HANDBOOK FOR PROTECTION ENGINEERS

Authored by M.V.S. BIRINCHI, BE., FIE E".D#re$tor %Te$h&#$'() C.VENKATESWAR !, M.E, PGDIEM Ch#e* E&+#&eer,Prote$t#o&

APTRANSCO

APGENCO

HANDBOOK FOR PROTECTION ENGINEERS

ACKNOW EDGEMENTS The Hand Book covers the Code of Practice in Protection Circuitry including standard lead and device num ers! mode of connections at terminal stri"s! colour codes in multicore ca les! #os and #onts in e$ecution% &lso "rinci"les of various "rotective relays and schemes including s"ecial "rotection schemes like differential! restricted! directional and distance relays are e$"lained 'ith sketches% The norms of "rotection of generators! transformers! lines ( Ca"acitor Banks are also given% The "rocedures of testing s'itchgear! instrument transformers and relays are e$"lained in detail% The close and tri"! indication and alarm circuits for variety of Circuit reakers indicating ferrule num ers are also included% &ll relevant information and circuit diagrams necessary for trou le shooting are also given% )e have more than 2* years e$"erience! each in "rotective relaying and included a lot of information y 'ay of original contri ution a"art from collection of useful information from a large num er of reference ooks!
*

manuals of manufacturers! etc% and it is ho"ed that this Hand Book 'ill serve as a useful guide for all "racticing +ngineers% )e thank ,ri B%Ba u! ,"ecial -fficer .Protection/! ,ri 0ivekananda and ,ri ,achidanandam! #ivisional +ngineers! &P1+2C-! ,ri 3%1o"al 4ao! Chief +ngineer! ,ri 5%3%,astry and ,ri 6%#akshina 3urthy! ,u"erintending +ngineers! &PT4&2,C- for their valua le advise in "re"aration of this ook% )e also thank ,arvasri 1% ,eshagiri 4ao! #ivisional +ngineer! 3%6agan 3ohan 4ao! &ssistant #ivisional +ngineer! 7%,rinivasa 4ao! 0%0enkates'arlu and 3rs%,hil"a! &ssistant +ngineers of &PT4&2,C-! ,ri 0%4%4ao and ,ri #iganta of P1C85 for "atiently going through the Hand Book and for their valua le suggestions in ringing out this Book% )e s"ecially thank #r%Bhuvanaika 4ao! &P1+2C- for his contri ution of the cha"ter on +$citation ( 0oltage Control% -ur s"ecial thanks to ,ri 3% ,reenivasa 4eddy and ,ri &%Bhaskar 6%P%-s 'ho has "rovided com"uter aided assistance in ringing out this Hand Book%

M.V.S. BIRINCHI
9

C. VENKATESWAR !

INDE1% Code of Practice 1%1 1%2 1%3 1%4 1%* 1%9

<

,tandard num er for devices Ty"es of Panels Protective 4elay : Connection ( ;ones of Protection 2orms of Protection for 1enerator! Transformers ( 5ines Current Transformers 0oltage Transformers

1%< 1%= 2% 3% 4% *% 9% <% =% @% 1A%

+nergy 3eters ,ynchronising Panel

1enerator and their Protection Transformers and their Protection #istance 4elays in &%P%,ystem! relay indications ( their 3eanings Bus ars : &rrangements ( Protection ->5 ( +>? relays Circuit Breakers ,tation Battery +arthing Practices +$citation ( 0oltage 4egulation%

PROTECTION
OB.ECTIVE B To Cuickly isolate a faulty section from oth ends so that the rest of the ,ystem can function satisfactorily%

THE F!NCTIONA RE/!IREMENTS OF THE RE A01 i/ 4elia ility B The most im"ortant reCuisite of "rotective relay is relia ility since they su"ervise the circuit for a long time efore a fault occursD if a fault then occurs! the relays must res"ond instantly and correctly% B The relay must e a le to discriminate.select/ et'een those conditions for 'hich "rom"t o"eration is reCuired and those for 'hich no o"eration! or time delayed o"eration is reCuired% B The relaying eCui"ment must e sufficiently sensitive so that it o"erates relia ly 'hen reCuired under the actual conditions that "roduces least o"erating tendency% B The relay must o"erate at the reCuired s"eed% 8t should neither e too

ii/

,electivity

iii/

,ensitivity

iv/ @

,"eed

slo' 'hich may result in damage to the eCui"ment nor should it e too fast 'hich may result in undesired o"eration%

HEA TH0 TRIP CIRC!T

High Resistance

Push Button Lamp

+ Ve Relay Contact Battery

Trip Coil

1 A

- Ve

IMPORTANT E EMENTS B S2#t$h +e'rB Circuit reaker Bulk oil! 3inimum oil! ,?9! &ir last! 0acuum etc% de"ending on medium used for Cuenching the arc% #ifferent o"erating mechanisms such as solenoid! s"ring! "neumatic! hydraulic etc% are em"loyed% 4elays .current! voltage! im"edance! "o'er! freCuency! etc% ased on o"erating "arameter! definite time! inverse time! ste""ed etc% as "er o"erating characteristic! logic 'ise such as differential! over flu$ing etc%

Prote$t#3e +e'r1

1 1

St't#o& B'ttery1

& ,tation attery containing a num er of cells accumulate energy during the "eriod of availa ility of &%C su""ly and discharge at the time 'hen relays o"erate so that relevant circuit reaker is tri""ed%

1 2

1 3

C-#+ -? P4&CT8C+

1 4

CODE OF PRACTICE 1 PROTECTION 1%AA 1%A1 1%A2 1%A3 1%A4 1%A* 1%A9 1%A< 1%A= 1%A@ 1%1A 1%11 1 * Circuitry The entire 'iring of circuitry for indications! alarms! metering and "rotection should e "ermanent 'iring% There is no "lace for tem"orary 'iring or adhocism in 4elay circuitry% The leads should e identified y ferrules near terminals% +very lead should end at a terminal "oint and no Eunctions y t'isting is allo'ed% 8f t'o 'ires are to e terminated at same terminal they may e connected at t'o different terminals and a loo" "rovided% The 'iring should e y co""er leads for C%T secondaries for all cores .i%e%/ metering as 'ell as "rotection% The 'iring should e y co""er leads for PT secondaries also 'herever they are intended for "rotection% The co""er lead for 1%A* ( 1%A9 a ove should e stranded ut not single lead ty"e% &luminum leads can e used for indication! alarms and PT secondaries for metering ut stranded 'ires only are to e used% Ho'ever 'here PTs are em"loyed for commercial metering! stranded co""er 'ires are to e used% The terminations should e lugged y ring sha"e - lugs% F sha"e lugs should e avoided% ?or CT ,econdary terminations! t'o nuts 'ith one s"ring 'asher and t'o flat 'ashers to e com"ulsorily used% The terminal stri"s should e stud ty"e 'ith nuts and not scre'GinGty"e%

1%12

)herever t'o atteries are availa le! the "rimary "rotection and ackGu" "rotection should e from different atteries% 1%13 )here there is only one attery at a Po'er ,u station! the "rimary and ackGu" "rotections should e given #%C su""ly through t'o individual circuits 'ith inde"endent fuses run from #%C us% 1%13& )hen CBs have t'o tri" coils! oth main "rotection and acku" "rotection 'ill energise oth the tri" coils% 1%14 #%C and &%C su""lies should not e taken through different cores of the same ca le% 1%1* 8nde"endent #%C ca les should e run to every eCui"ment in the yard and loo"ing of #%C su""ly either in the yard or in the control room from one eCui"ment to the other is not "ermitted% 1%19 The #%C yard lighting for emergency lighting should e through inde"endent ca les and not mi$ed u" 'ith "rotection and other circuitry% 1%1< ?or indications! alarms! annunciations! controls .closing coil! tri" coil! etc% negative .Gve/ is al'ays given direct and "ositive .Hve/ is su""lied only on commands like close! tri"! relay tri"! etc% 1%1= )here #%C "rotection su""ly is at 24 volts or 32 volts! the attery units should e very near the eCui"ment and not in the control rooms% 1%1@ 8n cases of 1%1= a ove! each tri""ing units .24 volts or 32 volts attery 'ith charger/ should not e used for more than t'o circuit reakers or eCui"ment% 1%2A ,tandard colour codes for leads in control ca le of different siIes should e as denoted on the cover "age% 1 9

1%21

The lead num ers are also standardised as follo's so that any 34T +ngineer can easily identify the "ur"ose for 'hich the lead is connected y noting the lead num er% 6 ,eries 7 ,eries 5 ,eries + ,eries H ,eries & ,eries B ,eries C ,eries # ,eries #%C 8ncoming Control G Closing! Tri""ing! etc% &larms! indications and annunciations Potential transformer secondaries 5T &%C ,u""ly C%T secondary for s"ecial "rotection Bus ar "rotection Protection Circuits 3etering Circuits 61! 62! etc% 71! 72! 73 etc% 51! 52! 53! etc% +1! +2! +3! etc% H1! H2! H3! etc% &1! &2! &3! etc% B1! B2! B3! etc% C1! C2! C3! etc% #1! #2! #3! etc%

1%22 1%23 1%24 1%2* 1 <

CTs 'ith 1 am" secondary rating should e used com"ulsorily 'here meters! "rotective devices etc% are remotely situated 'ith reference to eCui"ment% The CT ratios availa le and ado"ted 'ith num er of cores shall e dis"layed on each "anel as follo'sB .'ith underlined "osition as ado"ted/% 4AA G 2AA G 1AA > 1G1G1 )herever CT cores are not used J,H-4T821 5--P,K should e "rovided near CT secondary terminals and not in marshaling o$es or at "anels% The Ca le entries near eCui"ment! marshaling o$es and "anels should e y use of a""ro"riate siIe glands%

1%29 1%2< 1%2= 1%2@

The )iring inside the "anels should e clear and neatly fastened avoiding loose 'ires% &ll 'ires not in use should not only e disconnected ut removed from "anels% PT secondaries should have grou" 3-CBs 'ith #%C alarm% ?uses at different "anels should not e used% ?e' cells from a attery of cells should not e used for se"arate lo' voltage #%C circuits% #%C G #%C converters only should e em"loyed utilising full #%C voltage of the entire attery as in"ut% STANDARD EAD N!MBERS Certain lead num ers are standardised as follo's and should ado"ted 'ith ferrules at terminations of leads% 61 G 62 G Positive 2egative 71*4 7*4 71*5 7*5 e com"ulsorily

2%AA

Controls ( &larms 4emote Close B 4emote Tri" B 5ocal Close B 5ocal Tri" B

1 =

1 @

2 A

Re('y F'4#(y
Re('y E(e$tro M'+&et#$
B'5ed o& Ch'r'$ter#5t#$ 1% #efinite time 4elays 2% 8nverse time 4elays 'ith definite minimum time .1 #3T/ 3% 8nstantaneous 4elays 4% 8#3T 'ith inst% *% ,te""ed Characteristic 9% Programme ,'itches <% 0oltage restraint overcurrent relay B'5ed o& '$tu't#&+ 6'r'4eter 1%Current 4elays 2% 0oltage 4elays 3% ?reCuency 4elays 4% Po'er 4elays etc%

St't#$
B'5ed o& o* (o+#$ 1% #ifferential 2% Fn alance 3% 2eutral #is"lacement 4% #irectional *% 4estricted +arth ?ault 9% -ver ?lu$ing <% #istance ,chemes =% Bus ar Protection @% 4everse Po'er 4elays 1A%5oss of e$citation 11%2egative Phase ,eCuence 4elays etc%

Me$h'&#$'(

1% Thermal .a/ -T Tri" . / )T Tri" .C/ Bearing Tem" Tri" etc% 2% ?loat Ty"e .a/ BuchholI . / -,4 .c/ P40 .d/ )ater level Controls etc% 3% Pressure ,'itches 4% 3echanical 8nterlocks *% Pole discre"ancy 4elay

2 1

Ty6e5 o* Co&tro( P'&e(5

1 2 3 4 * 9 < = @ 1A 11 Control Panels 4elay Panels Control ( 4elay Panels ,ynchronising Panel or Trolley Communication Panels &nnunciation Panels #%C% #istri ution Board &%C% #istri ution Board Charger Panels 4elay 1alleries &u$iliary Control Panels 12 13 14 1* 19 1< 1= 1@ 2A 21 3arshalling Bo$es &31 Panels 3achine Panels #u"le$.H0!50/ Panels Bus ;one Protection Panels 4TC Panels .-5TC/ 4T8 Panels .tem"/ 8ndoor Panels -utdoor Panels Panels 'ith dra'n u" mimics ( isolator cum reaker status indication .,ema"hores/ etc%

2 2

DEVICE N!MBERS AND THEIR NOMENC AT!RE 2 3 21 2* 2< 3A 32 3< 4A 49 4@ *A *1 *2 *2a *2 ** *9 *@ 9A 2 3 Time delay relay Checking or 8nterlocking relay #istance relay Check synchroniIing relay Fndervoltage relay &nnunciator relay #irectional "o'er .4everse "o'er/ relay 5o' for'ard "o'er relay ?ield failure .loss of e$citation/ relay 2egative "hase seCuence relay 3achine or Transformer Thermal relay 8nstantaneous -vercurrent relay &%C 8#3T -vercurrent relay Circuit reaker Circuit reaker &u$iliary s'itch J2ormally o"enK .a contact/ Circuit reaker &u$iliary s'itch J2ormally closedK . contact/ Po'er ?actor relay ?ield &""lication relay -vervoltage relay 0oltage or current alance relay

94 9< 9= <4 <9 <= <@ =A =1 =1F =1=3 =* =9 =< =<1 =<1T =<F =<2T @* @@ 1=9& 1=9B 2 4

+arth fault relay #irectional relay 5ocking relay &larm relay #%C -vercurrent relay Phase angle measuring or out of ste" relay &C &uto reclose relay 3onitoring loss of #C su""ly ?reCuency relay Fnder freCuency relay -ver freCuency relay &utomatic selective control or transfer relay Carrier or "ilot 'ire receive relay Tri""ing 4elay #ifferential relay 1enerator differential relay -verall differential relay F&T differential relay 4estricted earth fault relay Tri" circuit su"ervision relay -verflu$ relay &uto reclose lockout relay &uto reclose lockout relay

-ver Current tri" +>f% Tri" #iffl%Tri" -,4>-5TC tri" BucholI tri" -%T tri" )%T tri" -ver flu$ing tri" P%4%0 tri" Ter%&la Tri" BucholI &larm )%T &larm -%T &larm Ter%&larm Bus ar "rot% Tri" Pole discre"ancy tri"

L L 4elay tri" B 73 3aster tri" L B 193T B 93T B 29T B 4@T B @@ B B 14@T B 93& B 4@& B 29& B 14@& B @9 B 192

2 *

8ndication Hve B 51 -?? B 53 -2 B 5* ,ema"hore -?? B 5< ,ema"hore -2 B 5@ C%B tri" alarm B 521 Bus &%B ,'itch remote -?? B511 Bus indication -2 B 513 5ine>eCui"mentG-?? B 51* -2 B 51< -2 B 51@ -?? B 521

2 9

NORMS OF PROTECTION TO BE FO

OWED AS PER A.P.E.R.C. ORDERS

?or Transmission ( #istri ution 5ines S.No. Vo(t'+e Prote$t#o& S$he4e 1% 4AA 70 5ine 3ainG8B 2on s'itched or 2umerical #istance ,cheme 3ainG88B 2on s'itched or 2umerical #istance ,cheme 2% 22A 70 5ine 3ainG8 B 2on s'itched distance scheme .?ed from Bus PTs/ 3ainG88B ,'itched distance scheme .?ed from line C0Ts/ )ith a changeover facility from us PT to line C0T and viceGversa% 3% 132 70 lines 3ain Protection B ,'itched distance scheme .fed from us PT/% Backu" ProtectionB 3 2os% directional 8#3T ->5 4elays and 1 2o% directional 8#3T +>5 relay% 4% 33 70 lines 2onGdirectional 8#3T 3 ->5 and 1 +>5 relays% *% 11 70 lines 2onGdirectional 8#3T 2 ->5 and 1 +>5 relays% 2otes i% -n some of the old 22A70 lines one distance scheme 'ith acku" directional 8#3T 3 ->5 ( +>5 relays 'ere "rovided% ii% -n some of the 13270 grid lines! only distance scheme is availa le iii% 0ery fe' 9970 lines are in service .'hich are also eing "hased out/ Bus ars B &ll 22A 70 us ars 'ill have us ar "rotection scheme 'ith main and check Ione% 2 <

NORMS OF PROTECTION FOR EHV C ASS POWER TRANSFORMERS

POWER STATIONS
Vo(t'+e r't#o 7 $'6'$#ty i% 11>132 70 1T HV S#de 3G2onGdir ->5 H 1G2onGdir +>5 relay and>or stand y +>? H 4+? 3G2onGdir ->5 H 1G2onGdir +>5 relay and>or stand y +>? H 4+? 3G2onGdir ->5 H 1G2onGdir +>5 relay and>or stand y + >? H 4+? 3G2onGdir% ->5 relays V S#de GG Co44o& re('y5 #ifferential or -verall differential! -verflu$! BuchholI! -5TC BuchholI! P40! -T! )T #ifferential or -verall differential ! -verflu$! BuchholI! -5TC BuchholI! P40! -T! )T #ifferential! -verflu$! BuchholI! -5TC BuchholI! P40! -T! )T #ifferential! -verflu$! BuchholI! -5TC BuchholI! P40! -T! )T

ii% 13%=>22A 70 1*%<*>22A 70 1=>4AA 70 21>4AA 70 1enerator T>?s iii% 22A >9%970 ,tation T>?s

GG

3G2onGdir% ->5 relays

iv% 1enGvolt>9%970 F&T

3G2onGdir% ->5 relays

2 =

S!BSTATIONS
v% 132>33>1170 u"to = 30& vi% 132>33>1170 a ove = 30& and elo' 31%* 30& vii% 132>3370! 31%* 30& ( a ove viii% 22A>33 70! 31%*30& ( *A30& 22A>13270! 1AA 30& i$% 4AA>22A70 31*30& 3 ->5 relays H 1 +>5 relay 3 ->5 relays H 1 dir% +>5 relay 3 ->5 relays H 1 dir% +>5 relay 3 ->5 relays H 1 dir% +>5 relay 2 ->5 relays H 1 +>5 relay 3 ->5 relays H 1 +>5 relay 3 ->5 relays H 1 +>5 relay 3 ->5 relays H 1 dir% relay BuchholI! -5TC BuchholI! -T! )T #ifferential! BuchholI! -5TC BuchholI! -T! )T #ifferential! -verflu$! BuchholI! -5TC P40! -T! )T #ifferential! -verflu$! BuchholI! -5TC P40! -T! )T #ifferential! -verflu$! BuchholI! -5TC P40! -T! )T and overload .alarm/ relay

3 directional ->5 relays .'ith dir%highset/ H1 directional +>5 relays% 4estricted +>? relay H 3 #irectional ->5 relays for action

3 directional ->5 relays .'ith dir%highset/H1 directional +>5 relays% 4estricted +>? relay

2 @

Breaker failure "rotectionB Transformers i% ii%

The 5BB "rotection scheme 'ill e "rovided for all 22A70 stations .along 'ith us ar "rotection scheme/

2o BuchholI relay for transformers elo' *AA 70& ca"acity Transformers u"to 1*AA 70& shall have only Horn ga" "rotection grou" control reaker on H0 side and individual 50 reakers if there is more than one transformer%

iii% Transformers a ove 1*AA 70& and u"to =AAA 70& of 33>1170 ratio shall have one

iv% Transformers a ove =AAA 70& shall have individual H0 and 50 circuit reakers% v% The relays indicate a ove shall e "rovided on H0 and 50 vi% 5&s to e "rovided on H0 ( 50 for transformers of all ca"acities and voltage class% vii% -5TC out of ste" "rotection is to e "rovided 'here 3aster follo'er scheme is in o"eration viii% ?ans failure and "um"s failure alarms to e connected% i$% &larms for -%T%! )%T%! BuchholI .3ain tank ( -5TC/ should e connected%

3 A

Po#&t5 to be $he$8ed 2h#(e dr'2#&+ CT5

1% 0oltage class 2% 8ndoor >-utdoor 3% -il filledM4esin castM 4ing ty"eM 4% ,hort Circuit rating *% &vaila le ratios 9% ,econdary Current values <% &vaila le cores =% Burden @% Class of &ccuracy 1A% Terminal Connections 11% -ver all dimensions etc%

3 1

Po#&t5 to be 3er#*#ed 2h#(e dr'2#&+ C#r$u#t Bre'8er5

1% 0oltage class 2% 8ndoor >-utdoor 3% Nuencing B Bulk oil or 3in% -il or ,?9 or 0acuum or &ir last 4% #%C Control voltage or 240 or 320 or 11A0 or 22A0 *% 4ated current .make ( reak/ 9% 4u"turing ca"acity <% -"erating mechanism B ,"ringM ,olenoidM PneumaticM HydraulicM &ir lastM =% Terminal connections @% -verall dimensions 1A% #etails of CTs if "rovided 'ith reaker 11% Protective devices along 'ith reaker 12% #etails of PT! etc% if "rovided 'ith reaker etc% 13% Tri">Break time! closing time limit
3 2

