomotive Iorce is E
net
N
P
i
P
- N
S
i
S
This net magnetomotive Iorce must produce the net Ilux in the core, so
E
net
N
P
i
P
- N
S
i
S
R
Where R is the reluctance oI the core. The relationship between primary and secondary current is approx
E
net
N
P
i
P
- N
S
i
S
- 0 as long as the core is unsaturated.
Thus,
N
P
i
P
- N
S
i
S
In order Ior the magnetomotive Iorce to be nearly zero, current must Ilow into one dotted end and out oI
the other dotted end.
As a conclusion, the major diIIerences between an ideal and real transIormer are as Iollows:
a) An ideal transIormer`s core does not have any hysteresis and eddy current losses.
b) The magnetization curve oI an ideal transIormer is similar to a step Iunction and the net mmI is
zero.
c) Elux in an ideal transIormer stays in the core and hence leakage Ilux is zero.
d) The resistance oI windings in an ideal transIormer is zero.
Chapter 2
11
LS
LP
dt
d
N t e
LP
P LP

= ) (
dt
d
N t e
LS
S LS

= ) (
P P LP
i PN ) ( =
S S LS
i PN ) ( =
dt
di
P N i PN
dt
d
N t e
P
P P P P LP
2
) ( ) ( = =
dt
di
P N i PN
dt
d
N t e
S
S S S S LS
2
) ( ) ( = =
4. The equivalent circuit of a transformer
Taking into account real transIormer, there are several losses that has to be taken into account in order to
accurately model the transIormer, namely:
i) Copper (I
2
R) Losses Resistive heating losses in the primary and secondary windings oI
the transIormer.
ii) Eddy current Losses resistive heating losses in the core oI the transIormer. They are
proportional to the square oI the voltage applied to the transIormer.
iii) Hysteresis Losses these are associated with the rearrangement oI the magnetic domains in
the core during each halI-cycle. They are complex, non-linear Iunction oI the voltage
applied to the transIormer.
iv) Leakage flux The Iluxes and which escape the core and pass through only one
oI the transIormer windings are leakage Iluxes. They then produced selI-inductance in the
primary and secondary coils.
The exact equivalent circuit of a real transformer
The Exact equivalent circuit will take into account all the major imperIections in real transIormer.
i) Copper loss
They are modeled by placing a resistor R
P
in the primary circuit and a resistor R
S
in the secondary circuit.
ii) Leakage Ilux
As explained beIore, the leakage Ilux in the primary and secondary windings produces a voltage given
by:
Since Ilux is directly proportional to current Ilow, thereIore we can assume that leakage Ilux is also
proportional to current Ilow in the primary and secondary windings. The Iollowing may represent this
proportionality:
Where P permeance oI Ilux path
N
P
number oI turns on primary coils
N
S
number oI turns on secondary coils
Thus,
Chapter 2
12
dt
di
L t e
P
P LP
= ) (
dt
di
L t e
S
S LS
= ) (
The constants in these equations can be lumped together. Then,
Where L
P
N
P
2
P is the selI-inductance oI the primary coil and L
S
N
S
2
P is the selI-inductance oI the
secondary coil.
ThereIore the leakage element may be modelled as an inductance connected together in series with the
primary and secondary circuit respectively.
iii) Core excitation eIIects magnetization current and hysteresis & eddy current losses
The magnetization current i
m
is a current proportional (in the unsaturated region) to the voltage applied to
the core and lagging the applied voltage by 90 - modeled as reactance X
m
across the primary voltage
source.
The core loss current i
he
is a current proportional to the voltage applied to the core that is in phase with
the applied voltage modeled as a resistance R
C
across the primary voltage source.
The resulting equivalent circuit:
Chapter 2
13
Based upon the equivalent circuit, in order Ior mathematical calculation, this transIormer equivalent has
to be simpliIied by reIerring the impedances in the secondary back to the primary or vice versa.
(a) Equivalent transIormer circuit reIerring to the primary
(b) Equivalent transIormer circuit reIerring to the secondary
Approximate Equivalent circuits of a Transformer
The derived equivalent circuit is detailed but it is considered to be too complex Ior practical engineering
applications. The main problem in calculations will be the excitation and the eddy current and hysteresis
loss representation adds an extra branch in the calculations.
In practical situations, the excitation current will be relatively small as compared to the load current,
which makes the resultant voltage drop across Rp and Xp to be very small, hence Rp and Xp may be
lumped together with the secondary reIerred impedances to Iorm and equivalent impedance. In some
cases, the excitation current is neglected entirely due to its small magnitude.
Chapter 2
14
(a) ReIerred to the primary side
(b) ReIerred to the secondary side
(c) With no excitation branch, reIerred to the primary side
(d) With no excitation branch, reIerred to the secondary side
Chapter 2
15
M C
X
f
R
1 1
=
OC
OC
E
J
I
Y =
Determining the values of Components in the Transformer Model
The values oI the inductances and resistances in the transIormer model can be determined
experimentally. An adequate approximation oI these values can be obtained with the open-circuit test,
and the short-circuit test.
Open-circuit Test
The transIormer`s secondary winding is open-circuited, and its primary winding is connected to a Iull-
rated line voltage.
All the input current will be Ilowing through the excitation branch oI the transIormer. The series element
R
P
and X
P
are too small in comparison to R
C
and X
M
to cause a signiIicant voltage drop. Essentially all
input voltage is dropped across the excitation branch.
Eull line voltage is applied to the primary input voltage, input current, input power measured.
Then, power Iactor oI the input current and magnitude and angle oI the excitation impedance can be
calculated.
To obtain the values oI R
C
and X
M
, the easiest way is to Iind the admittance oI the branch.
Conductance oI the core loss resistor, G
c
C
R
1
Susceptance oI the magnetizing inductor, B
M
M
X
1
These two elements are in parallel, thus their admittances add.
Total excitation admittance, Y
E
G
C
- jB
M
The magnitude oI the excitation admittance (reIerred to primary),
Chapter 2
16
OC OC
OC
I J
P
1
cos
=
Z =
OC
OC
E
J
I
Y
SC
SC
SE
I
J
Z =
Z =
Z
Z
=
SC
SC
SC
SC
SE
I
J
I
J
Z
0
The angle oI the admittance can be Iound Irom the circuit power Iactor.
PE cos 0
OC OC
OC
I J
P
The power Iactor is always lagging Ior a real transIormer. Hence,
This equation can be written in the complex number Iorm and hence the values oI R
C
and X
M
can be
determined Irom the open circuit test data.
Short-circuit Test
The secondary terminals are short circuited, and the primary terminals are connected to a Iairly low-
voltage source.
The input voltage is adjusted until the current in the short circuited windings is equal to its rated value.
The input voltage, current and power are measured.
The excitation branch is ignored, because negligible current Ilows through it due to low input voltage
during this test. Thus, the magnitude oI the series impedances reIerred to the primary is:
Power Iactor, PE cos 0 P
SC
/ V
SC
I
SC
(lagging)
ThereIore,
The series impedance Z
SE
R
eq
jX
eq
(R
P
a
2
R
S
) j(X
P
a
2
X
S
)
Chapter 2
17
quantity of value base
value actual
unit per Quantity =
base
base
I
J
base
base
J
I
, )
base
base
S
J
2
Example 2.2
The equivalent circuit impedances oI a 20kVA, 8000/240V, 60Hz transIormer are to be determined. The
open circuit test and the short circuit test were perIormed on the primary side oI the transIormer, and the
Iollowing data were taken:
Open circuit test (primary) Short circuit test
V
OC
8000 V V
SC
489 V
I
OC
0.214 A I
SC
2.5 A
P
OC
400 W P
SC
240 W
Eind the impedance oI the approximate equivalent circuit reIerred to the primary side, and sketch the
circuit.
5. The Per-Unit System of Measurements
The process oI solving circuits containing transIormers using the reIerring method where all the diIIerent
voltage levels on diIIerent sides oI the transIormers are reIerred to a common level, can be quite tedious.
The Per-unit System oI measurements eliminates this problem. The required conversions are handled
automatically by the method.
In per-unit system, each electrical quantity is measured as a decimal Iraction oI some base level. Any
quantity can be expressed on a per-unit basis by the equation
Two base quantities are selected to deIine a given per-unit system. The ones usually selected are voltage
and power. In a single phase system, the relationship are:
P
base
, Q
base
or S
base
V
base
I
base
Z
base
Y
base

And Z
base

All other values can be computed once the base values oI S (or P) and V have been selected.
In a power system, a base apparent power and voltage are selected at a speciIied point in the system. A
transIormer has no eIIect on the base apparent power oI the system, since the apparent power equals the
apparent power out.
Voltage changes as it goes through a transIormer, so V
base
changes at every transIormer in the system
according to its turns ratio. Thus, the process oI reIerring quantities to a common level is automatically
taken care oI.
Chapter 2
18
100
,
, ,
x
J
J J
JR
fl S
fl S nl S

=
, )
100
/
,
,
x
J
J a J
JR
fl S
fl S P

=
100
, ,
, , ,
x
J
J J
JR
pu fl S
pu fl S pu P

=
Example 2.3
A simple power system is shown below. This system contains a 480V generator connected to an ideal
1:10 step-up transIormer, a transmission line, an ideal 20:1 step-down transIormer, and a load. The
impedance oI the transmission line is 20 j60O, and the impedance oI the load is O Z30 10 . The base
values Ior this system are chosen to be 480V and 10kVA at the generator.
(c) Eind the base voltage, current, impedance, and apparent power at every point in the power
system.
(d) Convert this system to its per-unit equivalent circuit.
(e) Eind the power supplied to the load in this system.
(I) Eind the power lost in the transmission line.
6. Transformer Voltage Regulation and Efficiency
The output voltage oI a transIormer varies with the load even iI the input voltage remains constant. This
is because a real transIormer has series impedance within it. Eull load Voltage Regulation is a quantity
that compares the output voltage at no load with the output voltage at Iull load, deIined by this equation:
At no load, V
S
V
P
/a thus,
In per-unit system,
Ideal transIormer, VR 0.
Chapter 2
19
S eq S eq S
P
I fX I R J
a
J
+ + =
The transformer phasor diagram
To determine the voltage regulation oI a transIormer, we must understand the voltage drops within it.
Consider the simpliIied equivalent circuit reIerred to the secondary side:
Ignoring the excitation oI the branch (since the current Ilow through the branch is considered to be
small), more consideration is given to the series impedances (Req jXeq). Voltage Regulation depends
on magnitude oI the series impedance and the phase angle oI the current Ilowing through the transIormer.
Phasor diagrams will determine the eIIects oI these Iactors on the voltage regulation. A phasor diagram
consist oI current and voltage vectors.
Assume that the reIerence phasor is the secondary voltage, V
S
. ThereIore the reIerence phasor will have 0
degrees in terms oI angle.
Based upon the equivalent circuit, apply KirchoII Voltage Law,
Erom this equation, the phasor diagram can be visualised.
Eigure below shows a phasor diagram oI a transIormer operating at a lagging power Iactor. Eor lagging
loads, V
P
/ a ~ V
S
so the voltage regulation with lagging loads is ~ 0.
At lagging power Iactor
Chapter 2
20
When the power Iactor is unity, V
S
is lower than V
P
so VR ~ 0. But, VR is smaller than beIore (during
lagging PE).
With a leading power Iactor, V
S
is higher than the reIerred V
P
so VR 0.
Unity PE
Leading PE
In summary:
Lagging PE V
P
/ a ~ V
S
VR ~ 0
Unity PE V
P
/ a ~ V
S
VR ~ 0 (smaller than VR lag)
Leading PE V
S
~ V
P
/ a VR 0
Due to the Iact that transIormer is usually operated at lagging pI, hence there is an approximate method to
simpliIy calculations.
Simplified Voltage Regulation Calculation
Eor lagging loads, the vertical components oI R
eq
and X
eq
will partially cancel each other. Due to that,
the angle oI V
P
/a will be very small, hence we can assume that V
P
/a is horizontal. ThereIore the
approximation will be as Iollows:
Chapter 2
21
100 x
P
P
in
out
=
100 x
P P
P
loss out
out
+
=
100
cos
cos
x
I J P P
I J
S S core Cu
S S
+ +
=
Transformer Efficiency
TransIormer eIIiciency is deIined as (applies to motors, generators and transIormers):
Types oI losses incurred in a transIormer:
- Copper I
2
R losses
- Hysteresis losses
- Eddy current losses
ThereIore, Ior a transIormer, eIIiciency may be calculated using the Iollowing:
Example 2.5
A 15kVA, 2300/230 V transIormer is to be tested to determine its excitation branch components, its
series impedances, and its voltage regulation. The Iollowing data have been taken Irom the primary side
oI the transIormer:
Open circuit test Short-circuit test
V
OC
2300V V
SC
47V
I
OC
0.21A I
SC
6A
P
OC
50W P
SC
160W
(a) Eind the equivalent circuit reIerred to the high voltage side
(b) Eind the equivalent circuit reIerred to the low voltage side
(c) Calculate the Iull-load voltage regulation at 0.8 lagging PE, 1.0 PE, and at 0.8 leading PE.
(d) Eind the eIIiciency at Iull load with PE 0.8 lagging.
7. Three phase Transformers
TransIormers Ior 3-phase circuits can be constructed in two ways:
- connect 3 single phase transIormers
- Three sets oI windings wrapped around a common core.
Three-Phase Transformer Connections
The primaries and secondaries oI any three-phase transIormer can be independently connected in either a
wye (Y) or a delta (A).
The important point to note when analyzing any 3-phase transIormer is to look at a single transIormer in
the bank. Any single phase transformer in the bank behaves exactly like the single-phase
transformers already studied.
The impedance, voltage regulation, eIIiciency, and similar calculations Ior three phase transIormers are
done on a per-phase basis, using same techniques as single-phase transIormers.
Chapter 2
22
L P
J J =
3
L
P
I
I =
3
S
S
P
=
3
L
P
J
J =
L P
I I =
3
S
S
P
=
3
, 1
base
base
S
S =
base
base
base
base
base
base
J
S
I
J
S
I
3
,
, 1
,
=
=
, )
, )
base
base
base
base
base
base
S
J
Z
S
J
Z
2
,
, 1
2
,
3

=
=
A simple concept that all students must remember is that, Ior a Delta conIiguration,
Eor Wye conIiguration,
Calculating 3 phase transformer turns ratio
The basic concept oI calculating the turns ratio Ior a single phase transIormer is utilised where,
S
P
J
J
a
=
ThereIore to cater Ior 3 phase transIormer, suitable conversion into per phase is needed to relate the turns
ratio oI the transIormer with the line voltages.
The Per-unit System for 3-Phase Transformer
The per unit system oI measurements application Ior 3-phase is the same as in single phase transIormers.
The single-phase base equations apply to 3-phase on a per-phase basis.
Say the total base voltampere value oI a transIormer bank is called S
base
, then the base voltampere value
oI one oI the transIormer is
And the base current and impedance are
Example 2.9
A 50-kVA 13,800/208-V A-Y distribution transIormer has a resistance oI 1 and a reactance oI 7 per
unit.
a. What is the transIormer`s phase impedance reIerred to the high voltage side?
b. Calculate this transIormer`s voltage regulation at Iull load and 0.8PE lagging, using the
calculated high side impedance.
c. Calculate this transIormer`s voltage regulation under the same conditions, using the per-
unit system.
Chapter 4
1
CHAPTER 4 - AC Machinery Fundamentals
Summary:
1. A simple loop in a uniform magnetic field
- The voltage induced in a simple rotating loop
- The Torque induced in a current-carrying loop
2. The Rotating Magnetic Field
- ProoI oI the rotating magnetic Iield concept
- The relationship between Electrical Erequency and the Speed oI Magnetic
Iield rotation
- Reversing the direction oI magnetic Iield rotation
3. Magnetomotive Force and Flux Distribution on AC Machines
4. Induced Voltage in AC Machines
- The induced voltage in a coil on a two-pole stator
- The induced voltage in a three-phase set oI coils
- The RMS voltage in a Three-Phase Stator
5. Induced Torque in an AC Machines
Synchronous
Machines
Induction Machines
Magnetic Iield current is
supplied by a separate dc
power source
Eield current is supplied
by magnetic induction
(transIormer action) into
their Iield windings.
The Iield circuits are located
on their rotors.
AC Machines
Chapter 4
2
1. A simple loop in a uniform magnetic field
The Iigure below shows a simple rotating loop in a uniIorm magnetic Iield. (a) is the Iront view and (b) is
the view oI the coil. The rotating part is called the rotor, and the stationary part is called the stator.
This case in not representative oI real ac machines (Ilux in real ac machines is not constant in either
magnitude or direction). However, the Iactors that control the voltage and torque on the loop are the
same as the Iactors that control the voltage and torque in real ac machines.
The voltage induced in a simple rotating loop
II the rotor (loop) is rotated, a voltage will be induced in the wire loop. To determine the magnitude and
shape, examine the phasors below:
To determine the total voltage induced e
tot
on the loop, examine each segment oI the loop separately and
sum all the resulting voltages. The voltage on each segment is given by equation
e
ind
(v x B) . l
(remember that these ideas all revert back to the linear DC machine concepts in Chapter 1).
1. Segment ab
The velocity oI the wire is tangential to the path oI rotation, while the magnetic Iield B points to the
right. The quantity v x B points into the page, which is the same direction as segment ab. Thus, the
induced voltage on this segment is:
Chapter 4
3
AB =
max
|
t e
ind
e e | sin
max
=
e
ba
(v x B) . l
vBl sin 0
ab
into the page
2. Segment bc
In the Iirst halI oI this segment, the quantity v x B points into the page, and in the second halI oI this
segment, the quantity v x B points out oI the page. Since the length l is in the plane oI the page, v x B
is perpendicular to l Ior both portions oI the segment. Thus,
e
cb
0
3. Segment cd
The velocity oI the wire is tangential to the path oI rotation, while B points to the right. The quantity
v x B points into the page, which is the same direction as segment cd. Thus,
e
cd
(v x B) . l
vBl sin 0
cd
out oI the page
4. Segment da
same as segment bc, v x B is perpendicular to l. Thus,
e
da
0
Total induced voltage on the loop e
ind
e
ba
e
cb
e
dc
e
ad
vBl sin 0
ab
vBl sin 0
cd
2 vBL sin0
since 0
ab
180 - 0
cd
and sin 0 sin (180 - 0 )
Alternative way to express e
ind
:
II the loop is rotating at a constant angular velocity e, then the angle 0 oI the loop will increase linearly
with time.
0 et
also, the tangential velocity v oI the edges oI the loop is:
v r e
where r is the radius Irom axis oI rotation out to the edge oI the loop and e is the angular velocity oI the
loop. Hence,
e
ind
2r eBl sin et
since area, A 2rl,
e
ind
ABe sin et
Einally, since maximum Ilux through the loop occurs when the loop is perpendicular to the magnetic Ilux
density lines, so
Thus,
Chapter 4
4
u t sin rF =
Erom here we may conclude that the induced voltage is dependent upon:
- Elux level (the B component)
- Speed oI Rotation (the v component)
- Machine Constants (the l component and machine materials)
The Torque Induced in a Current-Carrying Loop
Assume that the rotor loop is at some arbitrary angle 0 wrt the magnetic Iield, and that current is Ilowing
in the loop.
To determine the magnitude and direction oI the torque, examine the phasors below:
The Iorce on each segment oI the loop is given by:
F i (l x B )
Chapter 4
5
) sin )( (
ab ab
r F u t =
ab
rilB u sin =
) sin )( (
ab bc
r F u t =
) sin )( (
cd cd
r F u t =
cd
rilB u sin =
) sin )( (
da da
r F u t =
u
u u
t t t t t
sin
sin sin
rilB
rilB rilB
cd ab
da cd bc ab ind
=
=
=
Torque on that segment,
1. Segment ab
The direction oI the current is into the page, while the magnetic Iield B points to the right. (l x B)
points down. Thus,
F i (l x B )
ilB down
Resulting torque,
clockwise
2. Segment bc
The direction oI the current is in the plane oI the page, while the magnetic Iield B points to the right.
(l x B) points into the page. Thus,
F i (l x B )
ilB into the page
Resulting torque is zero, since vector r and l are parallel and the angle 0
bc
is 0.
0
3. Segment cd
The direction oI the current is out oI the page, while the magnetic Iield B points to the right. (l x B)
points up. Thus,
F i (l x B )
ilB up
Resulting torque,
clockwise
4. Segment da
The direction oI the current is in the plane oI the page, while the magnetic Iield B points to the right.
(l x B) points out oI the page. Thus,
F i (l x B )
ilB out oI the page
Resulting torque is zero, since vector r and l are parallel and the angle 0
da
is 0.
0
The total induced torque on the loop:
Chapter 4
6
G
i
B
loop

