REINFORCED CONCRETE INTRODUCTION

UNIT NO 1: REINFORCED CONCRETE INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION
Concrete is arguably the most important building material, playing a part in a building structure. Its ability to be moulded to take up the shapes required for the various structural forms. It is also very durable and fire resistance when specification and construction procedures are correct. Concrete can be used for all standard buildings both single storey, multistory and containment, retaining structures and bridges.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
After completing the unit, you should be able to : 1. . !. ". '. identify the principle of reinforced concrete structure. know the function of concrete in structure. identify the reinforced concrete properties. identify the requirement and factor of safety for reinforced concrete design based on #$ %11&. identify the factor of safety requirement for reinforced design based on #$ %11&.

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1.1

REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURE

$ome of the common building structures are as follows and are shown in (igure 1.1: 1. )he single*storey portal supported on isolated footing+ . )he medium*rise frame structure, which may be braced by shear walls or un*braced. )he building may be supported on isolated, strip or raft foundation. ". )he tall multistory frame and core structure where the core and rigid frames together resist wind loads. )hese buildings usually include a basement. (or design a structure, to make many technical decisions about structural systems. )hese decisions included ,1- selecting an efficient, economical and attractive structural form+ , - evaluating its safety, that is, its strength+ and ,"planning its erection under temporary construction loads. .esigners determine the internal forces in key members in order to si/e both members and the connection between members. And designer evaluates deflection to ensure a serviceable structure*one that dos not deflect or vibrate e0cessively under load so that its functions are impaired. )he concrete building structure can be broken down into the following elements: 1. #eams * 1ori/ontal members carrying lateral loads . $labs * 1ori/ontal plate elements carrying lateral loads ". Columns * 2ertical members carrying primarily a0ial load but generally sub3ected to a0ial load and moment !. 4alls * 2ertical plate elements resisting vertical, lateral or in*plane loads '. (oundation * 5oads from columns or walls so that the ground without e0cessive settlement can support them. Alternatively the bases may be supported on piles.

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a- $ingle*$torey 7ortal

b- 8edium*9ise 9einforced Concrete (rame #uilding

6levation

7lan

c- 9einforced Concrete (rame and Core $tructure

(igure 1.1: Common building structure

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1.2

DESIGN PROCESS
1.2.1 RELATED PARTIES IN DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF STRUCTURES
)here are generally four parties ,ie. client, architect, engineer and contractor- that are involved in the construction of structures. )he flow of works for the mentioned parties is given in (igure 1. . 1owever for the construction of infrastructure such as bridges, retaining walls and water tanks, the works of the architect are not required.

CLIENT being owner to the project

Infrastructure Projects (ie. Bridges, water tanks, retaining wall)

ARCHITECT to produce the architectural drawing according to the clients requirement

ENGINEER to design according to architectural drawing and produce structural drawing.

CONTRACTOR to construct according to structural drawing

(igure 1. : (lowchart of works in design and construction of structures

1.2.2 PURPOSE OF STRUCTURAL DESIGN

In the final analysis, there are two most important purpose of which the design engineer must ensure in the design provided: 1. )he safety of the structure under any possible worst loading conditions. . )he deformation of the structure under normal loading conditions remains within the acceptable range in the conte0t of the structure:s appearance, performance and durability.
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)here are three design concepts that have been developed and used in reinforced concrete design. )hey are: 1. 7ermissible stress design: .esign stresses within the elastic limit are developed by dividing the ultimate strength of the material by a factor of safety. . 5oad factor design: 4orking loads are increased by a safety factor in order to obtain greater value of design loads. ". 5imit state design: 5oads and strength of materials are factored with partial safety factors. .esign load are developed by multiplying working loads with partial safety factors while ultimate strength of materials are reduced by dividing with partial safety factors obtaining the corresponding characteristic strength. )he partial safety factors are stipulated in #$ %11&.

1.3

CODE OF PRACTICE
In 8alaysia, design is generally to limit state theory n accordance with: #$ %11& : 1;;< : $tructural =se of Concrete 7art 1: Code of 7ractice for .esign and Construction )o calculate the deflection and crack width in accordance with: #$ %11& : 1;;< : $tructural =se of Concrete 7art : Code of 7ractice for $pecial > Circumstances )he loading on structures conforms to: #$ ?";; : 1;%! : .esign 5oading for #uilding 7art 1: Code of 7ractice for .ead and Imposed 5oad C7" : 1;< : Chapter 2 : 5oading 7art : 4ind 5oad.