C.T. RATIOS AND RE A0 SETTINGS TO BE ADOPTED The C%T ratios and relay settings for all eCui"ment at +HT su station u"to 5%0 reakers of Po'er transformers shall e a""roved y ,+>Protection% The C%T ratios and relay settings for all 3370! 1170 ( 9%9 70 feeder reakers at +HT su stations shall e finalised y #+>+3 ( 34T% The relay settings so finalised altered y any other officer% y ,+>Protection or the concerned #+ shall not e

The officers a ove are res"onsi le for relay CoGordination and gradation%

3 3

IMITS OF ERRORS IN CT5

ClassA%1to1%AB The Current +rror and "hase dis"lacement +rror at the rated freCuency shall not e$ceed the values given elo' 'hen the secondary urden is any value from 2*O to 1AAO to the rated urden% #4#t5 o* 9 error 't 9 o* r'ted Curre&t C('55 :; <; :;; :<; A%1 PA%2* PA%2A PA%1A PA%1 A%2 PA%*A PA%3* PA%2A PA%2 A%* P1%AA PA%<* PA%<* PA%* 1%A P2%AA P1%*A P1%*A P1%A Ph'5e d#56('$e4e&t #& 4#&ute5 't 9 o* r.$t :; <; :;; :<; P1A P= P* P* P2A P1* P1A P1A P9A P4* P3A P3A P12A P@A P9A P9A

C('55 =7> 3 *

>;9 P3 P*

:;;9 P3 P*

3 4

A66(#$'t#o& Precession 3etering Comml% or 8ndl%metering &mmeters! "o'er meter 4elays ,elective "rotection

St'&d'rd5 IS A%1or A%2 A%* or 1%A 1%A or 3%A *P1A or *P2A P, BS B5 B5 &3 B3 C3 C# ,TF

Com"osite +rror for Protection 8,, 2<A* Part%888 A$$ur'$y C('55 *P 1A P 1* P Curre&t error 't r'ted 6r#4. $urre&t 1 3 * Ph'5e d#56('$e4e&t 't r'ted 6r#4 $urre&t ?M#&. 9A G G Co46o5#te error 't r'ted 6r#4. $urre&t ? * 1A 1*

3 *

C.T. SECONDAR0 CONNECTIONS ?or "rotection of various eCui"ment of +HT class! the ,tar "oint on secondaries of CT should e made as follo's for ensuring correct directional sensitivity of the "rotection scheme 1% 2% 3% 4% ?or Transmission 5ines ?or Transformers ?or Bus ar 1enerator Protection G 5ine side G Transformer side G Bus side G 1enerator ,ide

The a ove method has to e follo'ed irres"ective of "olarity of CTs on "rimary side% ?or e$am"le! in line "rotection! if P1 is to'ards us then ,2s are to e shorted and if P2 is to'ards us then ,1s are to e shorted% The C%T secondary connections for Transmission line! Transformer and Bus ar are indicated in the figures% 3 9

GENERATOR CT@5 CONNECTIONS

P%
S%

P&
S&

GENER T!R ST T!R "#N$#NGS

P&
S&

P%
S%

Generator Protection Scheme

Generator Protection Scheme

3 <

3 =

C.T PO ARIT0 TEST +ach current transformer should e individually tested to verify that the "olarity markings on the "rimary and secondary 'indings are correct% The follo'ing figure sho's the test unit for this% The ammemeter & is a ro ust! moving coil! "ermanent magnet centre Iero ty"e instrument% & lo' voltage attery is used to energise the "rimary 'indings through a single "ole "ush utton% -n closing the "ushG utton! 'ith a ove C%T ammeter markings! the ammeter should give a "ositive flick! indicating correct "olarity of the C%T PRIMAR0 IN.ECTION TEST This test is carried out to ensure the C%T ratio of current transformers% 8f this test is carried out after C%T secondary 'iring is com"leted it ensures not only the correct ratio of C%Ts ut also the correctness of the entire C%T secondary 'iring com"rising "rotection and metering "ortions% The testing eCui"ment consists of a loading .inEection/ transformer! controlled y a varia le transformer to get the reCuired current on the "rimary side of the C%T under test % ?or carrying out the ratio test on C%Ts! the follo'ing circuit is made use of% Current is "assed through the "rimary 'indings of the standard C%T and C%T under test% The ratio of the C%T can e determined y com"aring the currents in ammeters &1 and &2% 3 @

VO TAGE TRANSFORMERS
C('55 o* A$$ur'$y A66(#$'t#o& IMITS OF ERROR At A;9 to :;;9 o* r'ted burde& 7 B; to :;;9 o* r'ted burde& !PG R't#o A%2 A%* 1%A 2%A *%A At A;C:;;9 o* burde& :; to PF Ph.d#56('$eC 4e&t

Ph.d#56(' $eC4e&t
2A 3A 9A G

R't#o

& B C #

,u Gstandard 8ndication meters 1st grade indicating in"uts 'att meter! 8ndl ( ,ynchronising 1st grade voltmeter )here ratio is of less im"ortance &! B ( C not reCuired

A%* 1%A G G

2A <A G G

4 A

PERIODICA TESTINGS
1% The relays should e tested a/ &nnually / )henever time lever settings are altered% c/ )henever malGo"eration of relay is sus"ected d/ )henever directed y #+>+3(34T Concerned e/ )henever directed y Chief +ngineer>,u"erintending +ngineer>Protection > 0idyut ,oudha > Hydera ad% 2% 8t is the res"onsi ility of &sst%#ivisional +ngineer .Protection to maintain a Calendar and ensure testing of relays/ 3% The &sst%+ngineer .Protection/ is res"onsi le for the accuracy of test results noted in the Test 4ecord% 4% Breaker o"ening and closing times should e checked% a/ at the time of commissioning / annually during service c/ )henever tri" or closing coils are changed d/ )henever maEor re"airs to o"erating mechanism are done e/ )henever reaker contacts are changed% *% ,tation earth resistance of earth "its and com ined value should e taken a/ annually / )henever directed y #+.+3(34T/ 9% The &ssistant #ivisional +ngineer .3aintenance/ in charge of the ,u station is res"onsi le for measurement and record of ,u station earth resistances and carrying out im"rovements 'here necessary% 4 1

GENERATOR PROTECTION

4 2

GENERATOR AND ITS PROTECTION The core of an electrical "o'er system is the generator% There are "o'er units ased on steam! gas! na"htha! 'ater "o'er! diesel engine drive and 'ind mills% The range of siIe e$tends from a fe' hundred 70& .or even less/ for engineGdriven and hydro sets u" to tur ine driven sets e$ceeding *AA30& in rating% ,mall and medium siIed sets may e directly connected to the distri ution system% & larger unit is usually associated 'ith an individual transformer! transmission system% 2o s'itchgear is "rovided et'een the generator and transformer may e ta""ed off the interconnection for the su""ly of "o'er to au$iliary "lant% Provision of a through the F&T from the +H0 reaker in et'een 1enerator and Transformer makes it "ossi le to dra' "o'er for the au$iliaries us! even 'hen machine is not in service% Ty"ical arrangements are given in figure%%%%%%%%%%%%

4 3

4 4

Protection of 9%9 70 system in generating stationsB

3aEor Thermal ,tations au$iliaries are fed from 9%9 70 us 'hich is connected y a 22A>9%970 ,tation Transformers and 1eneration voltage>9%9 70 Fnit &u$iliary Transformers%

,tation TransformersB
The vector grou" of these transformers is ,tarG#elta i%e% the 9%9 70 system is delta connected% -r The vector grou" of these transformers is ,tarG,tar 'ith the 9%970 side grounded through a high resistance%

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Fnit &u$ilary Transformers B

The vector grou" of these transformers is #elta : ,tar .ungrounded ,tar on 9%970 ,ystem/% &ny earth fault on the 9%9 70 system cannot e seen y any +>5 relay .since the 9%9 70 system is delta connected or high resistance grounded or ungrounded ,tar/%Ho'ever 3G->5 relays are "rovided on the 9%970 side of the ,tation Transformers and Fnit &u$ilary Transformers % &n o"enGdelta voltage of the 9%9 70 us PT is connected to an over voltage relay 'ith a very lo' setting% &ny earth fault on the 9%9 70 system 'ill cause the "resence of o"enGdelta voltage and make the voltage relay o"erate 'hich is connected to give alarm% The faulty 9%9 70 feeder can e identified y tri""ing the 9%9 70 outlets one after the other%

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Ge&er'tor Prote$t#o& D V'r#ou5 Fu&$t#o&5

1enerating units are the source of the "o'er system and their security against any adverse conditions is most im"ortant in the system% The generator "rotection must ensure a fast and selective detection of any fault in order to minimiIe their dangerous effects% Protection of "assive elements like transmission lines and transformers is relatively sim"le 'hich involves isolation of faulty element from the system! 'hereas "rotection of generators involves tri""ing of generator field reaker! generator reaker and tur ine% 1enerator Protections are roadly classified into three ty"es% C5&,, : & BG This covers all electrical "rotections for faults 'ithin the generating unit in 'hich generator field reaker! generator reaker and tur ine should e tri""ed% this covers all mechanical "rotections of the tur ine in 'hich tur ine 'ill e tri""ed first and follo'ing this generator 'ill tri" on reverse "o'er > lo' for'ard "o'er "rotections%

C5&,, : BBG

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C5&,, : CBG This covers electrical "rotection for faults in the system in 'hich generator 'ill e unloaded y tri""ing of generator reaker only% The unit 'ill come to house load o"eration and the F&T 'ill e in service% 0arious "rotections of this class areB i/ ii/ iii/ iv/ v/ 22A 70 .H0 side of 1enerator Transformer/ us ar "rotection% 1enerator Transformer H0 side reaker "ole discre"ancy% 1enerator negative "hase seCuence "rotection 1enerator Transformer over current > +arth fault "rotection 4everse "o'er "rotection 'ithout tur ine tri"%

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1/

Ge&er'tor D#**ere&t#'( Prote$t#o& %BE G)1 C 8t is unit ty"e "rotection! covering the stator 'inding for "hase to "hase faults due to reakdo'n of insulation et'een stator "hase 'indings% This relay is not sensitive for single line to earth faults as the earth fault current is limited due to the high neutral earthing resistance% 8f CTs of identical ratios are used on neutral and line side of generator! an o"erating current setting of 2AO it can e ado"ted% 8t is instantaneous in o"eration and it tri"s the generator reaker .Class : &/ to eliminate the system in : feed to the fault along 'ith field reaker and tur ines% ?or all machines of ratings 1A 30& and a ove! this "rotection shall e "rovided%

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* A

OVERA

DIFFERENTIA RE A0

* 1

2/

Ge&er'tor D Tr'&5*or4er D#**ere&t#'( Prote$t#o& %BET)1C

2 / This is similar to 1enerator #ifferential Protection! 'hich covers from the generator terminals u"to the H0 reaker of generator transformer% % ,ometimes this relay is not "rovided 'here 1enerator and 1enerator Transformer -verall #ifferential relay .=<-/ is "rovided% =<1 ( =<T functions should have the features of through fault restraint! magnetising inrush restraint% 3/ Ge&er'tor 7 Ge&er'tor Tr'&5*or4er O3er'(( D#**ere&t#'( Prote$t#o& %BEO)1 Besides generator differential and generator transformer differential! an overall differential relay can e "rovided et'een generator neutral side CTs and generator transformer Hv side CTs .and H0 side CTs of F&T if "rovided/ covering oth generator and generator transformer% The "rinci"le of o"eration of a ove relay is similar to any differential relay and it is also termed as unit differential relay% 4/ B'$8u6 #46ed'&$e Prote$t#o& %<:G)1C This o"erates for "hase faults in the unit! in the H0 yard or in the adEacent transmission lines! 'ith a suita le time delay% 8t o"erates as a acku" 'hen the corres"onding main "rotection fails%

* 2

8n &%P% ,ystem the reach is set as 12AO of generator transformer 'ith a time delay of a out 1%A to 1%* ,ec% */ Vo(t'+e re5tr'#&ed o3er$urre&t 6rote$t#o& %>: , <E G)1C This 'ill o"erate 'hen the fault current from the generator terminals ecomes lo' due to e$citation system characteristic 'ith under voltage criteria% 8t o"erates as a acku" "rotection for system faults 'ith suita le time delay% 9/ Ne+'t#3e 6h'5e 5eFue&$e 6rote$t#o& %GH G)1C 8t safeguards the generator rotor against over heating caused y the induced dou le freCuency .1AA HI/ currents 'hen negative "hase seCuence currents are "resent in the stator% The negative "hase seCuence current.82/ can a""ear due to un alanced single "hase loads or transmission line unsymmetrical faults% 8t should e set according the 2egative Phase ,eCuence ca"a ility of the generator% 82QQ2 $t R 3A R 4A for Thermal Fnits for Hydro Fnits

&larm stage can e set at *AO of continuous 'ithstand ca"a ility of the machine 'ith a time delay of 3 to * ,ec% * 3

* 4

</

Ge&er'tor o3er(o'd5 6rote$t#o& %>:G)IC 8t is used as an additional check of the stator 'inding tem"erature high "rotection% The relay can e connected ?or alarm 'ith a setting of ?or tri" 'ith a setting of 11AO % 12*O 'ith due time delay

=/

Ge&er'tor St'tor E'rth F'u(t Prote$t#o& %HGG)1C The high neutral earthing resistance arrangement limits the generator earth fault current! minimising the damage to core laminations% &lthough a single "hase earth fault is not critical! it reCuires clearance 'ithin a short time due toB i/ ii/ iii/ 8t may develo" into a "hase to "hase fault 8f a second earth fault occurs the current is not longer limited earthing resistor% ?ire may result from earth fault arc% y the

* *

a/

A>9 5t'tor e'rth *'u(t 6rote$t#o& %HGG:)1C 8t is an over voltage relay monitoring the voltage develo"ed across the secondary of the neutral grounding transformer in case of ground faults% 8t covers generator! 50 'inding of generator transformer and H0 'inding of F&T% & "icku" voltage setting of *O is ado"ted 'ith a time delay setting of a out 1%A ,ec% ?or all machines of ratings 1A 30& and a ove this shall e "rovided%

:;;9 5t'tor e'rth *'u(t 6rote$t#o& %HGG<)IC This is a 3rd harmonic F>0 relay% 8t "rotects 1AAO of stator 'inding% #uring the machine running condition there 'ill e certain third harmonic voltage at neutral side of the generator%This 3rd harmonic voltage 'ill come do'n 'hen a stator earth fault occurs causing this relay to o"erate% This shall have voltage check or current check unit! to "revent faulty o"eration of the relay at generator stand still or during the machine running do'n "eriod%

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@/

o55 o* E"$#t't#o& %G;G)1C 8n case of loss of e$citation! the generator goes out of synchronism and starts running asynchronously at a s"eed higher than the system! a sor ing reactive "o'er from the system% Fnder these conditions! the stator end regions and "art of the rotor get over heated% This "rotection shall haveB i/ ii/ iii/ 3ho characteristic lying in 3rd and 4th Cuadrants of im"edance diagram 'ith adEusta le reach and offset% &n under voltage and > or overcurrent relay as additional check% & timer 'ith adEusta le range of 1G1A ,seconds%

Re$o44e&ded Sett#&+51C G #iameter of 3ho circle G -ff set of 3ho circuit from the origin G Time delay G Fnder voltage relay * < RSd R $d1>2 R 1 ,ec% R 11A : 11*O of generator rated current

1A/

o2 For2'rd Po2er Re('y %=EG)1C 8n thermal machines! 'hen the steam flo' through tur ine is interru"ted y closing the +,0s or the governor valves! the remaining steam in the tur ine generates .lo'/ "o'er and the machine enters to motoring conditions dra'ing "o'er from the system% This "rotection detects lo' for'ard "o'er conditions of the generator and tri"s generator reaker after a time delay! avoiding motoring of generator% The lo' for'ard "o'er relay 'ill e "rovided 'ith tur ine tri" interlock in thermal machines% & setting of A%*O of rated active "o'er of generator 'ith a time delay of 2%A ,ec% shall e ado"ted%

11/

Re3er5e Po2er re('y %=<G)1C 4everse "o'er "rotection shall e used for all ty"es of generators% )hen the in"ut to the tur ine is interru"ted the machine enters into motoring condition dra'ing "o'er from the system% 4everse "o'er relay "rotects the generators from motoring condition% 8n thermal machines! reverse "o'er condition a""ears su seCuent to lo' for'ard "o'er condition% ?or reverse "o'er relay! a setting of A%*O of rated active "o'er of generator 'ith 2 stage timer as given elo'%

* =

i/ ii/

St'+e D I1 C St'+e D II1C

)ith tur ine tri" interlock! a time delay of 2 ,ec% shall e ado"ted% )ithout tur ine tri" interlock! a time delay of a out 2A ,ec% can e ado"ted to avoid unnecessary tri""ing of unit during system distur ance causing sudden rise in freCuency or "o'er s'ing conditions%

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12/

Rotor e'rth *'u(t 6rote$t#o&1 C This "rotection shall e "rovided for machines of all siIes% This "rotection shall e connected for alarm and the o"erator may take the machine at the earliest o""ortunity after the first earth fault has occurred% This "rotection 'ill have a sensitive voltage function o"erating on ridge measurement asis 'ith au$iliary eCui"ment% 8t 'ill have t'o levels! one for alarm and one for tri"% The settings ado"ted in general areB i/ ii/ ?or alarm ?or tri" B B 2* 76 -hm! 1%A ,ec% * 7 -hm! A%* ,ec%

& modern generating unit is a com"le$ system com"rising the generator stator 'inding and associated transformer and unit transformer! the rotor 'ith its field 'inding and e$citers! and the tur ine and its associated condenser and oiler com"lete 'ith au$iliary fans and "um"s% ?aults of many kinds can occur 'ithin this system for 'hich diverse "rotection a""lied 'ill e governed y economic considerations! taking into account the value of the machine and its im"ortance to the "o'er system as a 'hole

9 A

13/

Pole ,li" 4elay .@= 1/BG The "ole sli""ing relay is designed to "rotect synchronous generators against the "ossi ility of the machine running unsta le region of the "o'er angle curve 'hich 'ould result in "o'er oscillations and "ole sli"% Pole sli""ing of generators 'ith res"ect to the system leading to an increase in rotor angular "osition eyond the generator transient sta ility limits% ,ome of the causes for "ole sli""ing are as follo's% i/ 5arge net'ork distur ance ii/ ?aults on the net'ork close to the generator% iii/ 5oss of generator field% iv/ -"erating the generator in an e$cessive under e$cited mode% v/ 5oss of evacuation%

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,etting recommendationsBG a/ 8f the source of oscillation lies et'een generator>transformer unit! the machine has to e isolated from the net'ork after the first sli"% ?or'ard reach of relay characteristics shall cover generator>generator transformer% Tri""ing in this Ione shall e in the first "ole sli"% The reach of this Ione is RA%<$ d / 8f the source of oscillation lies outside the unit in the net'ork! the generator should not e s'itched off until several "ole sli"s have recurred% 14/ 1enerator Fnder ?reCuency Protection .=1 1/B The Fnder ?reCuency ProtectionB G G G Prevents the steam tur ine and generator from e$ceeding the "ermissi le o"erating time at reduced freCuencies% +nsures that the generating unit is se"arated from the net'ork at a "reset value of freCuency% Prevent overflu$ing .v>f/ of the generator .large overflu$ing for short times/% The stator under freCuency relay measures the freCuency of the stator terminal voltage% 9 2

,etting 4ecommendationsBG ?or &larm ?or Tri" B 4=%A HI! 2%A ,ec% time delay% B 4<%* HI! 1%A ,ec% .or/ &s recommended y 1enerator 3anufacturers%

1*/

1enerator -ver voltage Protection .*@ 1/B &n over voltage on the terminals of the generator can damage the insulator of the generator! us ducting! reakers! generator transformer and au$iliary eCui"ment% Hence over voltage "rotection should e "rovided for machines of all siIes% ,ettings recommendationsBG ,tageG8 B -ver voltage "icku" R 1%1* $ Fn Time delay R 1A ,ec% ,tateG88 B -ver voltage "icku" R 1%3 $ Fn Time delay R A%* ,ec%

19/ 9 3

,tand y +arth ?ault Protection .*1 21T/B This relay monitors the current in the generator transformer neutral% 8t can detect earth faults in the Transformer H0 side or in the adEacent net'ork%

,etting recommendationsBG &s this relay "icku" for faults in the system! it has to e time graded 'ith the transmission lines emanating from that generating station% 2ormally 8#3T relay is "rovided -"erating Current ,etting -"erating Time R 2AO 8n R 1%* to 2%A ,ec% .or/ 1reater than .ma$%/ ;oneG3 time of adEacent Transmission 5ines%

The follo'ing haIards reCuire consideration% a/ / c/ d/ e/ f/ g/ h/ i/ E/ k/ 9 4 ,tator insulation faults -verload -vervoltage Fn alanced loading 4otor faults 5oss of e$citation 5oss of synchronism ?ailure of "rime mover 5o' vacuum 5u rication oil failure 5oss of oiler firing

l/ m/ n/ o/

-vers"eeding 4otor distortion #ifference in e$"ansion et'een rotating and stationary "arts +$cessive vi ration ,mall ca"acity induction generators also are in service! mostly mini hydel and