=
u
u
t
sin
sin
S loop
S loop ind
B kB
B B
AG
=
=
S loop ind
xB kB = t
Note : the torque is maximum when the plane oI the loop is parallel to the magnetic Iield, and the torque
is zero when the plane oI the loop is perpendicular to the magnetic Iield.
An alternative way to express the torque equation can be done which clearly relates the behaviour oI the
single loop to the behaviour oI larger ac machines. Examine the phasors below:
II the current in the loop is as shown, that current will generate a magnetic Ilux density B
loop
with the
direction shown. The magnitude oI B
loop
is:
Where G is a Iactor that depends on the geometry oI the loop.
The area oI the loop A is 2rl and substituting these two equations into the torque equation earlier yields:
Where kAG/ is a Iactor depending on the construction oI the machine, B
S
is used Ior the stator
magnetic Iield to distinguish it Irom the magnetic Iield generated by the rotor, and 0 is the angle between
B
loop
and B
S
.
Thus,
Erom here, we may conclude that torque is dependent upon:
- Strength oI rotor magnetic Iield
- Strength oI stator magnetic Iield
- Angle between the 2 Iields
- Machine constants
2. The Rotating Magnetic Field
BeIore we have looked at how iI two magnetic Iields are present in a machine, then a torque will be
created which will tend to line up the two magnetic Iields. II one magnetic Iield is produced by the stator
oI an ac machine and the other by the rotor, then a torque will be induced in the rotor which will cause
the rotor to turn and align itselI with the stator magnetic Iield.
II there were some way to make the stator magnetic Iield rotate, then the induced torque in the rotor
would cause it to chase` the stator magnetic Iield.
How do we make the stator magnetic Iield to rotate?
Eundamental principle a 3-phase set of currents, each of equal magnitude and differing in phase bv
120, flows in a 3-phase winding, then it will produce a rotating magnetic field of constant magnitude.
The rotating magnetic Iield concept is illustrated below empty stator containing 3 coils 120 apart. It is
a 2-pole winding (one north and one south).
Chapter 4
7
A t I t i
M aa
e sin ) (
'
=
A t I t i
M bb
) 120 sin( ) (
'
- = e
A t I t i
M cc
) 240 sin( ) (
'
- = e
m turns A t u t u
M aa
/ 0 sin ) (
'
- . = e
m turns A t u t u
M bb
/ 120 ) 120 sin( ) (
'
- . - = e
m turns A t u t u
M cc
/ 240 ) 240 sin( ) (
'
- . - = e
1 t B t B
M aa
. = 0 sin ) (
'
e
1 t B t B
M bb
. - = 120 ) 120 sin( ) (
'
e
1 t B t B
M cc
. - = 240 ) 240 sin( ) (
'
e
= 0 t e
1 B B
M bb
. - = 120 ) 120 sin(
'
1 B B
M cc
. - = 240 ) 240 sin(
'
0
'
=
aa
B
(a) A simple three phase stator. Currents in this
stator are assumed positive iI they Ilow into the
unprimed end and out the primed end oI the coils.
The H produced by each coil are also shown.
(b) The magnetizing intensity vector H
aa`
(t)
produced by a current Ilowing in coil aa`.
Let`s apply a set oI currents to the stator above and see what happens at speciIic instants oI time.
Assume currents in the 3 coils are:
The current in coil aa` Ilows into the a end oI the coil and out the a` end oI the coil. It produces the
magnetic Iield intensity:
The Ilux densities equations are:
Where B
M
H
M
.
At time
Chapter 4
8
.
|
|
.
|
- .
|
|
.
|
- = 240
2
3
120
2
3
0
M M
B B
- . = 90 5 . 1
M
B
= 90 t e
1 B B
M bb
. - = 120 5 . 0
'
1 B B
M cc
. - = 240 5 . 0
'
. = 0
' M aa
B B
, ) , ) . - . - . = 240 5 . 0 120 5 . 0 0
M M M
B B B
. = 0 5 . 1
M
B
= 0 t e = 90 t e
The total magnetic Iield Irom all three coils added together will be
B
net
B
aa`
B
bb`
B
cc`
At time
The total magnetic Iield Irom all three coils added together will be
B
net
B
aa`
B
bb`
B
cc`
The resulting magnetic Ilux is as shown below:
Chapter 4
9
vector unit hori:ontal x = `
vector unit vertical v = `
1 t B t B t B t B
M M M net
. - . - . = 240 ) 240 sin( 120 ) 120 sin( 0 sin ) ( e e e
, ) , ) v t B x t B t B
M M net
` cos 5 . 1 ` sin 5 . 1 ) ( e e - =
Proof of Rotating Magnetic Field Concept
At anv time t, the magnetic field will have the same magnitude 1.5 B
M
and it will continue to rotate at
angular velocitv e.
ProoI:
ReIer again to the stator in Eigure 4.1. x direction is to the right and v direction is upward.
Assume that we represent the direction oI the magnetic Iield densities in the Iorm oI:
To Iind the total magnetic Ilux density in the stator, simply add vectorially the three component magnetic
Iields and determine their sum.
We know that:
We may convert the total Ilux density into unit vector Iorms to give:
Notice that the magnitude oI the Iield is a constant 1.5B
M
and the angle changes continually in a
counterclockwise direction at angular velocity e. Also, at et0, B
net
1.5B
M
-90, and at et90,
B
net
1.5B
M
0.
The Relationship between Electrical Frequency and the Speed of Magnetic Field Rotation
The Iigure above shows that the rotating magnetic Iield in this stator can be represented as a north pole
(the Ilux leaves the stator) and a south pole ( Ilux enters the stator).
These magnetic poles complete one mechanical rotation around the stator surIace Ior each electrical cycle
oI the applied current. The mechanical speed oI rotation oI the magnetic Iield in revolutions per second is
equal to electric Irequency in hertz:
I
e
(hertz) I
m
(revolutions per second) two poles
e
e
(radians per second) e
m
(radians per second) two poles
The windings on the 2-pole stator above occur in the order a c` b a` c b`
II we were to double the amount oI windings, hence the sequence oI windings will be as Iollows:
a1 c1` b1 a1` c1 b1` a2 c2` b2 a2` c2 b2`
Chapter 4
10
Eor a three-phase set oI currents, this stator will have 2 north poles and 2 south poles produced in the
stator winding, (reIer Iigure (b) below):
(a) A simple Iour-pole stator winding. (b) The resulting stator magnetic poles. Notice that there are
moving poles oI alternating polarity every 90 around the stator surIace. (c) a winding diagram oI the
stator as seen Irom its inner surIace, showing how the stator currents produce north and south magnetic
poles.
In this winding, a pole moves only halIway around the stator surIace in one electrical cycle. Since one
electrical cycle is 360 electrical degrees, and mechanical motion is 180 mechanical degrees, the
relationship between the electrical angle 0
e
and the mechanical 0
m
in this stator is
0
e
2 0
m
Thus, Ior a Iour pole winding, the electrical Irequency oI the current is twice the mechanical Irequency oI
rotation:
I
e
2 I
m
e
e
2 e
m
Chapter 4
11
1 t B t B t B t B
M M M net
. - . - . = 240 ) 120 sin( 120 ) 240 sin( 0 sin ) ( e e e
ThereIore the general Iormat will be as Iollows:
2
2
2
e m
e m
e m
P
P
f f
P
u u
e e
=
=
=
Also,
60
120
m
m
m
e
n
since f where n is the number of rotation
n
f P
=
=
Reversing the direction of Magnetic Field Rotation
If the current in anv two of the 3 coils is swapped, the direction of the magnetic fields rotation will be
reversed.
To prove this, phases B and C are switched:
B
net
B
aa`
B
bb`
B
cc`
Converting it into x and y unit vectors will give:

( ) (1.5 sin ) (1.5 cos )
total m m
B t B t x B t v e e =
Note the ve sign, which shows the change oI magnetic Iield rotation.
3. Magnetomotive Force and Flux Distribution on AC Machines
Assumptions:
- Elux produced inside an ac machine is in Iree space
- Direction oI Ilux density produced by a coil oI wire is perpendicular to the plane oI the
coil
- Direction oI Ilux given by the right hand rule.
However, the Ilux in a real machine does not Iollow these assumptions, since there is a Ierromagnetic
rotor in the centre oI the machine with a small air gap between the rotor and the stator. The rotor can be
cylindrical (a) (nonsalient-pole), or it can have pole Iaces projecting out Irom its surIace (b) (salient
pole).
Chapter 4
12
A cylindrical rotor with sinusoidally
varying air-gap Ilux density
The mmI or H or B as a Iunction oI
angle in the air gap
In this course, the discussion will be restricted to machines with cylindrical rotors.
The reluctance oI the air gap in this machine is much higher than the reluctances oI either the rotor or the
stator, so the Ilux density vector B takes the shortest possible path across the air gap and jumps
perpendicularly between the rotor and the stator.
To produce a sinusoidal voltage in a machine like this, the magnitude oI the Ilux density vector B must
vary in a sinusoidal manner along the surIace oI the air gap. The Ilux density will vary sinusoidally only
iI the magnetizing intensity H (and mmI) varies in a sinusoidal manner along the surIace oI the air gap.
To achieve a sinusoidal variation oI mmI along the surIace oI the air gap is to distribute the turns oI the
winding that produces the mmI in closely spaced slots around the surIace oI the machine and to vary the
number oI conductors in each slots in a sinusoidal manner.
Chapter 4
13
The number oI conductors in each slot is n
C
N
C
cos u where N
C
is the number oI conductors at an angle
oI 0 degree. The distribution oI conductors produces a close approximation to a sinusoidal distribution oI
mmI. The more slots there are and the more closely spaced the slots are, the better this approximation
becomes.
In practice, it is not possible to distribute windings exactly as in the n
C
equation above, since there are
only a Iinite number oI slots in a real machine and since only integral numbers oI conductors can be
included in each slot.
4. Induced Voltage in AC Machines
The induced voltage in a Coil on a Two-Pole Stator
Previously, discussions were made related to induced 3 phase currents producing a rotating magnetic
Iield. Now, lets look into the fact that a rotating magnetic field may produce voltages in the stator.
The Eigures below show a rotating rotor with a sinusoidally distributed magnetic Iield in the centre oI a
stationary coil.
An ac machine with a distributed stator
winding designed to produce a sinusoidally
varying air gap Ilux density. The number oI
conductors in each slot is indicated in the
diagram.
The mmI distribution resulting Irom the
winding, compared to an ideal transIormer.
A rotating rotor magnetic Iield inside a
stationary stator coil
Chapter 4
14
[
) 180 cos(
) 180 cos(
) (
- - =
- - =
=
- =
t l vB
l t B v
vBl
l vxB
m M
m M
e
e
Directed out oI the page
Assume that the magnetic oI the Ilux density vector B in the air gap between the rotor and the stator
varies sinusoidally with mechanical angle, while the direction oI B is always radially outward. The
magnitude oI the Ilux density vector B at a point around the rotor is given by:
B B
M
cos u
Note that o is the angle between the maximum Ilux density (B
m
) and the current magnetic Ilux density
phasor B. Since the rotor is itselI rotating within the stator at an angular velocity e
m
the magnitude oI the
Ilux density vector B at any angle o around the stator is given by:
B B
M
cos (et - o)
Induced voltage in a wire is e (v x B) l
However, this equation was derived Ior the case oI a moving wire in a stationary magnetic Iield. In this
case, the wire is stationary and the magnetic Iield is moving, so the equation Ior induced voltage does not
directly apply. Hence, we need to assume that we are 'sitting on the magnetic Iield so that the magnetic
Iield appears to be stationary, and the sides oI the coil will appear to go by at an apparent velocity v
rel
and
the equation can be applied.
The total voltage induced in the coil will be the sum oI the voltages induced in each oI its Iour sides.
These are determined as Iollows:
1. Segment ab
o 180. Assume that B is directed radially outward Irom the rotor, the angle between v and B in
segment ab is 90, while v x B is in the direction oI l, so
e
ba
The vector magnetic Ilux densities and velocities
on the sides oI the coil.
The Ilux density distribution in the
air gap.
Chapter 4
15
, )
t l vB
l t B v
vBl
l vxB
m M
m M
e
e
cos
cos
) (
=
=
=
- =
Directed out oI the page
Where the minus sign comes Irom the Iact that the voltage is built up with a polarity opposite to the
assumed polarity.
2. Segment bc
The voltage is zero, since the vector quantity v x B is perpendicular to l.
3. Segment cd
o 0
Assume that B is directed radially outward Irom the rotor, the angle between v and B in segment cd is
90, while v x B is in the direction oI l, so
e
ba
4. Segment da
The voltage is zero, since the vector quantity v x B is perpendicular to l.
ThereIore total induced voltage:
2 cos
induced ba dc M m
e e e JB l t e = =
Since,
m
v re =
ThereIore,
2 cos
induced M m m
e rlB t e e =
Since,
2
m
rlB | =
And the angular mechanical velocity should be equal to the angular electrical velocity,
cos
induced
e t |e e =
or (taking into account number oI turns oI windings),
cos
induced c
e N t |e e =
Remember: This derivation goes through the induced voltage in the stator when there is a rotating
magnetic field produced by the rotor.
The Induced Voltage in a 3-Phase Set of Coils
II the stator now has 3 sets oI diIIerent windings as such that the stator voltage induced due to the
rotating magnetic Iield produced by the rotor will have a phase diIIerence oI 120
o
, the induced voltages at
each phase will be as Iollows:
'
'
'
sin
sin( 120 )
sin( 240 )
aa
o
bb
o
cc
e N t J
e N t J
e N t J
|e e
|e e
|e e
=
= -
= -
Chapter 4
16
A simpliIied ac machine with a
sinusoidal stator Ilux distribution
and a single coil oI wire mounted
in the rotor.
ThereIore, a 3 phase set oI currents Ilowing into the stator windings and hence generating a rotating
magnetic Iield (earlier case), and at the same time, a rotating magnetic Iield produced by the rotor will be
able to generate 3 phase voltages in a stator.
ReIerring to the induced voltage derived earlier, the maximum induced voltage is when sin has a value oI
1, hence,
max
max
, since 2 ,
2
E N f
E N f
|e e t
t |
= =
=
ThereIore, the rms voltage at the 3 phase stator:
2
A
E N f t | =
Note: These are induced voltages at each phase, as for the line-line voltage values; it will depend
upon how the stator windings are connected, whether as Y or .
5. Induced Torque in an AC Machines
In ac machines under normal operating conditions, there are 2 magnetic Iields present - a magnetic Iield
Irom the rotor circuit and another magnetic Iield Irom the stator circuit. The interaction oI these two
magnetic Iields produces the torque in the machine, just as 2 permanent magnets near each other will
experience a torque, which causes them to line up.
The production oI three-phase voltages Irom
three coils spaced 120 apart
Chapter 4
17
There will also be current Ilowing through the rotor windings (this will create another magnetic Iield
originating Irom the wire), which will create Iorce that can be Iound using the right hand rule. Its
resultant direction may be Iound in the diagram above.
The stator Ilux density distribution in this machine is
B
S
(u)B
S
sin u
Where B
S
is the magnitude oI the peak Ilux density; B
S
(u) is positive when the Ilux density vector points
radially outward Irom the rotor surIace to the stator surIace.
How much torque is produced in the rotor oI this simpliIied ac machine? This is done by analyzing the
Iorce and torque on each oI the two conductors separately:
The induced Iorce on conductor l is
, )
sin
s
F i l B
ilB o
=
=
Hence torque at conductor 1:
, )
1
sin ( )
ind
s
r F
rilB same direction as force
t
o
=
=
The same may be Iound Ior conductor 2, hence the total torque induced:
2 sin ( )
ind s
rilB same direction as force t o =
The current i Ilowing in the rotor coil produces a magnetic Iield oI its own. The direction oI the peak oI
this magnetic Iield is given by the right hand rule, and the magnitude oI its magnetizing intensity H
R
is
directly proportional to the current Ilowing in the rotor, and H
R
Ci where C is a constant oI
proportionality.
The angle between the peak oI the stator Ilux density B
S
and the peak oI the rotor magnetizing intensity
H
R
is . Euthermore,
, )
180
sin sin 180 sin
o
o
o
o o
= -
= - =
ThereIore the torque equation may be represented in the Iollowing Iorm:
sin
ind r s r s
Ku B Ku B t o = =
Note that K is a constant value.
Since B
R
H
R
,
ind r s
kB B t =
The constant k is a value which will be dependent upon the permeability oI the machine`s material. Since
the total magnetic Iield density will be the summation oI the B
S
and B
R
, hence:
, )
ind r net r r net
kB B B kB B t = - =
II there is an angle o between B
net
and B
R
,
sin
ind r net
kB B t o =
These 3 equations will be used to help develop a qualitative understanding oI the torque in ac machines.
Chapter 5
1
CHAPTER 5 - SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR
Summary:
1. Synchronous Generator Construction
2. The Speed of Rotation of a Synchronous Generator
3. The Internal Generated Voltage of a Synchronous Generator
4. The Equivalent Circuit of a Synchronous Generator
5. The Phasor Diagram of a Synchronous Generator
6. Power and Torque in Synchronous Generator
7. Measuring Synchronous Generator Model Parameters
8. The Synchronous Generator Operating Alone
- The EIIect oI Load Changes on a Synchronous Generator Operating Alone.
9. Parallel operation of AC Generators
- The conditions required Ior paralleling
- The general procedure Ior paralleling generators
- Erequency-power and Voltage-Reactive Power characteristics oI a
synchronous generator.
- Operation oI generators in parallel with large power systems
- Operation oI generators in parallel with other generators oI the same size.
10.Synchronous Generator Ratings
- The Voltage, Speed and Erequency Ratings
- Apparent Power and Power-Eactor Ratings
- Synchronous Generator Capability Curve
Chapter 5
2
1. Synchronous Generator Construction
A DC current is applied to the rotor winding, which then produces a rotor magnetic Iield. The rotor is
then turned by a prime mover (eg. Steam, water etc.) producing a rotating magnetic Iield. This rotating
magnetic Iield induces a 3-phase set oI voltages within the stator windings oI the generator.
'Eield windings applies to the windings that produce the main magnetic Iield in a machine, and
'armature windings applies to the windings where the main voltage is induced. Eor synchronous
machines, the Iield windings are on the rotor, so the terms 'rotor windings and 'Iield windings are used
interchangeably.
Generally a synchronous generator must have at least 2 components:
a) Rotor Windings or Eield Windings
a. Salient Pole
b. Non Salient Pole
b) Stator Windings or Armature Windings
The rotor oI a synchronous generator is a large electromagnet and the magnetic poles on the rotor can
either be salient or non salient construction. Non-salient pole rotors are normally used Ior rotors with 2
or 4 poles rotor, while salient pole rotors are used Ior 4 or more poles rotor.
A dc current must be supplied to the Iield circuit on the rotor. Since the rotor is rotating, a special
arrangement is required to get the dc power to its Iield windings. The common ways are:
a) supply the dc power Irom an external dc source to the rotor by means oI slip rings and brushes.
b) Supply the dc power Irom a special dc power source mounted directly on the shaIt oI the
synchronous generator.
Non-salient rotor Ior a
synchronous machine
Salient rotor
Chapter 5
3
Slip rings are metal rings completely encircling the shaIt oI a machine but insulated Irom it. One end oI
the dc rotor winding is tied to each oI the 2 slip rings on the shaIt oI the synchronous machine, and a
stationary brush rides on each slip ring.
A 'brush is a block oI graphitelike carbon compound that conducts electricity Ireely but has very low
Iriction, hence it doesn`t wear down the slip ring. II the positive end oI a dc voltage source is connected
to one brush and the negative end is connected to the other, then the same dc voltage will be applied to
the Iield winding at all times regardless oI the angular position or speed oI the rotor.
Some problems with slip rings and brushes:
- They increase the amount oI maintenance required on the machine, since the brushes must be
checked Ior wear regularly.
- Brush voltage drop can be the cause oI signiIicant power losses on machines with larger Iield
currents.
Small synchronous machines use slip rings and brushes.
Larger machines brushless exciters are used to supply the dc Iield current.
A brushless exciter is a small ac generator with its Iield circuit mounted on the stator and its armature
circuit mounted on the rotor shaIt. The 3-phase output oI the exciter generator is rectiIied to direct
current by a 3-phase rectiIier circuit also mounted on the shaIt oI the generator, and is then Ied to the
main dc Iield circuit. By controlling the small dc Iield current oI the exciter generator (located on the
stator), we can adjust the Iield current on the main machine without slip rings and brushes. Since no
mechanical contacts occur between the rotor and stator, a brushless exciter requires less maintenance.
To make the excitation oI a generator completely independent oI any external power sources, a small
pilot exciter can be used.
A pilot exciter is a small ac generator with permanent magnets mounted on the rotor shaIt and a 3-phase
winding on the stator. It produces the power Ior the Iield circuit oI the exciter, which in turn controls the
Iield circuit oI the main machine. II a pilot exciter is included on the generator shaIt, then no external
electric power is required.
A brushless exciter circuit : A small
3-phase current is rectiIied and used
to supply the Iield circuit oI the
exciter, which is located on the
stator. The output oI the armature
circuit oI the exciter (on the rotor) is
then rectiIied and used to supply the
Iield current oI the main machine.
Chapter 5
4
A brushless excitation
scheme that includes a pilot
exciter. The permanent
magnets oI the pilot exciter
produce the Iield current oI
the exciter, which in turn
produces the Iield current oI
the main machine.
Even though machines with brushless exciters do not need slip rings and brushes, they still include the
slip rings and brushes so that an auxiliary source oI dc Iield current is available in emergencies.
2. The Speed of Rotation of a Synchronous Generator
Synchronous generators are by deIinition svnchronous, meaning that the electrical Irequency produced is
locked in or synchronized with the mechanical rate oI rotation oI the generator. A synchronous
generator`s rotor consists oI an electromagnet to which direct current is supplied. The rotor`s magnetic
Iield points in the direction the rotor is turned. Hence, the rate oI rotation oI the magnetic Iield in the
machine is related to the stator electrical Irequency by:
120
m
c
n P
f =
3. The Internal Generated Voltage of a Synchronous Generator
Voltage induced is dependent upon Ilux and speed oI rotation, hence Irom what we have learnt so Iar, the
induced voltage can be Iound as Iollows:
2
A C
E N f =
Eor simplicity, it may be simpliIied to as Iollows:
A
E K =
, ) s rads clcctrical in if
P N
K
C
/
2
= , ) s rads mcchanical in if
P N
K
C
/
2 2
=
Chapter 5
5
4. The Equivalent Circuit of a Synchronous Generator
The voltage E
A
is the internal generated voltage produced in one phase oI a synchronous generator. II the
machine is not connected to a load (no armature current Ilowing), the terminal voltage will be equivalent
to the voltage induced at the stator coils. This is due to the Iact that there are no current Ilow in the stator
coils hence no losses. When there is a load connected to the generator, there will be diIIerences between
E
A
and V
|
. These diIIerences are due to:
a) Distortion oI the air gap magnetic Iield by the current Ilowing in the stator called armature
reaction.
b) SelI inductance oI the armature coil
c) Resistance oI the armature coils
d) The eIIect oI salient pole rotor shapes.
We will explore Iactors a, b, and c and derive a machine model Irom them. The eIIect oI salient pole
rotor shape will be ignored, and all machines in this chapter are assumed to have nonsalient or cylindrical
rotors.
Armaturc Rcaction
When the rotor is spun, a voltage E
A
is induced in the stator windings. II a load is attached to the
terminals oI the generator, a current Ilows. But a 3-phase stator current Ilow will produce a magnetic
Iield oI its own. This stator magnetic Iield will distorts the original rotor magnetic Iield, changing the
resulting phase voltage. This eIIect is called armature reaction because the armature (stator) current
aIIects the magnetic Iield, which produced it in the Iirst place.
ReIer to the diagrams below, showing a two-pole rotor spinning inside a 3-phase stator.
(a) A rotating magnetic Iield
produces the internal generated
voltage E
A
.
(b) The resulting voltage produces
a lagging current Ilow when
connected to a lagging load.
(c) The stator current produces its
own magnetic Iield B
S
which
produces its own E
stat
in the
stator windings.
(d) The Iield B
S
adds to B
R
distorting it into B
net
. The
voltage E
stat
adds to E
A
,
producing V
|
at the output oI
the phase.
Chapter 5
6
(a) There is no load connected to the stator. The rotor magnetic Iield B
R
produces an internal
generated voltage E
A
whose peak coincides with direction oI B
R
. With no load, there is no
armature current and E
A
will be equal to the phase voltage V
|
.
(b) When a lagging load is connected, the peak current will occur at an angle behind the peak
voltage.
(c) The current Ilowing in the stator windings produces a magnetic Iield oI its own. This stator
magnetic Iield B
S
and its direction are given by the right-hand rule. The stator Iield produces a
voltage oI its own called E
stat
.
(d) With 2 voltages and 2 magnetic Iields present in the stator windings, the total voltage and the net
magnetic Iield are:
A Stat
nct R S
J E E
B B B
= +
= +
How can the eIIects oI armature reaction on the phase voltage be modeled?
- The voltage E
stat
lies at an angle oI 90 behind the plane oI I
A
.
- The voltage E
stat
is directly proportional to the current I
A
.
II X is a constant oI proportionality, then the armature reaction voltage can be expressed as:
stat A
E fXI =
ThereIore:
A A
J E fXI
=