1.4

DESIGN METHODS
1.4.1 STRUCTURAL DESIGN
@nce the building form and structural arrangement have been finali/ed the design problem consists of the following: 1. Ideali/ation of the structure into loads being frames and elements for analysis and design. . 6stimate of the loads. ". Analysis to determine the ma0imum moments and shears for design. !. .esign of sections and reinforcement arrangements for slabs, beams, columns and walls using the results from ,"-. '. 7roduction of arrangements and detail drawings and bar schedule.

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1.4.2 REQUIREMENTS OF DESIGN

Combined economy safety and pleasure: 1. 8aintain its function or characteristic without high maintenance costs+ . Aive adequate warning of danger in event of an overload+ ". Beep and acceptable appearance at working load with no public unease about its safety. ,e.g.: due to distortion, deflection and vibration-.

1.4.3 LIMIT STATES DESIGN

)he design of an engineering structure must ensure that ,1- under the worst loading the structure is safe, and , - during normal working conditions the deformation of the members does not detract from the appearance, durability or performance of the structure. )he purpose of design is to achieve acceptable probabilities that a structure will not become unfit for its intended use C that is, that it will not reach a limit state. )hus, any way in which a structure may ease to be fit for use will constitute a limit state and the design aim is to avoid any such condition being reached during the e0pected life of the structure: )he two principle types of limit state are the ultimate limit state and the serviceability limit state. (a) Ultimate Limit State )his requires that the structure must be able to withstand, with and adequate factor of safety against collapse, the loads for which it is designed. )he possibility of buckling or overturning must also be taken into account, as must the possibility of accidental damage as caused, for e0ample, by an internal e0plosion. (b) Serviceability Limit State Aenerally the most important serviceability limit states are: 1. .eflection C the appearance or efficiency of any part of the structure must not be adversely affected by deflections. . Cracking C local damage due to cracking and spalling must not affect the appearance, efficiency or durability of the structure. ". .urability C this must be considered in terms of the proposed life of the structure and its conditions of e0posure. @ther limit states that may be reached include: !. 60cessive vibration C which may cause discomfort or alarm as well as damage. '. (atigue C must be considered if cyclic loading is likely. ?. (ire resistance C this must be considered in terms of resistance to collapse, flame penetration and heat transfer.
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<. $pecial circumstances C any special requirements of the structure which are not covered by any of the more common limit states, such as earthquake resistance, must be taken into account. )he relative important of each limit state will vary according to the nature of the structure. )he usual procedure to decide which is crucial limits state or a particular structure and base the design on this, although durability and fire resistance requirements may well influence initial member si/ing and concrete grade selection. Check must also be made to ensure that all other relevant limit states are satisfied by the results produced. 60cept in special cases, such as water water*retaining structure, the ultimate limit state is generally critical for reinforced concrete although subsequent serviceability checks may affect some of the details of the design. 7re* stressed concrete design, however, is generally based on serviceability conditions with checks on the ultimate limit state. In assessing a particular limit state for a structure it is necessary to consider all the possible variable parameters such as the loads, material strengths and constructional tolerances.

1.5

LOAD
)he characteristic or service loads are actual loads that the structure is designed to carry. )hese are normally through of, as the ma0imum loads which will not be e0ceeded during the life of the structure in static terms the characteristic loads have a ;' D probability of not being e0ceeded. )he loads on a structure are divided into two types: EdeadF load, and EliveF loads. .ead loads are those which are normally permanent and constant during the structure:s life. 5ive loads, on the other hand, are transient and are variable in magnitude, as for e0ample those due to wind or human occupants. )he characteristic loads used in design and defined in #$ %11&: 7art 1: Clause .!.1, are as follow: 1. ) he characteristic dead load, Gk is the self*weight of the structure and the weight of finishes, ceiling, services and partitions. . )he characteristic imposed load, Qk is caused by people, furniture, equipment, etc., on floors and snow roofs. Imposed loads for various types of buildings are given in #$ ?";;: 7art 1. ". )he wind load, Wk depends on the location, shape and dimensions of the building. 4ind loads are estimated using Cp": Chapter 2: 7art . Design Load = Characteristic Load 0 partial sa ety actor or loads! = (Gk"Qk"Wk) 0

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4here f, a partial safety factor for load, ,see $ection 1.<. -. )he partial safety factor f, takes account of: 1. . ". !. 7ossible increases in load Inaccurate assessment of the effects of loads =nforeseen stress distribution in members )he importance of the limit state being considered.

