Marine Geology, 40 (1981)M59--M68 Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam -- Printed in The Netherlands

M59

Letter Section EXPERIMENTS ON NON-CHANNELIZED TURBIDITY CURRENTS AND THEIR DEPOSITS*

STEFAN L~JTHI**
Geologisches Institut der ETH Ziirich, 8092 Ziirich (Switzerland)

(Received September 15, 1980; revised and accepted January 26, 1981)

ABSTRACT Liithi, S., 1981. Experiments on non-channelized turbidity currents and their deposits. Mar. Geol., 40: M59--M68.

Large-scale experiments on non-channelized turbidity currents show that a wide flow opening angle forms and a rapid dilution of the current with distance takes place. The thickness of the deposit decreases radially away from the source, resulting in tongue-shaped isopachs. The mean grain diameter also decreases with distance while the sorting improves. With increasing distance, the following succession of bedforms was observed: (Non-deposition) -~ parallel lamination ~ ripples -~ parallel lamination. This corresponds to the B, C and D division of the Bouma sequence for turbidites. The experiments are in good agreement with the models presented by Bouma, Mutti and Ricci Lucchi, and Walker for classical turbidites in the depositional lobes of submarine fans.

INTRODUCTION This p a p e r p r e s e n t s t h e results f r o m e x p e r i m e n t s o n t h e b e h a v i o u r o f n o n c h a n n e l i z e d t u r b i d i t y c u r r e n t s in t h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e p o i n t o f origin. T h e original s t u d y (Liithi, 1 9 8 0 ) was d i r e c t e d t o m o d e l d e l t a f o r m a t i o n in lakes. With care, t h e results o f t h o s e e x p e r i m e n t s c a n b e a p p l i e d t o s u b m a r i n e fans a n d , in p a r t i c u l a r , t o t h e i r d e p o s i t i o n a l l o b e s ( t h e " s u p r a f a n " o f N o r m a r k , 1970). Experiments on nonChannelized turbidity currents have not been r e p o r t e d since t h e e a r l y a t t e m p t s o f K u e n e n ( 1 9 5 1 ) . T h e m a i n d i f f e r e n c e s w i t h K u e n e n ' s e x p e r i m e n t s are t h a t : (1) t h e s e e x p e r i m e n t s are larger in size, (2) t h e grain size u s e d is smaller, (3) a c o n s t a n t s u p p l y o f s u s p e n s i o n w i t h a k n o w n c o n c e n t r a t i o n a n d discharge r a t e is used, w h e r e a s K u e n e n w o r k e d w i t h a l i m i t e d s u s p e n s i o n v o l u m e o f p o o r l y k n o w n c o n c e n t r a t i o n , a n d (4) t h e e x p e r i m e n t s as a w h o l e are m u c h m o r e q u a n t i t a t i v e . T h i s d o e s n o t d i m i n i s h t h e v a l u e o f K u e n e n ' s w o r k ; o n t h e c o n t r a r y , m o s t o f his precise o b s e r v a t i o n s are c o n f i r m e d b y t h e p r e s e n t e x p e r i m e n t s . *Publication No. 164 of the Laboratory of Experimental Geology. **Present address: Sieber, Cassina & Moser, Consulting Engineers and Geologists, Delphinstrasse 5, 8008 Z/irich, Switzerland. 0025-3227/81/0000--0000/$02.50 1981 Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company