Thus, the armature reaction voltage can be modeled as an inductor in series with the internal generated
voltage.
Sclf-inductancc and Rcsistancc of thc Armaturc Coils
II the stator selI-inductance is called L
A
(reactance is X
A
) while the stator resistance is called R
A
, then the
total diIIerence between E
A
and V
|
is:
A A A A A A
A s A A A
J E fXI fX I R I
E fX I R I
=
=
Where X
S
X X
A
Chapter 5
7
The Iull equivalent circuit is shown below:
A dc power source is supplying the rotor Iield circuit, whis is modeled by the coil`s inductance and
resistance in series. In series with R
E
is an adjustable resistor R
adj
which controls the Ilow oI the Iield
current. The rest oI the equivalent circuit consists oI the models Ior each phase. Each phase has an
internal generated voltage with a series inductance X
S
(consisting oI the sum oI the armature reactance
and the coil`s selI-inductance) and a series resistance R
A
.
II the 3 phases are connected in Y or A, the terminal voltage may be Iound as Iollows:
3 ( )
T
J J for Y conncction
=
( )
T
J J for conncction
= A
Ideally, the terminal voltage Ior all 3 phases should be identical since we assume that the load connected
is balanced. II it is not balanced, a more in-depth technique is required.
The per-phase equivalent circuit:
Chapter 5
8
5. Phasor Diagram of a Synchronous Generator
Similar concept as applied in Chapter 2 (TransIormers). The phasor diagrams are as Iollows:
Eor a given phase voltage and armature current, a larger internal voltage E
A
is needed Ior lagging loads
than Ior leading loads. Thus, a larger Iield current is needed to get the same terminal voltage because
E
A
k|e because e must be kept constant to keep constant Irequency.
Alternatively, Ior a given Iield current and magnitude oI load current, the terminal voltage is lower Ior
lagging loads and higher Ior leading loads.
6. Power and Torque in Synchronous Generators
A generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy, hence the input power will be a
mechanical prime mover, e.g. diesel engine, steam turbine, water turbine or anything similar. Regardless
oI the type oI prime mover, the rotor velocity must remain constant to maintain a stable system
Irequency.
The power-Ilow diagram Ior a synchronous generator is shown:
Unity power Iactor
Lagging power Iactor
Leading power Iactor
Chapter 5
9
Input:
in app m
P =
Losses: Stray losses, Iriction and windage losses, core loss
Converted power:
3 cos
conv ind m A A
P E I = =
Where is the angle between E
A
and I
A.
Losses: Copper losses
Output:
3 cos 3 cos
out T L out A
P J I or P J I
= =
3 sin 3 sin
out T L out A
Q J I or P JI
= =
SimpliIying the phasor diagram, an assumption may be made whereby the armature resistance R
A
is
considered to be negligible and assuming that load connected to it is lagging in nature. This gives a
phasor diagram as shown:
Based upon the simpliIied phasor diagram:
sin
cos
A
A
s
E
I
X

=
Which gives another Iorm oI output power expression (since R
A
assumed to be zero):
3 sin
A
s
J E
P
X

=
Erom the above equation, it can be seen that power is dependent upon:
- The angle between V
|
and E
A
which is o.
- o is known as the torque angle oI the machine.
- maximum torque may be Iound when sin o is 1 which gives the maximum power (a.k.a. static
stability limit) to be:
max
3
A
s
J E
P
X
=
Chapter 5
10
The basic torque equation:
sin
ind R s R nct R nct
kB B kB B kB B = = =
An alternative expression can be derived Irom the power expression since P
out
P
conv
when R
A
assumed to
be zero. Because P
conv
t
ind
e
m
, the induced voltage is:
3 sin
A
ind
m s
J E
X
=
7. Measuring Synchronous Generator Model Parameters
There are basically 3 types oI relationship which needs to be Iound Ior a synchronous generator:
a) Eield current and Ilux relationship (and thus between the Iield current and E
A
)
b) Synchronous reactance
c) Armature resistance
Open Circuit test
Steps:
1) Generator is rotated at the rated speed.
2) No load is connected at the terminals.
3) Eield current is increased Irom 0 to maximum.
4) Record values oI the terminal voltage and Iield current value.
With the terminals open, I
A
0, so E
A
V
|
. It is thus possible to construct a plot oI E
A
or V
T
vs I
E
graph.
This plot is called open-circuit characteristic (OCC) oI a generator. With this characteristic, it is possible
to Iind the internal generated voltage oI the generator Ior any given Iield current.
At Iirst the curve is almost perIectly linear, until some saturation is observed at high Iield currents. The
unsaturated iron in the Irame oI the synchronous machine has a reluctance several thousand times lower
than the air-gap reluctance, so at Iirst almost all the mmI is across the air-gap, and the resulting Ilux
increase is linear. When the iron Iinally saturates, the reluctance oI the iron increases dramatically, and
the Ilux increases much more slowly with an increase in mmI. The linear portion oI an OCC is called the
air-gap line oI the characteristic.
Open-circuit characteristic (OCC) oI
a generator
Chapter 5
11
S A
A
A
fX R
E
I
+
=
2 2
S A
A
A
X R
E
I
+
=
Short circuit test
Steps:
1) Generator is rotated at rated speed.
2) Adjust Iield current to 0.
3) Short circuit the terminals.
4) Measure armature current or line current as the Iield current is increased.
Notes: During the short circuit analysis, the net magnetic Iield is very small, hence the core is not
saturated, hence the reason why the relationship is linear.
SCC is essentially a straight line. To understand why this characteristic is a straight line, look at the
equivalent circuit below when the terminals are short circuited.
When the terminals are short circuited, the armature current I
A
is:
And its magnitude is:
The resulting phasor diagram and the corresponding magnetic Iields are shown below:
Chapter 5
12
Since B
S
almost cancels B
R
, the net magnetic Iield B
net
is very small (corresponding to internal resistive
and inductive drops only). Since the net magnetic Iield is small, the machine is unsaturated and the SCC
is linear.
Erom both tests, here we can Iind the internal machine impedance (E
A
Irom OCC, I
A
Iom SCC):
2 2
A
S A S
A
E
Z R X
I
= + =
Since X
s
~~ R
A
, the equation reduces to:
oc
A
s
A A
J
E
X
I I
~ =
ThereIore we may be able to Iind the synchronous reactances.
ThereIore, an approximate method Ior determining the synchronous reactance X
S
at a given Iield current
is:
1. Get the internal generated voltage E
A
Irom the OCC at that Iield current.
2. Get the short circuited current Ilow I
A,SC
at that Iield current Irom the SCC.
3. Eind X
S
by applying the equation above.
Problem with this method:
E
A
is taken Irom the OCC whereby the core would be partiallv saturatcd Ior large Iield currents while I
A
is taken Irom the SCC where the core is not saturatcd at all Iield currents. ThereIore E
A
value taken
during the OCC may not be the same E
A
value in the SCC test. Hence the value oI X
S
is only an
approximate.
Hence to gain better accuracy, the test should be done at low Iield currents which looks at the linear
region oI the OCC test.
To Iind out on the resistive element oI the machine, it can simply be Iound by applying a DC voltage to
the machine terminals with the rotor stationary. Value obtained in this test (R
A
) may increase the X
S
accuracy.
Short Circuit Ratio
DeIinition:
Ratio oI the Iield current required Ior the rated voltage at open circuit to the Iield current required Ior
rated armature current at short circuit.
Example 5-1
A 200kVA, 480V, 50Hz, Y-connected synchronous generator with a rated Iield current oI 5A was tested,
and the Iollowing data were taken:
1. V
T,OC
at the rated I
E
was measured to be 540V
2. I
L,SC
at the rated I
E
was Iound to be 300A.
3. When a dc voltage oI 10V was applied to two oI the terminals, a current oI 25A was measured.
Eind the values oI the armature resistance and the approximate synchronous reactance in ohms that would
be used in the generator model at the rated conditions.
Chapter 5
13
8. The synchronous generator operating alone
The behaviour oI a synchronous generator under load varies greatly depending on the power Iactor oI the
load and on whether the generator is operating alone or in parallel with other synchronous generator. The
next discussion, we shall disregard R
A
and rotor Ilux is assumed to be constant unless it is stated that the
Iield current is changed. Also, the speed oI the generator will be assumed constant, and all terminal
characteristics are drawn assuming constant speed.
The Effect of Load Changes on a Synchronous Generator Operating Alone
Assume a generator is connected to a load.
Load increase:
An increase oI load is an increase in real and reactive power drawn Irom the generator. Such a load
increase increases the load current drawn Irom the generator.
Assumptions:
- Eield resistor has not been changed, Iield current is kept constant, hence Ilux is constant.
- Generator rotor speed is maintained constant.
- ThereIore E
A
is constant.
If E
A
is constant, what actuallv varics with a changing load??
Initially lagging load:
- Load is increased with the lagging power Iactor maintained.
- Magnitude oI I
A
will increase but will maintain the same angle with reIerence to V
|
. (due to
power Iactor is maintained lagging)
- X
S
I
A
will also increase and will maintain the same angle. Since
A s A
E J fX I
= +
j X
S
I
A
must strecth between V
|
at an angle oI 0 and E
A
, which is constrained to be oI the same
magnitude as beIore the load increase.
- Note that E
A
has to remain constant (reIer to the assumption stated earlier)
- Hence the only element which would change to compensate would be V
|
. This change may be
seen in the phasor diagram.
The eIIect oI an increase in
generator loads at constant
power Iactor upon its terminal
voltage lagging power Iactor.
Chapter 5
14
Initially unity load:
- Load is increased with the unity power Iactor maintained.
- Magnitude oI I
A
|
. (due to
power Iactor is maintained unity)
- X
S
I
A
A s A
E J fX I
= +
- Note that E
A
|
- Changes in V
|
would be decreasing but it would be less signiIicant as compared to when the load
is lagging.
Initially leading load:
- Load is increased with the leading power Iactor maintained.
- Magnitude oI I
a
|
. (due to
power Iactor is maintained leading)
- X
s
I
a
A s A
E J fX I
= +
- Note that E
a
|
voltage unity power Iactor.
voltage leading power Iactor.
Chapter 5
15
An alternative way to explain this is via the voltage regulation formulae.
- Eor lagging loads, VR would be very positive.
- Eor leading loads, VR would be very negative.
- Eor unity loads, VR would be positive.
However, in practical it is best to keep the output voltage of a generator to be constant, hence E
A
has
to be controlled which can be done by controlling the field current I
F
. Varying I
F
will vary the flux in
the core which then will vary E
A
accordingly (refer OCC).
How must a gcncrators ficld currcnt bc adfustcd to kccp J
T
constant as thc load changcs?
Example 5-2
A 480V, 60Hz, A-connected, 4-pole synchronous generator has the OCC as shown below. This generator
has a synchronous reactance oI 0.1O and an armature resistance oI 0.015 O. At Iull load, the machine
supplies 1200A at 0.8 PE lagging. Under Iull-load conditions, the Iriction and windage losses are 40kW,
and the core losses aree 30kW. Ignore any Iield circuit losses.
(a) hat is the speed oI rotation oI this generator?
(b) How much Iield current must be supplied to the generator to make the terminalvoltage 480V at
no load?
(c) II the generator is now connected to a load and the load draws 1200A at 0.8 PE lagging, how
much Iield current will be required to keep the terminal voltage equal to 480V?
(d) How much power is the gen now supplying? How much power is supplied to the generator by the
prime mover? What is this machine`s overall eIIiciency?
(e) II the generator`s load were suddenly disconnected Irom the line, what would happen to its
terminal voltage?
(I) Einally, suppose that the generator is connected to a load drawing 1200A at 0.8 PE leading. How
much Iield current would be required to keep V
T
at 480V?
Chapter 5
16
Example 5-3
A 480V, 50Hz, Y-connected, 6-pole synchronous generator has a per-phase synchronous reactance oI
1O. Its Iull-load armature current is 60A at 0.8PE lagging. This generator has Iriction and windage losses
oI 1.5kW and core losses oI 1 kW at 60Hz at Iull load. Since the armature resistance is being ignored,
assume that the I
2
R losses are negligible. The Iield current has been adjusted so that the terminal voltage
is 480V at no load.
(a) What is the speed oI rotation oI this generator?
(b) What is the terminal voltage oI this generator iI the Iollowing are true?
1. It is loaded with the rated current at 0.8 PE lagging.
2. It is loaded with the rated current at 1.0 PE.
3. It is loaded with the rated current at 0.8 PE leading.
(c) What is the eIIicieny oI this generator (ignoring the unknown electrical losses) when it is
operating at the rated current and 0.8 PE lagging?
(d) How much shaIt torque must applied by the prime mover at Iull load? How large is the induced
countertorque?
(e) What is the voltage regulation oI this generator at 0.8 PE lagging? At 1.0 PE? At 0.8 PE leading?
9. Parallel Operation of AC Generators
Reasons Ior operating in parallel:
a) Handling larger loads.
b) Maintenance can be done without power disruption.
c) Increasing system reliability.
d) Increased eIIiciency.
Conditions required for Paralleling
The Iigure below shows a synchronous generator G1 supplying power to a load, with another generator
G2 about to be paralleled with G1 by closing switch S1. What conditions must be met beIore the switch
can be closed and the 2 generators connected?
II the switch is closed arbitrarily at some moment, the generators are liable to be severely damaged, and
the load may lose power.
II the voltages are not exactly the same in each conductor being tied together, there will be a very large
current Ilow when the switch is closed. To avoid this problem, each oI the three phases must have
exactly the same voltage magnitude and phase angle as the conductor to which it is connected.
Thus, paralleling 2 or more generators must be done careIully as to avoid generator or other system
component damage. Conditions are as Iollows:
a) RMS line voltages must be equal.
b) The generators to be paralleled must have the same phase sequence. II the phase sequence is
diIIerent (as shown here), then even though one pair oI voltages (the a phase) is in phase, the
other 2 pairs oI voltages are 120 out oI phase. II the generators were connected in this manner,
there would be no problem with phase a, but huge currents would Ilow in phases b and c,
damaging both machines.
Chapter 5
17
c) Generator output phase angles must be the same.
d) The oncoming generator (the new generator) must have a slightly higher operating Irequency as
compared to the system Irequency. This is done so that the phase angles oI the incoming
machine will change slowly with respect to the phase angles oI the running system.
General Procedure for Paralleling Generators
Suppose that generator G2 is to be connected to the running system as shown below:
1. Using Voltmeters, the field current oI the oncoming generator should be adjusted until its
terminal voltage is equal to the line voltage oI the running system.
2. Check and veriIy phase sequence to be identical to the system phase sequence. There are 2
methods to do this:
i. Alternately connect a small induction motor to the terminals oI each oI the 2 generators. II
the motor rotates in the same direction each time, then the phase sequence is the same Ior
both generators. II the motor rotates in opposite directions, then the phase sequences diIIer,
and 2 oI the conductors on the incoming generator must be reversed.
ii. Another way is using the 3 light bulb method, where the bulbs are stretched across the
open terminals oI the switch connecting the generator to the system (as shown in the Iigure
above). As the phase changes between the 2 systems, the light bulbs Iirst get bright (large
phase diIIerence) and then get dim (small phase diIIerence). II all 3 bulbs get bright and
dark together, then the systems have the same phase sequence. II the bulbs brighten in
succession, then the systems have the opposite phase sequence, and one oI the sequences
must be reversed.
Chapter 5
18
iii. Using a Synchroscope a meter that measures the diIIerence in phase angles (it does not
check phase sequences only phase angles).
3. Check and veriIy generator frequency to be slightly higher than the system Irequency. This is
done by watching a Irequency meter until the Irequencies are close and then by observing
changes in phase between the systems.
4. Once the Irequencies are nearly equal, the voltages in the 2 systems will change phase with
respect to each other very slowly. The phase changes are observed, and when the phase angles
are equal, the switch connecting the 2 systems is shut.
Frequency-Power and Voltage-Reactive Power Characteristics of a Synchronous Generator
All generators are driven by a prime mover, which is the generator`s source oI mechanical power. All
prime movers tend to behave in a similar Iashion as the power drawn Irom them increases, the speed at
which they turn decreases. The decrease in speed is in general non linear, but some Iorm oI governor
mechanism is usually included to make the decrease in speed linear with an increase in power demand.
Whatever governor mechanism is present on a prime mover, it will always be adjusted to provide a slight
drooping characteristic with increasing load. The speed droop (SD) oI a prime mover is deIined as:
100
nl fl
fl
n n
SD
n
=
Where n
nl
is the no-load prime mover speed and n
Il
is the Iull-load prime mover speed.
Typical values oI SD are 2 4. Most governors have some type oI set point adjustment to allow the
no-load speed oI the turbine to be varied. A typical speed vs. power plot is as shown below.
Since mechanical speed is related to the electrical Irequency and electrical Irequency is related with the
output power, hence we will obtain the Iollowing equation:
, )
p nl svs
P s f f =
Where P output power
I
nl
no-load Irequency oI the generator
I
sys
operating Irequency oI system
s
P
slope oI curve in kW/Hz or MW/Hz
II we look in terms oI reactive power output and its relation to the terminal voltage we shall see a similar
shape oI curve as shown in the Irequency power curve.
Chapter 5
19
In conclusion, Ior a single generator:
a) Eor any given real power, the governor set points control the generator operating Irequency
b) Eor any given reactive power, the Iield current controls the generator`s terminal voltage.
c) Real and reactive power supplied will be the amount demanded by the load attached to the
generator the P and Q supplied cannot be controlled by the generator`s controls.
Example 5-5
Eigure below shows a generator supplying a load. A second load is to be connected in parallel with the
Iirst one. The generator has a no-load Irequency oI 61.0 Hz and a slope s
p
oI 1 MW/Hz. Load 1
consumes a real power oI 1000kW at 0.8 PE lagging, while load 2 consumes a real power oI 800kW at
0.707 PE lagging.
(a) BeIore the switch is closed, what is the operating Irequency oI the system?
(b) AIter load 2 is connected, what is the operating Irequency oI the system?
(c) AIter load 2 is connected, what action could an operator take to restore the system Irequency to
60Hz?
Operation of Generators in Parallel with Large Power Systems
Changes in one generator in large power systems may not have any eIIect on the system.
A large power system may be represented as an infinite bus system. An inIinite bus is a power system
so large that its voltage and Irequency do not vary regardless oI how much real and reactive power is
drawn Irom or supplied to it. The power-Irequency characteristic and the reactive power-voltage
characteristic are shown below:
Chapter 5
20
A synchronous generator operating
in parallel with an inIinite bus
The Irequency-power diagram
(house diagram) Ior a synchronous
generator in parallel with an
inIinite bus.
Now consider a generator connected to an inIinite bus system Ieeding into a load. We shall consider the
action or changes done to the generator and its eIIect to the system. Assume that the generator`s prime
mover has a governor mechanism, but that the Iield is controlled manually by a resistor.
When a generator is connected in parallel with another generator or a large system, the Irequency and
terminal voltage oI all the machines must be the same, since their output conductors are tied together.
Thus, their real power-Irequency and reactive power-voltage characteristics can be plotted back to back,
with a common vertical axis. Such a sketch is called a housc diagram, as shown below:
Chapter 5
21
Assume that the generator has just been paralleled with the inIinite bus according to the procedure
described previously. Thus, the generator will be 'Iloating on the line, supplying a small amount oI real
power and little or no reactive power. This is shown here:
Suppose the generator had been paralleled to the line but instead oI being at a slightly higher Irequency
than the running system, it was at a slightly lower Irequency. In this case, when paralleling is completed,
the resulting situation is as shown here:
Notice that here the no-load Irequency oI the generator is less than the system`s Irequency. At this
Irequency, the power supplied by the generator is actually negative. In other words, when the generator`s
no-load Irequency is less than the system`s operating Irequency, the generator actually consumes electric
power and runs as a motor. It is to ensure that a generator comes on line supplying power instead oI
consuming in that the oncoming machine`s Irequency is adjusted higher than the running system`s
Irequency.
Assume that the generator is already connected, what eIIects oI governor control and Iield current control
has to the generator?
Governor Control Effects:
In theory, iI the governor set points is increased, the no load Irequency will also increase (the droop
graph will shiIt up). Since in an inIinite bus system Irequency does not change, the overall eIIect is to
increase the generator output power (another way to explain that it would look as iI the generator is
loaded up Iurther). Hence the output current will increase.
The eIIect oI increasing the
governor`s set point on the
house diagram
Chapter 5
22
Notice that in the phasor diagram that E
A
sin o (which is proportional to the power supplied as long as V
T
is constant) has increased, while the magnitude oI E
A
(K|e) remains constant, since both the Iield
current I
E
and the speed oI rotation e is unchanged. As the governor set points are Iurther increased the
no-load Irequency increases and the power supplied by the generator increases. As the power output
increases, E
A
remains at constant magnitude while E
A
sin o is Iurther increased.
II the governor is set as such that it exceeds the load requirement, the excess power will Ilow back to the
inIinite bus system. The inIinite bus, by deIinition, can supply or consume any amount oI power without
a change in Irequency, so the extra power is consumed.
Field Current Control Effects:
Increasing the governor set point will increase power but will cause the generator to absorb some reactive
power. The question is now, how do we supply reactive power Q into the system instead oI absorbing it?
This can be done by adjusting the Iield current oI the generator.