1.5.1 LOAD COMBINATIONS 1.5.1.1 Load Com !"a#!o"$ Fo% T&' U(#!ma#' L!m!# S#a#'
2arious combinations of the characteristic values of dead load Ak, imposed load Gk, wind load, 4k and their partial factors of safety must be considered for the loading of the structure. )he partial factors of safety specified by #$ %11& are discussed in $ection 1.<, and for the ultimate limit state the loading combinations to be considered are as follows. #! Dead and imposed load #!$Gk % #!&Qk '! Dead and (ind load #!)Gk % #!$Wk *! Dead" imposed and (ind load #!'G k %#!'Q k % #!' Wk )he imposed load can usually cover all or any part of the structure and, therefore, should be arranged to cause the most severe stresses. 5oad combination 1 should also be associated with a minimum design dead load of 1.&Ak applied to such parts of the structure as will give the most unfavourable condition, (or load combination 1, a three*span continuous beam would have the loading arrangement shown in (igure 1.", in order to cause the ma0imum sagging moment in the outer spans and the ma0imum possible hogging moment in the centre span. A study of the deflected shape of the beam would confirm this to be the case. (igure 1.! shows the arrangements of vertical loading on a multi*span continuous beam to cause ,i- ma0imum sagging moments in alternate spans and ma0imum possible hogging moments in ad3acent spans, and ,ii- ma0imum hogging moments at support A. As a simplification, #$ %11& allows the ultimate design moments at the supports to be calculated from one loading condition with all spans fully covered with the ultimate load #!$Gk % #!&Qk as shown in part ,iii- of (igure 1.!.

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=nder load combination , dead and wind load, it is possible that a critical stability condition may occur if, on certain parts of a structure, the dead load is taken as 1.!Ak. An e0ample of this is illustrated in (igure 1.', depicting how the dead load of the cantilever section increases the overturning moment about support #.

(igure 1.": )hree*span beam

(igure 1.!: 8ulti*span beam loading arrangements

(igure 1.': 5oad combination C .ead load H 4ind load

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1.5.1.2 Load Com !"a#!o"$ )o% T&' S'%*!+'a !(!#, L!m!# S#a#'
A partial factors of safety f I 1.& is usually applied to all load combinations at the serviceability limit state. In considering, the imposed load should be arranged to give the worst affect. )he deflections calculated from the load combinations are the immediate deflection of structure. .eflection increases due to the creep of the concrete should be based only on the dead load plus any part of the imposed load which is permanently on the structure.

)able 1.1: Combination of loading and limit state.

L!m!# S#a#' Load Com !"a#!o" .ead 5oad H Imposed 5oad .ead 5oad H 4ind 5oad .ead 5oad H Imposed 5oad H 4ind 5oad .ead 5oad H Imposed 5oad .ead 5oad H 4ind 5oad .ead 5oad H Imposed 5oad H 4ind 5oad D'$!-" Load #!$Gk % #!&Qk #!)Gk % #!$Wk #!'Gk % #!'Qk % #!'Wk

=ltimate

$erviceability

#!)Gk % #!)Qk #!)Gk % #!)Wk #!)Gk % )!+Qk % )!+Wk

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)able 1. : 4eight of #uilding 8aterials

Ma#'%!a( A$/&a(# 9oofing layers, 1; mm thick .amp*proofing, 1; mm thick 9oad and footpaths, 1; mm thick .'!-&# ! kg>m !1 kg>m !! kg>m Plywood per mm thick &.< kg>m Ma#'%!a( P(a$#!+$ $&''#!"- 0+o%%1-a#'d2 .'!-&# !.' kg>m

REFERENCES
1. Intro

B!#1m'" %oo)!"- )'(#$ 8ineral surfaced bitumen B(o+34o%3 $olid per ' mm thick, stone aggregate Aerated per ' mm thick

".' kg>m

R'!")o%+'d +o"+%'#' R'"d'%!"Cement: sand ,1:"-, 1" mm thick

!&& kg>m "

