THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES SCHOOL OF MATHEMATICS AND STATISTICS MATH1131 Algebra Section 1: - Introduction to Vectors.

You may have already met the notion of a vector in physics. There you will have thought of it as an arrow, that was used to represent a force. Adding forces corresponded to adding arrows. In this topic we are going to look at vectors from a geometric view point, although we will include some examples based on simple ideas from physics. One of the most powerful developments in Mathematics came from the simple idea of the co-ordinate plane. Indeed 2-dimensional co-ordinate geometry was crucial in the development of the Calculus. The obvious question arises as to how we can generalise this to higher dimensions. Vectors give us a way of generalising co-ordinate geometry into higher dimensions in a very straight forward manner. Denition: A vector is a directed line segment which represents a displacement from one point P to another point Q. The word vector comes from the Latin veho (cf. vehicle), meaning to carry.

We represent a vector either using the notation P Q or by using v . In the algebra notes (and in these notes), vectors are represented using bold letters, v. You should represent vectors by underlining the letter, viz v . This is important, because you will need to carefully distinguish between vectors, scalars (and later matrices).

R P

PQ

SR S A vector has both direction and length (or magnitude). Two vectors are equal if they have the same direction and the same magnitude. Hence in the diagram v = w. We will denote the length of the vector v by |v|. 1

Two vectors are parallel if they have the same direction. Position Vectors: We choose a xed point O , in whatever dimensional space we happen to be and call this the origin. The position vector of a point in any number of dimensions will be represented by a vector from the origin to that point.

Hence the vector OP in the diagram is called the position vector of the point P . A position vector gives the position of a point in space, whereas a direction vector is simply a vector having direction and magnitude (length). Addition of vectors: To geometrically add two vectors there are two dierent methods (each important). If we think of a force vector, then, the obvious way to add two vectors is to put them tip to tail and join the tail of the rst to the tip of the second, as in the diagram. w v+w

To add the vectors v and w, we move w and then complete the triangle. This method of addition is known as the triangle law of addition. You can see from this that one could obtain the same vector by forming a parallelogram from the two vectors and taking the diagonal (often called the resultant) as the sum of the two vectors.

v+w

v w

This method is known as the parallelogram law. Subtraction of vectors is performed in a similar way:

wv w v

To check this makes sense, add the vectors that are tip to tail, v + (w v) = w as expected. Observe that the vector labelled w v is not a position vector.

Thus if P and Q have position vectors v and w respectively, then P Q= w v. In general,

P Q=OQ OP . Q

wv w v O

Example: Suppose ABCDEF is a regular hexagon with the vector p on the side AB and vector q on the side BC . Express the vectors on the sides: CD, DE, EF, F A and the diagonals AC, AD, AE in terms of p and q.

Exercise: In a paralleogram ABCD , AB = a, AD = b, and M is the intersection of the diagonals. Express, in terms of a and b the vectors, MA,MB ,MC ,MD . The Triangle Inequality: Let us restrict ourselves, for the moment, to the plane. Since the sum of any two sides of a triangle must exceed the third side, we can write |u + v| |u| + |v| for any vectors u and v.

u+v u

Q: When do we have equality? Scalar Multiplication: We can multiply a vector by a scalar (generally just a real number). This has the geometric eect of stretching the vector if > 1, stretching and reversing its direction if < 1. u u

Commutative and Associative Laws: The commutative law of vector addition states that a + b = b + a. Geometrically this is obvious: a+b=b+a b a

a b

The associative law of vector addition states that a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c. Again the following geometric proof (?) will suce.

a + (b + c ) (a + b) + c = a+b b a Dependence: Suppose we have a collection of vectors a1 , a2 , ...an . Suppose we start from the origin and move along the vector, 1 a1 , then along 2 a2 , then along 3 a3 and so on until we move along n an . Can we choose the values of the i s NOT ALL ZERO so that we arrive back at the origin? In general- NO. However, if we can, then we say that the vectors a1 , a2 , ..., an are linearly dependent. In other words: The vectors a1 , a2 , ..., an are linearly dependent if there exist real numbers 1 , 2 , ..., n , NOT ALL ZERO such that 1 a1 + 2 a2 + ... + n an = 0. In the diagram, the vectors a, b, c are linearly dependent: c b+c