Constraints: Power into the generator must remain constant when I
E
is changed so that power out oI the
generator must also remain constant. The power into a generator is given by the equation P
in
t
ind
e
m
.
Now, the prime mover oI a synchronous generator has a Iixed-torque speed characteristic Ior any given
governor setting. This curve changes only when the governor set points are changed. Since the generator
is tied to an inIinite bus, its speed cannot change. II the generator`s speed does not change and the
governor set points have not been changed, the power supplied by the generator must remain constant.
II the power supplied is constant as the Iield current is changed, then the distances proportional to the
power in the phasor diagram (I
A
cos u and E
A
sin o) cannot change. When the Iield current is increased,
the Ilux | increases, and thereIore E
A
(K | e) increases. II E
A
increases, but E
A
sin o must remain
constant, then the phasor E
A
must 'slide along the line oI constant power, as shown below.
The eIIect oI increasing the generator`s Iield current on the phasor diagram oI the machine.
The eIIect oI increasing the
governor`s set point on the
phasor diagram
Chapter 5
23
The house diagram at the moment G
2
is
paralleled with the system
Since V
|
is constant, the angle oI jX
S
I
A
changes as shown, and thereIore the angle and magnitude oI I
A
change. Notice that as a result the distance proportional to Q (I
A
sinu) increases.
In other words, increasing the Iield current in a synchronous generator operating in parallel with an
inIinite bus increases the reactive power output oI the generator.
Hence, for a generator operating in parallel with an infinite bus:
a) Frequency and terminal voltage of generator is controlled by the connected system.
b) Changes in Governor set points will control real power to be supplied.
c) Changes in Field Current will control the amount of reactive power to be supplied.
Notc that thcsc cffccts arc onlv applicablc for gcncrators in a largc svstcm onlv.
Operation of Generators in Parallel with Other Generators of the Same Size
When a single generator operated alone, the real and reactive powers supplied by the generators are
Iixed, constrained to be equal to the power demanded by the load, and the Irequency and terminal voltage
were varied by the governor set points and the Iield current.
When a generator is operating in parallel with an inIinite bus, the Irequency and terminal voltage were
constrained to be constant by the inIinite bys, and the real and reactive powers were varied by the
governor set points and the Iield current.
What happcns whcn a svnchronous gcncrator is conncctcd in parallcl not with an infinitc bus, but rathcr
with anothcr gcncrator of thc samc si:c?
What will bc thc cffcct of changing govcrnor sct points and ficld currcnts?
The system is as shown here:
In this system, the basic constraint is that the sum oI the real and reactive powers supplied by the two
generators must equal the P and Q demanded by the load. The system Irequency is not constrained to be
constant, and neither is the power oI a given generator constrained to be constant.
The power-Irequency diagram Ior such a system immediately aIter G
2
has been paralleled to the line is
shown below:
Chapter 5
24
The eIIect oI increasing G
2
`s Iield
current on the operating oI the
system.
The total power P
tot
(which is equal to P
load
) and reactive power respectively are given by:
P
tot
P
load
P
G1
P
G2
Q
tot
Q
load
Q
G1
Q
G2
What happcns if thc govcrnor sct points of G
2
arc incrcascd?
As a result, the power-Irequency curve oI G
2
shiIts upward as shown here:
The total power supplied to the load must not change. At the original Irequency I
1
, the power supplied by
G
1
and G
2
will now be larger than the load demand, so the system cannot continue to operate at the same
Irequency as beIore. In Iact, there is only one Irequency at which the sum oI the powers out oI the two
generators is equal to P
load
. That Irequency I
2
is higher than the original system operating Irequency. At
that Irequency, G
2
supplies more power than beIore, and G
1
supplies less power than beIore.
Thus, when 2 generators are operating together, an increase in governor set points on one oI them
1. increases the system Irequency.
2. increases the power supplied by that generator, while reducing the power supplied by the other
one.
What happcns if thc ficld currcnt of G
2
is incrcascd?
The resulting behaviour is analogous to the real-power situation as shown below:
When 2 generators are operating together and the Iield current oI G
2
is increased,
1. The system terminal voltage is increased.
2. The reactive power Q supplied by that generator is increased, while the reactive power supplied
by the other generator is decreased.
The eIIect oI increasing G
2
`s governor
set points on the operation oI the system.
Chapter 5
25
G
1
has a no-load Irequency oI 61.5 Hz and a slope s
P1
oI 1MW/Hz.
G
2
has a no-load Irequency oI 61Hz and a slope s
P1
oI 1MW/Hz.
The 2 generators are supplying a real load totalling 2.5 MW at 0.8
PE lagging. The resulting system power-Irequency or house
diagram is shown below.
II the slopes and no-load Irequencies oI the generator`s speed droop (Irequency-power) curves are
known, then the powers supplied by each generator and the resulting system Irequency can be determined
quantitatively. Example 5-6 shows how this can be done.
Example 5-6
(a) At what Irequency is this system operating, and how much power is supplied by each oI the 2
generators?
(b) Suppose an additional 1-MW load were attached to this power system. What would the new
system Irequency be, and how much power would G
1
and G
2
supply now?
(c) With the system in the conIiguration described in part b, what will the system Irequency and
generator powers be oI the governor set points on G
2
are increased by 0.5 Hz?
When 2 generators oI similar size are operating in parallel, a change in the governor set points oI one oI
them changes both the system Ireq and the power sharing between them.
How can thc powcr sharing of thc powcr svstcm bc adfustcd indcpcndcntlv of thc svstcm frcqucncv, and
vicc vcrsa?
Chapter 5
26
An increase in governor set points on one generator increases that machine`s power and increases the
system Irequency. A decrease in governor set points on the other generator decreases that machine`s
power and decreases the system Irequency. ThereIore, to adjust power sharing without changing the
system Irequency, increase the governor set points oI one generator and simultaneously decrease the
governor set points oI the other generator. (and same goes when adjusting the system Irequency). This is
shown below:
Reactive power and terminal voltage adjustment work in an analogous Iashion. To shiIt the reactive
power sharing without changing V
T
, simultaneously increase the Iield current on one generator and
decrease the Iield current on the other. (and same goes when adjusting the terminal voltage). This is
shown below:
It is very important that any synchronous generator intended to operate in parallel with other machines
have a drooping Irequency-power characteristic. II two generators have Ilat or nearly Ilat characteristics,
then the power sharing between them can vary widely with only the tiniest changes in no-load speed.
This problem is illustrated below:
ShiIting power sharing without aIIecting
system Irequency
ShiIting system Irequency without aIIecting
power sharing
ShiIting reactive power sharing without
aIIecting terminal voltage
ShiIting terminal voltage without aIIecting
reactive power sharing
Chapter 5
27
Notice that even very tiny changes in I
nl
in one oI the generators would cause wild shiIts in power
sharing. To ensure good control oI power sharing between generators, they should have speed droops in
the range oI 2-5.
10. Synchronous Generator Ratings
The Voltage, Speed and Frequency Ratings
Frequency Ratings: Rated Irequency will depend upon the system at which the generator is connected.
Voltage Ratings: Generated voltage is dependent upon Ilux, speed oI rotation and mechanical constants.
However, there is a ceiling limit oI Ilux level since it is dependent upon the generator material. Hence
voltage ratings may give a rough idea on its maximum Ilux level possible and also maximum voltage to
beIore the winding insulation breaks down.
Apparent Power and Power Factor Ratings
Constraints Ior electrical machines generally dependent upon mechanical strength (mechanical torque on
the shaIt oI the machine) and also its winding insulation limits (heating oI its windings). Eor a generator,
there are 2 diIIerent windings that has to be protected which are:
a) Armature winding
b) Eield Winding
Hence the maximum armature current Ilow can be Iound Irom the maximum apparent power, S:
3
A
S J I
=
II the rated voltage is known, we may Iind the maximum I
A
allowed.
The heating eIIect oI the stator copper losses is given by:
P
SCL
3 I
A
2
R
A
The Iield copper losses:
2
RCL F F
P I R =
Maximum Iield current will set the maximum E
A
permissible. And since we can Iind the maximum Iield
current and the maximum E
A
possible, we may be able to determine the lowest PE changes possible Ior
the generator to operate at rated apparent power. Eigure below shows the phasor diagram oI a
synchronous generator with the rated voltage and armature current. The current can assume many
diIIerent angles as shown.
Chapter 5
28
The internal generated voltage E
A
is the sum oI V| and jX
S
I
A
. Notice that Ior some possible current
angles the required E
A
exceeds E
A,max
. II the generator were operated at the rated armature current and
these power Iactors, the Iield winding would burn up.
The angle oI I
A
that requires the max possible E
A
while V| remains at the rated value gives the rated
power Iactor oI the generator. It is possible to operate the generator at a lower (more lagging) power
Iactor than the rated value, but only by cutting back on the kVA supplied by the generator.
Synchronous Generator Capability Curves.
Based upon these limits, there is a need to plot the capability oI the synchronous generator. This is so that
it can be shown graphically the limits oI the generator.
A capability diagram is a plot oI complex power SPjQ. The capability curve can be derived back
Irom the voltage phasor oI the synchronous generator. Assume that a voltage phasor as shown, operating
at lagging power Iactor and its rated value:
Note that the capability curve oI the must represent power limits oI the generator, hence there is a need to
convert the voltage phasor into power phasor.
The powers are given by:
P 3 V| I
A
cos u
Q 3 V| I
A
sin u
S 3 V| I
A
Thus,
The conversion Iactor to change the scale oI the axes Irom V to VA is 3 V|/X
S
.
Chapter 5
29
, )
S S
X
J
J
X
J
Q

3 3
= =
S
A
E
X
J E
D

3
=
S
X
J
Q
2
3

=
On the voltage axes, the origin oI the phasor diagram is at -V|

on the horizontal axis, so the origin on the
power diagram is at:
The Iield current is proportional to the machine`s Ilux, and the Ilux is proportional to E
A
K|e. The
length corresponding to E
A
on the power diagram is:
The armature current I
A
is proportional to X
S
I
A
, and the length corresponding to X
S
I
A
on the power
diagram is 3V|I
A
.
The Iinal capability curve is shown below:
It is a plot oI P vs Q. Lines oI constant armature current I
A
appear as lines oI constant S 3V|I
A
, which
are concentric circles around the origin. Lines oI constant Iield current correspond to lines oI constant
E
A
, which are shown as circles oI magnitude 3E
A
V|/X
S
centered on the point
Chapter 5
30
The armature current limit appears as the circle corresponding to the rated I
A
or rated KVA, and the Iield
current limit appears as a circle corresponding to the rated I
E
or E
A
. Any point that lies within both
circles is a saIe operating point Ior the generator.
Example 5-8
A 480V, 50 Hz, Y-connected, 6-pole, synchronous generator is rated at 50kVA at 0.8 PE lagging. It has
a synchronous reactance oI 1 ohm per phase. Assume that this generator is connected to a steam turbine
capable oI supplying up to 45kW. The Iriction and windage losses are 1.5 kW, and the core losses are
1.0 kW.
(a) Sketch the capability curve Ior this generator, including the prime mover power limit.
(b) Can this generator supply a line current oI 56A at 0.7 PE lagging? Why or why not?
(c) What is the max amount oI reactive power this generator can produce?
(d) II the generator supplies 30kW oI real power, what is the maximum amount oI reactive power
that can be simultaneously supplied?
Chapter 6: Synchronous Motor

In general, a synchronous motor is very similar to a synchronous generator with a
difference of function only.

Steady State Operations

A synchronous motor are usually applied to instances where the load would require a
constant speed. Hence for a synchronous motor, its torque speed characteristic is constant
speed as the induced torque increases. Hence SR = 0%.

Since,

sin
3 sin
ind R net
A
ind
m s
kB B
V E
X
=
=

Maximum torque (pullout torque) is achieved when sin = 1. If load exceeds the pullout
torque, the rotor will slow down. Due to the interaction between the stator and rotor
magnetic field, there would be a torque surge produced as such there would be a loss of
synchronism which is known as slipping poles.

Also based upon the above equation, maximum induced torque can be achieved by
increasing E
a
hence increasing the field current.

Effect of load changes

Assumption:

A synchronous generator operating with a load connected to it. The field current
setting are unchanged.

Varying load would in fact slow the machine down a bit hence increasing the torque
angle. Due to an increase to the torque angle, more torque is induced hence spinning the
synchronous machine to synchronous speed again.

The overall effect is that the synchronous motor phasor diagram would have a bigger
torque angle . In terms of the term E
a
, since I
f
is set not to change, hence the magnitude
of E
a
should not change as shown in the phasor diagram (fig.6-6). Since the angle of d
changes, the armature current magnitude and angle would also change to compensate to
the increase of power as shown in the phasor diagram (fig. 6-6).

Effect of field current changes on a synchronous motor

Assumption:

The synchronous generator is rotating at synchronous speed with a load
connected to it. The load remains unchanged.

As the field current is increased, E
a
should increase. Unfortunately, there are constraints
set to the machine as such that the power requirement is unchanged. Therefore since P is
has to remain constant, it imposes a limit at which I
a
and jX
s
I
a
as such that E
a
tends to
slide across a horizontal limit as shown in figure 6-8. I
a
will react to the changes in E
a
as
such that its angle changes from a leading power factor to a lagging power factor or vice
versa.

This gives a possibility to utilise the synchronous motor as a power factor correction tool
since varying magnetic field would change the motor from leading to lagging or vice
versa.

This characteristic can also be represented in the V curves as shown in figure 6-10.

Synchronous motor as a power factor correction

Varying the field current would change to amount of reactive power injected or absorbed
by the motor. Hence if a synchronous motor is incorporated nearby a load which require
reactive power, the synchronous motor may be operated to inject reactive power hence
maintaining stability and lowering high current flow in the transmission line.
Starting Synchronous Motors

Problem with starting a synchronous motor is the initial production of torque which
would vary as the stator magnetic field sweeps the rotor. As a result, the motor will
vibrate and could overheat (refer to figure 6-16 for diagram explanations).

There are 3 different starting methods available:
a) Reduced speed of stator magnetic field the aim is to reduce it slow enough as
such that the stator will have time to follow the stator magnetic field.
b) External prime mover to accelerate the synchronous motor.
c) Damper windings or amortisseur windings.

Stator magnetic field speed reduction

The idea is to let the stator magnetic field to rotate slow enough as such that the rotor has
time to lock on to the stator magnetic field. This method used to be impractical due to
problems in reducing stator magnetic field.

Now, due to power electronics technology, frequency reduction is possible hence makes
it a more viable solution.

Using a prime mover

This is a very straightforward method.

Motor Starting using Amortisseur windings

This is the most popular way to start an induction motor. Amortisseur windings are a
special kind of windings which is shorted at each ends. Its concept is near similar to an
induction motor hence in depth explanation can be obtained in the text book (page 345-
348).

The final effect of this starting method is that the rotor will spin at near synchronous
speed. Note that the rotor will never reach synchronous speed unless during that time, the
field windings are switched on hence will enable the rotor to lock on to the stator
magnetic field.

Effect of Amortisseur windings

The advantage of this starting method is that it acts as a damper as such that during
transient cases at which the system frequency would vary significantly (varying
frequency would affect the synchronous speed) hence the amortisseur windings may act
as a dampening effect to slow down a fast machines and to speed up slow machines,

Chapter 7
1
CHAPTER 7 - INDUCTION MOTOR
Summary:
1. Induction Motor Construction
2. Basic Induction Motor Concepts
- The Development oI Induced Torque in an Induction Motor.
- The Concept oI Rotor Slip.
- The Electrical Erequency on the Rotor.
3. The Equivalent Circuit of an Induction Motor.
- The TransIormer Model oI an induction Motor.
- The Rotor Circuit Model.
- The Einal Equivalent Circuit.
4. Powers and Torque in Induction Motor.
- Losses and Power-Elow diagram
- Power and Torque in an Induction Motor.
- Separating the Rotor Copper Losses and the Power Converted in an Induction Motor`s
Equivalent Circuit.
5. Induction Motor Torque-Speed Characteristics
- Induced Torque Irom a Physical Standpoint.
- The Derivation oI the Induction Motor Induced-Torque Equation.
- Comments on the Induction Motor Torque Speed Curve.
- Maximum (Pullout) Torque in an Induction Motor.
6. Variations in Induction Motor Toque-Speed Characteristics
- Control oI Motor Characteristics by Cage Rotor Design.
- Deep-Bar and Double-Cage rotor design.
- Induction Motor Design Classes.
7. Starting Induction Motors
8. Speed Control of Induction Motor
- Induction Motor Speed Control by Pole Changing.
- Speed Control by Changing the Line Erequency.
- Speed Control by Changing the Line Voltage.
- Speed Control by Changing the Rotor Resistance.
9. Determining Circuit Model Parameters
- The No-Load Test
- The DC Test
- The Locked-Rotor Test
Chapter 7
2
Cutaway diagram oI a typical
large cage rotor induction motor
Sketch oI cage rotor
Induction machine the rotor voltage that produces the rotor current and the rotor magnetic Iield is
induced in the rotor windings rather than being physically connected by wires. No dc Iield current is
required to run the machine.
1. Induction Motor Construction
There are basically 2 types oI rotor construction:
a) Squirrel Cage - no windings and no slip rings
b) Wound rotor - It has 3 phase windings, usually Y connected, and the winding ends are
connected via slip rings.
Wound rotor are known to be more expensive due to its maintenance cost to upkeep the slip rings,
carbon brushes and also rotor windings.
Chapter 7
3
Typical wound rotor Ior induction
motors.
Cutaway diagram oI a wound rotor induction motor.
Chapter 7
4
2. Basic Induction Motor Concepts
The Development of Induced Torque in an Induction Motor
When current Ilows in the stator, it will produce a magnetic Iield in stator as such that B
s
(stator magnetic
Iield) will rotate at a speed:
120
e
sync
f
n
P
=
Where f
e
is the system Irequency in hertz and P is the number oI poles in the machine. This rotating
magnetic Iield B
s
passes over the rotor bars and induces a voltage in them. The voltage induced in the
rotor is given by:
e
ind
(v x B) l
Hence there will be rotor current Ilow which would be lagging due to the Iact that the rotor has an
inductive element. And this rotor current will produce a magnetic Iield at the rotor, B
r
. Hence the
interaction between both magnetic Iield would give torque:
ind R S
kB B =
The torque induced would generate acceleration to the rotor, hence the rotor will spin.
However, there is a Iinite upper limit to the motor`s speed.
Conclusion : An induction motor can thus speed up to near synchronous speed but it can never
reach synchronous speed.
If the induction motor`s rotor were
turning at synchronous speed
the rotor bars would be stationary
relative to the magnetic Iield
no induced voltage no rotor current
no rotor magnetic Iield Induced torque 0
Rotor will slow down due to Iriction
Chapter 7
5
100 x s
sync
m sync

=
e
sync
m sync
r
f
n
n n
f

=
The Concept of Rotor Slip
The induced voltage at the rotor bar is dependent upon the relative speed between the stator
magnetic field and the rotor. This can be easily termed as slip speed:
slip sync m
n n n =
Where n
slip
slip speed oI the machine
n
sync
speed oI the magnetic Iield.
n
m
mechanical shaIt speed oI the motor.
Apart Irom that we can describe this relative motion by using the concept oI slip:
, 100 100
slip sync m
sync sync
n n n
Slip s
n n

= =
Slip may also be described in terms oI angular velocity, e.
Using the ratio oI slip, we may also determine the rotor speed:
, ) , ) 1 1
m sync m sync
n s n or s = =
The Electrical Frequency on the Rotor
An induction motor is similar to a rotating transformer where the primary is similar to the stator
and the secondary would be a rotor. But unlike a transIormer, the secondary Irequency may not be the
same as in the primary.
II the rotor is locked (cannot move), the rotor would have the same Irequency as the stator (reIer to
transIormer concept). Another way to look at it is to see that when the rotor is locked, rotor speed drops
to zero, hence by deIault, slip is 1. But as the rotor starts to rotate, the rotor Irequency would reduce, and
when the rotor turns at synchronous speed, the Irequency on the rotor will be zero.
Why?
Since
sync m
sync
n n
S
n