M60 EXPERIMENTAL ARRANGEMENT

Fig. 1 shows the experimental set-up. From the preparation tank (A) with a volume of 3 m 3, a suspension of known concentration was prepared by thoroughly mixing sediment and freshwater with the aid of propellers. Additional mixing was obtained by pumping the suspension through a volumetric impeller pump (B) at a constant discharge rate of 3.5 1/sec, measured by a venturimeter (C), from where it flowed back into tank (A) through hose (D). Basin (E) is 10 m long, 6 m wide and 1 m deep. An adjustable PVC ramp (F), 9 m long and 5 m wide, was installed in basin (E). For the experiments reported here, the ramp was held at a constant inclination of 5 . At its upper end, i.e. near venturimeter (C), an inlet box with an entry slot, 30 cm wide and 5 cm high, was installed. Basin (E) was filled with clear water to the upper edge of the entry slot. The water depth thus increased from the slot to the lower edge of the ramp from 5 to about 85 cm. The experiments were started by closing reflux hose (D) and letting the suspension to flow through the entry slot into basin (E). The suspension flowed as a turbidity current down the inclined ramp (Fig. 2). The run was stoplSed when the turbidity current reached the opposite wall of the basin. During an experiment, additional influx was compensated by a relay-controlled drainage system (G) in order to keep the water level in basin (E) constant. Two different sets of experiments were run using two different sediment

Fig. 1. V i e w o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l i n s t a l l a t i o n s a t E T H Z i i r i c h - H 6 n g g e r b e r g . A = P r e p a r a t i o n tank 3 1 1 m;B = impeller pump; C = venturimeter; D = hose for recirculation; E = experimental basin 10 6 x 1 m;F = PVC ramp; G = drainage system.

M61

admixtures. The first set of fifteen experiments was carried o u t with a chalk powder of a b o u t 3 p m equivalent grain diameter. The experiments of this set were c o n d u c t e d to investigate the flow characteristics of non-channelized turbidity currents with virtually no deposition. Quartz silt with an almost lognormal size distribution was used for the second set of three experiments. The material had a mean grain diameter of 37 p m with a standard deviation of 0.52 . These experiments were run to investigate the characteristics of turbidity current deposits. The currents produced during the t w o experimental sets showed close similarities. One of the differences was that the turbidity currents containing quartz silt decelerated slightly faster than the ones having chalk powder. Since in most other respects the flow of the two different turbidity currents was almost identical, a discussion of the chalk powder experiments is omitted. It should be emphasized that due to the high Reynolds numbers of the experimental turbidity currents (about 3.5 104), the large size of the basin, and the use of relatively fine grain sizes, the results from these model experiments can be extrapolated to large features such as submarine fans. RESULTS OF THE QUARTZ SILT SET OF EXPERIMENTS Three quartz silt experiments were run with initial suspension densities of 1.0070, 1.0238 and 1.0675 g/cm s. The last of these is discussed in detail, with reference to distinguishing features of the other runs.

Propagation of the current

The experiments were photographed from above, which permitted an evaluation of the frontal propagation of the currents. After leaving the entry slot, the turbidity current expanded in a near-90 angle and flowed in elongate, tongueshaped contours down the ramp (Fig. 2). In the vicinity of the entry slot, the current extended up to the water surface due to the influx m o m e n t u m (dotted zone in Fig. 3a) and then plunged down to form a gravity current. The sickleshaped front of the turbulent current is characterized by prominent bulges on its surface, while the following steady-state layer has a much smoother appearance.The contours of the moving front, given in intervals of ten seconds in Fig. 3a, are more closely spaced with increasing distance, which indicates a deceleration of the current. No uniform flow conditions were therefore established and thus the use of a Ch~zy-type equation, as is often done to describe turbidity currents (e.g. Kuenen, 1952), is inappropriate. The flow velocities are highest along the central flow axis and lowest at the outer margins of the current. The steady-state layer has slightly higher velocities than the front, as revealed by the recording of a small current meter in a chalk powder experiment (Liithi, 1980). This is in general agreement with the results of Middleton (1966, fig. 14).

M62

Fig. 2. Photograph of a turbidity current as discussed in the text (Experiment No. 2, initial suspension density is 1.0675 g/cm s) after 70 sec. At upper end the entry slot; three aluminum beams placed at 2, 4 and 6 metres hold bottles for sampling suspensions. Bright spots are neon lights reflecting in the slightly disturbed water surface.

Fig. 3. Anatomy of a non-channelized quartz silt turbidity current (Experiment No. 2) and its sediment deposit (see text).