3b

0 2a Example: Suppose a, b are non-zero vectors. Show that p = a + b, q = b c, r = a b + c c are linearly dependent. and s = b + 1 2

Simple Applications to Physics: Ex: The center of mass of a system of particles is a specic point at which, for many purposes, the systems mass behaves as if it were concentrated. Suppose masses m1 , m2 and m3 are placed at the points A, B and C respectively, with position vectors a, b and c. Let M , with position vector m be the centre of mass.

B A

M C

Geometric Proofs: Ex: Prove (using vectors) that the line joining the midpoint of two sides of a triangle is parallel to the third side and half its length.

Co-ordinates: Thus far, much of what we have done works in any number of dimensions. We are now going to dene n dimensional space and introduce a co-ordinate system in which to place our vectors. a1 a2 We take an n-tuple . of real numbers and think of each ai as lying on an axis xi . In . an 2 and 3 dimensions, we identify these axes as the XY and XY Z axes respectively, which are mutually orthogonal. The set of all such n-tuples will be called Rn .

 a1 a2 . n , if we must move a1 units We say that the vector P Q in R has co-ordinates . . an along the x1 axis, a2 units along the x2 axis, and so on, when moving from P to Q. a1 a2 n Hence an n-tuple . in R can be interpreted as the position vector of a point P . an n in R . 2 For example, in R3 , the point P in the diagram has position vector 3 . 1 2 P 3 1

0 0= 0 0 We can then dene the addition of two vectors (algebraically) in Rn by a1 + b1 b1 a1 a2 b2 a2 + b2 . + . = . . . . an + bn bn an and multiplication by a scalar to be

a1 a2 . . an

a1 a2 . . an

Multiplying a vector by a scalar merely stretches the vector (if > 1 ) or shrinks it if 0 < 1. If is negative then the vector reverses direction. (Note: The algebraic denition of addition agrees with the geometric denition.) 9

2v

v Note that the commutative algebraically, viz: law rules as such prove now we can a1 b1 b1 + a1 a1 + b1 b1 a1 a2 b2 a2 + b2 b2 + a2 b2 a2 = . + . = b + a. = + . = . . . a+b = . . . . . . an bn bn + an an + bn bn an Parallel Vectors. Two vectors are dened to be parallel if one is a non-zero multiple of the other. That is, v is parallel some scalar = 0. to w if v = w for 1 2 For example, 2 is parallel to 4 . 3 6 2 7 Ex: Find the vectors P Q, and QP if P = 1 and Q = 1 . 3 3

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Ex: Suppose that A =

2 3 1 0 are the position vectors ,D = ,C = B= 1 5 4 0 for four points A, B, C, D . Prove that the quadrilateral ABCD is a parallelogram.

Ex: ABCD is a parallelogram with vertices A, B, C, D which have the following position 3 2 1 . Find the three possible position vectors of ,C = ,B = vectors: A = 6 5 2 D.

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Basis Vectors: The standard basis vectors in R2 are the vectors 0 1 which are often and 1 0 denoted by i and j. Observe that every vector in R2 can be written in terms of these basis 1 vectors. For example can be written as i 2j. 2 1 0 0 0 , 1 , 0 . In 3-dimensions, the basis vectors, i, j, k are 0 0 1 a1 Note that every vector in R3 can be expressed in terms of these basis vectors, viz: a2 a3 can be expressed as a1 i + a2 j + a3 k. In higher dimensions, we label the basis vectors as e1 , e2 ,... and so on. Thus, in R4 , we have 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 e1 = 0 , e2 = 0 , e3 = 1 , e4 = 0 . 1 0 0 0 Once again, we can represent any vector in Rn in terms of the standard basis vectors in Rn . Distances and Lengths: a in R2 , we can use Pythagoras Theorem to compute the length Given a vector x = b 2 + b2 . We use the notation |x| = a a2 + b2 . In R3 , given a vector of this vector as a b , we can see from the diagram that |OP | = a2 + b2 and then in OAP we x = c have |OA| = |x| = a2 + b2 + c2 .