'indmills of ca"acity of 2AA7) to 2AAA7)! 'hich de"end on the system for e$citation% Their "rotection reCuirements are very sim"le such as overcurrent relays% The "rotective relays generally used for the synchronous generators are listed at in the follo'ing "age% 8nstead of inde"endent relays for each function! micro"rocessor ased numerical relay! 'hich can take care of the entire 1enerator "rotections the latest entry%

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PROTECTIVE SCHEMES FOR VARIO!S GENERATORS

Fu&$t#o&5 S4'(( %J:; MVA)
#ifferential @*O ,tator +>? 1AAO ,tator +>? 8nterturn ?aults Backu" 8m"edance 0oltage controlled ->C 2egative ,eCuence ?ield ?ailure 4everse Po'er Pole ,li""ing -verload -ver voltage Fnder freCuency #ead machine 4otor +arth ?ault -verflu$ing T T 2 T 2 T T T T 2 2 T T 2 T 2

Ste'4 7 G'5 Turb#&e5 Med#u4 'r+e %:;C:;; %K:;; MVA) MVA)

T T T>2 T T 2 T T T 2 2 T T 2 T T T T T T T 2 T T T T 2 T T T T T

Hydro S4'(( %J:; MVA)

T T 2 T 2 T T T T 2 T T T 2 T 2

Turb#&e5 Med#u4 %:;C:;; MVA)

T T T>2 T T 2 T T T 2 T T T 2 T T

'r+e %K:;; MVA)

T T T T T 2 T T T T T T T T T T

9 9

T4&2,?-43+4 P4-T+CT8-2

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TRANSFORMER PROTECTION The rating of Po'er transformers used in &%P ,ystem% 1% 4AA>22A 70 31* 30& &uto Transformers 2% 22A>132 70 1AA30& &uto Transformers 3% 22A>33 70 *A ( 31%*30& Transformers 4% 132>99 70 4A ( 2<%*30& Transformers *% 132>33 70 *A! 31%*! 2*! 19! 1* 30& Transformers 9% 132>11 70 19! 1* ( <%* 30& Transformers <% 33>11 70 =! *! 3%1* 30& Transformers 3ost of the Po'er transformers of 132>1170 and a ove are of ,tarG,tar vector grou"ing 'ith the neutral solidly earthed% There are a fe' transformers 'ith deltaGstar .delta on H0 side/% The 33>1170 and 1170>41*0 Transformers are of deltaGstar .delta on H0 side/%

9 =

The ty"es of faults that the transformers are su Eected to are classified asBG 1/ Through ?aultsBG These are due to overload conditions and e$ternal short circuits% Time graded ->C ( +>? relays are em"loyed for e$ternal short circuit conditions% ?uses are "rovided for #istri ution transformers% 2/ 8nternal ?aultsBG a/ +lectrical ?aultsB G ?aults 'hich cause immediate serious damage such as "hase to earth or "hase to "hase faults! short circuits et'een turns of H0(50 'indings! etc% / 8nci"ient ?aultsB G )hich are initially minor faults! causing slo'ly develo"ing damage% ,uch as a "oor electrical connection of conductors of insulation! etc% 9 @ reakdo'n of

Conser)ator larm
*

Trans'ormer Tan(

Trip

< A

The follo'ing relays are em"loyed to "rotect the transformer against internal faults% i/ BuchholI relays ii/ #ifferential relays iii/ 4+? relays% iv/ -verflu$ing relays i/ Bu$hho(L Re('y51 C

)henever a fault in transformer develo"s slo'ly! heat is "roduced locally! 'hich egins to decom"ose solid of liCuid insulated materials and thus to "roduce inflamma le gas and oil flo'% This "henomenon has een used in the gas "rotection relay or "o"ularly kno'n as BucholI relay% This relay is a""lica le only to the soGcalled conservator ty"e transformer in 'hich the transformer tank is com"letely filled 'ith oil! and a "i"e connects the transformer tank to an au$iliary tank or U ConservatorU 'hich acts as an e$"ansion cham er% ?igure sho'n as BucholI relay connected into the "i"e leading to the conservator tank and arrange to detect gas "roduced in the transformer tank% &s the gas accumulates for a minor fault the oil level falls and! 'ith it a float V?V 'hich o"erates a mercury s'itch sounding an alarm% )hen a more serious fault occurs 'ithin the transformer during 'hich intense heating takes "lace! an intense li eration of gases results% These gases rush to'ards the conservator and create a rise in "ressure in the transformer tank due to 'hich the oil is forced through the connecting "i"e to the conservator% The oil flo' develo"s a force on the lo'er float sho'n as U0U in the figure and overtri"s it causing it contacts to com"lete the tri" circuit of the transformer reaker% -"eration of the u""er float indicates an inci"ient fault and that of the lo'er float a serious fault% < 1

Bu$ho(L re('y O6er't#o& 1 Cert'#& Pre$'ut#o&51 The BucholI relay may ecome o"erative not only during faults 'ithin the transformer% ?or instance! 'hen oil is added to a transformer! air may get in together 'ith oil! accumulate under the relay cover and thus cause a false o"eration of the gas relay% ?or this reason 'hen the V1asV alarm signal is energiIed the o"erators must take a sam"le of the gas from the relay! for 'hich "ur"ose a s"ecial clock is "rovided% 1ases due to faults al'ays have colour and an odour and are inflamma le% < 2

The lo'er float may also falsely o"erate if the oil velocity in the connection "i"e through not due to internal faults! is sufficient to tri" over the float% This can occur in the event of an e$ternal short circuit 'hen over currents flo'ing through the 'indings overG heat the co""er and the oil and cause the oil to e$"and% 8f malGo"eration of BucholI relay due to overloads or e$ternal short circuits is e$"erienced it may e necessary that the lo'er float is adEusted for o"eration for still higher velocities% 8n installing these relays the follo'ing reCuirements should e fulfilled% a/ The conductor connection the contacts to the terminals on the cover must have "a"er insulation! as ru er insulation may e damaged y the oil% / The floats must e tested for air tightness y for e$am"le! su merging them in hot oil to create a sur"lus "ressure in them% c/ The relay cover and the connection "i"e should have a slo"e of 1%* to 3 "ercent and not have any "rotruding surface to ensure unrestricted "assage of the gases into the conservator%

< 3

Percentage Differential Relay in a Two Terminal Circuit TR NS*!R,ER #&

#%

R+C

!+C

< 4

##)

D#**ere&t#'( Re('y51 & #ifferential relay com"ares the currents on oth sides of the transformer% &s long as there is no fault 'ithin the "rotected eCui"ment .Transformer/! the current circulates et'een the t'o CTs and no current flo's through the differential element% But for internal faults the sum of the CTs secondary currents 'ill flo' through the differential relay making it to o"erate% T'o asic reCuirements that the differential relay connections are to e satisfied areB a/ 8t must not o"erate for load or e$ternal faults% / 8t must o"erate for internal faults%

&s onGload ta" change facilities are invaria ly "rovided in the grid transformers! any de"arture from the nominal ta" "osition 'ill result in s"ill currents in the relay circuits% ?urther! the CTs are often of different ty"es and have dissimilar magnetiIation characteristics! again resulting in s"ill current during heavy through fault conditions% To avoid un'anted relays o"eration under the a ove t'o conditions a UPercentage BiasU differential relays is used%

< *

Positive TorCue 4egion

81G82 2egative TorCue 4egion 81G82

.81H82/>2 2egative TorCue 4egion

The o"erating characteristics of "ercentage ias differential relay is sho'n in the figure% < 9

The current flo'ing through the o"erating coil of the relay should e nearly Iero during normal o"erating conditions and 'hen e$ternal short circuit occurs% )hile setting the differential relay on a transformer! the .mismatch/ current through differential element at normal ta" and "ositive and negative e$treme ta"s are to e com"uted% #ifferential element "icku" setting and>or ias settings is ado"ted ased on ma$imum "ercentage mismatch adding some safety margin% #ifferential Current R W 81G82 W

W81G82 W Bias ,etting R GGGGGGGGGGG .81H82/>2 C%T 4atios and connections for differential relay 1% & sim"le rule of thum connected in )ye .,tar/% 2% a/ 8f the CTs are to e connected in ,tar! the C%T 4atio 'ill e 8n>1& )here 8n is transformer full load current% / 8f the CTs are to e connected in #elta! the C%T 4atio 'ill e 8n>A%*<<* &% < < is that the CTs on any )ye .,tar/ 'inding of a Po'er

transformer should e connected in delta and the CTs on any delta 'inding should e

< =

< @

= A

= 1

= 2

= 3

= 4

= *

= 9

Re5tr#$ted E'rth F'u(t Prote$t#o& %REF)1 C This relay is o"erative only for the internal faults of the transformer and thus fast o"erating timer can e achieved% 1% &n e$ternal fault on the star side 'ill result in current flo'ing in the line CT of the affected "hase and a alancing current in the neutral CT and current in the relay is Iero and hence relay is sta le% #uring an internal fault! the line current on the line CT gets reversed and hence relay o"erates% 2% The arrangement of residually connected CTs on the delta side of a transformer is only sensitive to earth faults on the delta side ecause Iero seCuence currents are locked y the delta 'inding% ?or e$ternal faults no current flo's through 4+? unless a CT gets saturated% Hence minimum "icku" current setting is ado"ted .1AO or 2AO 8n/ on 4+? relay% Based on the through fault current! the sta ilising resistor is set such that the relay 'ill not o"erate for e$ternal fault 'hen a CT gets saturated%This relay o"erates only for internal earth faults!instantaneously% = <

?ault current for e$ternal fault 8f R 2*AA & .assume/ C%T%4atio .line and neutral/ ,econdary fault current 4CT R C%T%4esistance T5 R 5ead 4esistance R <%41 -hms>7m .2%* sC mm Cu/ 0oltage develo"ed across CT .,aturated/ .0k/ R 8f .4CT H 245/ R =%33 .* H 3/ R 99%94 0olts R 1 0& R A%2 & .,et value/ R 3AA>1 & 2*AA R GGGGGG R =%33 & .,ec%/ 3AA

4elay urden 4elay -"erating Current

= =

4elay -"erating 0oltage 4elay urden 04 R GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG 4elay -"erating Current R 1>A%2 R * 0olts 07G04 ,ta ilising 4esistor ,4 R R
GGGGGGGGGGGGG

8,et 99%94G*%A GGGGGGGGGGG A%2 3A=%2 -hms 31A -hms

R ,et ,4 R

8f the calculated value of ,4 e$ceeds the e$isting range! the current settings can e raised accordingly and arrived at suita le ,4 value% = @

@ A

@ 1

-verflu$ing Protection 1% -verflu$ing condition in a transformer can occur during system over voltage and>or under freCuency conditions .0>?/% 2% The -verflu$ing condition does not call for high s"eed tri""ing% The tri""ing can e delayed de"ending on the overflu$ 'ithstand ca"a ility of the transformer% 3% 4elays 'ith definite time delay .nearly 3A,ec%/ and inverse characteristic are eing em"loyed% -ther Protective devices em"loyed Pressure 4elief 0alue .P40/ )inding Tem"erature -il Tem"erature -5TC BuchholI

@ 2

@ 3

TRANSMISSION INES PROTECTION

@ 4

@ *

Tr'&54#55#o& #&e Prote$t#o& D#5t'&$e Re('y51 C 8ntroductionB The im"edance relays also called distance relays are em"loyed to "rovide "rotection to transmission lines connected in a net'ork as they are economic and "ossess several technical advantages% They are com"aratively sim"le to a""ly! o"erate 'ith e$tremely high s"eed! and oth "rimary and acku" "rotection features are inherent in them% 3oreover! they can e easily modified to 'ork as unit schemes y coordinating them 'ith "o'er line carrier facilities and are suita le for high s"eed reclosing% The im"edance relay is made to res"ond to the im"edance et'een the relay location and the "oint 'here fault is incident% The im"edance is "ro"ortional to the distance to the fault! .hence the name Vdistance relayV/ and is therefore inde"endent of the fault current levels% #istance 4elaying Princi"leB & distance relay com"ares the currents and voltages at the relaying "oint 'ith Current "roviding the o"erating torCue and the voltage "rovides the restraining torCue% 8n other 'ords an im"edance relay is a voltage restrained overcurrent relay% The eCuation at the alance "oint in a sim"le im"edance relay is 7 102 R 7282 or 0>8 R 73 'here 71! 72 and 73 are constants% 8n other 'ords! the relay is on the verge of o"eration at a constant value of 0>8 ratio! 'hich may e e$"ressed as an im"edance% @ 9

,ince the o"erating characteristics of the relay de"end u"on the ratio of voltage and current and the "hase angle et'een them! their characteristics can e est re"resented on an 4GS diagram 'here oth 0>8 ratio and the "hase angle can e "lotted in terms of an im"edance 4HES% ?urther! the "o'er system im"edance like fault im"edance! "o'er s'ings! @ <

loads etc% can also e "lotted on the same 4GS diagram% Therefore res"onse of a "articular relay during "o'er s'ing! faults and other system distur ances can easily e assessed% Ty"es of #istance 4elaysB .1/ .2/ .3/ .4/ .1/ 8m"edance relay 4eactance relay 3ho relay 3odified im"edance relay 8m"edance relayB Characteristics of an im"edance relay on 4GS diagram is sho'n in fig

-"eration of the im"edance relay is inde"endent of the "hase angle et'een 0 and 8% The o"erating characteristic is a circle 'ith its center at the origin! and hence the relay is nonG directional%

@ =

@ @

1 A

1 A

Characteristic of #irectional 8m"edance 4elayB Characteristic of a directional im"edance relay in the com"le$ 4GS "hase is sho'n in fig% The directional unit of the relay causes se"aration of the regions of the relay characteristic sho'n in the figure y a line dra'n "er"endicular to the line im"edance locus% The net result is that tri""ing 'ill occur only for "oints that are oth 'ithin the circles and a ove the directional unit characteristic% The 4eactanceGty"e #istance 4elayB 4eactance relay measures 0>8 ,inA .i%e% ; sin A G /% )henever the reactance measured y the relay is less than the set value! the relay o"erates% The o"erating characteristic on 4GS diagram is sho'n in fig The resistance com"onent of im"edance has no effect on the o"eration of reactance relay! the relay res"onds solely to reactance com"onent of im"edance% This relay is inherently nonGdirectional% The relay is most suita le to detect earth faults 'here the effect of arc resistance is a""recia le%

1 A

3ho relayB This is a directional im"edance relay! also kno'n as admittance relay% 8ts characteristic on 4G S diagram is a circle 'hose circumference "asses through the origin as illustrated in figure 1 A

sho'ing that the relay is inherently directional and it only o"erates for faults in the for'ard direction% 3odified im"edance relayB &lso kno'n as offset 3ho relay 'hose characteristic encloses the origin on 4GS diagram as sho'n in fig This offset mho relay has three main a""licationsB G i/ ii/ iii/ Bus ar Ione acku" Carrier starting unit in distance>carrier locking schemes% Po'er ,'ing locking%

3ain ?eatures in #istance ,cheme #istance schemes consist of the follo'ing maEor com"onentsBG i/ 1 A ,tarters%

ii/ iii/ iv/ i/

3easuring units% Timers &u$iliary relays ,tartersB G The starting relay .or starter/ initiates the distance scheme in the event of a fault 'ithin the reCuired reach .more than IoneG3/% -ther functions of the starter areB G a/ ,tarting of timer relays for second and third Iones% / ,tarting of measuring elements% The starters are generally of 3ho or im"edance ty"e% )ith 3ho ty"e startersB G 3easuring units for "hase and earth faults can e either directional or nonG directional as 3ho starter is inherently directional%

)ith im"edance ty"e startersB G 3easuring units have to directional% 1 A e directional as im"edance starters are non :

The under im"edance relay can e used in conEunction 'ith the directional relay as starter 'hich 'ill then function similar to the 3ho starter% ii/ 3easuring unitsB G They are generally of a mho or reactance or a com ination of mho! reactance and resistance ty"es% Phase ?ault FnitsBG These measuring units are fed 'ith line to line voltages .such as 0a ! 0 c/ and difference et'een line currents .8aG8 /% They measure the "ositive seCuence im"edance from the relay location to the fault "oint% Three such relays res"ond correctly to all "ossi le single line to ground faults line to line faults! dou le line to ground faults and 3G"hase faults% They ho'ever do not res"ond correctly to earth faults%

+arth ?ault FnitsB G 1 A

These measuring units utiliIe line to neutral voltage .0an! 0 n 0cn/ and "hase currents .8a! 8 ! 8c/% 8n order to make these units measure the "ositive seCuence im"edance correctly! a Iero seCuence current com"ensation is to e "rovided 'hich is o tained yB 72 R .;AG;1/> 3Q;1 .'here ;1 R "ositive seCuence im"edance of line% ;A R ;ero seCuence im"edance of line/ 8n the current circuit .1H72/ 8a 'ill e fed for the a ove measurement% iii/ TimersB G Timer relays 'hen initiated y starters "rovide the time lag reCuired for Iones% They also 'ill e used for Ione e$tension "ur"ose 'henever reCuired% &u$iliary relaysB G #istance scheme com"rises of several au$iliary relays! 'hich "erform functions such as flag indications! tri""ings! signaling! alarm etc%

iv/

Add#t#o&'( Fe'ture5 #& d#5t'&$e 5$he4e51 C i/ ii/ 1 A Po'er ,'ing locking relay 0T fuse failure relay%

iii/ iv/ v/ vi/ #)

,'itch onto fault relay ?ault locator &utoGreclosing scheme% Carrier communication scheme% Po2er S2#&+ b(o$8#&+1 C #istance relay 'hich res"ond to alanced 3G"hase changes in the im"edance 'ill e affected y "o'er s'ings% These s'ings or oscillations occur follo'ing a system distur ance such as maEor load change or a di" in voltage due to delayed fault clearance% 8n case of fault! the transition from "eriod of im"edance locations .2* to 33O of starter im"edance/ to fault im"edance .starter im"edance/ is sudden 'hereas during "o'er s'ings% The P,B relays use this difference to lock the tri""ing during s'ings%

##)

VT *u5e *'#(ure re('y1 C The distance relays eing voltage restraint ->C relays! loss of voltage due to main PT fuse failure or inadvertent removal of fuse in one or more "hases 'ill cause the relay o"eration% The fuse failure relay 'ill sense such condition y the "resence of residual voltage 'ithout residual current and locks the relay% S2#t$h o&to *'u(t1 C

###) 1 A

)hen the line is s'itched on to a close y fault .say after line clear 'ith earth s'itch closed/! the voltage at the relaying "oint 'ill e Iero% ?aults of this ty"e 'ill normally e cleared y acku" Iones% The voltage a""lied to the relay is lo' and this condition occurring simultaneously 'ith the o"eration of starter 'ill cause instantaneous tri" y ,-T? relay% This ,-T? feature 'ill e effective only for a out 1G2 seconds after the line is charged% ?aults occurring after this time 'ill e measured in the normal 'ay% #3) F'u(t (o$'tor1 C 8t measures the distance et'een the relay location and fault location in terms of ; in -hms! or length in 73 or "ercentage of line length% This relay gets same in"uts as the distance relay .connected in series 'ith one of the main relays/% The measurement is initiated y tri" signal from distance relays% The fault locator gives the e$act location of the fault! there y reducing the time of restoration%

1 A

3)

Auto Re$(o5#&+ S$he4e51C Ty"es of ?aultsBG

i/

Transient ?aultsBG These are cleared y the immediate tri""ing of circuit reakers and do not recur 'hen the line is reGenergised% ,emiG"ermanent ?aultsBG These reCuire a time interval to disa""ear efore a line is charged again% Permanent ?aultsBG These are to e located and re"aired efore the line is reGenergised%

ii/ iii/

& out =AG@AO of the faults occurring are transient in nature% Hence the automatic reclosure of reaker .after tri""ing on fault/ 'ill result in the line eing successfully reG energised! there y a/ / c/ d/ #ecreasing outage time 8m"roving relia ility 8m"roving system sta ility 4educes fault damage and maintenance time

De'd T#4e1C 1 1

The time et'een the &utoGreclosing scheme eing energised and the 1 st reclosure of the circuit reaker % This is normally set at 1 ,ec% Re$('#4 T#4e1C The time follo'ing a successful closing o"eration measured from the instant the autoG reclosing relay closing contacts making 'hich must ela"se efore the autoGreclosing relay initiated another reclosing attem"t% 8n other 'ords! it may e said to e the time et'een 1 st and 2nd reGclosure% Ty6e5 o* AutoCre$(o5#&+ 5$he4e5 %b'5ed o& 6h'5e)1 ') Three 6h'5e AutoCre$(o5#&+1 This ty"e of autoGreclosing causes an immediate drift a"art of the t'o systems and hence no interchange of synchroniIing "o'er can take "lace during the dead time% b) S#&+(e Ph'5e AutoCre$(o5#&+1 8n this only the faulty "hase .'hich already has tri""ed on ,51 fault/ is reclosed 'ithout causing interru"tion in interchange of synchronising "o'er et'een t'o systems through other t'o healthy "hases% Ty6e5 o* AutoCre$(o5#&+ 5$he4e5 %$'5e o& 'tte46t5 o* re$(o5ure)B 1 1

')

S#&+(e Shot AutoCre$(o5#&+1C 8n this scheme! reaker is reclosed only once on a given fault efore lockout of circuit reaker occurs% High s"eed autoGreclosing for +H0 system is invaria ly single shot%

b)

Mu(t#C5hot AutoCre$(o5#&+1C 8n this scheme! more than one reclosing attem"t is made for a given fault efore lockout of the circuit reaker occurs% 4e"eated closure attem"ts 'ith high fault level 'ould seriously affect the circuit reaker! eCui"ment and system sta ility% The factors that must e taken into accountBG i/ Circuit Breaker 5imitationsBG & ility of circuit reaker to "erform several tri" close o"erations in Cuick succession% ,ystem ConditionsBG 8n the "ercentage of the semiG"ermanent faults .'hich could e urnt out/ is moderate! for e$am"le on the lines through the forest! multishot autoGreclosing is follo'ed%

ii/

1 1

Ty6e5 o* AutoCre$(o5#&+ %de6e&d#&+ o& 56eed)1 8/ H#+h 56eed AutoCre$(o5#&+1

This aids in fast restoration of su""ly ut should e done y taking into account the follo'ing factorsBG i/ ii/ 88% ,ystem distur ance time can e tolerated 'ithout loss of system sta ility% Characteristics of "rotection schemes and circuit reaker%

o2 S6eed or De('yed AutoCre$(o5#&+1C This is suita le for highly interconnected systems 'here the loss of a single line is unlikely to cause t'o sections of the system to drift a"art and loose synchronism%

For EHV Sy5te451C ') Cho#$e o* De'd T#4e1C 5o'er limit is decided y deionising time of circuit reaker% 1 1

F""er limit is decided y transient sta ility and synchronism% 5ong transmission lines reCuire longer dead time for single "hase faults% The dead time for high s"eed autoGreclosing scheme 'ith +H0 system is A%3GA%= ,ec% b) Cho#$e *or re$('#4 t#4e1C This should not e set to such a lo' value that the o"erating cycle of reaker is e$ceeded 'hen t'o fault incident occurs close together% The reclaim time 'ill e in the range of 1AG3A ,ec%! de"ending on the reaker o"ening and closing mechanisms%

1 1

-%

TR#P REL /

ZL Z3 t3 t2 t1 A Z2 Z3 Z1 B C Z1 Z2 D t1 t2 t3

T& T. CR -& -. -& T& T#,ERS T.