=
And rotor Irequency may be expressed as:
r e
f sf =
Hence combing both equations would give:
Chapter 7
6
, )
m sync r
n n
P
f =
120
And since n
sync
120f
e
/ P,
Which shows that the relative diIIerence between synchronous speed and the rotor speed will determine
the rotor Irequency.
Example 7.1
A 208V, 10hp, 4 pole, 60Hz, Y-connected induction motor has a Iull-load slip oI 5.
(a) What is the synchronous speed oI this motor?
(b) What is the rotor speed oI this motor at the rated load?
(c) What is the rotor Irequency oI this motor at the rated load?
(d) What is the shaIt torque oI this motor at the rated load?
3. The Equivalent Circuit of an Induction Motor
An induction motor relies Ior its operation on the induction oI voltages and currents in its rotor circuit
Irom the stator circuit (transIormer action). This induction is essentially a transIormer operation, hence
the equivalent circuit oI an induction motor is similar to the equivalent circuit oI a transIormer.
The Transformer Model of an Induction Motor
A transIormer per-phase equivalent circuit, representing the operation oI an induction motor is shown
below:
As in any transIormer, there is certain resistance and selI-inductance in the primary (stator) windings,
which must be represented in the equivalent circuit oI the machine. They are - R
1
- stator resistance and
X
1
stator leakage reactance
Also, like any transIormer with an iron core, the Ilux in the machine is related to the integral oI the
applied voltage E
1
. The curve oI mmI vs Ilux (magnetization curve) Ior this machine is compared to a
similar curve Ior a transIormer, as shown below:
The transIormer model or an induction motor, with rotor and stator connected
by an ideal transIormer oI turns ratio a
eII
.
Chapter 7
7
The slope oI the induction motor`s mmI-Ilux curve is much shallower than the curve oI a good
transIormer. This is because there must be an air gap in an induction motor, which greatly increases the
reluctance oI the Ilux path and thus reduces the coupling between primary and secondary windings. The
higher reluctance caused by the air gap means that a higher magnetizing current is required to obtain a
given Ilux level. ThereIore, the magnetizing reactance X
m
in the equivalent circuit will have a much
smaller value than it would in a transIormer.
The primary internal stator voltage is E
1
is coupled to the secondary E
R
by an ideal transIormer with an
eIIective turns ratio a
eII
. The turns ratio Ior a wound rotor is basically the ratio oI the conductors per
phase on the stator to the conductors per phase on the rotor. It is rather diIIicult to see a
eII
clearly in the
cage rotor because there are no distinct windings on the cage rotor.
E
R
in the rotor produces current Ilow in the shorted rotor (or secondary) circuit oI the machine.
The primary impedances and the magnetization current oI the induction motor are very similar to the
corresponding components in a transIormer equivalent circuit.
The Rotor Circuit Model
When the voltage is applied to the stator windings, a voltage is induced in the rotor windings. In general,
the greater the relative motion between the rotor and the stator magnetic fields, the greater the
resulting rotor voltage and rotor frequency. The largest relative motion occurs when the rotor is
stationary, called the locked-rotor or blocked-rotor condition, so the largest voltage and rotor Irequency
are induced in the rotor at that condition. The smallest voltage and Irequency occur when the rotor
moves at the same speed as the stator magnetic Iield, resulting in no relative motion.
The magnitude and Irequency oI the voltage induced in the rotor at any speed between these extremes is
directly proportional to the slip oI the rotor. ThereIore, iI the magnitude oI the induced rotor voltage at
locked-rotor conditions is called E
R0
, the magnitude oI the induced voltage at any slip will be given by:
E
R
sE
R0
And the Irequency oI the induced voltage at any slip is:
Chapter 7
8
I
r
sI
e
This voltage is induced in a rotor containing both resistance and reactance. The rotor resistance R
R
is a
constant, independent oI slip, while the rotor reactance is aIIected in a more complicated way by slip.
The reactance oI an induction motor rotor depends on the inductance oI the rotor and the Irequency oI the
voltage and current in the rotor. With a rotor inductance oI L
R
, the rotor reactance is:
0
2
,
2
R r R r R
r e
R e R R
X L f L
Since f sf
X s f L sX

= =
=
= =
where X
R0
is the blocked rotor reactance. The resulting rotor equivalent circuit is as shown:
The rotor circuit model oI an induction motor.
The rotor current Ilow is:
0
0
0
R R R
R
R
R R R R
R
E E E
I
R
R fX R fsX
fX
s
= = =
+ +
+
ThereIore, the overall rotor impedance talking into account rotor slip would be:
, 0
R
R eq R
R
Z fX
s
= +
And the rotor equivalent circuit using this convention is:
The rotor circuit model with all the Irequency (slip) eIIects concentrated in resistor R
R
.
Chapter 7
9
In this equivalent circuit, the rotor voltage is a constant E
R0
V and the rotor impedance Z
R,eq
contains all the eIIects oI varying rotor slip. Based upon the equation above, at low slips, it can
be seen that the rotor resistance is much much bigger in magnitude as compared to X
R0
. At high
slips, X
R0
will be larger as compared to the rotor resistance.
The Final Equivalent Circuit
To produce the Iinal per-phase equivalent circuit Ior an induction motor, it is necessary to reIer the rotor
part oI the model over to the stator side. In an ordinary transIormer, the voltages, currents and
impedances on the secondary side can be reIerred to the primary by means oI the turns ratio oI the
transIormer.
Exactly the same sort oI transIormation can be done Ior the induction motor`s rotor circuit. II the
eIIective turns ratio oI an induction motor is a
eII
, then the transIormed rotor voltage becomes
'
1 0 R eff R
E E a E = =
The rotor current:
2
R
eff
I
I
a
=
And the rotor impedance:
2
2 0
R
eff R
R
Z a fX
s
|
= +
|
' .
II we make the Iollowing deIinitions:
R
2
a
2
eII
R
R
X
2
a
2
eII
X
R0
The Iinal per-phase equivalent circuit is as shown below:
4. Power and Torque in Induction Motor
Losses and Power-Flow diagram
An induction motor can be basically described as a rotating transIormer. Its input is a 3 phase system oI
voltages and currents. Eor an ordinary transIormer, the output is electric power Irom the secondary
Chapter 7
10
windings. The secondary windings in an induction motor (the rotor) are shorted out, so no electrical
output exists Irom normal induction motors. Instead, the output is mechanical. The relationship between
the input electric power and the output mechanical power oI this motor is shown below:
The input power to an induction motor P
in
is in the Iorm oI 3-phase electric voltages and currents. The
Iirst losses encountered in the machine are I
2
R losses in the stator windings (the stator copper loss P
SCL
).
Then, some amount oI power is lost as hysteresis and eddy currents in the stator (P
core
). The power
remaining at this point is transIerred to the rotor oI the machine across the air gap between the stator and
rotor. This power is called the air gap power P
AG
oI the machine. AIter the power is transIerred to the
rotor, some oI it is lost as I
2
R losses (the rotor copper loss P
RCL
), and the rest is converted Irom electrical
to mechanical Iorm (P
conv
). Einally, Iriction and windage losses P
E&W
and stray losses P
misc
are
subtracted. The remaining power is the output oI the motor P
out
.
The core losses do not always appear in the power-Ilow diagram at the point shown in the Iigure above.
Because oI the nature oI the core losses, where they are accounted Ior in the machine is somewhat
arbitrary. The core losses oI an induction motor come partially Irom the stator circuit and partially Irom
the rotor circuit. Since an induction motor normally operates at a speed near synchronous speed, the
relative motion oI the magnetic Iields over the rotor surIace is quite slow, and the rotor core losses are
very tiny compared to the stator core losses. Since the largest Iraction oI the core losses comes Irom the
stator circuit, all the core losses are lumped together at that point on the diagram. These losses are
represented in the induction motor equivalent circuit by the resistor R
C
(or the conductance G
C
). II core
losses are just given by a number (X watts) instead oI as a circuit element, they are oIten lumped together
with the mechanical losses and subtracted at the point on the diagram where the mechanical losses are
located.
The higher the speed oI an induction motor, the higher the Iriction, windage, and stray losses. On the
other hand, the higher the speed oI the motor (up to n
sync
), the lower its core losses. ThereIore, these
three categories oI losses are sometimes lumped together and called rotational losses. The total
rotational losses oI a motor are oIten considered to be constant with changing speed, since the component
losses change in opposite directions with a change in speed.
Example 7.2
A 480V, 60Hz, 50hp, 3 phase induction motor is drawing 60A at 0.85 PE lagging. The stator copper
losses are 2kW, and the rotor copper losses are 700W. The Iriction and windage losses are 600W, the
core losses are 1800W, and the stray losses are negligible. Eind:
a) The air gap power P
AG
b) The power converted P
conv
c) The output power P
out
d) The eIIiciency oI the motor
Chapter 7
11
eq
Z
J
I

=
1
2
2
1 1
1
1
fX
s
J
fB G
fX R Z
M C
eq
+
+
+ + =
s
R
P
AG
2
2
2
31 =
RCL AG conv
P P P =
|
.
|
'
=
=
1
1
3
3 3
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
s
R I
R I
s
R
I
|
.
|
'

=
s
s
R I P
conv
1
3
2
2
2
Power and Torque in an Induction Motor
By examining the per-phase equivalent circuit, the power and torque equations governing the operation
oI the motor can be derived.
The input current to a phase oI the motor is:
Where
Thus, the stator copper losses, the core losses, and the rotor copper losses can be Iound.
The stator copper losses in the 3 phases are: P
SCL
3 I
1
2
R
1
The core losses : P
Core
3 E
1
2
G
C
So, the air gap power: P
AG
P
in
P
SCL
- P
core
Also, the only element in the equivalent circuit where the air-gap power can be consumed is in the
resistor R
2
/s. Thus, the air-gap power:
The actual resistive losses in the rotor circuit are given by:
P
RCL
3 I
R
2
R
R
Since power is unchanged when reIerred across an ideal transIormer, the rotor copper losses can also be
expressed as:
P
RCL
3 I
2
2
R
2
AIter stator copper losses, core losses and rotor copper losses are subtracted Irom the input power to the
motor, the remaining power is converted Irom electrical to mechanical Iorm. The power converted,
which is called developed mechanical power is given as:
And the rotor copper losses are noticed to be equal to the air gap power times the slip P
RCL
s P
AG
Chapter 7
12
m
conv
ind
P
=
, )
, )
sync
AG
ind
sync
AG
ind
P
s
P s
=
1
1
Hence, the lower the slip oI the motor, the lower the rotor losses. Also, iI the rotor is not turning, the slip
is s1 and the air gap power is entirely consumed in the rotor. This is logical, since iI the rotor is not
turning, the output power P
out
( t
load
e
m
) must be zero. Since P
conv
P
AG
P
RCL
, this also gives
another relationship between the air-gap power and the power converted Irom electrical and mechanical
Iorm:
P
conv
P
AG
P
RCL
P
AG
sP
AG
P
conv
(1-s) P
AG
Einally, iI the Iriction and windage losses and the stray losses are known, the output power:
P
out
P
conv
P
E&W
- P
misc
The induced torque in a machine was deIined as the torque generated by the internal electric to
mechanical power conversion. This torque diIIers Irom the torque actually available at the terminals oI
the motor by an amount equal to the Iriction and windage torques in the machine. Hence, the developed
torque is:
Other ways to express torque:
Separating the Rotor Copper Losses and the Power Converted in an Induction Motor`s Equivalent
Circuit
A portion oI power transIerred via the air gap will be consumed by the rotor copper loss and also
converted into mechanical power. Hence it may be useIul to separate the rotor copper loss element since
rotor resistance are both used Ior calculating rotor copper loss and also the output power.
Since Air Gap power would require R
2
/s and rotor copper loss require R
2
element. The diIIerence
between the air gap power and the rotor copper loss would give the converted power, hence;
2
2 2
1
conv
R s
R R R
s s
|
= =
|
' .
Chapter 7
13
ThereIore the equivalent circuit would be modiIied to be as Iollows:
Example 7.3
A 460V, 25hp, 60Hz, 4 pole, Y-connected induction motor has the Iollowing impedances in ohms per
phase reIerred to the stator circuit:
R
1
0.641 O R
2
0.332 O
X
1
1.106 O X
2
0.464 O X
m
26.3 O
The total rotational losses are 1100W and are assumed to be constant. The core loss is lumped in with
the rotational losses. Eor a rotor slip oI 2.2 at the rated voltage and rated Irequency, Iind the motor`s
a) speed
b) stator current
c) power Iactor
d) P
conv
and P
out
e) t
ind
and t
load
I) eIIiciency
Chapter 7
14
5. Induction Motor Torque-Speed Characteristics
The torque-speed relationship will be examined Iirst Irom the physical viewpoint oI the motor`s magnetic
Iiled behaviour and then, a general equation Ior torque as a Iunction oI slip will be derived Irom the
induction motor equivalent circuit.
Induced Torque from a Physical Standpoint
Ao-load Condition
Assume that the induction rotor is already rotating at no load conditions, hence its rotating speed is near
to synchronous speed. The net magnetic Iield B
net
is produced by the magnetization current I
M
. The
magnitude oI I
M
and B
net
is directly proportional to voltage E
1
. II E
1
is constant, then B
net
is constant. In
an actual machine, E
1
varies as the load changes due to the stator impedances R
1
and X
1
which cause
varying volt drops with varying loads. However, the volt drop at R
1
and X
1
is so small, that E
1
is
assumed to remain constant throughout.
At no-load, the rotor slip is very small, and so the relative motion between rotor and magnetic Iield is
very small, and the rotor Irequency is also very small. Since the relative motion is small, the voltage E
R
induced in the bars oI the rotor is very small, and the resulting current Ilow I
R
is also very small. Since
the rotor Irequency is small, the reactance oI the rotor is nearly zero, and the max rotor current I
R
is
almost in phase with the rotor voltage E
R
. The rotor current produces a small magnetic Iield B
R
at an
angle slightly greater than 90 degrees behind B
net
. The stator current must be quite large even at no-load
since it must supply most oI B
net
.
The induced torque which is keeping the rotor running, is given by:
ind R net
kB B =
and its magnitude is
sin
ind R net
kB B =
In terms oI magnitude, the induced torque will be small due to small rotor magnetic Iield.
The magnetic Iields in an induction
motor under light loads
The magnetic Iields in an induction
motor under heavy loads
Chapter 7
15
On-load Conditions
As the motor`s load increases, its slip increases, and the rotor speed Ialls. Since the rotor speed is slower,
there is now more relative motion between rotor and stator magnetic Iields. Greater relative motion
means a stronger rotor voltage E
R
which in turn produces a larger rotor current I
R
. With large rotor
current, the rotor magnetic Iield B
R
also increases. However, the angle between rotor current and B
R
changes as well.
Since the rotor slip is larger, the rotor Irequency rises (f
r
sf
e
) and the rotor reactance increases (eL
R
).
ThereIore, the rotor current now lags Iurther behind the rotor voltage, and the rotor magnetic Iield shiIts
with the current. The rotor current now has increased compared to no-load and the angle o has
increased. The increase in B
R
tends to increase the torque, while the increase in angle o tends to decrease
the torque (t
ind
is proportional to sin o, and o~90). Since the Iirst eIIect is larger than the second one, the
overall induced torque increases to supply the motor`s increased load.
As the load on the shaIt is increased, the sin o term decreases more than the B
R
term increases (the value
is going towards the 0 cross over point Ior a sine wave). At that point, a Iurther increase in load
decreases t
ind
and the motor stops. This eIIect is known as pullout torque.
Modelling the torque-speed characteristics of an induction motor
Looking at the induction motor characteristics, a summary on the behaviour oI torque:
Note: sin
ind R net
kB B =
a) Rotor magnetic Iield will increase as the rotor current will increase (provided that the rotor core is
not saturated). Current Ilow will increase as slip increase (reduction in velocity)
b) The net magnetic Iield density will remain constant since it is proportional to E
1
(reIer to equivalent
induction motor equivalent circuit). Since E
1
is assumed to be constant, hence B
net
will assume to be
constant.
c) The angle o will increase as slip increases. Hence the sin o value will reduce until as such that the
reduction oI sin d will be greater than the increase oI B
R
(pullout torque). Since o is greater than 90
degrees, as such that:
, ) sin sin 90 cos
r r
= + =
where:
u
r
is the angle between E
R
and I
R
(note that E
R
is in phase with B
net
since it is in phase with B
net
).
Adding the characteristics oI all there elements would give the torque speed characteristics oI an
induction motor.
cos u
R
can also be known as the motor power Iactor where:
1 1
tan tan
r o
r
r r
X sX
R R

= =
The torque speed curve may be divided into 3 regions oI operations:
a) Linear region or low slip region
b) Moderate slip region located until the pullout torque level.
c) High slip region
Chapter 7
16
Typical values oI pullout torque would be at about 200 to 250 oI the rated Iull load torque oI the
induction machine. The starting torque would be about 150 than the rated Iull load torque; hence
induction motor may be started at Iull load.
The Derivation of the Induction Motor Induced-Torque Equation
Previously we looked into the creation oI the induced torque graph, now we would like to derive the
Torque speed equation based upon the power Ilow diagram oI an induction motor. We know that,
conv AG
ind ind
m sync
P P
or