'' kg>m 1' kg>m

"& kg>m

,oard ,lackboard per '- mm thick B%!+34o%3 ,Clay, solid per ' mm thick medium density Concrete, solid per ' mm thick Cast stone Concrete Jatural aggregates 5ightweight aggregates ,structural(lagstones C o n c r e t e , '& mm thick Alass fibre Slab" per '- mm thick Aypsum panels and partitions #uilding panels <' mm thick 5ead Sheet" '!- mm thick 5inoleum " mm thick 7laster )wo coats gypsum, 1"mm thick

#'!- kg.m ' ' kg>m '; kg>m ''-) kg>m "

$creeding Cement: sand ,1: "-,1" mm thick "& kg>m $late tiles depending upon thickness and sources !*<% kg>m $teel $olid ,mildCorrugated roofing sheets, per mm <%'& kg>m 1& kg>m

)armacadam !&& kg>m " 1<?& kg>m " ' mm thick )erra//o . ' mm thick )iling, roof Clay )imber $oftwood 1ardwood Water 4ood . Slabs" '- mm thick ?& kg>m

1 & kg>m

'! kg>m

'!)/-!) kg>m

<& kg>m

!! kg>m

';& kg>m " 1 '& kg>m " #))) kg>m " #- kg>m

*) kg>m & kg>m kg>m

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1.5

MATERIAL STRENGTH
1.5.1 CONCRETE PROPERTIES
1.5.1.1 Com/%'$$!*' S#%'"-#& )he compressive strength is the most important property of concrete. )he characteristics strength that is the concrete grade is measured by the % days cube strength. )he test procedure is given in: #$ 1%%1 : 1;%" : 8ethod of )esting Concrete 7art 1&% : 8ethod of 8aking )est Cubes from (resh Concrete 7art 111 : 8ethod of Jormal Curing of )est $pecimens 7art 11?: 8ethod of .etermination of Compressive $trength of Concrete Cubes.

1.5.1.2 T'"$!(' S#%'"-#& )he tensile strength of concrete is about a tenth of compressive strength ,1&D of compressive strength-. )he test procedure is given in #$ 1%%1. 1.5.1.3 C%''/ Creep in concrete is the gradual increase in strain with time in a member sub3ected to prolonged stress. )he creep strain is much larger that the elastic on loading. )he main factors affecting creep strain are the concrete mi0 and strength, the type of aggregate, curing, ambient relative humidity and the magnitude and duration of sustained loading. 6ffects of creeps are important become where the increase deflection may cause: @pening of cracks .amage to finishes Jon*alignment

1.5.1.4 Mod1(1$ o) E(a$#!+!#, (rom the short*term stress*strain curves, can be determined from the slope of the graph as shown in #$ %11&, 7art 1. )his value of is within the elastic range, which will be design for ultimate limit state theory.

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1.5.1.5 S&%!"3a-' $hrinkage or drying is the contraction that occurs in concrete when it dries and hardens. .rying shrinkage is irreversible but alternate wetting and drying causes e0pansion and contraction of concrete. )he aggregate type and content are the most important factor influencing shrinkage. )he larger si/e of the aggregate is the lower is the shrinkage a n d the higher is the aggregate content+ the lower the workability and water*to*cement ratio are the lower is the shrinkage.

1.5.2 CHARACTERISTIC OF MATERIAL STRENGTH

)he strengths of materials upon which design is based are those strengths below which results are unlikely to fall. )hese are called KCharacteristic $trengths, 0k:. It is assumed that for a given material, the distribution of strength will be appro0imately KnormalL, so that a frequency distribution curve of a large number of sample results would be of the form shown in (igure 1.?. )he characteristic strength is taken as that value below which it is unlikely that more than ' per cent of the results will fall. )his is given by+ 0k = 0m / #!&$!s where+ 0k. I characteristic strength, 0m I mean strength, s I standard deviation. )he relationship between characteristic and mean values accounts for variations in results of test specimens and will, therefore, reflect the method and control of manufacture, quality of constituents, and nature of the material.