C RR#ER SEN$

-%

CARRI R ! ND "Z1 TRIP "Z1 # Z2$%CR#T2& # Z3$T3

-& -. CR

T& T.

TR#P

OR AND

1 1

vi/

C'rr#er Co44u&#$'t#o& S$he4e51C The main disadvantage of conventional timeGste""ed distance "rotection is that the instantaneous ;oneG1 of the "rotective scheme at each end of the "rotected line is set to cover =AO of the line and hence faults in the alance 2AO of the line .at each end/ are cleared in ;oneG2 time! 'hich is undesira le% The desira le scheme is the one 'herein the relays clear the faults on the 1AAO of the "rotected line instantaneously and also "rovide acku" for uncleared faults on adEacent lines% This can e achieved y interconnecting the distance relays are each end of the line y a signaling channel .'hich can e either "ilots! a "o'er line carrier communication channel! a radio link or a micro'ave channel/% The "ur"ose of the signaling channel is to transmit the information a out the system conditions at one end of the "rotected line to the other end and initiate or "revent tri""ing of the remote circuit reaker% The former arrangement is referred to as a JTransfer tri" schemeK 'hile the latter is kno'n as JBlocking schemeK ') Tr'&5*er tr#6 5$he4e1C 8n this scheme! the distance relay at one end of the "rotected lines sends a carrier signal to the relay at other end of the line for interGtri""ing! there y clearing the faults on entire line instantaneously%

1 1

-% T& T.

CR

TR#P REL /

ZL t3 t2 t1
A Z2D Z3D Z3A Z2A Z1A B Z1D D

-&

T& T#,ERS T.

t1 t2 t3

-.

C RR#ER SEN$

-% -& -. CR AND
T& T.

TR#P

CARRI R ! ND "Z1 TRIP "Z1$CR # Z2$T2 # Z3$T3

OR

1 1

Transfer tri" is of t'o ty"esBG ) !&derCre'$h#&+ 5$he4e1C The scheme in 'hich the ;oneG1 relay .set to cover a out =AO of ;5/ is used to send a signal to the remote end of the feeder for interGtri""ing is termed as transfer tri" underGreaching scheme% To avoid malGo"eration due to recei"t of false signal! the receiving end relay o"eration is interGlocked 'ith its ;oneG 3>starter o"eration i%e% the scheme o"erates either y its o'n ;oneG1 relay o"eration or y recei"t of carried and its ;oneG3>starter o"eration% ) O3erCre'$h#&+ 5$he4e1C This scheme is suita le for short lines 'here an underreaching ;oneG1 'ould e too short to e of any "ractical use% 8n this scheme the relay set to reach eyond 1AAO of the line! is used to send an interGtri""ing signal to the remote end of the line% 8t is essential that the receive relay contact e monitored y a directional relay to ensure that tri""ing does not take "lace unless the fault is 'ithin the "rotected section% The disadvantage of this scheme is that there is no inde"endent ;oneG1 tri""ing% The fast tri""ing therefore relies entirely on signaling channel%

1 1

The disadvantages of these schemes is that the signal is transmitted over the fault line section% #istortion of the signal may occur due to attenuation introduced into the line y the fault%

1 1

-R

ZL Z3 t3 t2 t1 A Z2 Z3 Z1 B C Z1 Z2 D t1 t2 t3
-R

-% T& T. CR -& -. -& T&

TR#P REL /

T#,ERS T.

C RR#ER SEN$

CARRI R ! ND "ZR
1 2

-% -& -. CR AND
T& T.

TR#P

TRIP "Z1 # Z2$ % CR $ To#T2 & # Z3$T3

OR

b)

B(o$8#&+ 5$he4e51C 8n this scheme! a locking signal is sent y the reverse looking directional unit ;4 to "revent instantaneous tri""ing for ;oneG2 ( ;oneG3 faults! e$ternal to the "rotected line% Here ;4 must o"erate faster then for'ard looking ;oneG3 units and the signaling channel must also e e$tremely fast is o"eration% Though all the distance schemes 'ith carrier interGtri""ing>carrier locking facility are "rocured! the same are yet to e commissioned%

1 2

1 2

1 2

F'$tor5 '**e$t#&+ d#5t'&$e re('y o6er't#o&1C i/ ?ault resistance% ii/ 8nfeed effect% iii/ BranchingGoff effect% iv/ 5oad encroachment% i/ ?ault resistanceBG ?ault resistance has t'o com"onentsBG a/ &rc resistance% / 1round resistance% 8n a fault et'een "hases! only arc resistance is involved% ?or a fault at ?! the actual line im"edance R 4 H 6S R ;5 #ue to the "resence of fault resistance! the im"edance measured y the relay R 4 H 6S H 4? R ;4 .'here ;4 X ;5/ ?ault arc resistance is given y )arringtonVs formulaB 4arc R =<*A $l > 8 1%4 1 2

'here l R length of arc in ft 8 R fault current in &m"s

1 2

1 2

The arc resistance has little effect on accuracy of IoneG1 unit as it o"erates instanteously efore the arc can stretch a""recia ly e$ce"t in case of short lines% 4eactance relays are therefore used for short lines 'here the fault resistance may e com"ara le 'ith that of the "rotected lines and also for ground faults 'here the ground resistance is high% The arc resistance 'ill have greater im"act on accuracy of acku" Iones .time delayed/ as the arc stretches a""recia ly% ii/ 8nfeed effectBG The effect of intermediate current source et'een relay location and fault "oint is termed as infeed effect% Consider the sketch indicated in fig GGG & fault at ? on the line BC is at a distance of ;1H;2 for the relay at station &% But 'hen current 82 flo's from us #! the im"edance to the fault as seen y the relay at & is ;1 H ;2 H ;2 $ .82>81/% 1 2

Thus the fault is seen y the relay as farther than 'hat it really is! i%e% distance relay under reaches due to the infeed effect% The effect of infeed ecomes more "ronounced 'ith more interconnections at station B%

1 2

1 2

iii/

BranchingGoff effectB G Consider the sketch indicated in fig GGG & fault at ? is at the distance of ;1H;2 for the relay at station &% But 'hen current 81 gets distri uted as 82 ( 83 at station B! the im"edance to fault seen y the relay at station & 'ill e .;1 H 83>81 Q ;2/ 'hich is less than .;1H;2/% Then the fault is seen y the relay as nearer than 'hat it really is i%e% distance relay overreaches due to ranchingGoff effect% This overreaching tendency 'ill cause the relay to loose its selectivity%

iv/

5oad encroachmentB G )hile "rotecting long lines the necessary reach may e so large that the minimum service im"edance .or load im"edance/ falls 'ithin the region of the starter% This 'ould result in tri""ing 'ithout there eing any fault% The t'o conditions i%e% o"eration at heavy load and short circuit differ y virtue of "hase angle et'een voltage and current% ?or the load im"edance! the "hase angle 'ill e 'ithin H3A to G3A #eg% )hile during short circuits! the fault im"edance has a "hase angle of 9A to =A deg% .i%e% line angle/%

1 3

5oad encroachment "ro lem is more "ronounced in case of under im"edance starters and gets lessened in case of mho! elli"tical! lens etc! ty"e of starters% 4elays 'ith suita le characteristic on 4GS diagram have to e carefully chosen to "rotect long and heavily loaded lines! and this ecomes easily "ossi le 'ith micro"rocessor ased numerical relays%

1 3

1 3

No&C52#t$hed 5$he4e 35 52#t$hed 5$he4e1 C 8n an ideal 2onGs'itched scheme! there 'ill e 9 starters! 3 for "hase faults and 3 for ground faults% There 'ill e inde"endent measuring units for oth "hase faults and earth fault for each "hase! for all three Iones! totaling to 1= units% This scheme is faster and more accurate ut is costly% 8n the s'itched scheme! only one measuring unit 'ill e used for all ty"es of faults% This single measuring unit is s'itched to the correct fault loo" im"edance y s'itchingGin the res"ective voltages and currents y the starter% The reach of the measuring element gets e$tended to IoneG2 and IoneG3 after the ela"se of corres"onding timings through Ione e$tension "rocess% ,'itched scheme is relatively slo' in o"eration and has the risk of total scheme failure in the event of failure of the only one measuring unit availa le% Mo&e e"te&5#o& 5$he4e51 C &s a via media et'een nonGs'itched and s'itched schemes! there are schemes 'ith Ione e$tension facility .such as ++ make 3330 ( 3430 relays/% These schemes consists of 3 measuring units for "hase faults and 3 measuring units for earth faults .a"art from 3 starters/%

1 3

The reach of the measuring unit gets e$tended to IoneG2 and IoneG3 after ela"se of corres"onding timings through a Ione e$tension "rocess% -ther -"erating CharacteristicsB +arlier 'hen electromagnetic relays 'ere in use! the characteristics involving straight lines and >or circles on 4GS diagram 'ere only "ossi le% )ith the advent of static relays! micro"rocessor ased relays and "resently of numerical relays! any desired>reCuiredGo"erating characteristic is "ossi le giving 'ider choice for selection of relays% 8nfact there are relays! 'hich can e "rogrammed remotely% A66(#$'t#o& o* d#5t'&$e re('y51 ,ince the distance relays are fed from the secondaries of line CTs and us PTs>line C0Ts! the line "arameters are to e converted into secondary values to set the relay as "er reCuirements% ;secy R ;"ri>8m"edance ratio .'here 8m"edance ratio R P%T%4atio>C%T%4atio/ Hence any changes in C%T %ratio has to e effected along 'ith revision of relay settings only%

1 3

?or the lines! the im"edance in -hms "er 73 is a""ro$imately as underB GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG 70 ;1 .R ;2 / 5ine &ngle GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG 132 70 A%4 9A to <A #eg% 22A 70 A%4 <A to =A #eg%

4AA 70 A%3 =A to =* #eg% GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG The line im"edance is to e com"uted de"ending on line configuration conductor siIe and clearness% The values in the ta le are only re"resentative% & distance relay is ste""ed for either 3 Iones or 4 Iones to "rovide "rotection%

1 3

1 3

1 3

To ensure "ro"er coordination et'een distance relays in "o'er system! it is customary to choose relay ohmic setting as follo'sB G GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG ,%2o% ;ones 4eactance Time GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG 1% ;oneG1 =AO of ;5 8nstantaneous .no intentional time delay/% 2% 3% 4% ;oneG2 ;oneG3 ;oneG4 1AAO of ;5 H 4AG*AO of ;,5 1AAO of ;5 H 12AO of ;,5 A%3 to A%4 seconds A%9 to A%= seconds

1AAO of ;5 H 12AO A%@ to 1%* of ;55 seconds% GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG 'here ;5 R Positive seCuence im"edance of line to e "rotected% ;,5 R Positive seCuence im"edance of adEacent shortest line% ;55 R Positive seCuence im"edance of adEacent longest line% 2oteB i/ )here a three Ione relay only is availa le! the Ione 3 'ill e set to cover the adEacent longest line% 1 3

EE/

The Ional timings 'ill e carefully selected to "ro"erly grade 'ith the relays on all the feeders emanating from the adEacent us%

1 3

1 4

2orms of "rotection ado"ted for transmission lines in &%P%,ystemBG i/ 132 70 5inesB G & s'itched ty"e distance scheme su""lemented y three num ers directional ->5 relays and 1 2o% directional +>5 relay% 22A 70 5inesB G T'o #istance ,chemesB G 3ainG8B G 3ainG88B G 2onGs'itched scheme fed from us PT% & s'itched scheme fed from line C0T%

ii/

& "rovision is generally made for the changeover of voltage su""ly for the distance schemes from the us PT to line C0T and viceGversa% +ach distance scheme is fed from inde"endent CT secondary cores% iii/ 4AA 70 5inesBG T'o #istance ,chemesBG 3ainG8BG 3ainG88BG 1 4 2onGs'itched or 2umerical distance schemes 2onGs'itched or 2umerical distance schemes

1 4

1 4

#etails of distance relaysBG 1/ i/ 3akeB G 3330B G 1+C &lstom 5td% 8t is an electromagnetic ty"e distance relay 'ithB 3Gmho measuring units for "hase to "hase faults% 3Gmho measuring units for "hase to earth faults% 3Gmho starting units! each starter eing associated 'ith one "hase and o"erating for all faults associated 'ith that "hase and one offset mho unit for "o'er s'ing locking% 4GS diagram is indicated ,etting range in ohms for ;oneG1 GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG A%=34 to 3A 1%33* to 4= 1 4

1%99= to 9A ;2 R 1 to 3%* times ;1 ;3 R 1 to * times ;1 GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG ,ome of the schemes are "rovided 'ith a ;oneG4 timer to make the scheme 'orks as a 4 Ione relay! the starter itself eing the 4th Ione% ii/ 3430B G 8t is an electromagnetic relays 'ith 3 mho units for "hase faults! 3 reactance units for earth faults% 3 mho starters! each eing associated 'ith one "hase for all ty"es of faults and one offset mho unit for "o'er s'ing locking% ,etting ranges same as in 3330% 4GS diagram for "hase faults is same as that for 3330 relay and for earth faults it is indicated in figure

1 4

1 4

iii/

4430B GY 8t is an electromagnetic relay 'ith 3 2os% reactance units for "hase faults! 3 reactance units for earth faults! and 3 mho starters "er "hase for all ty"es of faults and one offset mho unit for P,B% 4GS diagram is indicated in figure ,,4430B G 8t is an electromagnetic s'itched scheme 'ith t'o version i%e% 'ith mho or under im"edance starter and availa le in lo' and high range%

iv/

1 4

1 4

1 4

1 *

3 under im"edance starters directionalised y mho element or 3 mho element starters and for all ty"es of fault! one reactanceGmeasuring unit for "hase and earth faults% 5o' range relayB ;1 R A%* to <%<% -hms .k1 of Ione1B <%<! 3%A! 1%22/ High range relayB ;1 R 1%3 to 2A -hms .k1 of IoneG1B 2A! <%=! 3%19/ ;2 R .1 to 3%*/ times ;1 ;3 R .1 to */ times ;1 4GS diagram is same as that for 4430 relay% ?e' versions do not have se"arate IoneG4 timer% 8n such relays! IoneG4 time R IoneG3 time H 1*A msec .fi$ed uiltGin delay/% v/ ,HP3 .Nuadra mho/B G 8t is a nonGs'itched static scheme 'ith 1= measuring mho units% The IoneG3 measuring elements 'ill act as starters! 'hich have either mho or a lenticular characteristic% The o"erating characteristic on 4GS diagram is indicated in figure The lenticular characteristics allo's healthy overloads and hence "revents tri""ing on load encroachment% ,etting rangeB G A%2 to 24A -hms% 8t has uiltGin feature of continuous self monitoring .on demand and "eriodic self testing/% 1 *

&ll the additional features "rovided y relay can e ena led or disa led 'ith the hel" of s'itches "rovided for them%

1 *

1 *

vi/

PTT,B G 8t is a static s'itched scheme 'ith modular "lugGin construction .'ith uilt in test "oints/% 8t has 3 under im"edance starters and a single mho measuring unit% -ne F>8 unit for "o'er s'ing locking% 4GS diagram is indicated in figure ,etting rangeB A%A* to 4A -hms! 'ith starter having range of 2A to <A -hms% 8t has an uncom"ensated F>8 starter! 'hich has ecome a "ro lem due to load encroachment for long lines% The 0G8 characteristic of the starter is indicated in a ove figure% )hen the voltage is less than 9*O rated! the starter o"erates at a current greater than A%2* 8n% )ith lo' voltages at some of the stations! this feature has caused relay to o"erate unnecessarily%

1 *

1 *

vii/ 1 *

-PT83H-

-"timho distance relay is a nonGs'itched "rotection scheme having 1= com"arators and u"to five Iones of "rotection .three asic Iones of measurement and t'o for Ione e$tension schemes/ The relay has "artially cross "olarised sha"ed mho characteristics for IoneG1 and IoneG2 "hase units% The IoneG3 for "hase faults have offset lenticular characteristics 'hich "ermit the relay to e a""lied to long heavily loaded transmission lines 'ithout encroachment into the load im"edance% ?or earth faults! IoneG1 and IoneG2 units have Cuadrilateral characteristics 'ith inde"endent reaches in resistive and reactive a$es% The IoneG3 units are offset Cuadrilateral% The IoneG3 units for "hase and earth faults can e chosen for offset or to see in reverse direction% The relay characteristic is indicated in ?ig% -n event of failure of Cuadrilateral com"arators! mho>lenticular com"arators are automatically ena led ut vice versa is not "ossi le% The relay has self testing facility% 8t has = grou"s of settings and any one grou" can e set active%

1 *

P# : *21B G a/ 1 * 8t is a numerical "rotection relay 'ith "olygon characteristics%

/ c/ d/ e/

8t consists of four im"edance Iones 'ith inde"endent 4 and S values for each Ione ;one : 4 can e utiliIed as a s"ecial Ione for ca ie "rotection% 4 : S diagram as indicated in figure% Through 338! one can enter and edit the settings .The settings are "ass'ord "rotected/ ,etting 4ange Timers B B A%1 to 2AAA -hms% A to 1A ,ecs%

1 *

-one-. -one-P1programma2le3 -one-&

38C-3 #8,T&2C+ 4+5&T .&lstom make/B -one-%0 1 9

-one-%
R%ph

R&

Rp

R. R4ph

-one-4

38C-3 P44A series is a distance scheme 'ith advanced numerical technology% 38C-3 P441 and P442 relays have five Iones of "hase fault "rotection and five Iones of earth fault "rotection% a/ Ph'5e *'u(t 6rote$t#o& Phase fault Cuadrilateral characteristics is sho'n in the figure% i/ ;ones 1!2 ( 3 : directional for'ard Iones! as used in conventional three Ione distance schemes% 2ote that ;oneG1 can e e$tended to ;oneG1S 'hen reCuired in ;oneG1 e$tension scheme% ;one P : Programma le% ,electa le as a directional for'ard or reverse Ione% ;oneG4 : #irectional reverse Ione% 2ote that ;oneG3 and ;oneG4 can e set together to give effectively a for'ard Ione 'ith a reverse offset%

ii/ iii/

1 9

-one-. -one-P1programma2le3 -one-& -one-%0 -one-%

1 9
-one-4

R%G

R&

Rp

R. R4G

$) E'rth F'u(t Prote$t#o&1 +arth fault Cuadrilateral characteristics is similar to the "hase fault Cuadrilateral characteristics as sho'n elo'% 4esistive reaches can e set inde"endently for "hase and earth fault "rotections% &ll earth fault elements are Cuadrilateral sha"ed! and are directionalised similar to the "hase fault elements% The im"edance reaches of earth fault elements use residual com"ensation of the corres"onding "hase fault reaches%

1 9

1 9

1 9

1 9

1 9

2/

3akeB G BBC>HBB i/ 5;@9B 8t is a nonGs'itched scheme 'ith 3 underim"edance measuring units common for ground and 3G"hase faults% 3 2os% under im"edance .offset mho/ starters! one underGim"edance unit for all "ossi le "hase to "hase faults% 4GS diagram is indicated in figure ?or'ard and reverse reach can e selected inde"endently in starters .'ith IoneG4 time setting/% ,etting rangeB A%1 to 1AA -hms% ii/ 58;9B G 8t is a s'itched scheme 'ith 3 underGim"edance starters! 3 overcurrent starters and one neutral current starter% 8t has one reactance measuring unit for all faults% )ith the "rovision of angle re"lica unit the relay has s"ecial o"erating characteristic on 4GS diagram indicated in figure! 'hich "ermits high loading on long lines% This eing the initial versions of static relays there have een num er of com"onent failure and are eing "hased out%