M63

/// / //

\\~J/, . ~ . '.':.. ...

\N\ ,, \\\

i
~ i

No deposit Plane bed Ripples X ;~ 7cm I X < 7cm with trend of ripple crests {not to scale}

I ~

" "

I
a. Propagation of turbidity current : front contours

Planebed

b. Sedimentary structures

, /~..~-#.~
//// I " %~T'~\

. .

IV/

,
"%, X\\~ i \\\\ I *%%~
"1

,
I I

i [37.~ // // /
\~ I
I

//

\ %% \\ \ '
-/

////11 * / I/ i . *. I J

~ * I I /.

,-,;'~I. II I
;

%
~,

..~ * .
"-_ ~/

~ L"..~-~ I \\ I
I
I I I I ii I /
I

I
// //

/" //
I I
1% I I I
II

I, L.
X X Xx xx

i
/

~\
~%'

"\o
\

~ \

~ I 'k

"\ \\. \
/

X X
~

\\
\

,,,,,,

//

I !

\\"
\

./ / %
I

t I %'X X
\

/ 1

A X X

~ 32.3 x

/ / I 2

\ X
~ / ~

// /

/
//

/ //

/
iI

\\

\\

\\

/.
\ ,, % / /'~ //O"

/.
I I I

\
"\ \

.
,~

",\

/0'

microns c. DepoeiUonal thickness d. Mean ilrein diameter of deposit ~ s ~ of suspension 32.3

M64

Flow densities
The density of the flow was determined by sampling via suction of suspensior at five different heights at five different locations (dots in Fig. 3a), behind the front in the steady-state layer. The measurements show a strong increase in density toward the b o t t o m of the flow, similar to densities obtained from twodimensional turbidity currents (Kuenen, 1951; Liithi, 1981). Mean flow densities were derived from the density distribution curve at every location. They are given in Fig. 3a and show surprisingly extensive dilution of the current with distance, both longitudinally and laterally. The current reduces to only about 2% of its initial density contrast within 6 metres of transport. This reduction is primarily due to fluid entrainment of ambient water, and only subordinately to the deposition of sediment.

Flow height
The flow thickness was determined from the density distribution curves. It is defined as the height at which the density contrast becomes zero. The flow height increases linearly along the flow axis from 5 cm at the entry slot to about 20 cm at the lower end of the ramp. The bulgy front is slightly thicker than the steady-state layer. Laterally, the flow height decreases only gradually away from the axis and then drops off rapidly to zero at the outer margin of the current.

Sedimentary structures
After three minutes the run was stopped and water carefully drained to expose the deposited sediment. Visual inspection of the surface and of profiles cut into the sediment revealed a succession of sedimentary structures arranged in tongue-shaped lobes: (1) In the proximity of the entry slot a zone of non-deposition exists, 20 cm long and 30 cm wide. Here, the current was too high for any deposition. (2) A zone characterized by parallel lamination which is also about 20 cm long and 30 cm wide. (3) A zone containing climbing ripples with crests oriented at right angles to the flow direction. This leads to a curvilinear trend which is indicated schematically in Fig. 3b. This zone can be subdivided into two regions, one with ripples having wavelengths of 10--7 cm and a second region farther awity with distinctly smaller ripples having wavelengths of 5--2 cm. The total ripple zone extends to 2 m from the entry slot and is up to 1.5 m wide. Is is in this zone that the thickest deposits are found (see below). Along the margins of the non-depositional zone, ripples form a kind of levee. (4) A second zone with parallel lamination which encompasses the remaining part of the deposit. In the area just outside the ripple zone are clear indications of traction of grains in the form of small furrows caused by the rolling