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c O a X b P

In higher dimensions, we can dene the length of a vector by generalising this formula, i.e. a1 a2 2 2 Denition: A vector x = . in Rn has length |x| given by |x| = a2 1 + a2 + + an . . . an 1 1 2 Ex: Find the lengths of a = 3 and b = 3 . 2 4

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The distance between two points A and B in Rn will be dened as the length of the vector AB , a1 b1 a2 b2 in other words, if A has position vector a = . and B has position vector b = . , . . . . an bn

then the length of AB is

| AB | = |b a| = Ex: Find the distance between 1 2

(b1 a1 )2 + + (bn an )2 . 1 3 3 and and between 2 and 6 . 4 5 1

The length function | |, (sometimes called a norm) has the following properties: 1. |a| 0. 2. |a| = 0 if and only if a = 0. 3. |a| = |||a|, for R. A vector which has unit length is called a unit vector. Any vector can be made into a unit vector by dividing by its length. 2 Ex: Find a unit vector parallel to the vector 3 . 1

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Ex: Suppose A and B are points with position vectors a and b. Find a vector (in terms of a and b) which bisects the angle AOB , where O is the origin.

Equations of Lines: We seek to nd the equation of a line in vector form. The vector equation of a line is a formula which gives the position vector x of every point on that line. This equation is sometimes referred to at the parametric vector form of the line. I will generally just say vector equation of the line. Suppose we have a line passing through the origin which contains a vector u in R2 . Every point on that line will have a position vector which is a multiple of u. Conversely, every multiple of u will correspond to the position vector of a point on that line. Hence the equation of the line can be written as x = u where is any real number.

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x = u

For example, if u were the vector through the origin would be x =

2 3 2 3

then the equation of the line through u passing , R.

Another way of denoting the set of all real multiples of a given vector is to call it the span of the vector. Thus we could write {u : R} as span(u). This idea of span is extremely important.

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Ex: In R2 what is the span of

1 0

? What is span

1 1

The advantage of this denition of the equation of a line is that it easily generalises to any number of dimensions. For example, of the line in R3 which the equation passes through the 1 1 origin and is parallel to the vector 3 is simply x = 3 . 6 6 If the line does not pass through the origin, then we proceed as follows: To nd the vector equation of a line we need to know two things: 1. The position vector a of a point A on the line

2. The direction of the line, i.e. a vector AB = b parallel to the line.

X b B b A x a

x = a + b

0 Thus, the span of b will give a line through the origin parallel to b and adding a will shift the line to its proper position. Thus we can nd the position vector x of any point X on the line by going from the origin along the vector a and then moving along the line, by adding

some multiple of b until we reach X . Thus, the vector OX is given by OX =OA + AX and AX is some multiple of b. Hence the equation of the line is x = a + b, R.

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Ex: Find the vector equation of the line 2 tor 3 and parallel to the vector 5

passing through the point P with position vec1 6 . 4

Ex: Find the vector equation of the line passing through the two points P, Q with position 1 4 vectors P = 2 and Q = 2 . 6 3

Ex: Find the vector equation of the line in 2-dimensions with cartesian equation y = 2x + 1.

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 1 3 2 2 4 Ex: Does the point lie on the line x = + 1 ? 3 11 4

Congurations: In R3 two lines can meet at a point be parallel neither meet nor be be parallel. Line Segments: The set

1 2 S = x R3 : x = 2 + 3 , 1 3 3 1 3 5 represents that line segment from 1 to 11 . 4 0

Cartesian Equations of the Line: Given the vector form of a line in 3-dimensions, we can write down the Cartesian (note the equations plural) as follows. For example, suppose the 1 3 vector equation is x = 2 + 2 . Recall that x is simply an abbreviation for 3 1 x1 x2 . Hence, equating co-ordinates, we can write x1 = 1 + 3, x2 = 2 2, x3 = 3 + . x3 19