1 9

iii/ a/

53 relaysB G 53)T,B This relay consists of 3 under im"edance starters and a single directional reactance measuring unit .C3 relay/% 8t is four Ione relay! the IoneG4! starter ste" eing nonGdirectional% Time settings for all the four Iones .including ;oneG1/ can e varied from A%1 to * seconds% 4GS diagram is indicated in figure%

1 9

1 <

53'yasB G This is similar to 53)T, relay e$ce"t that the F>8 starters are "rovided 'ith com"ounding chokes there y shifting the circle! making it an offset mho as indicated in figures%

1 <

1 <

8t is also su""lemented y Ti>5 G "o'er s'ing locking unit% iv/ 59ftB G 8t is high s"eed! single ste" distance relay usually su""lemented to 53'yas or 53'ys% 8t is set to "rotect =AO of line and 'ithout any time delay%

1 <

1 <

v/

Tke>l relayB G This consists of three under im"edance starters! used in conEunction 'ith 53'yas relays% By "rovision of com"ounding chokes! the o"erating region of the Tke>l relay is shifted much a ove the origin of the 4GS diagram% The o"erating characteristic of the com ination of 53'yas and Tke>l relay is indicated in figure% 8t may e seen from the diagram that this com ination "ermits much higher loading and "rotects longer lines! 'ithout any "ro lem of load encroachment%

1 <

1 <

3/ 3akeB &BBB G i/ 4T;?CB G 8t has come into service in the initial stage of the advent of static relays! has 3 mho measuring units for earth faults! one mho unit for "hase faults and 3 under im"edance starters% 8n addition! this relay has negative seCuence current starter 'ith a fi$ed setting of 2AO of 8n! 'hich causes the relay to tri" in ;oneG4% The starter can e made to o"erate either as a circle or as oval% 4GS diagram is indicated in figure% ,etting rangeB G 1%= to 2AA -hms% a/ / This relay is found to lose its directional sensitivity for close y reverse faults and hence not recommended for use on feeders emanating from generating stations% &lso the negative "hase seCuence starter is found to res"ond to very far end faults%

ii/ 4&;-1B G 8t is a s'itched scheme 'ith 3 under im"edance starters and one reactance measuring unit% 8t has Cuadrilateral characteristic% 4GS diagram is indicated in figure% 1 <

,etting rangeB A%2* to 94 -hms% The starter can e made to o"erate either as a circle or oval%

iii/ 1 <

4&;?+B

8t is static three Ione nonGs'itched scheme% ?or ground and 3G"hase faults! the distance relay has a reactance like o"erating characteristic! the reactance line eing inclined y a fe' degrees to'ards resistance a$is on 4GS diagram! 'hich "rovides e$cellent margin for high resistance faults and minimises effects of load current and remote ends infeed on distance measurement 4G S diagram is indicated elo'% To avoid load encroachment "ro lem! the relay is "rovided 'ith linder! 'hich has inde"endent settings in resistive and reactive directions% ?or "hase to "hase faults! mho units are used% ,etting rageB A%2* to 94 -hms%

1 <

iv/ 1 =

4&;-&B G

8t is a static scheme having 3 under Gim"edance starters and one measuring unit% The directional measuring unit has got Cuadrilateral characteristic 'ith inde"endent settings in resistive and reactive directions% 4GS diagram is as indicated%

The F>8 starter can e made to o"erate 'ith a circle or oval characteristic 'ith a selecta le s'itch .,3B 1 -2 for circle -?? for oval in 41;B module/% 41,B 3oduleB #irectional 2onGdirectional ,etting range B ,1B 1 G -?? B ,1B 1 G -2 B A%19 to 94 -hms%

1 =

.v/

4+5;G1AAB 8t is a numerical relay 'ith Cuadrilateral im"edance units for "hase and earth faults% +ach measuring unit has individual and inde"endent setting of the reach in resistive and reactive directions! as 'ell as for the Iero seCuence com"ensation factor! 72%

1 =

+ntire ;oneG3 reach .in for'ard direction/ is availa le in reverse direction 'ith a se"arate timer T34% 4GS diagram is as indicated ?our grou"s of setting "arameters are "ossi le to suit different system conditions% -nly one of the grou"s 'ill e in service y choice% 8t has continuous self monitoring and self testing feature and indicate the same y e$tinguishing U4elay &vaila leU 5+# on the relay% Through 338! one can enterD edit the settings! read the mean service values of line voltage! current! real! reactive "o'er and freCuency% 8t stores data of latest 3 distur ances occurred% .The settings are not "ass'ord "rotected/% ,etting rageB TimersB A%1 to 1*A -hms% A to 1A ,ecs%

8t has a feature 'hich does overload su"ervision and unsymmetrical load condition! 'hich can e used for alarm or tri"%

1 =

1 =

1 =

vi/

4&#,5B G This "ilot 'ire "rotection scheme used for "rotection of short lines% 8t is very fast o"erating relay! clearing the faults in 1AAO of line 'ithout any time delay% This is commissioned on 22A 70 7T, VCV ,tation G 7T, 0 ,tage tie lines 1 ( 2 at oth ends as 3ainG1 "rotection scheme .3ainG88 eing 4+5;G1AA relay/% 5ike'ise 1+C make ?&C34 "ilot 'ire differential relays are "rovided on 22A 70 2TPC G 4&3&1F2#&3 tie lines 1 ( 2 'ith acku" ->5! +>5 relays% 3akeB G Fniversal +lectric i/ 3#T4*BB 8t is a nonGs'itched 3GIone distance scheme 'ith 1= measuring units! 3 2os% lo' set starters ;5 and 3 2os% high set starters ;H% 8t is availa le in t'o ranges lo' and high% 4GS diagram is indicated in figure% a/ / ?or 5o' rangeB 4eactance 3easuring units for ;oneG1 ( ;oneG2% ?or High rangeB 3ho measuring units for ;oneG1 ( ;oneG2%

4/

1 =

1 =

1 =

1 =

ii/

3#TB1A1B 8t is s'itched scheme! 'ith 3 im"edance starters! one neutral overcurrent starter and one mho measuring unit% 4GS diagram is indicated in figure% This relay has a 0G8 characteristic similar to that of PTT, relay% )hen the voltage is less than 9*O rated! the starter o"erates at a current greater than A%2* 8n% ?or 22A 70 lines! the settings on 3ainG8 distance relay must e on "ar 'ith that of 3ainG88 relay and viceGversa% ?or 132 70 lines! distance relay along 'ith directional ->5! +>5 relays are used% The o"erating time of ->5! +>5 relays for adEacent us faults are set eCual to or more than IoneG2 time of distance relay%

1 @

1 @

1 @

1 @

1 @

*/

3akeB G +asun 4eyrolleB G i/ TH44P+24B G 8t is static nonGs'itched scheme 'ith 3 for'ard Iones and 1 reverse Ione consists of a total of 24 measuring units% 12 2os% mho units for IoneG1 ( IoneG2 for "hase and earth faults% 9 2os% offset mho units for IoneG3! 9 2os% 3ho units for reverse reach% 4GS diagram is indicated in figure% 8t has reverse reach set to .c $ IoneG1/ for "hase faults and .c $ IoneG1/ .1H72/ for earth faults! 72 eing com"ensation factor% 1enerally c is set eCual to V1V% ii/ TH44P+1B G 8t is static s'itched scheme 'ith 3 offset mho starters and one mho measuring unit% 4GS diagram is indicated in the figure% 8t is availa le in lo' and high rangesB G ,etting rangeB G 5o' rangeB G A%A= to @%* -hms .'ith &BA%= to @%9/ High rangeB G A%4 to 4<%* -hms .'ith &B 4 to 4=/

1 @

The starter has a uilt in reverse reach! eCual to *AO of for'ard reach for "hase faults and *AO of for'ard reach .1H72/ for earth faults! 72 eing com"ensation factor%

1 @

1 @

3akeB G ,eimens 5td% <,&*11 relayB 8t is a numerical "rotection scheme 'ith 19 it micro"rocessor% )ith three version of detectors% i/ Phase selective overcurrent fault detector% ii/ 0oltage controlled .underGim"edance/ fault detector .'ith inde"endent 4 ( S reaches/ and iii/ Polygonally sha"ed angleGde"endent im"edance fault detector% 8t has five Iones .t'o of 'hich can e used for communication schemes/% 4GS diagram is indicated elo'% &"art from common features! it "rovides +mergency overcurrent function! 'hich comes into "icture 'hen main distance scheme is locked due to 0T fuse failure conditions% 8t "rovides t'o user defined logic functions% 8t has continuous self monitoring and self testing feature% 8t stores data of latest three faults and measures values of load current! o"erating voltage! "o'er and freCuency continuously% ,etting rangeB A%1 to 2AA -hms 'ith A%A to 32 sec .in ste" of A%A1 sec/ timers% 1 @

?our grou"s of settings are "ossi le to suit different system conditions% -nly one of the grou"s 'ill e in service y choice%

1 @

2 A

,+5 : 321B G 8t is numerical relay 'ith a/ ?our 3ho Iones for "hase faults 'ith inde"endent "hase to "hase overcurrent su"ervision% / ?our ground faults for 3ho and Nuadrilateral Iones 'ith inde"endent "hase and residual overcurrent su"ervision and Iero seCuence com"ensation% c/ T'o Nuadrilateral Iones for "o'er s'ing locking% d/ 5oadGencroachment characteristics% e/ 8nstantaneous! #efinite time and 8#3T overcurrent characteristics% f/ ,i$ .9/ setting grou"s are availa le in the scheme% ,etting rangesBG ?or 3ho Iones ?or Nuadrilateral ;ones 4eactance 4esistance Timers 2 A B B B B B A%2* to 32A -hms .,econdary/ A%2* to 2*A -hms .,econdary/ AG2AAA Cycles A%2* to 32A -hms .,econdary/

4elay indicationsB "ur"ose and meaningB G The relay indications are a guide to identify the ty"e and road location of fault% They are the means to assess the relay "erformance y tallying 'ith the actual faults occurred% They hel" in revie' and analysis of the tri""ings occurred% #ifferent manufacturers used different sym ols>flags of signaling different ty"es of faults% )henever the relays o"erate! their indications should e noted efore they are reset 4elay indications 'ith their meanings on various ty"es and makes of relays are indicated in the follo'ing ta les%

2 A

CHART SHOWING RE A0 INDICATIONS FOR VARIO!S RE A0S

S.No M'8e 7 Ty6e D#5t'&$e 6rote$t#o& o* Re('y
o6er'ted Tr#6.

Ty6e o* F'u(t 2#th I&d#$'t#o&5

Mo&e I&d#$'t#o&

S2#t$h O&Cto F'u(t Tr#6 MG

Po2er C'rr#er S2#&+ Re('y B(o$8#& O6er'ted +

V.T Fu5e F'#(ure

Ty6e I&d#$'Ct#o&5 Ty6e I&d#$' Ph'5e to Ph'5e to Ct#o&5 6h'5e E'rth

M:

M<

M=

1%

++>1+C 3330

4GT TGB BG4 4GT TGB BG4 4GTGB 4GT TGB BG4 4GT TGB BG4 4GT TGB BG4 4GT TGB BG4 4GTGB

3A.&GB/ 3A.BGC/ 3A.CG&/ &B

4G+ TG+ BG+ 4G+

3A& 3AB 3AC &2 B2 C2 3A& 3AB 3AC 3A& 3AB 3AC 3A# 3A+ 3A? & B C 3A1 3A1 ;1

3A1 3AH ;2

3A1 3AH 3A6 ;3

2>21

=*S

Tri""ing Blocked

2%

333T

Tri""ing Blocked

3%

4430

BC TG+ C& BG+ &B!BC!C& 3A.&GB/ 4G+ 3A.BGC/ 3A.CG&/ 3A.&GB/ 3A.BGC/ 3A.CG&/ 3A& 3AB 3AC &!B B!C C!& &!B!C TG+ BG+ 4G+ TG+ BG+ 4G+ TG+ BG+ 4G+ TG+ BG+

3A1 3AH

3A1 3AH 3A6 3A1 3AH 3A6 3A1 3AH 3A6

;1!;3

Tri""ing Blocked

2>21

4%

3430

3A1

3A1 3AH 3A1 3AH

2>21
Tri""ing Blocked

*%

3430

3A1

9%

,,4430

;1

;1!;2

2>21

CHART SHOWING RE A0 INDICATIONS FOR VARIO!S RE A0S 2 A

S.No

M'8e 7 Ty6e o* Re('y

D#5t'&$e 6rote$t#o& o6er'ted Tr#6.

Ty6e o* F'u(t 2#th I&d#$'t#o&5

Mo&e I&d#$'t#o&

S2#t$h Po2er O&Cto S2#&+ F'u(t Tr#6 B(o$8#&+ MG MG

C'rr#er Re('y O6er'ted

V.T Fu5e F'#(ure

Ty6e Ph to 6h

I&d#$'C t#o&5

Ty6e Ph to E

I&d#$'C t#o&5

M:

M< M<

M= M=

<%

++>1+C PTT,

4GT TGB BG4 4GTGB

&!B B!C C!& &!B!C &!B B!C C!& &!B!C 4!, ,!T T!4 4!,!T 4!, ,!T T!4 4!,!T

4G+ TG+ BG+ 4G+ TG+ BG+ 4G+ TG+ BG+ 4G+ TG+ BG+

& B C & B C 4 , T 4!+ ,!+ T!+

,-T?

P,B

=%

,HP3 JNF&#4 -3H-K

4GT TGB BG4 4GTGB

M<

M=

,-T?

&8#+# 0G T48P ?&85

@%

5;G@9

4GT TGB BG4 4GTGB 4GT TGB BG4 4GTGB

2 T2

H? .Tello'/

1A%

58;G9

T2! T3 T2!T
3T4

CHART SHOWING RE A0 INDICATIONS FOR VARIO!S RE A0S 2 A

S.No

M'8e 7 Ty6e o* Re('y

D#5t'&$e 6rote$t#o& o6er'ted Tr#6.

Ty6e o* F'u(t 2#th I&d#$'t#o&5

Mo&e I&d#$'t#o&

S2#t$h O&Cto F'u(t Tr#6 MG

Po2er C'rr#er S2#&+ Re('y B(o$8#&+ O6er'ted

V.T Fu5e F'#(ure

Ty6e Ph to Ph

I&d#$'C t#o&5

Ty6e Ph to E

I&d#$'C t#o&5

M:

M<

M=

11%

53'yas> 53'ys> 5I3

P# .#/

4GT

P&4.4/ ! P&,.,/ P&,.,/ P&T.T/ P&T.T/ P&4.4/

4G+

P&4.4/ P+.+/

P,88 .2/

P,88
P,G888 .2/ .3/

P,88
P,G888 .2/ .3/

PTa

PtrH

TGB BG4 12% 13% 59?T &,+& > &BB BG 4T;?C P#3 F# 4GT TGB BG4 4GTGB 4GT TGB BG4 4GTGB 4GT L TGB L BG4 L 4GTGB

TG+ BG+

P&,.,/ P+.+/ P&T.T/ P+.+/ PTa*

14%

4&;-1

F#

4!, ,!T T!4 4!,!T 4!, ,!T T!4 4!,!T 2G"hase 3GPhase

4G+ TG+ BG+ 4G+ TG+ BG+ 4G+ TG+ BG+

4 , T 4 , T 42 ,2 T2 ;1 ;2

2!3

2!3!4

C,>C4

2!3

1*%

4&;?+

;2! T72

T72! T73

CHART SHOWING RE A0 INDICATIONS FOR VARIO!S RE A0S 2 A

S.No

M'8e 7 Ty6e o* Re('y

D#5t'&$e 6rote$t#o& o6er'ted Tr#6.

Ty6e o* F'u(t 2#th I&d#$'t#o&5

Mo&e I&d#$'t#o&

S2#t$h O&Cto F'u(t Tr#6 MG

Po2er S2#&+
B(o$8#&+

C'rr#er Re('y O6er'ted

V.T Fu5e F'#(ure

Ty6e Ph to 6h

I&d#$'C t#o&5

Ty6e Ph to E

I&d#$'C t#o&5

M:

M<

M=

19%

&,+&> &BB 4&;-&

Tri"

1<%

4+5G1AA

Tri" ;

4GT TGB BG4 4GTGB 4GT TGB BG4 4GTGB

4!, ,!T T!4 4!,!T P,4!P,, P,,!P,T P,T!P,4 P,4!P,, P,T &B!;8, BC!;8, C&!;8, &BC!;8, &B BC C& &BC r! y y! !r r! y!

4G+ TG+ BG+ 4G+ TG+ BG+

4!2 ,!2 T!2

P,4!P,2 .Tri"G4/ P,,!P,2 .Tri"G,/ P,T!P,2 .Tri"GT/ T4;1

2!3

2!3!4

T4;2

T4;3

T4;34

;m1! ;m2! ;m3 ;1

;m2! ;m3 ;m3

;m34
.4eve rse/

T4+? ,-T?

P,B

C4;>CB; 0T? > 0T,

1=%

F+
3#TG4*B

1@

F+
3#TBG1A1

2A%

+4
TH44P+24

P-

4GT TGB BG4 4GTGB 4GT TGB BG4 4GTGB 4GT TGB BG4 4GTGB

4G+ TG+ BG+ 4G+ TG+ BG+ 4G+ TG+ BG+

& B C & B C r y

;2

;3

;4

,-?T

P,B

44>C,

,0

;2

;3

;4

,-?T

C&T

0T?

Pt 1 2 3

CHART SHOWING RE A0 INDICATIONS FOR VARIO!S RE A0S 2 A

S. No

M'8e 7 Ty6e o* Re('y

D#5t'&$e 6rot&. o6er'ted Tr#6.

Ty6e o* F'u(t 2#th I&d#$'t#o&5

Mo&e I&d#$'t#o&

S2#t$h O&Cto F'u(t Tr#6 MG

Po2er S2#&+
B(o$8#&+

C'rr#er V.T Fu5e Re('y F'#(ure O6td

Ty6e Ph to 6h

I&d#$'C t#o&5

Ty6e Ph to E

I&d#$'C t#o&5

M:

M<

M=

21%

TH44P+1

P-

22%

,8+3+2,

4GT TGB BG4 4GTGB 4GT TGB BG4 4GTGB 4GT TGB BG4 4GTGB

r! y y! !r r! y!
64!6,!4!, 6,!6T!,!T 6T!64!T!4 64!6,!6T! 4!,!T 5+# 2!3! 12!13 5+# 3!4! 13!14 5+# 4!2! 14!12 5+# 2!3! 4!12!13!14

4G+ TG+ BG+ 4G+ TG+ BG+ 4G+ TG+ BG+

r! +arth y! +arth ! +arth

64!T3! 4!3 6,!63!,!3 6T!63!T!3

2(3

T2

T3

T4

48;G24a

23%

<*&*11

5+# 2!*!12 5+# 3!*!13 5+# 4!*!14

5+# <

5+# =

5+# @

5+# 1A

&4

24

81+BG a/ 1CTG *1& / 1CSG *1&

4GT TGB BG4

4!T T!B B!4 4G+ TG+ BG+ 4 T B

88

888

#istance relays in service in &%P%,ystemB 2 A

GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG ,%2o% 3ake 3ainG8 distance 3ainG88 relay relay GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG 1% 1+C &lstom> 3330 3430 ++ G ,,4430 .3H->F8 starter/ G 4430 ,HP3 PTT, -PT83H+P&C P#*21 38C-3 38C-3 2% &BB>&,+& 4T;?C 4&;?+ 4+5;G1AA 4+5*11 4+5*21 4+5319 4&#,5 5;@9 53'yasH59ft 53'ysH59ft <,&*11 4&;-1 W W 4&;-&

3% 4% 2 A

BBC>HBB ,+83+2,

58;9 <,&*11

G *% +4 TH44P+24 ,+5G321

48;24a TH44P+1

9% F+ 3#T4*B 3#TB1A1 GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG

2 A

2 1

2 1

2 1

2 1

2 1

2 1

2 1

BF,B&4 P4-T+CT8-2

2 1

2 1

2 1

Bu5b'r Arr'&+e4e&t5 7 Prote$t#o& 8n order to maintain system sta ility and minimise fault damage due to high fault levels! instantaneous tri""ing for us ar faults is necessary% Bus ar "rotection scheme should eB a/ Com"letely relia le / & solutely sta le for heavy through faults c/ ,elective d/ &ccurate and fast o"erating Ge&er'( Bu5b'r Arr'&+e4e&t5 a/ ,ingle Bus ar &rrangement This has only single us ar to 'hich all lines>Transformers>1enerators! etc% are connected% 8n the event of the fault on the us entire us has to e deenergised and a maEor outage occurs% / ,ingle ,ectionalised Bus ar ,cheme 2 2

8n this! main us is divided into t'o sections 'ith a circuit reaker% -ne com"lete section can e taken out for maintenance or for reakdo'n 'orks 'ithout distri ution continuity of other section%

c/ 3ain ( transfer us ar schemeB G )ith this arrangement! any line reaker .one at a time/ reCuiring maintenance can e transferred to transfer us% The feeder "rotection thus gets transferred to tri" us cou"le reaker% -n fault occurrence or maintenance! entire us ecomes deGenergised%