= =
Comparing between the 2 equations, the second equation may be more useIul since it is reIerenced to
synchronous speed. Hence there is a need to derive P
AG
. By deIinition, air gap power is the power
transIerred Irom the stator to the rotor via the air gap in the induction machine. Based upon the induction
motor equivalent circuit, the air gap power may be deIined as:
Graphical development oI an induction
motor torque-speed characteristics
Chapter 7
17
2 2
2
2 2
2
, :
3
AG per phase
AG
R
P I
s
hence total air gap power
R
P I
s
=
=
Our next task is to Iind I
2
(current Ilow in the rotor circuit). The easiest way is via the construction oI the
Thevenin equivalent circuit.
Thevenins theorem states that any linear circuit that can be separated by two terminals from the rest of
the system can be replaced by a single voltage source in series with an equivalent impedance.
Calculation via thevenin equivalent method
Chapter 7
18
1) Derive the thevenin voltage (potential divider rule):
1 1
m
TH
m
fX
J J
R fX fX
=
+ +
Hence the magnitude oI thevenin voltage:
, )
2
2
1 1
m
TH
m
X
J J
R X X
=
+ +
Since Xm ~~ X1 , Xm ~~ R1, thereIore the magnitude may be approximated to:
1
m
TH
m
X
J J
X X
~
+
2) Eind the thevenin impedance
Take out the source and replace it with a short circuit, and derive the equivalent impedances.
, )
1 1
1 1
m
TH
m
fX R fX
Z
R fX fX
+
=
+ +
Since Xm ~~ X1, Xm ~~ R1,
2
1
1
1
m
TH
m
TH
X
R R
X X
X X
|
~
|
+
' .
~
Representing the stator circuit by the thevenin equivalent, and adding back the rotor circuit, we can
derive I2,
2
2
2
( )
TH
TH TH
J
I
R
R f X X
s
=
+ + +
Hence the magnitude will be,
, )
, )
2
2
2
2
2
TH
TH TH
J
I
R
R X X
s
=
+ + +
Chapter 7
19
Hence air gap power,
, )
, )
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
TH
AG
TH TH
J R
P
s
R
R X X
s
|
|
|
=
|
+ + +
|
' .
Hence, induced torque,
, )
, )
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
TH
TH TH
ind
sync
J R
s
R
R X X
s
|
|
|
|
+ + +
|
' .
=
II a graph oI Torque and speed were plotted based upon changes in slip, we would get a similar graph as
we had derived earlier.
Comments on the Induction Motor Torque Speed Curve
a) Induced Torque is zero at synchronous speed.
b) The graph is nearly linear between no load and Iull load (at near synchronous speeds).
c) Max torque is known as pull out torque or breakdown torque
d) Starting torque is very large.
e) Torque Ior a given slip value would change to the square oI the applied voltage.
I) II the rotor were driven Iaster than synchronous speed, the motor would then become a generator.
g) II we reverse the direction oI the stator magnetic Iield, it would act as a braking action to the rotor
plugging.
Since P
conv
may be derived as Iollows:
conv ind m
P =
Hence we may plot a similar characteristic to show the amount oI power converted throughout the
variation oI load.
Maximum (Pullout) Torque in an Induction Motor
Since induced torque is equal to P
AG
/ e
sync
, the maximum pullout torque may be Iound by Iinding the
maximum air gap power. And maximum air gap power is during which the power consumed by the R
2
/s
resistor is the highest.
Based upon the maximum power transIer theorem, maximum power transIer will be achieved when the
magnitude oI source impedance matches the load impedance. Since the source impedance is as Iollows:
2 source TH TH
Z R fX fX = + +
Chapter 7
20
Hence maximum power transIer occurs during:
, )
2
2
2
2 TH TH
R
R X X
s
= + +
Hence max power transIer is possible when slip is as Iollows:
, )
2
max
2
2
2 TH TH
R
s
R X X
=
+ +
Put in the value oI S
max
into the torque equation,
, )
2
max
2
2
2
3
2
TH
sync TH TH TH
J
R R X X
=
1
+ + +
1
]
Erom here we can say:
a) Torque is related to the square oI the applied voltage
b) Torque is also inversely proportional to the machine impedances
c) Slip during maximum torque is dependent upon rotor resistance
d) Torque is also independent to rotor resistance as shown in the maximum torque equation.
By adding more resistance to the machine impedances, we can vary:
a) Starting torque
b) Max pull out speed
Example 7.4
A 2 pole, 50 Hz induction motor supplies 15kW to a load at a speed oI 2950 r/min.
(a) What is the motor`s slip?
(b) What is the induced torque in the motor in Nm under these conditions?
(c) What will the operating speed oI the motor be iI its torque is doubled?
(d) How much power will be supplied by the motor when the torque is doubled?
Example 7.5
A 460V, 25hp, 60Hz, 4-pole, Y-connected wound rotor induction motor has the Iollowing impedances in
ohms per-phase reIerred to the stator circuit:
R
1
0.641 O R
2
0.332 O
X
1
1.106 O X
2
0.464 O X
m
26.3 O
(a) What is the max torque oI this motor? At what speed and slip does it occur?
(b) What is the starting torque?
(c) When the rotor resistance is doubled, what is the speed at which the max torque now
occurs? What is the new starting torque?
Chapter 7
21
6. Variations in Induction Motor Torque-Speed Characterictics
HIGH resistance rotor
Starting torque HIGH
Slip HIGH at normal
conditions
P
conv
(1-s) P
AG
S increase, P
AG
decrease,
and efficiency decrease.
LOW resistance rotor
Starting torque LOW, HIGH
starting current
Slip LOW at normal
conditions
P
conv
(1-s) P
AG
S decrease, P
AG
increase, and
efficiency increase.
Use a wound rotor induction motor and insert extra resistance into
the rotor during starting, and then removed Ior better eIIiciency
during normal operations.
But, wound rotor induction motors are more
expensive, need more maintanence etc.
Solution - utilising leakage reactance to obtain
the desired curve as shown below
A torque-speed
characteristic curve
combining high-
resistance eIIects at low
speeds (high slip) with
low resistance eIIects at
high speed (low slip).
Chapter 7
22
Control of Motor Characteristics by Cage Rotor Design
Leakage reactance X
2
represents the reIerred Iorm oI the rotor`s leakage reactance (reactance due to the
rotor`s Ilux lines that do not couple with the stator windings.)
Generally, the Iarther away the rotor bar is Irom the stator, the greater its X
2
, since a smaller percentage
oI the bar`s Ilux will reach the stator. Thus, iI the bars oI a cage rotor are placed near the surIace oI the
rotor, they will have small leakage Ilux and X
2
will be small.
NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association) class A
Rotor bars are quite large and are placed near the surIace oI the rotor.
Low resistance (due to its large cross section) and a low leakage reactance X
2
(due to the bar`s
location near the stator)
Because oI the low resistance, the pullout torque will be quite near synchronous speed
Motor will be quite efficient, since little air gap power is lost in the rotor resistance.
However, since R
2
is small, starting torque will be small, and starting current will be high.
This design is the standard motor design.
Typical applications driving Ians, pumps, and other machine tools.
NEMA class D
Rotor with small bars placed near the surIace oI the rotor (higher-resistance material)
High resistance (due to its small cross section) and a low leakage reactance X
2
(due to the bar`s
location near the stator)
Like a wound-rotor induction motor with extra resistance inserted into the rotor.
Because oI the large resistance, the pullout torque occurs at high slip, and starting torque will be
quite high, and low starting current.
Typical applications extremely high-inertia type loads.
Laminations Irom typical cage
induction motor, cross section oI
the rotor bars
(a) NEMA class A large
bars near the surIace
(b) NEMA class B large,
deep rotor bars
(c) NEMA class C double-
cage rotor design
(d) NEMA class D small
bars near the surIace
Chapter 7
23
(a) Eor a current
Ilowing in the top oI
the bar, the Ilux is
tightly linked to the
stator, and leakage L
is small.
(b) At the bottom oI the
bar, the Ilux is
loosely linked to the
stator, and leakage L
is large.
(c) Resulting equivalent
circuit
Deep-Bar and Double-Cage rotor design
How can a variable rotor resistance be produced to combine the high starting torque and low starting
current of Class D, with the low normal operating slip and high efficiency of class A??
Use deep rotor bars (Class B) or double-cage rotors (Class C)
The basic concept is illustrated below:
Typical torque-speed curves Ior
diIIerent rotor designs.
Chapter 7
24
NEMA Class B
At the upper part oI a deep rotor bar, the current Ilowing is tightly coupled to the stator, and hence the
leakage inductance is small in this region. Deeper in the bar, the leakage inductance is higher.
At low slips, the rotor`s Irequency is very small, and the reactances oI all the parallel paths are small
compared to their resistances. The impedances oI all parts oI the bar are approx equal, so current
Ilows through all the parts oI the bar equally. The resulting large cross sectional area makes the rotor
resistance quite small, resulting in good eIIiciency at low slips.
At high slips (starting conditions), the reactances are large compared to the resistances in the rotor
bars, so all the current is Iorced to Ilow in the low-reactance part oI the bar near the stator. Since the
eIIective cross section is lower, the rotor resistance is higher. Thus, the starting torque is relatively
higher and the starting current is relatively lower than in a class A design.
Applications similar to class A, and this type B have largely replaced type A.
NEMA Class C
It consists oI a large, low resistance set oI bars buried deeply in the rotor and a small, high-resistance
set oI bars set at the rotor surIace. It is similar to the deep-bar rotor, except that the diIIerence
between low-slip and high-slip operation is even more exaggerated.
At starting conditions, only the small bars are eIIective, and the rotor resistance is high. Hence, high
starting torque. However, at normal operating speeds, both bars are eIIective, and the resistance is
almost as low as in a deep-bar rotor.
Used in high starting torque loads such as loaded pumps, compressors, and conveyors.
NEMA Class E and F
Class E and Class E are already discontinued. They are low starting torque machines.
7. Starting Induction Motors
An induction motor has the ability to start directly, however direct starting oI an induction motor is not
advised due to high starting currents, which will be explained later.
In order to know the starting current, we should be able to calculate the starting power required by the
induction motor. The Code Letter designated to each induction motor, which can be seen in Iigure 7-34,
may represent this. (The starting code may be obtained Irom the motor nameplate).
start
S rated horsepower code letter =
3
start
L
T
S
I
J
=
Based upon example7-7, it is seen that to start an induction motor, there is a need Ior high starting
current. Eor a wound rotor type induction motor, this problem may be solved by incorporating resistor
banks at the rotor terminal during starting (to reduce current Ilow) and as the rotor picks up speed, the
resistor banks are taken out.
Chapter 7
25
Eor a squirrel cage rotor, reducing starting current may be achieved by varying the starting voltage across
the stator terminal. Reducing the starting terminal voltage will also reduce the rated starting power hence
reducing starting current. One way to achieve this is by using a step down transIormer during the starting
sequence and stepping up the transIormer ratio as the machine spins Iaster (reIer Iigure below).
Induction motor starting circuits
Chapter 7
26
Operation:
When the start button is pressed, the relay or contactor coil M is energized, causing the normally open
contacts M1, M2 and M3 to shut.
Then, power is applied to the induction motor, and the motor starts.
Contact M4 also shuts which shorts out the starting switch, allowing the operator to release it without
removing power Irom the M relay.
When the stop button is pressed, the M relay is deenergized, and the M contacts open, stopping the
motor.
A magnetic motor starter oI this sort has several built in protective Ieatures:
a) Short Circuit protection provided by the Iuses
b) Overload protection provided by the Overload heaters and the overload contacts (OL)
c) Undervoltage protection deenergising oI the M relays.
3 Step resistive Starter Induction motor
Operation:
- Similar to the previous one, except that there are additional components present to control removal oI
the starting resistor. Relays 1TD, 2TD and 3TD are called time-delay relays.
- When the start button is pushed, the M relay energizes and power is applied to the motor.
- Since the 1TD, 2TD and 3TD contacts are all open, the Iull starting resistor are in series with the
motor, reducing the starting current.
- When M contacts close, the 1TD relay is energized. There is a Iinite delay beIore the 1TD contacts
close. During that time, the motor speeds up, and the starting current drops.
- AIter that, 1TD close, cutting out part oI the starting resistance and simultaneously energizing 2TD
relay. And Iinally 3TD contacts close, and the entire starting resistor is out oI the circuit.
Chapter 7
27
(a) In the 2-pole
conIiguration, one coil is a
north pole and the other a
south pole.
(b) When the connection on
one oI the 2 coils is
reversed, they are both
north poles, and the south
poles are called
consequent poles, and the
windings is now a Iour -
pole windings.
8. Speed Control of Induction Motor
Induction motors are not good machines Ior applications requiring considerable speed control. The
normal operating range oI a typical induction motor is conIined to less than 5 slip, and the speed
variation is more or less proportional to the load.
Since P
RCL
sP
AG
, iI slip is made higher, rotor copper losses will be high as well.
There are basically 2 general methods to control induction motor`s speed:
a) Varying stator and rotor magnetic Iield speed
b) Varying slip
Varying the magnetic Iield speed may be achieved by varying the electrical frequency or by changing
the number of poles.
Varying slip may be achieved by varying rotor resistance or varying the terminal voltage.
Induction Motor Speed Control by Pole Changing
There are 2 approaches possible:
a) Method oI Consequent Poles (Old Method)
b) Multiple Stator Windings Method
Method of Consequent Poles
General Idea:
Consider one phase winding in a stator. By changing the current Ilow in one portion oI the stator
windings as such that it is similar to the current Ilow in the opposite portion oI the stator will
automatically generate an extra pair oI poles.
Chapter 7
28
By applying this method, the number oI poles may be maintained (no changes), doubled or halIed, hence
would vary its operating speed.
In terms oI torque, the maximum torque magnitude would generally be maintained.
Disadvantage:
This method will enable speed changes in terms oI 2:1 ratio steps, hence to obtained variations in speed,
multiple stator windings has to be applied. Multiple stator windings have extra sets oI windings that may
be switched in or out to obtain the required number oI poles. UnIortunately this would an expensive
alternative.
Speed Control by Changing the Line Frequency
Changing the electrical Irequency will change the synchronous speed oI the machine.
Changing the electrical Irequency would also require an adjustment to the terminal voltage in order to
maintain the same amount oI Ilux level in the machine core. II not the machine will experience:
a) Core saturation (non linearity eIIects)
b) Excessive magnetization current.
Varying Irequency with or without adjustment to the terminal voltage may give 2 diIIerent eIIects:
a) Vary Irequency, stator voltage adjusted generally vary speed and maintain operating torque.
b) Vary Erequency, stator voltage maintained able to achieve higher speeds but a reduction oI
torque as speed is increased.
There may also be instances where both characteristics are needed in the motor operation; hence it may
be combined to give both eIIects.
With the arrival oI solid-state devices/power electronics, line Irequency change is easy to achieved and it
is more versatile to a variety oI machines and application.
Speed Control by Changing the Line Voltage
Varying the terminal voltage will vary the operating speed but with also a variation oI operating torque.
In terms oI the range oI speed variations, it is not signiIicant hence this method is only suitable Ior small
motors only.
Chapter 7
29
Speed Control by Changing the Rotor Resistance
It is only possible Ior wound rotor applications but with a cost oI reduced motor eIIiciency.
9. Determining Circuit Model Parameters
There are basically 3 types oI tests that can be done on an Induction motor:
a) No-load test
b) DC test
c) Locked Rotor test or Blocked Rotor test
These tests are perIormed to determine the equivalent circuit elements R
1
, R
2
, X
1
, X
2
and X
M
.
Chapter 7
30
The No-Load Test
The no-load test measures the rotational losses and provides inIo about its magnetization current.
The induction motor is not loaded; hence any load will be based upon Irictional and mechanical losses.
The rotor will be rotating at near synchronous speed hence slip is very small. The no load test circuit and
induction motor equivalent circuit is shown below:
Chapter 7
31
With its very small slip, the resistance corresponding to its power converted, R
2
(1-s)/s, is much larger
than the resistance corresponding to the rotor copper losses R
2
and much larger than the rotor reactance
X
2
.
In this case, the equivalent circuit reduces to the last circuit. There, the output resistor is in parallel with
the magnetization reactance X
M
and the core losses R
C
.
In this motor at no-load conditions, the input power measured by the meters must equal the losses in the
motor. The rotor copper losses are negligible because I
2
is extremely small (because oI the large load
resistance R
2
(1-s)/s), so they may be neglected. The stator copper loss is given by:
2
1 1
3
SCL
P I R =
Hence,
&
2
1 1
3
IN SCL CORE F W MISC
ROT
P P P P P
I R P
= + + +
= +
P
rot
P
core
P
E&W
P
misc
Also,
1
1,
eq m
nl
J
Z X X
I

= ~ +
The DC Test
This is a test Ior R
1
independent oI R
2
, X
1
, and X
2
.
DC voltage is applied to the terminals oI the stator windings oI the induction motor. Since it is DC
supply, I 0, hence no induced current in the rotor circuit. Current will Ilow through the stator circuit.
Reactance is zero at dc. Thus, the only quantity limiting current Ilow in the motor is the stator resistance,
and it can be determined.
Assume we have a Y connected induction motor circuit as shown:
Steps:
a) DC voltage is applied across the motor terminal and current Ilow is adjusted to rated condition
(to simulate normal operating condition)
b) Voltage and current Ilow is noted.
Based upon the test conIiguration,
1 1
2 ,
2
DC DC
DC DC
J J
R R
I I
= =
Chapter 7
32
Since we are able to determine the value oI R1, hence P
SCL
can be calculated. UnIortunately, this method
is not accurate since it is done using a DC power source where skin eIIects, that occurs when an ac
voltage is applied to the windings, are neglected.
The Locked-Rotor Test
Steps:
a) The rotor is locked.
b) AC voltage is applied across the stator terminals and current Ilow is adjusted to Iull load
condition.
c) Measure voltage, current and power Ilow.
Since the rotor is locked, hence slip would be at a maximum as such that the R
2
terms are small. Hence
bulk oI the current will Ilow through the rotor circuit rather than the magnetizing branch. ThereIore the
overall circuit is reduced to:
jX
2 R
1
jX
1
R'
2
= R2 = small value
Chapter 7
33
Erom here we may calculate:
3 cos , cos
3
IN
IN T L
T L
P
P J I PF
J I
= = =
Also,
'
1
' ' '
1 2 1 2
cos sin
3
: ,
T
LR LR LR LR LR
L
LR LR
J
J
Z R fX Z f Z
I I
Note R R R X X X
= = = + = +
= + = +
Note: This test is generally inaccurate due to the Iact that in real operation, slip would vary Irom starting
and as the rotor approaches operating speeds. Since slip would also correlate to rotor current and voltage
Irequency (at small slip, Irequency is small, at high slip, Irequency is high). Erequency would aIIect the
rotor reactance. ThereIore, this test is done with a lower supply Irequency (25 or less) to simulate small
slip during operation. However, the true value oI X may be Iound in the Iollowing Iormulae:
Since R1 may be Iound Irom the DC test, thereIore we can calculate R2. The value oI X
LR
may also be
calculated by using the Iormulae below:
'
1 2
rated
LR LR
test
f
X X X X
f
= = +
Example 7-8
The Iollowing test data were taken on a 7.5 hp, 4-pole, 208V, 60Hz, desing A, Y-connected induction
motor having a rated current oI 28A.
DC Test: V
DC
13.6 V I
DC
28.0 A
No-load test:
V
T
208 V f 60 Hz
I
A
8.12 A P
in
420W
I
B
8.20 A
I
C
8.18 A
Locked-rotor test:
V
T
25 V f 15 Hz
I
A
28.1 A P
in
920W
I
B
28.0 A
I
C
27.6 A
(a) Sketch the per-phase equivalent circuit Ior this motor
(b) Eind the slip at the pullout torque, and Iind the value oI the pullout torque.
Chapter 8
1
CHAPTER 8 - DC MACHINERY FUNDAMENTALS
Summary:
1. A Simple Rotating Loop between Curved Pole Faces
- The Voltage Induced in a Rotating Loop
- Getting DC voltage out oI the Rotating Loop
- The Induced Torque in the Rotating Loop
2. Commutation in a Simple Four-Loop DC Machine
3. Problems with Commutation in Real Machine
- Armature Reaction
- L di/dt Voltages
- Solutions to the Problems with Commutation
4. The Internal Generated Voltage and Induced Torque Equations of Real
DC Machine
5. The Construction of DC Machine
6. Power Flow and Losses in DC Machines
Chapter 8
2
1. A Simple Rotating Loop between Curved Pole Faces
The simplest rotating dc machine is shown below:
The Voltage Induced in a Rotating Loop
II the rotor is rotated, a voltage will be induced in the wire loop. To determine the magnitude and shape
oI the voltage, examine the Iigure below:
To determine the total voltage e
tot
on the loop, examine each segment oI the loop separately and sum all
the resulting voltages. The voltage on each segment is given by e
ind
(v x B) l
Thus, the total induced voltage on the loop is: e
ind
2vBl
When the loop rotates through 180, segment ab is under the north pole Iace instead oI the south pole
Iace. At that time, the direction oI the voltage on the segment reverses, but its magnitude remains
constant. The resulting voltage e
tot
is shown below:
It consists oI a single loop oI wire rotating about a
Iixed axis. The rotating part is called rotor, and the
stationary part is the stator.
The magnetic Iield Ior the machine is supplied by
the magnetic north and south poles. Since the air
gap is oI uniIorm width, the reluctance is the same
everywhere under the pole Iaces.
Chapter 8
3
B A e
P ind
2
=
2
=
ind
e
There is an alternative way to express the e
ind
equation, which clearly relates the behaviour oI the single
loop to the behaviour oI larger, real dc machines. Examine the Iigure below:
The tangential velocity v oI the edges oI the loop can be expressed as v re. Substituting this
expressing into the e
ind
equation beIore gives:
e
ind
2reBl
The rotor surIace is a cylinder, so the area oI the rotor surIace A is equal to 2arl. Since there are 2 poles,
the area under each pole is A
p
arl. Thus,
Since the Ilux density B is constant everywhere in the air gap under the pole Iaces, the total Ilux under
each pole is | A
P
B. Thus, the Iinal Iorm oI the voltage equation is:
In general, the voltage in any real machine will depend on the same 3 Iactors:
1. the Ilux in the machine
2. The speed oI rotation
3. A constant representing the construction oI the machine.
Chapter 8
4
Getting DC voltage out of the Rotating Loop
The voltage out oI the loop is alternately a constant positive and a constant negative value. How can this
machine be made to produce a dc voltage instead oI the ac voltage?
This can be done by using a mechanism called commutator and brushes, as shown below:
Here 2 semicircular conducting segments are added to the end oI the loop, and 2 Iixed contacts are set up
at an angle such that at the instant when the voltage in the loop is zero, the contacts short-circuit the two
segments.
Thus, every time the voltage oI the loop switches direction, the contacts also switches connections, and
the output oI the contacts is always built up in the same way. This connection-switching process is
known as commutation. The rotating semicircular segments are called commutator segments, and the
Iixed contacts are called brushes.
The Induced Torque in the Rotating Loop
Suppose a battery is now connected to the machine as shown here, together with the resulting
conIiguration:
Chapter 8
5
i
ind