(igure 1.?: Jormal frequency distribution of strengths

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Characteristic strength of concrete,

c1

" are shown in )able 1."+

c1

)able 1.": Concrete strength,

Co"+%'#' G%ad'

fcu 0N6mm22

C ' C"& C!& C!' C'&

' "& !& !' '&

Characteristic strength of reinforced, fy, are shown in )able 1.!+ )able 1.!: 9einforcement strength,
R'!")o%+'m'"# T,/' 1ot 9olled 8ild $teel 1igh Mield $teel
y

fy 0N6mm22 '& !?&

1.7

PARTIAL FACTOR OF SAFET8

@ther possible variations such as constructional tolerances are allowed for by partial factors of safety applied to the strength of the materials and to the loadings. It should theoretically be possible to derive values for these from a mathematical assessment of the probability of reaching each limit state. 5ack of adequate data, however, makes this unrealistic and in practice the values adopted are based on e0perience and simplified calculations.

1.7.1 PARTIAL FACTORS OF SAFET8 FOR MATERIALS 0 m )

Design strength = Characteristic strength"(0k) partial actor o sa ety , m )

)he following factors are considered when selecting a suitable value for , m ): 1. )he strength of the material in an actual member. )his strength will differ from that measured in a carefully prepared test specimen and it is particularly true for concrete where placing, compaction and curing are so important to the strength. $teel, on the other hand, is a relatively consistent material requiring a small partial factor of safety. . )he severity of the limit state being considered. )hus, higher values
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are taken for the ultimate state than for the serviceability limit state. 9ecommended values for , m) are given in )able 1.' although it should be noted that for pre*cast factory conditions it may be possible to reduce the value for concrete at the ultimate limit state. )able 1.': 7artial factor of safety applied to material , m )
Ma#'%!a( L!m!# S#a#' =ltimate (le0ure $hear #ond $erviceability Co"+%'#' 1.' 1. ' 1.! 1.& S#''( 1.&' 1.&' * 1.&

1.7.2 PARTIAL FACTORS OF SAFET8 FOR LOADS 0 f )

6rrors and inaccuracies may be due to a number of causes: 1. . ". !. .esign assumptions and inaccuracy of calculation 7ossible unusual load increase =nforeseen stress redistributions Constructional inaccuracies

)hese cannot be ignored, and are taken into account by applying a partial factor of safety , )on the loading, so that: Design load = Characteristic o load 2 partial actor o sa ety ( ) )he value of this factor should also take into account the importance of the limit state under consideration and reflected to some e0tent the accuracy with which different types of loading can be predicted, and the probability of particular load combination occurring. 9ecommended values are given in )able 1.?. It should be noted that design errors and constructional inaccuracies have similar effects and are thus sensible grouped together. )hese factors will account adequately for normal conditions although gross errors in design or construction obviously cannot be catered for.

)able 1.?: 7artial factors of safety for loadings.

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Load Com !"a#!o"
(
w

D'ad
G

U(#!ma#' Im/o$'d Ea%#& 9 .a#'%

(

.!"d
w

S'%*!+'a !(!#, A((

G

):(

),(

.ead N Imposed 5oad .ead N 4ind .ead, Imposed N 4ind 5oad

1.! 1.! 1.

1.? * 1.

1.! 1.! 1.

* 1.! 1.

1.& 1.& 1.&

1.;

STRESS < STRAIN RELATION

$hort*term stress*strain curves are presented in #$ %11&. )hese curves are in an ideali/ed from which can be used in the analysis of member sections.

1.;.1 CONCRETE
)he behavior of structural concrete ,(igure 1.<- is represented by a parabolic stress*strain relationship, up to strain 3)" from which point the strain increase while the stress remains constant. $train, 3) is specified as a function of the characteristic strength of the concrete , c1 -, as is also the tangent modulus at the origin. )he ultimate design stress is given by+
&.&4 = )!&4 #!= )!$$4 5 )!$-

c1

c1

c1

c1

where the factor of &.?< allows for the different between the bending strength and the cube strength of the concrete, and m I 1.' is the usual
partial safety factor for the strength of concrete when designing members cast in situ. )he ultimate strain of &.&&"' is typical for all grades of concrete.