2 2

2 2

d/ #ou le Bus arrangementB G ?le$i ility of transferring any line to any of the uses% -n fault occurrence or maintenance only one us ecomes dead! 'hile other us remains in service%

2 2

2 2

2 2

2 2

e/ #ou le us and transfer us arrangementBG Com ination of main and transfer us and dou le us arrangement%

2 2

2 2

2 2

2 3

f/ Breaker and half arrangementB G .-ne and half Breaker arrangement/ &dvantagesBG 1/ 8t has 3 reakers for t'o connections%+ach circuit is connected to a "articular us% 2/ 2o changeover of line from one us to the other is reCuired% 3/ This "airing is done such that one is a source and the other a load% 4/ ?or reaker maintenance of any line! the load gets transferred to the other us% */ -n occurrence of a us fault or for maintenance all the interconnections 'ill e on healthy us% 9/ +ven if oth tie reakers% uses ecome dead! lines can still e in service through the

2 3

ON AND 'AL( BR A) R !C' *

B5S-# B5S-##

+IT' , CT * T'OD

&666-%666-7668%

&666-%666-7668%

&666-%666-7668%

&666-%666-7668%

&666-%666-7668%

2 3

*EE$ER-%

*EE$ER-&

4AA 70 ,ystem ProtectionB 1enerally the 4AA 70 ,u stations are "rovided 'ith reaker and half arrangement% 8n reaker and half scheme five CTs method or four CTs method 'ill e ado"ted for "rotection% ?ive CTs 3ethodB The CTs arrangement is sho'n in the figure for * CTs method in reaker and half scheme% a/ 5ine side CTs 'ill e utilised for 5ine Protection / Bus side CTs 'ill e utilised for us "rotection% c/ Teed Protection 'ill e used to cover lind area et'een us CTs! 5ine CTs and Tie Breaker CT% d/ T'o differential relays are "rovided for each TG,ection y summating the three concerned CTs i%e% CT1! CT2 ( CT* for TG,ection of feederG1 and CT3! CT4 and CT* for TG,ection of feederG2%

2 3

ON AND 'AL( BR A) R !C' *

B5S-# B5S-##

+IT' - CT * T'OD

&666-%666-7668%

&666-%666-7668%

&666-%666-7668%

&666-%666-7668%

2 3

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Four CT5 4ethodB

The CTs arrangement is sho'n in the figure for 4 CTs method in reaker and half scheme% a/ ?or feeder "rotection oth us CT and o""osite tie reaker CT 'ill e summated and connected to the relay .CT1 ( CT4 for feederG1! CT2 ( CT3 for feederG2/% / Bus side CTs 'ill e utilised for us ar "rotection% c/ There is no uncovered Ione in 4 CTs method% Bu5b'r Prote$t#o& S$he4e 1/ 2/ High im"edance circulating current scheme Biased differential or lo' im"edance circulating scheme%

2 3

2 3

S.No. 1%

Det'#(5 Princi"le

2% 3%

CTs Burden

4% *% 9%

CT ,aturation Performance 4elays in &%P ,ystem

H#+h #46ed'&$e $#r$u('t#&+ $urre&t re('y The currents entering and leaving the us ar are com"ared continuously% 8t involves choosing of im"edance high enough to sta ilise the relay for heavy e$ternal faults% 8t reCuires all identical CT ratios 8m"oses com"aratively high urden on CTs% &u$iliary CTs reduce the "erformance of scheme -"eration of scheme even 'hen CTs get saturated during internal faults Highly sensitive for internal faults and com"letely sta le for e$ternal faults 1+C make C&134! PB#CB

o2 #46ed'&$e b#'5ed d#**ere&t#'( re('y 8t has differential and ias setting% The resultant ias is "ro"ortional to arithmetic sum of all currents! 'hereas the o"erating current is vector sum of all circuit currents% 8t can 'ork 'ith CTs of uneCual ratios also% 8m"oses less urden on CTs% &u$iliary CTs have no effect on "erformance of scheme -"eration of scheme even 'hen CTs get saturated during internal faults% Highly sensitive for internal faults and com"letely for e$ternal faults 1+C make 3BC; &BB make 4&#,,

2 3

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2 3

4+5&T ,+TT821 C&5CF5&T8-2 P482C8P5+, High 8m"edance Bus ar ProtectionBG 4elay -"erating Current and ,ta ilising 4esistor are to e set in high im"edance scheme% &n -"erating Current .8o"/ of 1AO or 2AO of 8n can e set% #uring through fault! the voltage develo"ed across the relay is 0 R 8f .4CT H 2 45/ )here 8f 4CT 45 R ?ault current R 8nternal resistance of CT R Ca le resistance

,ta ilising 4esistor 4st can e com"uted as follo's% 4st R 0 GGG 8o" .G/ 0& urden of relay GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG 8o"QQ2

2 4

2 4

?or some high im"edance schemes! only 0oltage ,etting 0 'ill e set%.The calculations are similar to that of 4estricted +arth ?ault relay setting for the Transformer "rotection/% 5o' 8m"edance Bus ar ,chemeBG This relay o"erates on circulating current "rinci"le and differential current setting . 2AO 8n/ is ado"ted on the relay% The ias setting is generally set y the relay manufacturer ased on us fault levels% Bu5b'r Prote$t#o& a/ Check ?eatureB G To "revent incorrect tri""ing due to damage to 'iring and eCui"ment from e$traneous sources! check relay is "rovided% This check relay is "rovided y du"lication of "rimary "rotection using a second set of current transformers cores on all circuits other than us section and us cou"le units% The check system is arranged in a similar manner of the "rimary "rotection! ut forms one Ione only covering the 'hole of the us ars .in case of single sectionaliIed us ar or oth the uses .in case of dou le us ar arrangement/%

2 4

2 4

/ ,u"ervision )hen a CT secondary 'inding or connections et'een CT and the relay circuit ecome o"en circuited! the relay may malo"erate for load or through faults de"ending on the effective "rimary setting% This condition of an o"en circuit can e detected y using su"ervision .over voltage/ relay! 'hich is arranged to give alarm% The su"ervision must e time delayed to avoid a false alarm during genuine fault conditions! ty"ically three seconds is ado"ted%

2 4

2 4

2 4

BREAKER FAI !RE RE A0 % BB PROTECTION) 3ain "rotective schemes "rovided for line >transformer>generator are reCuired to o"erate and clear the fault immediately! isolating the faulty section of the system% 8t is then im"ortant that the circuit reaker o"erates correctly! clearing the fault Cuickly y tri""ing% Ho'ever there is a risk that reaker may not tri" .either due to mechanical sluggishness or due to ina ility to interru"t heavy fault current/% Then the fault gets cleared y acku" relays at remote stations% 8ncreasing "o'er system com"le$ity demands shorter fault clearing times% 8t is therefore necessary to "rovide reaker failure relay .also called J5ocal reaker acku" relayK or J,tuck reaker "rotectionK/% This scheme 'ill isolate the us to 'hich the stuck reaker is connected! faster% 8t com"rises of ->5 ( +>5 relays 'ith a timer% The 5BB relay is energised y tri" command of main "rotection schemes and thus initiate master tri" relay of the us ar "rotection scheme after ela"sing of defined time% Then the entire reaker connected to the us get tri""ed! thus isolating faulty element% 8n &%P ,ystem! &BB make 4&8C&! 1+C make CT813@ ty"e reaker failure relays are commonly used% The general "ractice is to set the current setting R 2AO of 8n and Time setting R 2AA m %,ec% The schematic diagrams for the a""lication of the 5BB relay .ty"e CT81/ are indicated in the figure% 2 4

+ven if the us ar "rotection scheme is not availa le! the 5BB scheme can e made use of y "roviding s"ecial tri" circuits and tri" relays similar to that of us "rotection tri" circuits for each line% & schematic for such a""lication is indicated in figure%

2 4

2 4

->5 ( +>5 4+5&T,

2 *

2 *

Ty"es of ->5 4elaysBG 1/ 8nverse definite minimum ty"e relays .8#3T/BG a/ 2ormal 8nverse i/ 3%A sec relays G i%e% 3%A sec% at ten times "icku" 'ith T%5 of 1%A ii/ 1%3 sec relays G i%e% 1%3 sec% at 1A times "icku" / 0ery 8nverse relays c/ +$tremely 8nverse relays 2/ #efinite Time 4elays 8nstantaneous highest ->5 relay su""lementing the a ove ->C relays% By "roviding a timer! the reCuired time delay can e o tained% The ->5! +>5 relays are used for line "rotection .for 1170 to 13270/ and for Transformer Protection% ->C relaying is very 'ell suited to distri ution system "rotection for the follo'ing reasonsBG 1% 8t is asically sim"le and ine$"ensive 2% 0ery often the relays do not need to e directional and hence no PT su""ly is reCuired% 3% 8t is "ossi le to use a set of t'o ->C relays for "rotection against interG"hase faults and a se"arate ->C relay for ground faults% 2 *

2 *

PickGu" ,etting ?or coordination of the inverse time ->C relays! the "icku" current and time dial setting are to e choosen% The "icku" of the relays must e choosen such that it 'ill o"erate for all short circuits in its o'n line and "rovide acku" for adEoining lines! kee"ing in vie' of ma$imum full load current% ->C relay Picku" setting R 8 ma$%load +>? 4elay Picku" setting R 2AO of rated current% ?or the +>? relay! the load current is not a factor in the selection of "icku" settings and is normally set at 2AO of rated current% Time ,ettings The actual o"erating time of the ->C ( +>? relays can e varied y "ro"er selection of the Time #ial ,etting 'hich is selecta le from A%1 to 1%A% Time dial settings are to e chosen y having "ro"er coordination and gradation in the system% 1radations et'een successive relays are o tained y ,elective time interval 'hich is usually set et'een A%3 to A%4 ,ec% 2 *

2 *

The o"erating time of various ty"es of 8#3T relays are in the sketches% &lso can e o tained y the formulaeB G 2ormal inverse 0ery inverse +$tremely inverse B B B t R A%14 $ T5 .P,3/A%A2 G 1 t R 13%* $ T5 P,3 G 1 t R =A $ T5 .P,3/2 G 1

'here P,3 R ?ault Current>.C%T%4atio $ Plug ,etting/ C'($u('t#o& e"'46(e *or O, 7 E, re('y o& (#&e,Tr'&5*or4er1 ?or remote us fault! fault current through the "rotected element R 3GPhase B 3AAA & .&ssume/ ,51 B 2*AA & .&ssume/

->5 relayB &do"ted C%T%4atio on "rotection line R 9AA>1 & .&ssume/ Picku" ,etting for ->5 relay R 1 & .Plug ,etting/ 2 *

2 *

P,3 for ->5 relay

R 3AAA GGGGGGGGGG R * .9AA>1 $ 1/

&ctual time of o"eration for ->5 ( +>5 relays is generally set to grade 'ith the do'n side system% &ssume time setting reCuired &ctual Time of -"eration .&T-/ B A%4 T%5 R A%4 ,ec% A%14 R GGGGGGG $ T5 .?or 2ormal 8nverse/ .*/A%A2G1 A%4 $ A%A32< R GGGGGGGGGGGGG R A%A@3 A%14

,et Time #ial .T5/ for ->5 relay R A%1 &ctual Time of -"eration .&T-/ for ->5 relay A%14 .)ith T%5BA%1/ T R GGGGGGGGGG $ A%1 R A%42 ,ec% .*/A%A2G1 +>5 relayBG Picku" setting for +>5 relay R A%2 & P,3 for +>5 relay 2 * 2*AA R GGGGGGGGGGGG R 2A%= 9AA>1 $ A%2

8f P,3 e$ceed 2A! set P,3 R 2A &ctual Time of -"eration .&T-/ for +>5 relay R A%4 R T%5 R A%14 GGGGGGGGGG $ T%5 .2A/A%A2G1 A%4 $ A%A91< GGGGGGGGGGGGGG R A%1<9 A%14

,et T%5 R A%2 &ctual Time of -"eration for +>5 relay 'ith T%5 R A%2 TR A%14 GGGGGGGGGGGG $ A%2 R A%4* ,ec% .2A/A%A2G1

2 *

Se(e$t#3e t#4e #&ter3'(1 The time interval et'een t'o successive reakers to "rovide the reCuired selectivity is termed as selective time interval% Consider the follo'ingBG ?&F5T 5-C&T8-2 1 5-C&T8-2 -? 4+5&T )H-,+ T83+ 8, T- B+ &#6F,T+# The o"erating time of the relay at 1 i%e%! t1 R t2 H 2 H A1 H f 'here t2 R o"erating time of relay at 2 2 R reaker o"erating time at 2 f R factor of safety time A1 R overtravel time of relay at 1 The selective time interval 2 9 , R 2HA1Hf R A%3 to A%4 ,ec% 2

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2 9

2 9

2 9

2 9

2 9

2 9

C84CF8T B4+&7+4,

2 9

2 9

CIRC!IT BREAKERS The function of a Circuit reaker is to isolate the faulty "art of the "o'er system in case of a normal conditions% & Circuit reaker has t'o contacts G a fi$ed contact and a moving contact% Fnder normal conditions these t'o contacts remain in closed "osition% )hen the circuit reaker is reCuired to isolate the faulty "art! the moving contact moves to interru"t the circuit% -n the se"aration of the contacts! the flo' of current is interru"ted! resulting in the formation of arc et'een the contacts% The contacts are "laced in a closed cham er containing some insulating medium .liCuid or gas/ 'hich e$tinguishes the arc% &rc 8nterru"tions There are t'o methods of arc interru"tion i% High 4esistance 8nterru"tion ii% Current ;ero 8nterru"tion .i/ High 4esistance 8nterru"tion 8n this method of arc interru"tion! its resistance is increased so as to reduce the current to a value insufficient to maintain the arc% The arc resistance can e increased y cooling! lengthening! constraining and s"litting the arc% This method is not suita le for a large current interru"tion%

2 <

.ii/

Current ;ero 8nterru"tion 8n case of a%c su""ly! the current 'ave "asses through a Iero "oint! 1AA times "er second at the su""ly freCuency of *A HI% This feature of arc is utilised for arc interru"tion% The current is not interru"ted at any "oint other than the Iero current instant! other'ise a high transient voltage 'ill occur across the contact ga"%

4estriking voltage and 4ecovery 0oltage &fter the arc has een e$tinguished! the voltage across the reaker terminals does not normalise instantaneously ut it oscillates and there is a transient condition% The transient voltage 'hich a""ears across the reaker contacts at the instant of arc eing e$tinguished is kno'n as restriking voltage% The "o'er freCuency rms voltage! 'hich a""ears across the reaker contacts after the arc is finally e$tinguished and transient oscillations die out! is called recovery voltage% Classification of Circuit Breakers #e"ending on the arc Cuenching medium em"loyed! the follo'ing are im"ortant ty"es of circuit reakers% i% ii% iii% iv% 2 < -il Circuit Breakers &ir Blast Circuit Breakers ,ul"hur He$afluoride .,?9/ Circuit Breakers 0acuum Circuit Breakers

Com"arison of ,?9! CB ( &BCB for 2um er of 8nterru"ters "er PoleB R'ted Vo(t'+e KV ,?9 CB &BCB :G> KV 1 4 <G> KV 1 or 2 4 or 9 G<; KV 2 or 4 = or 1A EH> KV 4 1A or 12

The "iston is "ushed do'n y high "ressure oil on to" area of the "iston #uring closing stroke high "ressure oil is admitted from the ottom of "iston% Piston ottom area eing larger than that on the to" the differential "ressure acts and the "iston is "ushed u"'ards for closing stroke% 4ating of Circuit Breakers Circuit reakers have the follo'ing im"ortant ratings i% Breaking Ca"acity ii% 3aking Ca"acity iii% ,hortGtime Ca"acity 2 <

Breaking Ca"acity The reaking ca"acity of a circuit reaker is of t'o ty"es% .i/ ,ymmetrical reaking ca"acity .ii/ &symmetrical reaking ca"acity .i/ ,ymmetrical reaking ca"acity

8t is the rms% 0alue of the ac com"onent of the fault current that the circuit reaker is ca"a le of reaking under s"ecified conditions of recovery voltage% .ii/ &symmetrical reaking ca"acity

8t is the rms value of the total current com"rising of oth ac and dc com"onents of the fault current that the circuit reaker can reak under s"ecified conditions of recovery voltage% 3aking Ca"acity The rated making current is defined as the "eak value of the current .including the dc com"onent/ in the first cycle at 'hich a circuit reaker can e closed onto a short circuit% 8" in ?igure% is the making current%

2 <

,hortGtime Current 4ating The circuit reaker must e ca"a le of carrying shortGcircuit current for a short "eriod 'hile another circuit reaker .in series/ is clearing the fault% The rated shortGtime current is the rms value .total current! oth a%c% and d%c% com"onents/ of the current that the circuit reaker can carry safely for a s"ecified short "eriod% 4ated 0oltage! Current and ?reCuency The rated current is the rms value of the current that a circuit reaker can carry continuously 'ithout any tem"erature rise in e$cess of its s"ecified limit% The rated freCuency is also mentioned y the manufacturer% 8t is the freCuency at 'hich the Circuit reaker has een designed to o"erate% The standard freCuency is *A HI% 8f a circuit reaker is to e used at a freCuency other than its rated freCuency! its effects should e taken into consideration% -"erating 3echanism #ifferent manufacturers ado"t one of the follo'ingB 1% Pneumatic 2% Hydraulic 3% ,"ring 2 <

1%

Com"ressed air system for "neumatic mechanismB G The "ressure of the o"erating air "roduced y the selfGenclosed motor com"ressor unit is su"ervised y a "ressure gauge and controlled y a "ressure s'itch .located in the reaker control ca inet/% The "ressure s'itch has four sets of contacts each of 'hich o"erates at a different "ressure level for the follo'ing functionsB ,tart>sto"! lo' "ressure indication! reclosure interlock! closing and o"ening interlock% This ty"e of system is "rovided for each "ole of 42A 70 and <9* 70 CB%

2%

Hydraulic 3echanismB G The hydraulic cylinder is mounted at the ase of interru"ter unit and the hydraulic rod is "ushedGu" during closing stroke and "ushed do'n during o"ening stroke% 3oving contact and "uffer cylinder are linked 'ith the hydraulic rod% The hydraulic oil at atmos"heric "ressure from the lo' "ressure tank is "um"ed into accumulators at high "ressure .31A kg>cm2/% High "ressure oil is used for o"ening and closing o"erations% #uring o"ening o"eration high "ressure oil from lo'er area of hydraulic "iston is discharged into lo' "ressure tank y o"ening a""ro"riate hydraulic valve%

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3%

,"ring 3echanismB G ?or CB u"to 24* 70! s"ring o"erating mechanism is used% The closing s"ring gets charged y geared motor% #uring closing stroke the closing s"ring is discharged% 8t closes the reaker and also charges the o"ening s"rings% The Circuit reaker mechanism is asically very sim"le since it com"rises a motorG reducer and t'o s"rings .one for closing and one for o"ening/! "lus their solenoid o"erated latching devices% The closing s"ring after having een charged y the motorGreducer is ke"t ready for closing y its latching device% &s soon as energised! the closing control coil friggers the closing latch there y causing the closing s"ring to o"erate the reaker to the closed "osition and simultaneously charge the o"ening s"ring% ?rom no' on! tri" latch kee"s the reaker in the closed "osition and the o"ening s"rings ready for o"ening% The com"act design of the mechanism avoids the need for the o"ening s"rings to e located close to each "ole and "ermits the o"ening o"eration to e "erformed y only one s"ring accommodated in the control ca inet%

2 <

Re'5o&5 *or 6re*ere&$e o* SFH Bre'8er5 5ess num er of interru"ters "er "ole! hence chea"er% 3aintenance free% 0ery long contact life% 4elia le 2onGe$"losive #oes not reCuire com"ressed air system ,ilent o"eration Te$h&#$'((y 5u6er#or Performs all the reCuired duties including line s'itching! transformer s'itching! reactor s'itching! etc% 'ithout e$cessive over voltages% +asy to install! o"erate ( maintain%

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OPENING 7 C OSING TIMES ') C(o5#&+ T#4e Me'5ure4e&t o* C#r$u#t Bre'8er u5#&+ D#+#t'( T#4e I&ter&'( Meter To measure the closing time of circuit reaker .i%e% the time ela"sed from the movement of the e$tending control su""ly to the Closing coil to the movement of actual closing of the circuit reaker/! the follo'ing circuit is made use of%

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8n this mode! 2C>2- JstartK and 2C>2- Jsto"K s'itches should "osition%

e in 2o

The counter starts 'hen the t'o terminals of J,T&4TK s'itch are shorted y closing the #%P%#%T s'itch% ,imultaneously the #%C su""ly is e$tended to the closing coil of the reaker% The counter sto"s counting 'hen the t'o terminals of ,T-P s'itch are shorted through the main contact of circuit reaker! as soon as it closes and the timer dis"lays the time interval! 'hich is the closing time of circuit reaker% Hence the "rinci"le is that the energisation of the closing coil of the circuit reaker and starting of the counter should e simultaneous% b) Me'5ure4e&t o* C#r$u#t Bre'8er O6e&#&+ t#4e To measure the o"ening time of circuit reaker! .i%e%! the time ela"sed from the movement of e$tending control su""ly to the tri" coil of the circuit reaker to the movement of actual tri""ing of circuit reaker/! the follo'ing circuit is made use of%