Eliminating from these equations we have x2 2 x3 3 x1 + 1 = = . 3 2 1

These are called the cartesian equations of the line. Clearly this can be done for any such line and so the general form is x1 a x2 b x3 c = = , where (a, b, c) is a point on the line and (, , ) is a direction vector of the line, provided that none of the numbers , , is zero. a b Hence in vector form this would be x = + . c

The following example tells us what to do when one of the components of the direction vector is zero. 2 2 Ex: Convert x = 1 + 0 into cartesian form. 5 1

Observe that two lines will be parallel if their direction vectors are parallel. Two direction vectors are parallel if and only if one is a nonzero multiple of the other. For example the lines 1 3 2 6 x = 5 + 2 and x = 4 + 4 are parallel since their direction vec6 1 7 2 20

 3 6 tors are 2 and 4 respectively and the second vector is simply a multiple of the 1 2 1 3 1 6 rst. Observe also that the equations x = 5 + 2 and x = 5 + 4 6 1 6 2 represent the same lines, since they are parallel and pass through the same point. 1 Ex: Find the equation of the line passing through 2 and parallel to 5 x+1 y1 z+6 = = . 3 2 4

1 1 Ex: Find the intersection (if possible) of the lines x = 0 + 2 and 3 1 3 2 x = 5 + 1 . 2 3

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Equations of Planes: In 3-dimensions and higher, we can construct planes. Suppose we seek the vector equation of the plane passing through the origin parallel to two given non-parallel vectors a and b.

Q b b x

a 0 a P To reach any point X with position vector x on the plane we need to stretch the vector a

to P and stretch the vector b to Q in such a way that OX =OP + OQ. Thus, x = a + b. Conversely, if we take the vector which results from adding a multiple of a and a multiple of b then this will be the position vector of a point on the plane. Ex: equation of the plane passing through the origin parallel to the vectors Find the vector 1 2 5 and 4 . 3 7

The plane generated is called the span two vectors. So of the by two such vectors for example, 1 2 1 2 the span of 5 and 4 is simply the set 5 + 4 : , R . 3 7 3 7 22

This set is also referred to as the set of all linear combinations of the two vectors. Thus, given any two vectors a, b, span{a, b} = {a + b : , R} and we say that x is a linear combination of a and b if x = a + b for some particular and . 1 2 1 1 2 , 3 2 , 4 . Ex: Describe the span of . Repeat for span 3 5 3 6

As with the equation of a line, to get the vector equation of a plane not through the origin, we simply shift the plane by adding any position vector of a point which lies on the plane. Thus to obtain the vector equation of a plane we need: 1. The position vector of a point on the plane. 2. Two non-parallel vectors which are parallel to (or lie on) the plane. Ex: passing through the point P with position vector Find the vector equation of the plane 2 1 2 3 and parallel to the vectors 6 and 5 . 5 4 1

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Ex: Find the vector equation plane passing through the three points P, Q, R with of the 1 4 1 7 2 2 position vectors P = 6 , Q = 3 and R = 2 . 5 1 2

Congurations: In R3 , two (distinct) planes can be parallel meet in a line In R3 , three (distinct) planes can be arranged so that the three planes are parallel two planes are parallel and the third plane is parallel to neither the rst two. they meet at a single point they meet in a line none are parallel, but no point lies on all three planes. In the next chapter we will learn how to analyse these scenarios algebraically.

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Cartesian Equation of a Plane: As with lines, we can nd the cartesian equation of a plane by eliminating the two parameters and . This is generally quite ddly to do algebraically. Later in this course, you will see a much better method, but for the moment, we will do it by algebra. 1 2 1 Ex: Find the cartesian equation of the plane x = 2 + 4 + 0 . 3 0 3

The procedure can be reversed to nd the vector equation of a plane from the cartesian equation.

Ex: Find the vector equation of the plane 3x 6y + 2z = 12.

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Further Examples: Ex: Find the intersection of the planes 2x + y z = 10 and 3x + 4y + 2z = 29.

11 Ex: Show that the line x = 5 is parallel to the plane 3 2 4 1 x = 5 + 2 + 3 . 6 6 5

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 1 1 Ex: Find the intersection of x = 2 + 4 and 2x + 3y z = 29. 3 2

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