(igure 1.<: $tress*$train parabolic curve for normal weight concrete in compression

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1.;.2 REINFORCING STEEL

)he representative short*term design stress*strain curve for reinforcement is given in (igure 1.%. )he behavior of the steel is identical in tension and compression, being linear in the elastic range up to the design yield stress of y > m where y is the characteristic yield stress and m is the partial factor of safety. 4ithin the elastic range, the relationship between the stress and strain is+

Strain

Stress ! "odulus of #lasticity

3y = 6
4here+ (or (or
y

O ! 7s

I !?& J>mm , 3y I , !?& > 1.&' - > &&P1&" I &.&& 1; I '& J>mm , 3y I , '& > 1.&' - > &&P1&" I &.&&1;

(igure 1.%: )ension and compression stress*strain curve for reinforcement

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1.;.3 STRESS<STRAIN TABULATION IN CROSS SECTION

)he theory of bending for reinforced concrete assumes that the concrete will crack in the regions of tensile strain and that, after cracking all the tension is carried by the reinforcement. It also assumes that place sections of a structural member remain plane after straining, so that across the section there must be a linear distribution of strains. (igure 1.; shows the cross*section of a member sub3ected to bending, and the resultant strain diagram, together with three different types of stress distribution in the concrete.

(igure 1.;: $ection with strain diagrams and stress blocks

1.

)he triangular stress distribution applies when the stresses are very nearly proportional to the strains, which generally occurs at the loading levels encountered under working conditions and is, therefore, used at the serviceability limit state. )he rectangular*parabolic stress block represents the distribution at failure when the compressive strains are within the plastic range and it is associated with the design for the ultimate limit state. )he equivalent rectangular stress block is a simplified alternative to the rectangular*parabolic distribution.

".

As there is compatibility of strains between the reinforcement and the ad3acent concrete, the steel strains 3st in tension and 3sc in compression can be determined from the strain diagram. )he relationship between the depth of neutral a0is (x- and the ma0imum concrete strain ,3cc- and the steel strains is given by+ 3st = (3cc) {(d/ x) . x } (i)

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and 3stc = (3cc) {(x-d) . x } (ii)

where d is the effective depth of the beam and d is the depth of the compression reinforcement. 1aving determined the strains, we can evaluate the stresses in the reinforcement from the stress*strain curve of (igure 1.%" together with the equations developed in $ection 1.%. . (or analysis of a section with known steel strains, the depth of the neutral a0is can be determined by rearranging equation (i) as+ x = d /{1 +( 3st / 3cc) } (iii)

At the ultimate limit state the ma0imum compressive strain in the concrete is taken as 3cc = )!))*(or steel with y I !?& J>mm the yield strain is )!))'#8! Inserting these values into equation (iii)9 x = d ! " # $ (&.&& 1; !&.&&"'-% = )!&#- d 1ence, to ensure yielding of the tension steel at the ultimate limit state: x : )!&#- d At the ultimate limit state it is important that member sections in fle0ure should be ductile and that failure should occur with the gradual yielding of the tension steel and not by a sudden catastrophic compression failure of the concrete. Also, yielding of the reinforcement enables the formation of plastic hinges so that redistribution of ma0imum moments can occur, resulting in a safer and more economical structure. )o be very certain of the tension steel yielding, the code of practice limits the depth of neutral a0is so that+ x : ( ;b < )!$) d where ;b I moment at the section after redistribution moment at the section before redistribution

)hus with moment redistribution not greater than 1& per cent, and Qb R &.;+ x : )!- d

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1.=

SER>ICEABILIT8: REQUIREMENT

DURABILIT8

AND

STABILIT8

)he concept of serviceability limit states has been introduced in $ection 1.!.", and for reinforced concrete structures these states are often satisfied by observing empirical rules which affect the detailing only. In some circumstances, however, it may be desired to estimate the behavior of a member under working conditions, and mathematical methods of estimating deformations and cracking must be used. 4here the foundations of a structure are in contact with the ground, the pressures developed will influence the amount of settlement that is likely to occur. )o ensure that these movements are limited to acceptable values and are similar throughout a structure, the si/es of foundations necessary are based on the service loads for the structure. .urability is necessary to ensure that a structure remains serviceable throughout its lifetime. )his requirement will involve aspects of design, such as concrete mi0 selection and determination of cover to reinforcing bars, as well as selection of suitable materials for the e0posure conditions which are e0pected. Aood construction procedures including adequate curing are also essential if reinforced concrete is to be durable.