2 =

2 =

8n this mode! 2C>2- J,T&4TK s'itch should e in J2-K "osition and 2C>2J,T-PK s'itch should e in 2C "osition% The counter starts 'hen the t'o terminals of J,T&4TK s'itch are shorted y closing the #%P%#%T s'itch% ,imultaneously the #%C su""ly is e$tended to the tri" coil of the reaker% The counter sto"s counting 'hen the t'o terminals of J,T-PK s'itch are o"ened 'ith the o"ening of the circuit reaker J3&82 C-2T&CT,K% The time internal dis"lays the time internal! 'hich is the J-"ening timeK of circuit reaker%

Po(e D#5$re6'&$y Re('yB

T'o cases are to e studiedB 1/ Three Phase Tri""ing% &ll the thee "oles should simultaneously tri" or close% )hile tri""ing!if any one or more of the "oles do not o"en simultaneous 'ith the other! after a set time .of A%1 ,ec%/! the "ole discre ancy relay 'ill give a tri" command again to tri" the same% ,imilarly 'hile closing the reaker! if any of the three "oles do not close simultaneous 'ith the other! the "ole discre ancy relay! after a "reset time .of A%1 ,ec%/ 'ill give a tri" command to tri" the closed "ole.s/% 2 =

,ingle "hase tri""ing and &uto 4eclosureB )hile the a""lication "rinci"le is same as 'ith the three "hase tri""ing! the time setting of the "ole discre ancy relay shall e more than the dead time .of 1 ,ec%/ of the auto reclosure relay%

Circuit reaker o"eration &nalyIerB G This instrument hel"s in measurement of contact make and reak times! contact travel s"eeds%

2 =

2 =

2 =

2 =

,T&T8-2 B&TT+4T

2 =

2 =

BATTER0 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

I) 1% .a/ The &m"ere hour ca"acity of 22A0 atteries at smaller ,u Gstations shall e =A% . / The same at +HT ,u Gstations shall e 2AA .c/ Batteries 'ith 3AA&m"s hour ca"acity shall e used only at Po'er houses or ,u G stations 'here solenoid closing of circuit reakers is in use% 2% The trickle charging rate shall e J&m" hour ca"acity $ 2>24$1AA "lus regular discharge in am"sK% 3% The oost charge rate shall not e$ceed J &m"%hour ca"acity divided y tenK% 4% The individual cell voltage shall not go do'n elo' 2%1 volt% *% The s"ecific gravity should not differ y more than 3A "oints et'een cells in the same attery ma$imum and minimum% )here the difference is moreD electrolyte should e diluted y adding distilled 'ater in cells 'ith higher s"ecific gravity thus narro'ing do'n the difference and all cells in the attery given a oost charge%

2 =

Fnder no circumstances electrolyte or concentrated acid should e added to cells 'ith lo' s"ecific gravity% 9% Fsage of alkali cells and acid cells in the same su station should e avoided to avert inadvertent mi$ u" of electrolyte or usage of accessories of one 'ith the other% <% 5eakage indication lam"s should e com"ulsorily connected on the charges "anel for continuous indication of healthiness% =% +very #%C% Circuit takes off should e through "rotective fuses .H%4%C/ or m%c% s% @% .i/ -nce in a day &%C% su""ly to charges should e s'itched off and #%C% voltage measured and noted% .ii/ 8n that condition 'ith no &%C% su""ly to charger! the duty "erformance of the attery y closing or tri""ing of a relatively unGim"ortant reaker is to e ensured% 3ere availa ility of #%C voltage is no inde$ of healthiness of attery% .iii/ &%C su""ly to charger is to e restored immediately after this test% 1A% Certain charger "anels have J,'itch -ffK arrangement 'henever &%C su""ly fails% There should e s'itched on after each restoration of su""ly% 11% 5eakages in #%C circuitry should e attended on to" "riority first y sectionalisation! then y isolation and finally e rectification% 2 @

e'd A$#d B'tter#e5 %Co44o&)

1% Check u" the +lectricity to level in the cell of all the cells in morning shift every day% 8f the electrolyte is lo'! to" u" the cell 'ith distilled 'ater% 2% Check u" the voltage and s"ecific gravity of si$ cells in each shift and record as "er cell num ers given .P85-T C+55,/ 3% Check u" the #%C voltage of the com ined cells . attery/ after s'itching off the attery charger every day in the morning shift% 4ecord the attery voltage and current 'ith the charger off% 4% +nsure that the attery is in floating condition normally y adEusting the rheostat of the charger% *% 2ever charge a attery at a voltage higher than 2%4 0 "er cell i%e%! it 'orks out to 294 0 for 22A 0 Battery and limit the charger am"ere ca"acity also% 9% 8f any of the cells is found to e having lo' voltage and s"ecific gravity! y "ass the cell% The removed cell should e charged se"arately and re"laced after the voltage and s"ecific gravity attains normal value% 8m"rovement should not e attem"ted y adding acid to electrolyte% 2 @

<% Check the condition of all the cells every month for voltage and s"ecific gravity% Charge the attery if reCuired% The voltage and s"ecific gravity readings shall e taken efore and after charging% The charging rate shall e limited to 1A hours rating to avoid e$cessive gassing and eva"oration of +lectrolyte% =% &ll the cells shall e "hysically checked for fracture and uckling of the container and e$cessive rise% Check attery terminals for tightness% &""ly 0aseline ."etroleum Eelly/ 'henever necessary% This check should e attem"ted after the attery is rought to full charge% @% 7ee" the charger off! o serve the voltage 'ith #%C lighting on continuously for t'o hours% - serve the voltage and current% The voltage should not fall y 1AO 'hen the discharge on the attery is at 1AHrs i%e%! 2*&m"s for 2*AHrs% attery 3A&m"s for 3AAHrs% attery etc% +very discharge shall e com"ensated y charging% &s the am"ere hour efficiency is al'ays less than unity! the charging am"ere hours shall e more than discharge am"ere hours% The attery charger "anels! in some cases have a no volt tri"s% )henever &>C su""ly fails! the charger should e s'itched on after restoration of &C su""ly% 2 @

2 @

2 @

+&4TH821 P4&CT8C+,

2 @

2 @

ART'IN. PRACTIC ! AT !/B!TATION!

I&trodu$t#o&
+arthing "ractices ado"ted at 1enerating ,tations! ,u stations! #istri ution structures and lines are of great im"ortance% 8t is ho'ever o served that this item is most often neglected% The codes of "ractice! Technical 4eference ooks! Hand ooks contain a cha"ter on this su Eect ut they are often ski""ed considering them as too elementary or even as unim"ortant% 3any reference ooks on this su Eect are referred to and such of those "oints 'hich are most im"ortant are com"iled in the follo'ing "aragra"hs% These are of im"ortance of every "racticing +ngineer in charge of ,u stations%
I46ort'&$e o* E'rth#&+ 7 Pr'$t#$e5

The earthing is "rovided for a/ ,afety of Personnel / Prevent or atleast minimise damage to eCui"ment as a result of flo' of heavy fault currents% c/ 8m"rove relia ility of Po'er su""ly The earthing is roadly divided as a/ ,ystem earthing .Connection et'een "art of "lant in an o"erating system like 50 neutral of a Po'er Transformer 'inding and earth/% / +Cui"ment earthing .,afety grouding/

2 @

Connecting frames of eCui"ment .like motor ody! Transformer tank! ,'itch gear o$! -"erating rods of &ir reak s'itches! etc/ to earth% The system earthing and safety earthing are interconnected and therefore fault current flo'ing through system ground raises the "otential of the safety ground and also causes stee" "otential gradient in and around the ,u station% But se"arating the t'o earthing systems have disadvantages like higher short circuit current! lo' current flo's through relays and long distance to e covered to se"arate the t'o earths% &fter 'eighing the merits and demerits in each case! the common "ractice of common and solid .direct/ grounding system designed for effective earthing and safe "otential gradients is eing ado"ted% The earth resistance shall e as lo' as "ossi le and shall not e$ceed the follo'ing limitsB Po'er ,tations +HT ,u stations 3370 ,tations #>t ,tructures To'er foot resistance Ste6 Pote&t#'( ,te" Potential is the difference in the voltage et'een t'o "oints 'hich are one metre a"art along the earth 'hen ground currents flo'ing% 2 @
G

G G G G

A%* -hms 1%A -hms 2%A -hms *%A -hms 1A%A -hms

Tou$h Pote&t#'( Touch Potential is the difference in voltage et'een the o Eect touched and the ground "oint Eust elo' the "erson touching the o Eect 'hen ground currents are flo'ing% S6e$#*#$'t#o& o* E'rth#&+ #e"ending on soil resistivity! the earth conductor .flats/ shall e uried at the follo'ing de"ths% ,oil 4esistivity in ohms>metre 1/ 2/ 3/ *A : 1AA 1AA : 4AA 4AA : 1AAA +conomical de"th of Burial in metres A%* 1%A 1%*

To kee" the earth resistance as lo' as "ossi le in order to achieve safe ste" and touch voltages! an earth mat shall e uried at the a ove de"ths elo' ground and the mat shall e "rovided 'ith grounding rods at suita le "oints% &ll nonGcurrent carrying "arts at the ,u station shall e connected to this grid so as to ensure that under fault conditions! none of these "art are at a higher "otential than the grounding grid% 2 @

P('te E'rth5 Taking all "arameters into consideration! the siIe of "late earths are decided as Po'er ,tations ( +HT ,tation ,mall ,tations G G 3ain G &u$iliary G <* $ =mm 1AA $ 19mm *A $ =mm

The com"lete s"ecifications for "roviding earth mats at +HT ( 3370 ,u stations! #istri ution transformers ( Consumers "remises are re"roduced elo'%

S6e$#*#$'t#o& *or E'rth#&+ Sy5te4

I) EHT Sub5t't#o&

1% The earth mat shall e as "er the a""roved layout% The earth mat shall e formed 'ith the steel flats uried in the ground at a de"th of <*Amm on edge% 2% The earth mat shall e$tend over the entire s'itchyard as "er the layout% 3% &ll the Eunctions of the steel flats 'hile forming the earth mat and taking risers from the earth mat for giving earth connections to eCui"ment! steel structures! conduits ca le sheaths shall e "ro"erly 'elded% &ll Eoints shall e "rovided 'ith suita le angle "ieces for "ro"er contact et'een flats%
3 A

4% Provisions shall e made for thermal e$"ansion of the steel flats y giving smooth circular ends% Bending shall not cause any fatigue in the material at ends% *% The earth mat shall e formed y 'elding *A$= mm steel flat to the 1AA $ 19mm "eri"heral earth conductor% The grounding grid shall e s"aced a out * meters i%e in longitude and a out * meters in the transverse directions% &fter the com"letion of earth mat! the earth resistance shall e measured% 8n case the earth resistance is more than one ohm the earth mat shall e e$tended y installing e$tra electrodes! so that the earth resistance is less than one ohm% 9% &ll fence corner "osts and gate "osts shall e connected to the ground y "roviding 32mm dia 3%, rods of 3 metre length near the "osts and connected to the main grounding mat% <% &ll "aint enamel and scale shall e removed from surface of contact on metal surface efore making ground connection% =% The risers taken along the main s'itchyard structures and eCui"ment structures .u"to their to"/ shall e clam"ed to the structures at an interval of not more than one metre% @% *A $ =mm ground conductor shall e run in ca le routes and shall e connected to the ground mat at an interval of 1A metres% 3 A

1A% 1rounding electrodes of 32mm dia 3mtr% long 3, rods shall e "rovided at the "eri"heral corners of the earth mat% The grounding rods shall e driven into the ground and their to"s shall e 'elded to clam" and the clam" together 'ith the grounding rods shall e 'elded to the ground mat% 11% 5ightening arrestors shall e "rovided 'ith earth "its near them for earthing% 12% Cast iron "i"es 12*mm dia and 2%<* metres long and @%*mm thick shall e uried vertically in the "its and a mi$ture of Bentonite com"ound 'ith Black cotton soil a ratio of 1B9 is to e filled 3AA mm dia and the "i"e for the entire de"th% )here it is not "ossi le to go to a de"th of 2%<* metres! 1%3 $ 1%3 33, "lates! 2*mm thick shall e uried vertically in "its of 2 metres de"th and surrounded y Bentonite mi$ture atleast 2 metre a'ay from any uilding or structure foundation% The "lates shall e atleast 1* metres a"art% These earth "its in turn shall e connected to the earth mat% II) E'rth#&+ 't ==KV Sub5t't#o&5 1% Providing of earth "it and earth matting include the follo'ing connected 'orksB a/ +$cavation of earth "its of siIe 21>2ft $ 21>2ft $ @ft in all ty"e of soils% / Providing of C8 "i"e of 3 inch diameter @ft length 'ith flange% &ll connections to C8 "i"e shall e 'ith 18 olts and nuts% c/ ?illing of earth "it e$cavated 'ith Bentonite 'ith Black cotton soil .1B9/ in alternate layers% 3 A

d/ Providing of cement collar of siIe 2ft diameter 2ft height 1 inch elo' the ground level% e/ The to" of the C8 earth "i"e should e at the surface level of the ground% 2% Providing of earth matting 'ith 3, flat <* $ =mm including the follo'ing connected 'orksB a/ +$cavation of trench in all ty"es of soils of siIe 2Z ft de"th and 1 ft% 'idth% / 5aying of 3%, flat <* $ =mm in the e$cavated trench% c/ 8nter connecting all earth "its and 'elding "ro"erly at Eointing location and Eunctions% d/ Back filling of earth com"letely% III) E'rth#&+ 't Co&5u4er@5 6re4#5e5 The earthing at Consumers "remises shall e as "er sketch elo' using a 9mm thick "late

3 A

3 A

IV) E'rth#&+ 't D,P Stru$ture Three electrodes forming an eCuilateral triangle 'ith minimum distance of 9*AA mm! so that adeCuate earth uffer is availa le% +ach +lectrode shall e & grade 18 "i"e of 2 inch thick and =ft long and uried vertically so as to leave a out 4 inch "i"e length a ove ground level to fi$ a F sha"ed clam"%

3 A

3 A

Note1 1% The connections to the three earth conn%+lectrodes should e as follo's% .&/ To one of the earth electrodes on either side of dou le "ole structure .S or T/ i% -ne direct connection from three 1170 5ightening &rrestors% ii% &nother direct connection from the 5T lightening &rrestors if "rovided% .B/ To each of the remaining t'o earth electrodes% i% -ne se"arate connection from neutral .on the medium voltage side/ of the Transformer .T'o 'ires/ ii% -ne se"arate connection from the Transformer ody and the handle of the 1170 &%B s'itch .T'o se"arate ody earths to tank/ iii% -ne se"arate connection from the +arthing Terminal of "oles% .C/ 4mm 1%8 'ire should e used for earth leads%

.OINTS There shall e minimum Eoints "refera ly no Eoints enroute to earth electrodes )here 6oints are unavoida le! they shall e raIed! rivetted or 'elded .and "ainted 'ith red lead and alluminium "aints one after the other and finely coated 'ith itumen/ 3 A

TOWER INE GRO!NDING 1/ 1round rods are driven at the ase of the to'er% )here it is not feasi le! an electrode is located 'ithin a distance of 2AA ft% of the to'er and grounding rods are "rovided at that "oint and tied to the to'er ase y a single uried 'ire% 2/ 8f lo' resistance is not o tained 'ith 2AAft! cro'foot counter"oise 'ith 4 'ires is installed% The counter"oise conductors shall e 9 ,)1 galvanised steel 'ires taken a'ay from the to'er at mutually right angles and ke"t atleast *Aft a"art% +ach of these 'ires is terminated at a rod at the nearest "oint 'here lo' resistance is o tained% 8f counter"oise 'ires cannot e terminated 'ithin half s"an from the to'er the 'ire is carried through a continuous counter"oise to the ne$t to'er! 'here the "rocedure is re"eated% Me'5ure4e&t o* E'rth Re5#5t'&$e The measurement of earth resistance is done using three terminal earth meggars or four terminal earth meggars% Three Ter4#&'(B T'o tem"orary electrodes or s"ikes are driven one for current and the other voltage at a distance of 1*A feet and <* feet from the earth electrode under test and ohmic values of earth electrode is read in the meggar% Four Ter4#&'(B ?our s"ikes are driven into the ground at eCual intervals% The t'o outer s"ikes are connected to current terminals of earth meggar and the t'o inner s"ikes to "otential terminals of the meggar till a steady value is o tained% 3 A

M'#&te&'&$e o* E'rth#&+ Sy5te4 The follo'ing 3aintenance schedule in mandatory at each of the ,u stations Sl.No Item Periodicity 1% )atering of +arth Pits #aily 2% 3easurement of earth resistance of individual earth "its Half yearly [ 3% 3easurement of com ined earth resistance at all the "its Half yearly%%% 4% Checking of inter connections et'een earth "its and Nuarterly tightness of olts and nuts [ +arth resistance of individual earth "its can e measured y disconnecting the earth connections to the electrode% This is "ossi le if the connections are made to a common clam" 'hich is in turn is fi$ed round the "i"e% %%% Com ined earth resistance shall e the same at every earth "it unless it gets disconnected from the earth mat #efinitions of 1eneral +arthing Terms So#( Re5#5t#3#tyB This is the resistivity of a ty"ical sam"le of soil E'rth Sur*'$e Vo(t'+e1 The voltage et'een a s"ecified "oint on the ground around the rod and reference earth% E'rth E(e$trode 3 A

These are conductors! 'hich are in direct contact 'ith the soil and "rovide the conductive "art in electrical contact 'ith earth% They can include rods! ta"e! steel reinforcing ars% #efinitions of Terms associated 'ith Po'er ,ystems Neutr'( Po#&t The common "oint of a star connected "oly "hase system or the earthed midG"oint of a single "hase system% I&de6e&de&t E'rth E(e$trode &n earth electrode located at such a distance from other electrodes that its electrical "otential is not significantly affected y electric currents et'een +arth and other electrodes% E"6o5ed Co&du$t#3e P'rt Conductive "art of eCui"ment and 'hich is not normally live! ecome live 'hen asic insulation fails% ut 'hich can

Po#&t5 o* E'rth#&+ 1% +arth mat of <* $ = 3, flat should e laid as outer of the s'itchyard com"ulsorily and see that the "ole structures are enclosed in the outer mat% 2% 3ake vertical and horiIontal sections for the outer mat as sho'n in the fig% The internal vertical and horiIontal sections may e <* $ = or *A $ 9 3, flat% 3 1

3% The +arth mat should e laid minimum 9AA33! elo' the ground level under the +arth mat and Bentonite "o'der is to e laid u"to 2*mm and over the earth mat% The same Bentonite com"ound 'ith Black cotton soil a mi$ture of 1B9 ratio is to e "laced u"to 1AA mm and the remaining earth trench is to e ack filled 'ith the soil% 4% ,ee that each and every "ole structure is earthed 'ith *A $ 9 3, flat to the +arth 3at% *% ?or every reaker there 'ill e fine earth connections to the earth mat 'ith *A $ 9 3, flat .a/ Breaker ody . / 4elay Panel .c/ CTs of the Breaker .d/ and t'o sides of the reaker structure% 9% 5ightening arrestor is to e connected one end directly to the earth mat and the other end is to the nearer earth "it or to the earth mat% <% 5ine 8solators are to e connected directly to the earth mat% =% The Po'er transformer ody is to e connected t'o sides to the earth mat% @% T'in neutral earthing should e done to Po'er Transformer as sho'n in the fig% one +arth flat of siIe <* $ =mm 3%, flat is directly connected to the earth "it and the earth "it is again connected to the +arth mat% The second neutral is directly connected to the earth mat! 1A% Provide fle$i le Eum"ers thoroughly raIed as sho'n in figure 11% &ll &B s'itches o"erating rods are to e "rovided 'ith coil earths and the &B s'itch su""ort is to e earthed to the earth mat% 12% &ll the e$"osed earth flat 'hich is dro""ing do'n from the reakers! CTs structures should e a""lied 'ith ituminous "aint% 3 1

13% <* $ = 3, flat is to e laid around the control room from main earth and the "anels of the reakers! mid"oint of the Battery and Battery stand structures are to e earthed to the earth flat and make a section in front of the control room% 14% The distance et'een any t'o earth electrodes should e t'ice the length of the +lectrode% 1*% The ca le .11 $ 3370/ sheaths are to e earthed 'ith 2* $ 3 18 stri" to the +arth mat% 19% The neutral of the station transformer is to e connected to the +arth mat directly 'ith 2* $ 3 18 stri"% The ody of the ,tation transformer t'o sides to e connected to the earth mat 'ith 2* $ 3 18 stri"% 1<% &ll the 'elding Eoints should e "ainted 'ith ituminous "aint%

3 1

3 1

E-CITATION AND VO TAGE REG! ATION

3 1

E-CITATION AND VO TAGE REG! ATION

& ,ynchronous machine as 'e kno' very 'ell can e o"erated oth as a synchronous generator and ,ynchronous motor% 8n either case a synchronous machine reCuires its field 'inding su""lied 'ith #C voltage% #e"ending on the #C current given to the field of synchronous machine .'hen o"erated as a generator/ its terminal voltage vanes% )e can increase or decrease the field voltage and thus field current to regulate the terminal voltage of the synchronous machine% )hen the machine is connected to the infinite us it is the us voltage! 'hich 'ill a""ear at the generator terminals! and no a""recia le change in the voltage can e o served 'ith change in the field current% &n increase in the field current reflects in increased induced emf 'ithin the synchronous machine% Bus voltage as 'ell as the terminal voltage remains constant 'ith the infinite us o"eration! 'e o serve reactive "o'er changes 'ith the change in the field current% 8f the reactive "o'er demand on the infinite us system is more than! the total reactive 3 1

"o'er generated y all the machines together ! the entire us voltage is lo' and if the demand is lo' and generation of reactive "o'er is high! us voltage 'ill e high% Thus there is clear necessity to manage the reactive "o'er generation to control the us voltage% This can e com"ared 'ith active "o'er control through steam>hydro tur ine governors% The follo'ing 4GS diagram gives the full fourGCuadrant o"eration of a synchronous machine%

,!T!R & n9 -R -R 3 1

+0

+0

GENER T!R % st +R
+R

,"

GENER T!R

,!T!R

. r9

-0

-0 4 th

1%

:5t Fu'dr'&t G 1eneration of active "o'er and reactive "o'er% 2% <&d Fu'dr'&t \ & sor ing active "o'er and generating reactive "o'er! 'hich is called ,ynchronous Condenser o"eration% 3% =rd Fu'dr'&tN FnderGe$cited ,ynchronous motor% 8t a sor s oth active "o'er and reactive "o'er% 4% Gth Fu'dr'&t FnderGe$cited ,ynchronous generator generatingactive "o'er ut a sor ing reactive "o'er 8n 8dle long transmission lines the us voltage 'ill go high at receiving end% 8t ecomes necessary! to o"erate the synchronous generator 'ith reduced e$citation% This o"eration at very lo' e$citation current is not sta le o"eration for the machine%

3 1

8t is no' clear that the im"ortance of e$citation and voltage regulation% 8n addition to maintaining the us voltage it is essential also to maintain generator terminal voltage 'ithin reasona le limits% This is ecause most of the "o'er "lant au$iliaries are run on the same generator out"ut terminals! through unit au$iliary transformer% 8t is not difficult to "rovide the synchronous generator field 'inding 'ith #C su""ly! ut to regulate it so that the terminal voltage is maintained constant is really stu"endous% 0oltage regulation im"roves dynamic sta ility limits of the "o'er system% 8t 'ill hel" clearing of line faults! i%e% clearing of faults 'ithin shortest time and 'ith minimal voltage di"% ,umming u" a ove analysis %%% 1. 2. 3. To "rovide #C su""ly to synchronous machine field 'inding% To control > maintain terminal voltage at a "reset value% To maintain system voltage under system fault conditions% 4. Control reactive "o'er flo' and facilitate sharing of reactive load et'een machines o"erating "arallel in the grid%% 5. 1uard the machine against inadvertent tri""ing during transients% 6. 4a"id res"onse to im"rove transient sta ility % 7. 3odulation of field to enhance small signal sta ility .P,,/% 3 1

8. 9.