M65

of grains at the sediment surface. The parallel lamination may grade distally into a zone without lamination. This could not be verified because of the distal thinning of the deposit. Depositional thickness The thickness of the deposit was measured by sliding callipers in nearly dry sediment along an 1 1 m grid. The isopachs have generally the same shape as the contours of the flow front, except for the region of non-deposition directly outside the entry slot. They are slightly more elongate in the flow axis direction. The thickness decreases by about one half for every meter along the axis but decreases laterally much more rapidly. Mean grain diameter The deposit was sampled at the grid points used for the thickness measurements. Grain-size distributions were determined with an ASAP-520 particlesize analyzer which uses a light blockage principle. There is a net trend in t h e mean grain size (as defined for example by Friedman, 1979). Generally, grain size decreases with distance and the lines of equal grain diameters have almost semi-circular shapes. It is interesting to note that the sediment in suspension shows only slightly smaller grain diameters (underlined numbers in Fig. 3d) than the sediment deposited at a given location. Standard deviation and mean cubed deviation (Friedman, 1979) Liithi (1980) showed that these two grain parameters also have a distinct trend within the deposit. The standard deviation diminishes from about 0.5 at the entry slot to about 0.4 at the end of the ramp which indicates improved sorting. The mean cubed deviation, which is a measure of the skewness, tends from slightly positive values to zero with distance. Comparison with the other runs The two other quartz-silt turbidity current runs had a lower initial suspension density. Their smaller weight difference therefore did not cause the currents to plunge down sharply just beyond the entry slot, but their plunge point (or rather plunge line) was much farther away from the slot (1--4 m) as compared with the current in Fig. 3a. After the plunging, the less concentrated currents have slightly wider opening angles and show almost semi-circular contours of the moving front, rather than the tongue-shaped, elongate lobes of the concentrated current (Fig. 3a). The deposits of the less concentrated turbidity currents are correspondingly thinner but show the same general trend in thickness, grain size distribution, sorting arid skewness as the relatively more concentrated current.

M66 DISCUSSION

Non-channelized turbidity currents show a wide opening angle, which is about 90 in our experiments, b u t which may vary with different rates of sediment supply. Most of the sediment is transported within a relatively narrow angle of a b o u t 40 . This corresponds to the zone of highest velocities and greatest suspension concentrations. The density decreases rapidly as soon as the suspension leaves the entry slot, by entraining ambient water. In channelized turbidity currents, this turbulent entrainment is a primary factor controlling the flow on slopes as low as 0.5 (Liithi, 1981). Nonchannelized turbidity currents entrain ambient water not only through the upper surface, b u t also through their lateral boundaries. Turbulent entrainment is thus of even greater importance than in channelized flows. These results suggest that in a non-channelized environment "high density/high velocity" turbidity currents transform within short distances into "low density/ low velocity" turbidity currents. Although grain size and slope angle may be slightly exaggerated in our experiments, the model is considered a reliable replica of large-scale natural conditions, mainly because of the high Reynolds numbers and the large model dimensions. This model only deals with negligible grain interactions and thus matches only the depositional conditions of "classical turbidites" (Walker, 1978). The deposits are lenticular with a radial flow pattern providing a good analogy with depositional lobes (Mutti and Ricci Lucchi, 1975) or suprafans (Normark, 1970, 1978). The deposits show distinctive trends in thickness and grain parameters (mean diameter, sorting and skewness). At any given location, not the coarsest grains in the turbidity current are deposited, but, surprisingly, grains only slightly larger than the mean grain diameter in suspension. The bedforms are of particular interest. These experiments seem to be the first reported which d o c u m e n t bedforms other than graded bedding produced by experimental turbidity currents (see Kuenen & Migliorini, 1950). A succession of bedforms occurs with increasing distance, corresponding to a longitudinal Bouma sequence comprising the B, C and D divisions (Bouma, 1962): Erosion or non<leposition -~ parallel lamination -~ ripples -* parallel lamination. This is in agreement with Bouma's (1962) model of base cut-out sequence~ with distance and Walker's (1978) model of depositional zones for classical turbidites on submarine fans. There is also good correspondence with the Cand D-facies of the model proposed by Mutti & Ricci Lucchi (1975). A vertical succession of bedforms was n o t obtained in our experiments, because the currents were only waning with distance, not with time. The graded or uniform Bouma A division is thought to be absent because the initial suspensior concentration was t o o low. The pelitic Bouma E division is lacking because the experimental sediments had minimal clay fractions. The succession of bedforms found in m y experiments corresponds to the bedforms found in open channel experiments (Guy et al., 1966; Rees, 1966;