1.=.1 DETAILING REQUIREMENTS

)hese are to ensure that structure has satisfactory durability and serviceability performance under normal circumstances. #$ %11& recommends simple rules concerning the concrete mi0 and cover to reinforcement, minimum member dimensions and limits to reinforcement quantities and spacing which must be taken into account at the member si/ing and reinforcement detailing stages. 1.=.1.1 M!"!m1m Co"+%'#' M!? a"d Co*'% 0E?/o$1%' Co"d!#!o"2 )hese requirements are interrelated, and #$ %11& specifies minimum combinations of thickness of cover and mi0 characteristics for various e0posure conditions. )he mi0es are e0pressed in terms of minimum cement content, ma0imum water>cement ratio and corresponding minimum strength grade. )hese basic requirements are given in )able 1.<. )he nominal cover is that to all steel, and allows for a ma0imum fi0ing tolerance that the actual cover does not fall below ' mm less than that specified. Ad3ustment must be made to cement contents if different aggregate si/e are used, and detailed of these and other possible modifications are given in #$ '" %.

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)able 1.<: Jominal cover and mi0 requirements for normal weight mm ma0imum si/e aggregate concrete

&

1.=.1.2 M!"!m1m M'm '% D!m'"$!o"$ a"d Co*'% 0F!%' R'$!$#a"+'2 #$ %11& also provides tabulated values of minimum dimensions and nominal covers for various types of concrete member which are necessary to permit the member to withstand fire for a specified period of time. )hese are summari/ed in )able 1.% and 1.;.

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)able 1.%: Jominal cover for fire resistance

)able 1.;: 8inimum dimensions of 9C members for fire resistance ,nominal cover requirements satisfied-

1.=.1.3 Ma?!m1m S/a+!"- o) R'!")o%+'m'"# )he ma0imum clear spacing given in )able 1.1& apply to bars in tension in beams when a ma0imum likely crack width of &." mm is acceptable and the cover to reinforcement does not e0ceed '& mm. It can bee seen that spacing is restricted according to the amount of moment redistribution applied. Any bar of diameter less than &.!' times that of the largest bar in a section must be ignored when applying these spacing. #ars ad3acent to corners of beams must not more than one*half of the clear distance given in )able 1.1& from the corner. 9ules for the slabs permit greater spacing under specified conditions as follows: ,a- If h S && mm with high yield steel , y I !?& J>mm - or ,b- If h S '& mm with high yield steel , y I '& J>mm - or (c) If #))=s . bd S &." per cent )hen the ma0imum clear spacing between bars should not e0ceed <'& mm or *d, whichever is smaller.

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If none of these apply, the ma0imum spacing should be taken as that given in )able 1.1&, e0cept that if the ratio #))=s . bd is less than 1.&, the values from )able 1.1& should be divided by that ratio. If the amount of moment redistribution is unknown when using )able 1.1& for slabs, /ero should be assumed for span moments and *1' per cent for support moments. )able 1.1&: 8a0imum clear spacing ,mm- for tension bars in beams

1.=.1.4 M!"!m1m S/a+!"- o) R'!")o%+'m'"# )o permit concrete flow around reinforcement during construction the minimum clear gap between bars, or groups of bars, should e0ceed , hagg % - mm- hori/ontally and , 'hagg . *- vertically, where hagg is the ma0imum si/e of the coarse aggregate. )he gap should be vertically in line and must also e0ceed the bar diameter, or in the case of Ebundled barsF the diameter of a bar of equivalent total cross*sectional area.

1.=.1.5 M!"!m1m A%'a$ o) R'!")o%+'m'"# (or most purposes, thermal and shrinkage cracking may be controlled within acceptable limits by the use of minimum reinforcement quantities specified by #$ %11&. )he principal requirements are summari/ed in )able 1.11 although other requirements include &.1' per cent traverse reinforcement in the top surfaces of flanges in flanged beams and &. ' per cent ,high*yield- or &."& per cent ,mild steel- anti*crack steel in plain walls ,bar diameter R ? mm or one*quarter diameter of vertical compressive bars-. 9equirements for shear links and column binders are respectively. 1.=.1.5 Ma?!m1m A%'a$ o) R'!")o%+'m'"# )hese are determined largely from the practical need to achieve adequate compaction of the concrete around reinforcement. )he limits specified by #$ %11& are as follows: (a) >or a slab or beam" longit1dinal steel #)) =s bh or #)) =sc bh not greater than ! per cent each

4here bars are lapped, the sum of the bar si/es in a layer must not be greater than !& per cent of the section breadth.