2
=
How much torque will be produced in the loop when the switch is closed? The approach to take is to
examine one segment oI the loop at a time and then sum the eIIects oI all the individual segments. The
Iorce on a segment oI the loop is given by : F i (l x B) , and the torque on the segment is t r E sin 0.
The resulting total induced torque in the loop is:
t
ind
2 rilB
By using the Iact that A
P
arl and | A
P
B, the torque expression can be reduced to:
In general, the torque in any real machine will depend on the same 3 Iactors:
1. The Ilux in the machine
2. The current in the machine
3. A constant representing the construction oI the machine.
2. Commutation in a Simple Four-Loop DC Machine
Commutation is the process oI converting the ac voltages and currents in the rotor oI a dc machine to dc
voltages and currents at its terminals. A simple 4 loop, 2 pole dc machine is shown here:
This machine has 4 complete loops buried in slots carved in the laminated steel oI its rotor. The pole
Iaces oI the machine are curved to provide a uniIorm air-gap width and to give a uniIorm Ilux density
everywhere under the Iaces.
at et0
Chapter 8
6
The 4 loops oI this machine are laid into the slots in a special manner. The 'unprimed end oI each loop
is the outermost wire in each slot, while the 'primed end oI each loop is the innermost wire in the slot
directly opposite. The winding`s connections to the machine`s commutator are shown below:
Notice that loop 1 stretches between commutator segments a and b, loop 2 stretches between segments b
and c, and so Iorth around the rotor.
At the instant shown in Iigure (a), the 1, 2, 3` and 4` ends oI the loops are under the north pole Iace, while
the 1`, 2`, 3 and 4 ends oI the loops are under the south pole Iace.
The voltage in each oI the 1, 2, 3` and 4` ends oI the loops is given by:
e
ind
(v x B) l
e
ind
vBl (positive out oI page)
The voltage in each oI the 1`, 2`, 3 and 4 ends oI the loops is given by:
e
ind
(v x B) l
e
ind
vBl (positive into the page)
The overall result is shown in Iigure (b). Each coil represents one side (or conductor) oI a loop. II the
induced voltage on any one side oI a loop is called evBl, then the total voltage at the brushes oI the
machine is E 4e (et0)
Notice that there are two parallel paths Ior current through the machine. The existence oI two or more
parallel paths Ior rotor current is a common Ieature oI all commutation schemes.
What happens to the voltage E oI the terminals as the rotor continues to rotate? Examine the Iigures
below:
at et45
Chapter 8
7
This Iigure shows the machine at time et45. At that time, loops 1 and 3 have rotated into the gap
between the poles, so the voltage across each oI them is zero. Notice that at this instant the brushes oI the
machine are shorting out commutator segments ab and cd. This happens just at the time when the loops
between these segments have 0V across them, so shorting out the segments creates no problem. At this
time, only loops 2 and 4 are under the pole Iaces, so the terminal voltage E is given by:
E 2e (et45)
Now, let the rotor continue to turn another 45. The resulting situation is shown below:
Here, the 1`, 2, 3, and 4` ends oI the loops are under the north pole Iace, and the 1, 2`, 3` and 4 ends oI
the loops are under the south pole Iace. The voltages are still built up out oI the page Ior the ends under
the north pole Iace and into the page Ior the ends under the south pole Iace. The resulting voltage
diagram is shown here:
There are now 4 voltage-carrying ends in each parallel path through the machine, so the terminal voltage
E is given by:
E 4e (et90)
Notice that the voltages on loops 1 and 3 have reversed between the 2 pictures (Irom et0 to et90),
but since their connections have also reversed, the total voltage is still being built up in the same
direction as beIore. This is the heart oI every commutation scheme.
at et90
Chapter 8
8
3. Problems with Commutation in Real Machine
In practice, there are two major eIIects that disturb the commutation process:
1. Armature Reaction
2. L di/dt voltages
Armature Reaction
II the magnetic Iield windings oI a dc machine are connected to a power supply and the rotor oI the
machine is turned by an external source oI mechanical power, then a voltage will be induced in the
conductors oI the rotor. This voltage will be rectiIied into dc output by the action oI the machine`s
commutator.
Now, connect a load to the terminals oI the machine, and a current will Ilow in its armature windings.
This current Ilow will produce a magnetic Iield oI its own, which will distort the original magnetic Iield
Irom the machine`s poles. This distortion oI the Ilux in a machine as the load is increased is called
armature reaction. It causes 2 serious problems in real dc machine.
Problem 1 : Neutral-Plane ShiIt
The magnetic neutral plane is deIined as the plane within the machine where the velocity oI the rotor
wires is exactly parallel to the magnetic Ilux lines, so that e
ind
in the conductors in the plane is exactly
zero.
Chapter 8
9
Eigure (a) shows a two poles machine. Notice that the Ilux is distributed uniIormly under the pole Iaces.
The rotor windings shown have voltages built up out oI the page Ior wires under the north pole and into
the page Ior wires under the south pole Iace. The neutral plane in this machine is exactly vertical.
Now, suppose a load is connected to this machine so that it acts as a generator. Current will Ilow out oI
the positive terminal oI the generator, so current will be Ilowing out oI the page Ior wires under the north
pole Iace and into the page Ior wires under the south pole Iace. This current Ilow produces a magnetic
Iield Irom the rotor windings, Iigure (c).
This rotor magnetic Iield aIIects the original magnetic Iield Irom the poles that produced the generator`s
voltage in the Iirst place. In some places under the pole surIaces, it subtracts Irom the pole Ilux, and in
other places it adds to the pole Ilux. The overall result is that the magnetic Ilux in the air gap oI the
machine is skewed, Iigure (d) and (e). Notice that the place on the rotor where the induced voltage in a
conductor would be zero (the neutral plane) has shiIted.
Eor the generator shown here, the magnetic neutral plane shiIted in the direction oI rotation. II this
machine had been a motor, the current in its rotor would be reversed and the Ilux would bunch up in the
opposite corners Irom the bunches shown in the Iigure. As a result, the magnetic neutral plane would
shiIt the other way.
In general, the neutral-plane shiIts in the direction oI motion Ior generator and opposite to the direction oI
motion Ior a motor. Eurthermore, the amount oI the shiIt depends on the amount oI rotor current and
hence on the load oI the machine.
What is so important regarding the neutral-plane shiIt?
The commutator must short out commutator segments just at the moment when the voltage across them is
equal to zero. II the brushes are set to short out conductors in the vertical plane, then the voltage between
segments is indeed zero until the machine is loaded. When the machine is loaded, the neutral-plane
shiIts, and the brushes short out commutator segments with a Iinite voltage across them. The result is a
current Ilow circulating between the shorted segments and large sparks at the brushes when the current
path is interrupted as the brush leaves a segment. The end result is arcing and sparking at the brushes.
This is a very serious problem, since it leads to drastically reduced brush liIe, pitting oI the commutator
segments, and higher maintenance costs. Notice that this problem cannot be Iixed even by placing the
brushes over the Iull-load neutral plane, because then they would spark at no load.
In extreme cases, the neutral-plane shiIt can even lead to Ilashover in the commutator segments near the
brushes. The air near the brushes in a machine is normally ionized as a result oI the sparking on the
brushes. Elashover occurs when the voltage oI adjacent commutator segments gets large enough to
sustain an arc in the ionized air above them. II Ilashover occurs, the resulting arc can even melt the
commutator`s surIace.
Chapter 8
10
Problem 2 : Elux Weakening
ReIer to the magnetization curve below:
Most machine operate at Ilux densities near the saturation point. ThereIore, at locations on the pole
surIaces where the rotor mmI adds to the pole mmI, only a small increase in Ilux occurs. But at locations
on the pole surIaces where the rotor mmI subtracts Irom the pole mmI, there is a larger decrease in Ilux.
The net result is that the total average Ilux under the entire pole Iace is decreased.
The Ilux weakening causes problems in both generators and motors. In generators, the eIIect oI Ilux
weakening is simply to reduce the voltage supplied by the generator Ior any given load. In motors, the
eIIect can be more serious. When the Ilux in a motor is decreased, its speed increases. But increasing the
speed oI a motor can increase its load, resulting in more Ilux weakening.
Chapter 8
11
L di/dt Voltages
The second major problem is the L di/dt voltage that occurs in commutator segments being shorted out
by the brushes, sometimes called inductive kick.
The Ilux and mmI under the
pole Iaces in a dc machine. At
those points where the mmI
subtract, the Ilux closely
Iollows the net mmI in the
iron; but at those points where
the mmI add, saturation limits
the total Ilux present. Note also
the neutral point oI the rotor
has shiIted.
The reversal oI current Ilow in a coil
undergoing commutation. Note that
the current in the coil between
segments a and b must reverse
direction while the brush shorts
together the two commutator
segments.
Chapter 8
12
s A
s
A
dt
di
/ 266667
0015 . 0
400
= =
These Iigures represents a series oI commutator segments and the conductors connected between them.
Assuming that the current in the brush is 400A, the current in each path is 200A. Notice that when a
commutator segment is shorted out, the current Ilow through that commutator segment must reverse.
How Iast must this reversal occur?
Assumming that the machine is turning at 800r/min and that there are 50 commutator segments, each
commutator segment moves under a brush and clears it again in t0.0015s. ThereIore, the rate oI change
in current with respect to time in the shorted loop must average
With even a tiny inductance in the loop, a very signiIicant inductive voltage kick v L di/dt will be
induced in the shorted commutator segment. This high voltage naturally causes sparking at the brushes
oI the machine, resulting in the same arcing problems that the neutral-plane shiIt causes.
Solutions to the Problems with Commutation
Three approaches have been developed to partially or completely correct the problems oI armature
reaction and L di/dt voltages:
1. Brush ShiIting
2. Commutation poles or interpoles
3. Compensating windings
Brush Shifting
The Iirst attempts to improve the process oI commutation in real dc machines started with attempts to
stop the sparking at the brushes caused by the neutral-plane shiIts and L di/dt eIIects.
The Iirst approach taken by machine designers was simple: II the neutral plane oI the machine shiIts, why
not shiIt the brushes with it in order to stop the sparking? This method is good but there are several
problems:
The current reversal in the coil
undergoing commutation as a
Iunction oI time Ior both ideal
commutation and real commutation,
with the coil inductance taken into
account.
Chapter 8
13
- The neutral plane moves with every change in load, and the shiIt direction reverses when the
machine goes Irom motor operation to generator operation. ThereIore, someone has to adjust the
brushes every time the load changed. Although this method may have stopped the brush sparking, it
actually aggravated the Ilux-weakening eIIect oI the armature reaction in the machine.
This is true because oI 2 eIIects:
i) The rotor mmI now has a vector component that opposes the mmI Irom the poles.
ii) The change in armature current distribution causes the Ilux to bunch up even more at the
saturated parts oI the pole Iaces.
Commutation Poles or Interpoles
The basic idea here is that iI the voltage in the wires undergoing commutation can be made zero, then
there will be no sparking at the brushes. To accomplish this, small poles, called commutating poles or
interpoles, are placed midway between the main poles. These commutating poles are located directly
over the conductors being commutated. By providing a Ilux Irom the commutating poles, the voltage in
the coils undergoing commutation can be exactly cancelled. II the cancellation is exact, then there will
be no sparking at the brushes.
The commutating poles do not otherwise change the operation oI the machine, because they are so small
that they aIIect only the Iew conductors about to undergo commutation. Notice that the armature reaction
under the main pole Iaces is unaIIected, since the eIIects oI the commutating poles do not extend that Iar.
This means that the Ilux weakening in the machine is unaIIected by commutating poles.
(a) The net mmI in a dc machine with its
brushes in the vertical plane.
(b) The net mmI in a dc machine with its brushes
over the shiIted neutral plane. Notice that now
there is a component oI armature mmI directly
opposing the poles` mmI and the net mmI in the
machine is reduced.
Chapter 8
14
How is cancellation oI the voltage in the commutator segments accomplished Ior all values oI load? This
is done by simply connecting the interpole windings in series with the windings on the rotor, as shown
below:
As the load increases, and the rotor current increases, the magnitude oI the neutral-plane shiIt and the size
oI the L di/dt eIIects increase too. Both these eIIects increase the voltage in the conductors undergoing
commutation.
However, the interpole Ilux increases too, producing a larger voltage in the conductors that opposes the
voltage due to the neutral-plane shiIt. The net result is that their eIIects cancel over a broad range oI
loads. Note that interpoles work Ior both motor and generator operation, since when the machine
changes Irom motor to generator, the current both in its rotor and in its interpoles reverses direction.
ThereIore, the voltage eIIects Irom them still cancel.
What polarity must the Ilux in the interpoles be?
The interpoles must induce a voltage in the conductors undergoing commutation that is opposite to the
voltage caused by neutral-plane shiIt and L di/dt eIIects. In the case oI a generator, the neutral plane
shiIts in the direction oI rotation, meaning that the conductors undergoing commutation have the same
polarity oI voltage as the pole they just leIt.
Chapter 8
15
Determining the required polarity oI an interpole. The Ilux Irom the interpole must produce a voltage
that opposes the existing voltage in the conductor.
To oppose this voltage, the interpoles must have the opposite Ilux, which is the Ilux oI the upcoming
pole. In a motor, however, the neutral plane shiIts opposite to the direction oI rotation, and the
conductors undergoing commutation have the same Ilux as the pole they are approaching. In order to
oppose this voltage, the interpoles must have the same polarity as the previous main pole. ThereIore,
1. The interpoles must be oI the same polarity as the next upcoming main pole in a generator.
2. The interpoles must be oI the same polarity as the previous main pole in a motor.
The use oI commutating poles or interpoles is very common, because they correct the sparking problems
oI dc machines at a Iairly low cost. They are almost always Iound in any dc machine oI 1HP or larger.
It is important to realize that they do nothing Ior the Ilux distribution under the pole Iaces, so the Ilux-
weakening problem is still present. Most medium-size, general-purpose motors correct Ior sparking
problems with interpoles and just live with the Ilux-weakening eIIects.
Compensating Windings
Eor very heavy, severe duty cycle motors, the Ilux-weakening problem can be very serious. To
completely cancel armature reaction and thus eliminate both neutral-plane shiIt and Ilux weakening, a
diIIerent technique was developed.
This technique involves placing compensating windings in slots carved in the Iaces oI the poles parallel
to the rotor conductors, to cancel the distorting eIIect oI armature reaction. These windings are
connected in series with the rotor windings, so that whenever the load changes in the rotor, the current in
the compensating windings changes too.
The Iigures below show the basic concept:
The eIIect oI compensating windings
in a dc machine:
(a) The pole Ilux in the machine
(b) The Iluxes Irom the armature and
compensating windings (notice
that they are equal and opposite)
(c) The net Ilux in the machine, which
is just the original Ilux.
Chapter 8
16
Another careIul development oI the eIIect oI compensating windings on a dc machine is illustrated
below:
Notice that the mmI due to the compensating windings is equal and opposite to the mmI due to the rotor
at every point under the pole Iaces. The resulting net mmI is just the mmI due to the poles, so the Ilux in
the machine is unchanged regardless oI the load on the machine.
The major disadvantage oI compensating windings is that they are expensive, since they must be
machined into the Iaces oI the poles. Any motor that uses them must also have interpoles, since
compensating windings do not cancel L di/dt eIIects. The interpoles do not have to be as strong, though
since they are cancelling only L di/dt voltages in the windings, and not the voltages due to neutral-plane
shiIting. Because oI the expense oI having both compensating windings and interpoles on such a
machine, these windings are used only where the extremely severe nature oI a motor`s duty demands
them.
4. The Internal Generated Voltage and Induced Torque Equations of Real DC Machine
How can the voltage in the rotor windings of a real dc machine be determined?
The voltage out oI the armature oI a real dc machine is equal to the number oI conductors per current
path times the voltage on each conductor.
The voltage in any single conductor under the pole Iaces was previously shown to be e
ind
e vBl
The voltage out oI the armature oI a real machine is thus:
a
ZvBl
E
A
=
Chapter 8
17
P
rlB
P
rl B
BA
P

2 ) 2 (
= = =
Where Z is the total number oI conductors and a is the number oI current paths. The velocity oI each
conductor in the rotor is vre so,
And with |BA
P
and A2trl, and iI there are P poles on the machine, then the total area A is
The total Ilux per pole in the machine:
ThereIore, the internal generated voltage in the machine can be expressed as:
How much torque is induced in the armature of a real dc machine?
The torque on the armature oI a real machine is equal to the number oI conductors Z times the torque on
each conductor. The torque in any single conductor under the pole Iaces was previously shown to be
t
cond
r I
cond
lB
II there are a current paths in the machine, then the total armature current I
A
is split among the a current
paths, so the current in a single conductor is given by
And the torque in a single conductor on the motor is:
Since there are Z conductors, the total induced torque in a dc machine rotor is:
The Ilux per pole in this machine:
a
Bl Zr
E
A

=
P
rl
P
A
A
P
2
= =
K E
a
ZP
E
P
rlB
a
ZP
a
Bl Zr
E
A
A
A
=
=
|
'
'
=
=
2
2
2
a
I
I
A
cond
=
a
lB rI
A
cond
=
a
ZrlBI
A
ind
=
P
rlB
P
rl B
BA
P

2 ) 2 (
= = =
Chapter 8
18
So the total induced torque is:
Einally,
5. The Construction of DC Machine
A simpliIied diagram oI a dc machine:
The physical structure oI the machine consists oI 2 parts: the stator and the rotor.
The stationary part consists oI the Irame, and the pole pieces, which project inward and provide a path Ior
the magnetic Ilux. The ends oI the pole pieces that are near the rotor spread out over the rotor surIace to
distribute its Ilux evenly over the rotor surIace. These ends are called the pole shoes. The exposed
surIace oI a pole shoe is called a pole Iace, and the distance between the pole Iace and the rotor is the air
gap.
Two principal windings on a dc machine:
i- the armature windings: the windings in which a voltage is induced (rotor)
ii- the Iield windings: the windings that produce the main magnetic Ilux (stator)
Note: because the armature winding is located on the rotor, a dc machine`s rotor is sometimes called an
armature.
A ind
I
a
ZP
2
=
A ind
I K =
Chapter 8
19
100
P
EIIiciency
out
=
in
loss
P
P
6. Power Flow and Losses in DC Machines
The Losses in DC Machine:
1. Electrical or Copper Losses (I
2
R Loss)
Armature loss: P
A
I
A
2
R
A
Eield loss: P
E
I
E
2
R
E
2. Brush Losses
P
BD
V
BD
2
I
A
3. Core Losses
- Hysteresis and Eddy Current Loss
4. Mechanical Losses
- Eriction and windage loss
5. Stray Loss
The Power-Elow Diagram:
Generator
Motor
Chapter 9
1
CHAPTER 9 - DC MOTORS
Summary:
1. The Equivalent Circuit of a DC Motor
2. The Magnetization Curve of a DC Machine
3. Separately Excited and Shunt DC Motors
- The Terminal Characteristics oI a Shunt DC Motor
- Nonlinear Analysis oI a Shunt DC Motor
- Speed Control oI Shunt DC Motors
- The EIIect oI an Open Eield Circuit
4. The Permanent-Magnet DC Motor
5. The Series DC Motor
- Induced Torque in a Series DC Motor
- The Terminal Characteristic oI a Series DC Motor
- Speed Control oI Series DC Motors.
6. The Compounded DC Motor
- The Torque-Speed Characteristic oI a Cumulatively Compounded DC Motor
- The Torque-Speed Characteristic oI a DiIIerentially Compounded DC Motor
- The Nonlinear analysis oI Compounded DC Motors
- Speed Control in the Cumulatively Compounded DC Motor
Chapter 9
2
1. The Equivalent Circuit of a DC Motor
In this Iigure, the armature circuit is represented by an ideal voltage source E
A
and a resistor R
A
. This
representation is really the Thevenin equivalent oI the entire rotor structure, including rotor coils,
interpoles and compensating windings, iI present.
The brush voltage drop is represented by a small battery V
brush
opposing the direction oI current Ilow in
the machine.
The Iield coils, which produce the magnetic Ilux in the motor are represented by inductor L
E
and resistor
R
E
. The separate resistor R
adj
represents an external variable resistor used to control the amount oI
current in the Iield circuit.
Some oI the Iew variations and simpliIications:
i- The brush drop voltage is oIten only a very tiny Iraction oI the generated voltage in the
machine. Thus, in cases where it is not too critical, the brush drop voltage may be leIt out or
included in the R
A
.
ii- The internal resistance oI the Iield coils is sometimes lumped together with the variable
resistor and the total is called R
E.
iii- Some generators have more than one Iield coil, all oI which appear on the equivalent circuit.
The internal generated voltage is given by:
E
A
K|e
and the torque induced is
t
ind
K|I
A

(a) The equivalent circuit
(b) A simpliIied equivalent
circuit eliminating the brush
voltage drop and combining
R
adj
with the Iield resistance.
Chapter 9
3
2. The Magnetization Curve of a DC Machine
E
A
is directly proportional to Ilux and the speed oI rotation oI the machine. How is the E
A
related to the
Iield current in the machine?
The Iield current in a dc machine produces a Iield mmI given by EN
E
I
E
. This mmI produces a Ilux in
the machine in accordance with its magnetization curve, shown below:
Since the Iield current is directly proportional to the mmI and since E
A
is directly proportional to Ilux, it
is customary to present the magnetization curve as a plot oI E
A
vs Iield current Ior a given speed e
o
.