4es"onse to transient distur ances 'ith field forcing% +ffective control of voltage and enhancement of system dynamic sta ility%

,ynchronous machine is to e guarded against the follo'ing conditions! through e$citation control% 1% V,HL (#4#ter To "rotect generator transformer from core saturation under Ulo' freCuency conditions! &04 'ill reduce the terminal voltage in "ro"ortion 'ith freCuency% 2% F#e(d $urre&t (#4#t't#o&. The generator field 'inding should not e overloaded .a very sensitive issue/ and at the same time the field current reCuires to e forced to nearly t'ice the rating some times 'hen there are grid distur ances very close to the machine% Thus overcurrent is allo'ed for a rief interval to maintain the system voltage and to clear the faults% ,ustained over currents in to the field 'indings are not allo'ed% 4otor heating characteristic is taken into account and over currents are allo'ed accordingly% 3 1

3% St'tor $urre&t (#4#t't#o& Q Q -n lagging side -n leading side% +$ce"t at unity "o'er factor the stator current oth on su""lying and receiving reactive "o'er 'ill e increasing% +vidently on over e$citation as 'ell as on under e$citation stator currents 'ill increase% They are discriminately controlled not to cross the limits% -nce again on the lagging side only sustained over currents are controlled% +$cessive field currents are some times driven to maintain! transient sta ility of the

3 2

system! 'hich 'ill automatically force the reactive "o'er into the grid and as result high stator currents% This condition 'ill never a""ear on the leading side% Hence stator current increase is immediately controlled% 4% o'd '&+(e (#4#ter & condition 'here the machine is likely to loose its sta le o"erating condition% 8ncreasing the field current during such conditions 'ill save the machine from tri""ing on "ole sli" "rotection%

3 2

These are also the o Eectives to e met y an e$citation system and generator &utomatic 0oltage 4egulator .&04/% 0arious regulator schemes have come u" 'ith the evolution of Thyristors% Q ,tatic +$citation ,ystem 'ith digital &04% ,elf>,e"arately +$cited Q ,tatic +$citation ,ystem 'ith &nalog &04% ,elf>,e"arately +$cited Q Brush less +$citation 'ith #igital &04% ,elf>,e"arately +$cited ,elf> Q Brush less +$citation 'ith ,e"arately +$cited &nalog

:
$#!$E

: 3 2

G
TH/R#ST!R

Before 'e try to discuss any more on the "resent e$citation > voltage regulator systems it is necessary to kno' the functioning of thyristors! a "o'er semiG conductor device! 'hich is res"onsi le for the develo"ment of "o'er electronics today% 8t is asically a semiGconductor diode! ut the diode function is ke"t locked and released once a small "ulse signal is issued at the gate terminal of the 3 2

thyristors% 8t is also called ,ilicon Controlled 4ectifier! ecause of this feature% -nce a for'ard current seiIes to ;ero for'ard conduction of diode function is also locked% 8t is active once again 'hen a gate "ulse is given% Hence the device "rovides a very fine control of the out"ut at every half cycle of the sinusoidal 'ave of the "o'er su""ly%

+VE

3 2

C #NP5T

R / Constant Voltage an9 *re;uency

$C !5TP5T V R# BLE V!LT GE

(I.01

- VE

& three "hase full 'ave ridge is formed making use of si$ thyristors as 'e do 'ith ridge as sho'n in figure 1% & num er of ridges are connected in "arallel de"ending on the total current reCuirement and also the individual ridge ca"acity%

3 2

&t "resent thyristors are availa le even for 4AAA &m"s ratings% ?orced airGcooled arc in general usage% ?or s"ecial a""lications 'aterGcooled are also availa le% 8nstead of gate currentG triggering! no' the "resent market is offering lightGtriggered thyristors also , 'hich offers com"lete isolation of the "o'er circuit from the control circuit% -"tic fi er ca le is used to transmit the light signal for triggering%

3 2

2o' coming ack to automatic voltage regulators! 'e have static e$citation system as sho'n in lock diagram in ?igures 3(4% This is a selfGe$cited system and another o"tion in this is se"arately e$cited system% The difference is that the e$citation transformer instead of eing fed from generator terminals is 3 2

connected to an e$ternal su""ly% &dvantage is that the field flashing circuit is not reCuired%

3 2

3 2

8n the static e$citation configuration! rotor field 'inding terminals are rought out to a set of sli" rings% 8nitially e$ternal &C is dra'n from the station su""ly! rectified and given to the field 'inding through field reaker and fieldGflashing reaker% -nce the voltage starts uilding u"! at 3AO terminal voltage com"lete voltage regulator comes into o"eration and at <AO terminal voltage ?ield ?lashing is s'itched -?? and &04 takes over% 8n the other alternative case the e$citation transformer is connected to a suita le station source% 8n this case field flashing is not necessary ut if the e$ternal su""ly suffers any interru"tion! the generator looses its &04 and voltage% &ll the rest of the circuit is common for oth%

3 3

%7 ,V %%6V8%+<.&

8 / &46 ,V %7+<7:V8&&6:V

&4<,V =%7+<7:V

&&6:V &&6:V
%7+<7:V8%%6V

*#EL$ &>66 *iel9 $ischarge

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There are t'o o"tions here% A) St't#$ $#r$u#try B) M#$ro6ro$e55or b'5ed $#r$u#try. &s such static circuits are not "referred! the reason eing 3icro"rocessor ased systems are easy for maintenance and they are fully fle$i le% -ne "rocessor can do any Eo ! unlike in the static circuitry 'here each function reCuires a se"arate electronic card% 2o' ack to the lock diagram of fig% 2! one set of PTVs are reCuired for measuring generator voltage actual value% -ne set of current transformers is also reCuired to com"ensate voltage dro" due to loading on the machine% & voltage set "oint is another reCuirement for voltage regulator function% +rror am"lifier receives oth actual and set "oint and am"lifies the error% 1rid control unit is actually a "ulse generator and the "osition of the "ulse is shifted de"ending on the error signal received from the error am"lifier% The "ulse "roduced y the grid control unit reCuires reference and is to e ,ynchroniIed 'ith the in"ut "o'er su""ly 'aveform% Hence synchronous su""ly is derived and filtered from harmonics and connected to the grid control unit% The limiters discussed in the earlier "aragra"hs are also su""liedG'ith the PT voltage and CT currents% They do the evaluation continuously and im"ose an e$tra signal on the error am"lifier out"ut to! limit the field current or to force the field current% 8n addition to the items discussed a ove are %% 3 3

Q Q Q Q Q Q

Po'er system sta iliIer ?ield forcing circuit Pulse su"ervision 4otor over voltage "rotection 4otor earth fault "rotection +$citation transformer over tem"erature "rotection and over current "rotection% #e"ending on the com"le$ity of the circuit theyV are e$"lained as follo's%%

:) E"$#t't#o& tr'&5*or4er o3er 3o(t'+e '&d o3er $urre&t 6rote$t#o&1 This transformer is generally a dry ty"e transformer% 1enerator us voltage is ste""ed do'n to the reCuired level de"ending on the e$citation reCuirements% & fault in &04 or a fault 'ithin the transformer itself can give raise to e$cessive currents and tem"eratures in the 'inding of the transformer% & set of CTs at the "rimary of the transformer connecting to an over current relay 'ith time delayed contact and also an instantaneous contact "rotects the transformer% 8nstantaneous contact generally tri"s the field reaker as 'ell as generator reaker% The time delay contact 'ill change over the &04 from one channel to the other% &ssuming "ro lem in the auto channel this 'ill e e$"lained as elo'% &ll the latest machines eCui""ed 'ith ThyristorGcontrolled &04 'ill have an auto channel and also a manual channel for "roducing the firing "ulse for triggering 3 3

the thyristors .grid control units one for auto and the other for manual/% The manual channel as the name suggests 'ill have to e adEusted manually y the o"erator% This is a ack u" channel and 'ill e used in emergencies% 8n case of a trou le in auto channel the change over to manual channel should take "lace 'ithout much change in the field current% This is only "ossi le if t h e manual channel is follo'ing the auto channel% & follo' u" circuit is uilt around to make the manual channel to follo' the auto channel as long as the manual channel is idle% The grid control unit for t h e manual channel is made to generate "ulses at the same angle as does y the auto channel% This 'ill "rovide a smooth change over in case of auto failure% &ny malfunction sensed in the auto channel 'ill initiate changeover of field current control from &04 to a manual stand y channel% 2L Rotor e'rth *'u(t 6rote$t#o& B The generator rotor 'inding is ungrounded% & ground at one location in t h e rotor 'inding may not e so serious! ut a second ground fault at other location in the 'inding is very serious! ecause "art of the field 'inding gets y"assed% The result is an unsymmetrical magnetic field in the generator air ga" and reflects in machine shaft and earing vi rations% This situation should not e allo'ed% & rotor earth fault detection relay is em"loyed for this "ur"ose% The & B B ty"e relay o"erates on the &C ridge "rinci"le% T'o arms of the ridge 'ill have eCual resistors% -ther t'o arms of the ridge contain ca"acitors% -ne ca"acitor is the ca"acitance et'een rotor 'inding and the earth% This value is measured at the time of commissioning and the e$act measured value occu"ies the other arm of the ridge y an eCuivalent ca"acitor% Thus the ridge is alanced at the time 3 3

of connecting% &n earth fault 'ill distur this alance and the ridge generates un alance current 'hich is am"lified and connected for alarm% 3/ F#e(d *or$#&+1 The synchronous machine is connected to the grid!'hich is susce"ti le to line faults% & line fault close to the generating station us 'ill sink the us voltage! also% This situation 'ill make the distance relays ino"erative atB the s'itchyard% & dv>dt sensor 'hich 'ill sense the rate of fall of voltage and forces the field 1%9 to 2%A times to the full ca"acity of the e$citation system for a "eriod of 2 seconds% This is called field forcing and hel"s in Cuick relay o"eration and grid sta ility% 4/ Rotor o3er 3o(t'+e 6rote$t#o& B 8t is "ossi le to occur over voltages in rotor circuit ecause of the reason that rotor 'inding is a highly inductive circuit% &ny small reak in the #C current su""lied results in very high voltages across the rotor% %&dded to this situation !rotor 'inding on the rotating rotor has a s"ace limitation for high voltage insulation and usually rotorG'inding insulation is rated only for *AA volts and generally not more than this%& cro' ar "rotection no' a days is used to short circuit any over voltage s"ikes across rotor 'inding% */ Po2er 5y5te4 5t'b#(#5er%PSS /B ,ome times a very lo' freCuency oscillations arc o served on the "o'er system% This "henomenon is due to 3 3

un alanced active>reactive "o'er flo's in a "art of the system% P,, 'ill attem"t to sta iliIe these oscillations% The generator rotor and tur ine rotor are rigidly cou"led and has large inertia energy stored in that% The P,, 'ill measure the oscillations and to dam"en the oscillations 'ill either increase or decrease the field current% & change in reactive "o'er 'ill momentarily affect the active "o'er flo'% &s the governor control is not distur ed the storage and release of energy takes "lace in the com ined rotor inertia% Fsually P,, is "rovided 'ith a s'itch on the o"erator desk to s'itch -2 or -?? at the discretion of the o"erator% 9/ Pu(5e 5u6er3#5#o& B & "ulse su"ervision circuit is necessary ecause any s"urious "ulse a""earing at the grid control unit .auto/ out"ut is disastrous% They may trigger the Thyristor Bridge at any level! leading to short circuit current% This condition is su"ervised y "ulse su"ervision module% 8t 'ill sense any e$tra "ulses and also a continuously missing "ulse and then 'ill initiatesV a change over of control from auto to

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Permanent ,agnet *i?e9 on Rotor

,ain E?citer *iel9

Gen+ Rotor
E?citer Rotor

Sha't

Thyristor Bri9ges VR R!T!R E RTH * 5LT REL /

Rotating $io9e "heel

PT Supplies 3 3

CT (I./R 0,

Bru5hC(e55 e"$#t't#o& 5y5te45 & 21A 3) 53) design generator rated to 24< 30& reCuires 29AA &m"s field current 'hen o"erating at its rated ca"acity% &ll this current is to e connected to the rotor 'inding only through rush gear and sli" rings% This is giving rise to many "ro lems such as rush 'earing out! re"lacement of rushes and also 'ear -ut of sli" rings% To avoid the rushes and sli" rings! manufacturers have come out 'ith another o"tion called rushGless e$citation% 8n fact this is an indirect e$citation and control% The arrangement is sho'n in figure % & high freCuency "ermanent magnet generator on e$citer and t'o rotating diode 'heels come additionally in "lace of s l i " rings and rushGgear on tur o generator shaft% This 'ill e$tend the shaft length% The e$citation transformer discussed in the static e$citation earlier is no' re"laced 'ith rushless e$citer% ?ield flashing Eo is also done y the P31 in addition to su""lying "o'er to the thyristors% 8nstead of e$citation controlling the actual generator field% &04 in this case 'ill control the field current of the e$citer% Hence the control action is a it slo' com"ared to static e$citation% The e$citer out"ut is a three "hase &C and is directly connected to PolyG"hase B ridge diodes mounted on a rotating 'heel% Connection et'een e$citer threeG"hase out"ut to rotating diodes and from rotating diodes to the generator field 'inding is through the

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hollo' shaft "ortion and 'ith solid conductor% This eliminates sli" rings and rushes% The &04 contains ail the features discussed in the static system% 8nstead of directly controlling the main field 'e are controlling the e$citer field% This drastically reduces the current reCuirement% ,imilar 21A 3)! 24< 30& machine reCuires not more than 3A am"s at i t s full ca"acity! 'here it is 29AA am"s in the sl i " ring and rushGgear arrangement% The earth fault detection circuit is it different here% ,tar "oint of the e$citer rotor threeG"hase 'inding is rought out to a sli" ring% & relay monitors resistance et'een this sli" ring and the shaft% &nother sli" ring connects the relay to the shaft ody% There is a maEor "erformance difference in this% Com"ared to static e$citation the time constant of the e$citer comes into "icture 'hile res"onse time is evaluated% Presently all the latest systems are uilt around micro"rocessor logics% 8t is sim"le and easy% 3ost of the ne' sets are eCui""ed 'ith t'o auto channels and a manual channel or some times t'o auto channels and t'o manual channels% &ll this is to im"rove relia ility of the system% &ny "ro lem in &04 results into s'itching off of the com"lete unit and severely affects generation of "o'er and economics of o"eration% 8n general automatic voltage regulator needs utmost care and attention% ,ome of the salient "oints in Thyristor controlled &04% 3 4 )hile fi$ing the thyristors on the us ars anode and cathode connections should e checked thoroughly% ,ilicon grease is to e a""lied to the contact

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surface and to e tightened firmly% &ny ad contact 'ill give rise to s"arking and ioniIation! 'hich results into fire accidents and loss of "ro"erty% Q -ne should get used to oscillosco"e o"eration for firing "ulse checking% The small "ulse generated in the grid control unit is a dou le "ulse ty"e to ensure triggering of the thyristor% These t'o "ulses are 3A deg% +lec% &"art and if the first "ulse fails to trigger! the second "ulse after a delay of 3A deg% +lec% 'ill once again attem"t to trigger the thyristors% Pulses generated in the grid control unit are not suita le for long distance travel and it is more likely to get electrical noise su"er im"osed! 'hich results in triggering% Fsually thyristor "anels are a'ay at least a fe' rneters from "ulse generating units% ,mall "ulses develo"ed y grid control unit are first am"lified in a set of "ulse am"lifiers and then at the thyristors end fed to a "ulse transformer that serves dual "ur"ose% -ne is to ste" do'n the "ulse am"litude and secondly to isolate the "ulse circuit from the "o'er circuit% The latest addition of light triggered thyristors are very much safe in isolating the "ulse circuit and the "o'er circuit% They are yet to enter the 8ndian market% Q 3ost of these Thyristor ridges are forced airGcooled and the fans also dra' dust from the atmos"here and it accumulates on the thyristor ridges%

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&""ro"riate care should e e$ercised in reducing the dust de"osit and cleaning the de"osited dust% 8n the static e$citation circuit a dry ty"e transformer is used for e$citation su""ly et'een generator us duct and thyristor cu icle% This does not reCuire much attention e$ce"t 1/ dust lo'ing 2/ High tem"erature is detrimental to these transformers% They are o"erated at 12A deg C and a ove% &larm at 12A deg C and tri" at 14A deg C% usually forced airGcooled% Care shall e e$ercised in ensuring the fan availa ility and affective fan "erformance% #ust laden fan lades reduce the fan "erformance% ?ield BreakerB 8n case of static e$citation! ii is again a vital com"onent% These field reakers are rated nearly 4AAA &m"s #C current reaking% ,o far they are not made in 8ndia and these reakers reCuire close 'atch on the contacts and arc chutes% Contact ga" is to e "ro"erly set in the main contacts% Contact "ressure is to e adEusted "ro"erly% 8f not distur ed! reCuires no maintenance and if any adEustment is reCuired! it should e carried out y a skilled "erson having com"lete understanding of the reaker o"eration%

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8t is also a general "ractice to reverse the "olarity of #C su""ly to the sli" rings% 3ore o$idiIation takes "lace on tin "ositive side% To eCuate the 'ear out on oth the sli" rings! this "ractice is in vogue% ?ield flashing circuitryB 41* 0 station su""ly is ste""ed clo'n to 3* volts! rectified in a diode ridge and used for flashing the field% The field flashing "rocess takes a out 9 to = secs% 2ever allo' the time to cross 1* sec % &nd do not re"eat immediately if field flashing fails% 5eave a out 1A minutes time et'een field flashings if at all to e re"eated% Check 'hether all the thyristors are conducting% 8f one Thyristor is not conducting field current 'ill not flo' at all% The very sim"le reason is that there is a small reak in the #C out"ut current% & reak or a make in #C circuits connected to high inductive circuit causes high voltage uildu"% 8n our case rotor 'inding is no e$ce"tion% The ack emf uiltGu" 'ill o""ose flo' of current and e$cessive voltages are detrimental to rotor 'inding insulation% ,o dou le check 'hether all the thyristors are conducting y "erforming a load test if necessary% & dummy resistance load is more a""ro"riate% & high 'attage resistance load is to e connected across t h e field reaker! disconnecting the rotor 'inding% This 'ill facilitate com"lete checking of the thyristor circuits%

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