M67

Southard, 1971). Based on these data, beds with grains in the siltsized range should form the following succession with decreasing stream power: (Erosion) -~ flat bed (eventually in-phase waves) -~ ripples -* (no sediment movement). The decreasing velocity of the turbidity currents with distance leads therefore to the bedform succession B-C-D-division of the Bouma sequence shown in Fig. 3b. The sedimentary structures in tubidites thus clearly reflect a progressively waning turbidity current as interpreted, for example, by Walker (1967). Sedimentologists have long been puzzled by the upper parallel lamination D in the Bouma sequence. My experiments strongly suggest that this "bedform" is produced at the very poorly defined lower limit of tractive sediment motion. The grains settling out from a turbidity current may still roll a short distance. By this process parallel laminations are formed.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study was sponsored by the Swiss National Science Foundation (Project No. 2.084.078). I thank all people who helped me in preparing and carrying out these laborious experiments. I am particularly grateful to Mr. U. Wibmer and Dr. J. Biihler. Professors Th. Dracos and K. Hsii gave me full support and provided many helpful suggestions. Kerry Kelts carefully manicured the manuscript and Dr. A.H. Bouma critically reviewed it.

REFERENCES Bouma, A.H., 1962. Sedimentology of Some Flyseh Deposits. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 168 pp. Friedman, G.M., 1979. Differences in size distributions of populations of particles among sands of various origins. Sedimentology, 26 (1): 3--32. Guy, H.P., Simons, D.B. and Richardson, E.V., 1966. Summary of alluvial channel data from flume experiments, 1956-1961. U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap., 462-1 : 96 pp. Kuenen, Ph.H., 1951. Properties of turbidity currents of high density. Soc. Econ. Paleontol. Mineral. Spec. Publ., 2: 14--33. Kuenen, Ph.H., 1952. Estimated size of the Grand Banks turbidity current. Am. J. Sci., 250: 874--884. Kuenen, Ph.H. and Migiiorini, C., 1950. Turbidity currents as a cause of graded bedding. J. Geol., 58: 91--127. Liithi, S., 1980. Die Eigenschaften nichtkanalisierter TrUbestrSme: Eine experimentelle Untersuchung. Eclogae geol. Heir., 73 (3): 881--904. Ltithi, S., 1981. Some new aspects of two-dimensional turbidity currents. Sedimentology (in press). Middleton, G.V., 1966. Experiments on density and turbidity currents, I. Motion of the head. Can. J. Earth Sci., 3: 523--546. Mutti, E. and Ricci Lucchi, F., 1975. Turbidite facies and facies associations. In: IX~me congr~s int. de S~dimentologie, Nice, Excursions, 11 : 21--36. Normark, W.R., 1970. Growth patterns of deep-sea fans. Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol. Bull., 54: 2170--2195. Normark, W.R., 1978. Fan valleys, channels, and depositional lobes on modern submarine fans: Characters for recognition of sandy turbidite environments. Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol. Bull., 62 (6): 912--931.

M68 Rees, A.I., 1966. Some flume experiments with a fine silt. Sedimentology, 6: 209--240. Southard, J.B., 1971. Representation of bed configurations in depth-velocity-size diagrams. J. Sediment. Petrol., 41 (4): 903--915. Walker, R.G., 1967. Turbidite sedimentary structures and their relationship to proximal and distal depositional environments. J. Sediment. Petrol., 37 (1) : 25--43. Walker, R.G., 1978. Deep-water sandstone facies and ancient submarine fans: Models for exploration for stratigraphic traps. Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol. Bull., 62 (6): 932--966.