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(b) >or a col1mn #)) =s bh not greater than ? per cent if cast vertically not greater than % per cent if cast hori/ontally not greater than 1& per cent at laps in either case )able 1.11: 8inimum reinforcement areas

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1.=.2 SPAN<EFFECTI>E DEPTH RATIOS

#$ %11& specifies a set of basic span*effective depth ratios to control deflections which are given in )able 1.1 for rectangular sections and for flanged beams with spans less than 1& m. 4here the web width of a flanged beam b w ? )!*b" linear interpolation should be used between the values for a flanged beam and a rectangular section. 9atios for spans T1& m are factored, when it is necessary to control the increase in deflections after the application of partitions or finishes ,e0cept for cantilevers-. )able 1.1 can otherwise be used. )he basic ratios given in )able 1.1 according to are modified in particular cases

(a) )he service stress in the tension steel and the value o @.bd'" as shown in )able 1.1". (b) )he area of compression steel as in )able 1.1!.

)he area of tension reinforcement provided is related to the value of @.b d ' " thus lower values of service stress and @lb d ' will result in smaller depths of neutral a0is x! )his effect will reduce deflections due to creep, as there will be less of the section sub3ect to compressive stresses. Compression reinforcement restrains creep deflections in a similar manner and also reduces the effects of shrinkage. )he service stress in the reinforcement s is usually a function of the yield stress y" as indicated in the table. )he values shown are >" y, but may be factored by the ratio =s"reA . =s"prov as well as an allowance for moment redistribution 1>Q b if known. )he reinforcement area =s and =sB are measured at the centre of span, or at the support for a cantilever, and the value of =s: used with )able 1.1! should include all bars located in the compression /one. )able 1.1 : #asic span*effective depth ratio

)able 1.1": )ension reinforcement modification factors

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)able 1.1!: Compression reinforcement modification factors

1.1@ FAILURE T8PES OF CROSS SECTION

)here are three types of failure of cross section show in (igure 1.1&+ ,a$nder %einforced 4here+ i) ii) iii) i&) area of steel reinforcement provided, =s prov is smaller than area of concrete, =c! In this situation, reinforcement will achieve failure limit before concrete achieve strength ma0imum (ailure of structure is occurs because of reinforcement fail in tension. x & '()*d ,(igure 1.1& ,a--.

,b-

Balance Section 4here+ i) area of steel reinforcement, =s"prov provided is similar ,or balanceto area of concrete, =c! ii) In this situation, reinforcement will achieve the limit together with concrete achieve strength ma0imum iii) 9einforcement and concrete will fail simultaneously i&) x '()*d ,(igure 1.1& ,b--.

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,c-

+,er %einforced 4here+ i) area of steel reinforcement, =s"prov provided is more than area of concrete =s"prov. ii) In this situation, concrete will achieve the ma0imum stress before reinforcement. iii) )he failure occurs because of concrete fail in compression. iv) x - '()*d

'.'')* x < 0.64d

, '.''( a- =nder reinforced

'.'')*

x = 0.64d

'.''(
b- #alance section

'.'')*
x > 0.64d

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c- @ver reinforced

(igure 1.1&: )ype of (ailure Cross $ection

EAERCISE 1.1
1. . ". !. 4hat are the five ,'- most important serviceability limit statesU 4hat is the meaning of =ltimate limit stateU 5ist four ,!- ma3or elements of building structure. 5oad is a one factor should be considered before design the structure base. 5ist three ,"- others factor that need to be check before design the concrete structure. '. 60plain with sketch three ,"- types of cross section.

SUMMAR8
In this unit we have studied : 1. design reinforced concrete requirement and design process base on #$ %11&.

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. ultimate limit state and $erviceability limit state requirement for reinforced concrete structure. ". the important of partial factor of safety for material ad load in renforced concrete design. !. serviceability, durability and stability requirement should be provided in concrete structure design.

REFERENCES
1. . ". 4.1.8osley, V.1. #ungery N 9. 1usle ,1;;;-, Cein orced Concrete Design ,'th 6dition- : 7algrave. 9einforced Concrete 8odul, ,1st 6dition-. =$8. #$ %11&, 7art 1: 1;%', )he $tructural =se of Concrete. Code of 7ractice for .esign and Construction.

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