NOTE: Most machines are designed to operate near the saturation point on the magnetization curve. This
implies that a Iairly large increase in Iield current is oIten necessary to get a small increase in E
A
when
operation is near Iull load.
3. Separately Excited and Shunt DC Motors
The magnetization curve oI a
Ierromagnetic material
The magnetization curve oI a dc
machine expressed as a plot oI E
A
versus I
E
Ior a Iixed speed e
o
.
The equivalent circuit oI a
separately excited dc motor
Chapter 9
4
K
I
ind
A
=
A separately excited dc motor is a motor whose Iield circuit is supplied Irom a separate constant-voltage
power supply, while a shunt dc motor is a motor whose Iield circuit gets its power directly across the
armature terminals oI the motor.
When the supply voltage to a motor is assumed constant, there is no practical diIIerence in behaviour
between these two machines. Unless otherwise speciIied, whenever the behaviour oI a shunt motor is
described, the separately excited motor is included too.
The KVL equation Ior the armature circuit is:
V
T
E
A
I
A
R
A
The Terminal Characteristics of a Shunt DC Motor
A terminal characteristic oI a machine is a plot oI the machine`s output quantities versus each other. Eor
a motor, the output quantities are shaIt torque and speed, so the terminal characteristic oI a motor is a plot
oI its output torque versus speed.
How does a shunt dc motor respond to a load?
Suppose that the load on the shaIt oI a shunt motor is increased. Then the load torque t
load
will exceed
the induced torque t
ind
in the machine, and the motor will start to slow down. When the motor slows
down, its internal generated voltage drops (E
A
K|e), so the armature current in the motor
I
A
(V
T
E
A
)/R
A
increases. As the armature current rises, the induced torque in the motor increases
(t
ind
K|I
A
), and Iinally the induced torque will equal the load torque at a lower mechanical speed oI
rotation.
The output characteristic oI a shunt dc motor can be derived Irom the induced voltage and torque
equations oI the motor plus the KVL.
KVL V
T
E
A
I
A
R
A
The induced voltage E
A
K|e, so
V
T
K|e I
A
R
A
Since t
ind
K|I
A
, current I
A
can be expressed as:
The equivalent circuit oI a shunt dc
motor
Chapter 9
5
A
ind
T
R
K
K J
+ =
ind
A T
K
R
K
J
2
) (
=
Combining the V
T
and I
A
equations:
Einally, solving Ior the motor`s speed:
This equation is just a straight line with a negative slope. The resulting torque-speed characteristic oI a
shunt dc motor is shown here:
It is important to realize that, in order Ior the speed oI the motor to vary linearly with torque, the other
terms in this expression must be constant as the load changes. The terminal voltage supplied by the dc
power source is assumed to be constant - iI it is not constant, then the voltage variations will aIIect the
shape oI the torque-speed curve.
Another eIIect internal to the motor that can also aIIect the shape oI the torque-speed curve is armature
reaction. II a motor has armature reaction, then as its load increases, the Ilux-weakening eIIects reduce
its Ilux. Erom the motor speed equation above, the eIIect oI reduction in Ilux is to increase the motor`s
speed at any given load over the speed it would run at without armature reaction. The torque-speed
characteristic oI a shunt motor with armature reaction is shown below:
II a motor has compensating windings, there will be no Ilux weakening problems and the Ilux in the
motor will be constant.
II a shunt dc motor has compensating windings so that Ilux is constant regardless oI load, and the motor`s
speed and armature current are known at any one value oI load, then it is possible to calculate its speed at
any other value oI load, as long as the armature current at that load is known or can be determined.
Torque-speed characteristic oI a
shunt or separately excited dc motor
with compensating windings to
eliminate armature reaction
Torque-speed characteristic oI the
motor with armature reaction
present.
Chapter 9
6
F
AR
F F
N
F
I I =
*
Example 9.1
A 50HP, 250V, 1200 r/min DC shunt motor with compensating windings has an armature resistance
(including the brushes, compensating windings, and interpoles) oI 0.06 O. Its Iield circuit has a total
resistance R
adj
R
E
oI 50 O, which produces a no-load speed oI 1200r/min. There are 1200 turns per
pole on the shunt Iield winding (Eigure below)
(a) Eind the speed oI this motor when its input current is 100A.
(b) Eind the speed oI this motor when its input current is 200A.
(c) Eind the speed oI this motor when its input current is 300A.
Nonlinear Analysis of a Shunt DC Motor
The Ilux and hence the internal generated voltage E
A
oI a dc machine is a non linear Iunction oI its
magnetomotive Iorce. ThereIore, anything that changes the mmI in a machine will have a non linear
eIIect on the E
A
oI the machine. Since the change in E
A
cannot be calculated analytically, the
magnetization curve oI the machine must be used. Two principal contributors to the mmI in the machine
are its Iield current and its armature reaction, iI present.
Since the magnetization curve is a plot oI E
A
vs I
E
Ior a given speed e
o
, the eIIect oI changing a
machine`s Iield current can be determined directly Irom its magnetization curve.
II a machine has armature reaction, its Ilux will be reduced with each increase in load. The total mmI in a
shunt dc motor is the Iield circuit mmI less the mmI due to armature reaction (AR):
E
net
N
E
I
E
- E
AR
Since the magnetization curves are expressed as plots oI E
A
vs Iield current, it is customary to deIine an
equivalent Iield current that would produce the same output voltage as the combination oI all the mmI in
the machine. The resulting voltage E
A
can then be determined by locating that equivalent Iield current on
the magnetization curve. The equivalent Iield current:
One other eIIect must be considered when non linear analysis is used to determine E
A
oI a dc motor. The
magnetization curves Ior a machine are drawn Ior a particular speed, usually the rated speed oI the
machine. How can the eIIects oI a given Iield current be determined iI the motor is turning at other than
rated speed?
The equation Ior the induced voltage in a dc machine when speed is expressed as rev/min: E
A
K`|n
Chapter 9
7
0 0
n
n
E
E
A
A
=
Eor a given eIIective Iield current, the Ilux in the machine is Iixed, so the E
A
is related to speed by:
where E
A0
and n
0
represent the reIerence values oI voltages and speed respectively. II the reIerence
conditions are known Irom the magnetization curve and the actual E
A
is known, then it is possible to
determine the actual speed n.
Example 9.2
A 50HP, 250V, 1200r/min DC shunt motor without compensating windings has an armature resistance
(including the brushes and interpoles) oI 0.06 O. Its Iield circuit has a total resistance R
adj
R
E
oI 50 O,
which produces a no-load speed oI 1200r/min. There are 1200 turns per pole on the shunt Iield winding,
and the armature reaction produces a demagnetising magnetomotive Iorce oI 840 A turns at a load
current oI 200A. The magnetization curve oI this machine is shown below:
(a) Eind the speed oI this motor when its input current is 200A.
(b) This motor is essentially identical to the one in Example 9.1 except Ior the absence oI
compensating windings. How does its speed compare to that oI the previous motor at a load
current oI 200A?
Speed Control of Shunt DC Motors
Two common methods (as already been seen in Chapter 1 simple linear machine):
i- Adjusting the Iield resistance R
E
(and thus the Iield Ilux)
ii- Adjusting the terminal voltage applied to the armature.
Less common method:
iii- Inserting a resistor in series with the armature circuit.
Chapter 9
8
A
A T
A
R
E J
I
+
|=
Changing the Field Resistance
II the Iield resistance increases, then the Iield current decreases (I
E
V
T
/R
E
), and as the Iield current
decreases, the Ilux decreases as well. A decrease in Ilux causes an instantaneous decrease in the internal
generated voltage E
A
(K|e), which causes a large increase in the machine`s armature current since,
The induced torque in a motor is given by t
ind
K|I
A
. Since the Ilux in this machine decreases while the
current I
A
increases, which way does the induced torque change?
Look at this example:
Eigure above shows a shunt dc motor with an internal resistance oI 0.25O. It is currently operating with
a terminal voltage oI 250V and an internal generated voltage oI 245V. ThereIore, the armature current
Ilow is I
A
(250V-245V)/0.25O 20A.
What happens in this motor iI there is a 1 decrease in Ilux? II the Ilux decrease by 1, then E
A
must
decrease by 1 too, because E
A
K|e. ThereIore, E
A
will drop to:
E
A2
0.99 E
A1
0.99 (245) 242.55V
The armature current must then rise to
I
A
(250-242.55)/0.25 29.8 A
Thus, a 1 decrease in Ilux produced a 49 increase in armature current.
So, to get back to the original discussion, the increase in current predominates over the decrease in Ilux.
so, t
ind
~t
load
, the motor speeds up.
However, as the motor speeds up, E
A
rises, causing I
A
to Iall. Thus, induced torque t
ind
drops too, and
Iinally t
ind
equals t
load
at a higher steady-sate speed than originally.
Chapter 9
9
The eIIect oI Iield resistance R
E
speed control on a shunt motor`s torque-speed characteristics.
(a) over the motor`s normal operating range
(b) over the entire range Irom no load to stall conditions
WARNING:
The eIIect oI increasing the R
E
is shown in Iigure (b) above. Notice that as the Ilux in the machine
decreases, the no-load speed oI the motor increases, while the slope oI the torque-speed curve becomes
steeper.
This Iigure shows the terminal characteristic oI the motor over the Iull range Irom no-load to stall
conditions. It is apparent that at very slow speeds an increase in Iield resistance will actually decrease the
speed oI the motor. This eIIect occurs because, at very low speeds, the increase in armature current
caused by the decrease in E
A
is no longer large enough to compensate Ior the decrease in Ilux in the
induced torque equation. With the Ilux decrease actually larger than the armature current increase, the
induced torque decreases, and the motor slows down.
Some small dc motors used Ior control purposes actually operates at speeds close to stall conditions. Eor
these motors, an increase in R
E
might have no eIIect, or it might even decrease the speed oI the motor.
Since the results are not predictable, Iield resistance speed control should not be used in these types oI dc
motors. Instead, the armature voltage method should be employed.
Changing the Armature Joltage
This method involves changing the voltage applied to the armature oI the motor without changing the
voltage applied to the Iield.
II the voltage V
A
is increased, then the I
A
must rise | I
A
(V
A
-E
A
)/R
A
|. As I
A
increases, the induced
torque t
ind
K|I
A
increases, making t
ind
~ t
load
, and the speed oI the motor increases.
But, as the speed increases, the E
A
(K|e) increases, causing the armature current to decrease. This
decrease in I
A
decreases the induced torque, causing t
ind
t
load
at a higher rotational speed.
Chapter 9
10
The eIIect oI armature voltage speed control
ind
A T
K
R
K
J
2
) (
=
Inserting a Resistor in Series with the Armature Circuit
II a resistor is inserted in series with the armature circuit, the eIIect is to drastically increase the slope oI
the motor`s torque-speed characteristic, making it operate more slowly iI loaded. This Iact can be seen
Irom the speed equation:
The insertion oI a resistor is a very wasteIul method oI speed control, since the losses in the inserted
resistor are very large. Eor this reason, it is rarely used.
SaIe Ranges oI Operation Ior the 2 common methods
Field Resistance Control
The lower the Iield current in a shunt (or separately excited) dc motor, the Iaster it turns: and the higher
the Iield current, the slower it turns. Since an increase in Iield current causes decrease in speed, there is
always a minimum achievable speed by Iield circuit control. This minimum speed occurs when the
motor`s Iield circuit has the maximum permissible current Ilowing through it.
II a motor is operating at its rated terminal voltage, power and Iield current, then it will be running at
rated speed, also known as base speed. Eield resistance control can control the speed oI the motor Ior
speeds above base speed but not Ior speeds below base speed. To achieve a speed slower than base speed
by Iield circuit control would require excessive Iield current, possibly burning up the Iield windings.
Armature Joltage Control
The lower the armature voltage on a separately excited dc motor, the slower it turns, and the higher the
armature voltage, the Iaster it turns. Since an increase in armature voltage causes an increase in speed,
there is always a maximum achievable speed by armature voltage control. This maximum speed occurs
when the motor`s armature voltage reaches its maximum permissible level.
II a motor is operating at its rated terminal voltage, power and Iield current, then it will be running at
rated speed, also known as base speed. Armature voltage control can control the speed oI the motor Ior
speeds below base speed but not Ior speeds above base speed. To achieve a speed Iaster than base speed
by armature voltage control would require excessive armature voltage, possibly damaging the armature
circuit.
These two techniques oI speed control are obviously complementary. Armature voltage control
works well Ior speeds below base speed, and Iield resistance control works well Ior speeds above base
speed.
Chapter 9
11
There is a signiIicant diIIerence in the torque and power limits on the machine under these two types oI
speed control. The limiting Iactor in either case is the heating oI the armature conductors, which places
an upper limit on the magnitude oI the armature current I
A
.
Eor armature voltage control, the flux in the motor is constant, so the maximum torque in the motor is
t
max
K|I
A,max

This maximum torque is constant regardless of the speed of the rotation of the motor. Since the
power out oI the motor is given by Pte, the maximum power is P
max
t
max
e. Thus, the max power out
is directly proportional to its operating speed under armature voltage control.
On the other hand, when Iield resistance control is used, the Ilux does change. In this Iorm oI control, a
speed increase is caused by a decrease in the machine`s Ilux. In order Ior the armature current limit is not
exceeded, the induced torque limit must decrease as the speed oI the motor increases. Since the power
out oI the motor is given by Pte and the torque limit decreases as the speed oI the motor increases, the
max power out of a dc motor under field current control is constant, while the maximum torque
varies as the reciprocal of the motor`s speed.
Power and torque limits as a Iunction oI speed Ior a shunt motor under armature voltage and Iield
resistance control
Example 9.3
Eigure above shows a 100hp, 250 V, 1200 r/min shunt dc motor with an armature resistance oI 0.03 ohms
and a Iield resistance oI 41.67 ohms. The motor has compensating windings, so armature reaction can
be ignored. Mechanical and core losses may be assumed to be negligible Ior the purposes oI this problem.
The motor is assumed to be driving a load with a line current oI 126A and an initial speed oI 1103 r/min.
To simpliIy the problem, assume that the amount oI armature current drawn by the motor remains
constant.
(a) II the machine`s magnetization curve is as in Example 9.2, what is the motor`s speed iI the Iield
resistance is raised to 50 ohms?
Chapter 9
12
Example 9.4
The motor in Example 9.3 is now connected separately excited as shown below. The motor is initially
running with V
A
250V, I
A
120A, and n 1103 r/min, while supplying a constant-torque load. What
will the speed oI this motor be iI V
A
is reduced to 200V?
The Effect of an Open Field Circuit
As the Iield resistance increased, the speed oI the motor increased with it. What would happen iI this
eIIect were taken to the extreme, iI the Iield resistance really increased? What would happen iI the Iield
circuit were actually opened while the motor is running?
Erom the previous discussion, the Ilux in the machine will drop, and E
A
will drop as well. This would
cause a really large increase in the armature current, and the resulting induced torque would be quite a bit
higher than the load torque oI the motor. ThereIore, the motor`s speed starts to rise and just keeps going
up.
In ordinary shunt dc motors operating with light Iields, iI the armature reaction eIIects are severe enough,
the eIIect oI speed rising can take place. II the armature reaction on a dc motor is severe, an increase in
load can weaken its Ilux enough to actually cause the motor`s speed to rise. However, most loads have
torque-speed curves whose torque increases with speed, so the increased speed increases its load, which
increases the armature reaction, weakening the Ilux again. The weaker Ilux causes a Iurther increase in
speed, Iurther increase the load, etc. etc. until the motor overspeeds. This condition is known as
runaway.
4. The Permanent-Magnet DC Motor
A permanent magnet dc motor (PMDC) is a dc motor whose poles are made oI permanent magnets.
PMDC motor oIIer a number oI beneIits compared with shunt dc motors in some applications.
Advantage: Since the motors do not require an external Iield circuit, they do not have the Iield circuit
copper losses. Because no Iield windings are required, they can be smaller than corresponding shunt dc
motors.
Disadvantages:
Permanent magnets cannot produce as high Ilux density as an externally supplied shunt Iield., so a
PMDC motor will have a lower induced torque per ampere oI armature current than a shunt motor oI the
same size. Also, PMDC motors run the risk oI demagnetization.
A PMDC motor is basically the same machine as a shunt dc motor, except that the Ilux oI a PMDC motor
is Iixed. ThereIore, it is not possible to control the speed oI the PMDC motor by varying the Iield current
or Ilux. The only methods oI speed control available Ior a PMDC motor are armature voltage control and
armature resistance control.
Chapter 9
13
Kc
I
ind
A

=
, )
S A
ind
T
R R
Kc
K J + + =

5. The Series DC Motor

A series DC motor is a dc motor whose Iield windings consist oI relatively Iew turns connected in series
with the armature circuit.
The KVL Ior this motor is V
T
E
A
I
A
(R
A
R
S
)
Induced Torque in a Series DC Motor
The basic behaviour oI a series dc motor is due to the Iact that the Ilux is directly proportional to the
armature current, at least until saturation is reached. As the load on the motor increases, its Ilux increases
too. As seen earlier, an increase in Ilux in the motor causes a decrease in its speed. The result is that a
series dc motor has a sharply drooping torque-speed characteristic.
The induced torque is t
ind
K|I
A

The Ilux in this machine is directly proportional to its armature current (at least until metal saturates).
ThereIore, the Ilux in the machine can be given by | = cI
A
where c is a constant oI proportionality. Thus,
t
ind
K|I
A
= KcI
A
2
Series dc motors are thereIore used in applications requiring very high torques. Example: starter motors
in cars, elevator motors, tractor motors etc.
The Terminal Characteristic of a Series DC Motor
The assumption oI a linear magnetization curve implies that the Ilux in the motor will be given by
| = cI
A
. This equation will be used to derive the torque-speed characteristic curve Ior the series motor.
Derivation of the torque-speed characteristic.
1. V
T
E
A
I
A
(R
A
R
S
)
2.
3. Also, E
A
K|e, thus substituting this in the KVL gives:
Chapter 9
14
ind
K
c
=
Kc
R R
Kc
J
S A
ind
T
+
=
1
4. II the Ilux can be eliminated Irom this expression, it will directly relate the torque oI a motor to its
speed. Notice that I
A
|/c and t
ind
(K/c)|
2
. Thus,

5. Substituting the Ilux equation into equation in part 3, results in:

Speed Control of Series DC Motors.
Unlike with the shunt dc motor, there is only one eIIicient way to change the speed oI a series dc motor.
That method is to change the terminal voltage oI the motor. II terminal voltage is increased, the speed
will increase Ior any given torque.
6. The Compounded DC Motor
A compounded dc motor is a motor with both a shunt and a series Iield. This is shown below:
The torque-speed characteristic
oI a series dc motor
The equivalent circuit oI
compounded dc motor:
(a) long-shunt connection.
(b) short-shunt connection.
Chapter 9
15
The KVL Ior a compounded dc motor is:
V
T
E
A
I
A
(R
A
R
S
)
and the currents are:
I
A
I
L
- I
E
I
E
V
T
/R
E
The net mmI and the eIIective shunt Iield current are:
E
net
E
E
+ E
SE
- E
AR
I
E
*
I
E
+ (N
SE
/N
E
) I
A
E
AR
/N
E
ve sign associated with a cumulatively compounded motor
-ve sign associated with a diIIerentially compounded motor
The Torque-Speed Characteristic of a Cumulatively Compounded DC Motor (CC)
There is a component oI Ilux which is constant and another component which is proportional to its
armature current (and thus to its load). Thus, CC motor has a higher starting torque than a shunt motor
(whose Ilux is constant) but a lower starting torque than a series motor (whose entire Ilux is proportional
to armature current).
The CC motor combines the best Ieatures oI both the shunt and series motors. Like a series motor, it has
extra torque Ior starting; like a shunt, it does not overspeed at no load.
At light loads, the series Iield has a very small eIIect, so the motor behaves approximately as a shunt dc
motor. As the load gets very large, the series Ilux becomes quite important and the torque-speed curve
begins to look like a series motor`s characteristic.
A comparison oI the torque-speed characteristics oI each oI these types oI machines is shown below:
The torque-speed characteristic oI a
cumulatively compounded dc motor
compared to series and shunt motors with
the same Iull-load rating.
The torque-speed characteristic oI a
cumulatively compounded dc motor
compared to a shunt motor with the same
no-load speed.
Chapter 9
16
The Torque-Speed Characteristic of a Differentially Compounded DC Motor
In a diIIerentially compounded dc motor, the shunt mmI and series mmI subtract Irom each other. This
means that as the load on the motor increases, I
A
increases and the Ilux in the motor decreases. But as the
Ilux decreases, the speed oI the motor increases. This speed increase causes another increase in load,
which Iurther increases I
A
, Iurther decreasing the Ilux, and increasing the speed again. The result is that a
diIIerentially compounded motor is unstable and tends to runaway.
This instability is much worse than that oI a shunt motor with armature reaction. It is so bad that a
diIIerentially compounded motor is unsuitable Ior any application.
DiIIerentially compounded motor is also impossible to start. At starting conditions, the armature current
and the series Iield current are very high. Since the series Ilux subtracts Irom the shunt Ilux, the series
Iield can actually reverse the magnetic polarity oI the machine`s poles. The motor will typically remain
still or turn slowly in the wrong direction while burning up, because oI the excessive armature current.
When this type oI motor is to be started, its series Iield must be short-circuited, so that it behaves as an
ordinary shunt motor during the starting period.
Speed Control in the Cumulatively Compounded DC Motor
Same as Ior a shunt motor.
EEEB283 electric machines and drives 1/3 TRashiduniten.edu.my
EEEB283 ELECTRIC MACHINES AND DRIVES
(Update: 17/12/2006, Sunday).
This subject covers
1. The Iundamental theories and laws on magnetic & magnetically coupled circuits.
2. The principles behind electromechanical energy conversion.
3. The study on the characteristics oI machines such as transIormer, synchronous,
induction machines and DC machines.
LECTURER Ir. Tuan Ab Rashid bin Tuan Abdullah.
BN-2-033, Tel. 8921 2267, TRashiduniten.edu.mv
Office hour.
M 08 17 hrs.
WTh 08 12 hrs.
Lecture hour.
M 09-10, 15-16, 17-18, 18-19hrs.
Tu 15-16hrs.
WTh 09-10, 12-13hrs.
Fr 10-11hrs.
TEXTBOOK Electrical Machinery Eundamentals
bv S J Chapman, McGraw-Hill, 4
th
Edition.
REFERENCES Electromechanical Motion Devices
bv Krause & Wasvnc:uk, McGraw-Hill.
Electrical Machinery
bv Fitsgerald, Kingslev & Umans.
PREREQUISITES EEEB113 - Circuits Analysis I.
MATB113 Advance Calculus and Analytical Geometry.
OB1ECTIVES
1) To provide basic knowledge and theories oI machinery
principles.
2) To understand the characteristics, operation and underlying
theories oI AC machines such as transIormers,
synchronous machines and induction motors.
3) To understand the characteristics, operation and underlying
theories oI DC motors.
ASSESSMENT
Quizzes/Assignments 15
Test 1 Week 7, 50mins. 15
Test 2 Week 14, 1.5 hrs. 20
Einal examination 3 hrs. 50
Discussion materials (Sections 1A, 1B, 2A, 2B). Week
1. INTRODUCTION TO MACHINERY PRINCIPLES.
Rotational motion, Newton`s Law and Power Relationship s1.3 p3.
The magnetic Iield, Magnetic circuits s1.4 p8.
Earaday`s Law s1.5 p28.
13-15/12/6
2.
Production oI induced Iorce on a wire s1.6 p32.
Induced voltage on a moving wire in a magnetic Iield s1.7 p24.
The linear DC machine s1.8 p36.
17-22/12/6
3. TRANSFORMERS.
Types and construction oI transIormers s2.2 p66.
The ideal transIormer s2.3 p68.
Theory oI operation oI real single-phase transIormer s2.4 p76.
The equivalent circuit oI a transIormer s2.5 p86.
26-29/12/6
3-5/1/7
4.
The transIormer voltage regulation and eIIiciency s2.7 p100.
Review oI Three-Phase circuit.
Three-Phase transIormers s2.10 p116.
8-12/1/7
5. AC MACHINERY FUNDAMENTALS
The rotating magnetic Iield s4.2 p238.
Magnetomotive Iorce and Ilux distribution in AC machines s4.3 p246.
Induced voltage in AC machines s4.4 p250.
Induced torque in AC machines s4.5 p255.
15-19/1/7
22-26/1/7
Test 1: 22/1/7
(Ch 1 & 2)
6. INDUCTION MOTOR.
Induction Motor construction.
Basic Induction Motor concepts.
Equivalent circuit oI an Induction Motor.
Power and Torque in Induction Motor.
29/1-2/2/7
7.
Induction Motor Torque-Speed Characteristics.
Variations in Induction Motor Torque-Speed Characteristics.
Starting oI Induction Motor.
Speed control oI Induction Motor.
Determining Induction Motor circuit model parameters.
5-9/2/7
12-16/2/7
8.
Power and Torque in Synchronous Generator s5.6 p280.
Determining Synchronous Generator circuit model parameters s5.7 p283.
Synchronous Generator operating alone s5.8 p288.
Parallel operation oI AC Generators s5.9 p299.
Synchronous Generator Ratings s5.11 p326.
19-23/2/7
26/2-2/3/7
9. SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR.
Basic principles oI Synchronous Motor operation s6.1 p346.
Steady-state Synchronous Motor operation s6.2 p350.
Starting oI Synchronous Motor s6.3 p364.
5-9/3/7
Discussion materials (Sections 1A, 1B, 2A, 2B). Week
10. DC MACHINERY FUNDAMENTALS.
A simple rotating loop between curved pole Iaces.
Commutation in a simple Iour-loop DC machine.
Armature reaction phenomenon.
The internal generated voltage and induced torque equations.
12-16/3/7
Test 2: 18/3/2007
(Ch 5, 6 & 7)
11.
DC MOTORS.
Equivalent circuit oI a DC machine.
Magnetization curve oI a DC machine.
The Separately Excited DC Motor.
The Shunt DC Motor.
The Permanent Magnet DC Motor.
The Series DC Motor.
The Compounded DC Motor.
DC Motor Starters.
DC Motor EIIiciency Calculations.
19-23/3/7
26-30/3/7
Einal Exam: April 7.
(Ch 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 9)

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EEEB344 Electromechanical Devices

Magnetic Behaviour of Ferromagnetic Materials

Examine the Iigure below:

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total average primary Ilux

Ilux component linking both rpimary and secondary coils

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