TSUNAMIS A tsunami is a very long ocean wave generated by sudden displacement of the sea floor or of the oceanic mass

oceanic mass o The displacement of an equivalent volume of water generates the tsunami A tsunami is harmless until it approaches the coastline The most prone areas are those associated with earthquakes and volcanoes (mainly subduction zones) Compared to normal ocean waves which may be about 100m, the wavelengths of large tsunami waves can exceed 200km Tsunamis travel very quickly relative to normal ocean waves o Particularly the case in open water where velocities increase with water depth Distant: As a wave propagates across the ocean, there is time to warn people Local: But in a subduction zone where the tsunami is generated, there is very little warning time (15-30 minutes) In shallow water, the tsunami waves pile up as a result velocities and wavelengths decrease, but at the same time, amplitudes can increase enormously Due to its long wavelength, it may take a long time for a tsunami wave to crest Wave runup depends on several factors water depth, sea floor profile, shape of the coastline o Leads to wave heights which are highly variable (hard thing to predict) To reduce tsunami impacts, planting of trees can be very useful Causes of tsunamis ALL involve displacement of water o Earthquakes Mainly vertical crustal movements In general, the larger the quake, the larger the tsunamibut NOT a perfect correlation Another contributing factor to large tsunamis may be submarine landslides generated by the shaking associated with the earthquake causes additional displacement of water, thus a larger and more complicated tsunami event o Volcanic Activity Displacement of rock Submarine caldera collapse large displacement of sea floor, so theres displacement of water so a tsunami is generated Entrance of pyroclastic flows into water Subaerial lateral collapse, generating debris avalanches which enter water o Landslides Often are generated by quakes or volcanoes o Meteorite Impacts 4 Case Histories o Alaska 1964 (earthquake-generated) M9.2 Tsunamis generated by 2 mechanisms: Large vertical movements of the sea floor along faults (local and distant tsunamis) Slumping of material, both underwater and from land to water, by ground shaking o Krakatau 1883 (caldera-generated) Displacement of material during collapse generated a series of devastating tsunamis o Unzen 1792 (landslide-generated) A debris avalanche occurred from Mt. Mayuyama the avalanche was triggered by 2 quakes The debris avalanche entered the Ariake Sea, generating a tsunami o Grand Banks 1929 (submarine landslide - generated) This tsunami was caused by a M7.2 quake The quake triggered a submarine landslide which resulted in the tsunami Tsunami hazards extensive flooding, action of a wave on coastal structures, incredible force of the wave can remobilize huge objects, event may create drawdown o Effects of tsunami drawdown release of dissolved gases previously contained in shallow sediments, potential ignition of gases by their rapid expulsion * We cant always rely on quake magnitude to determine the magnitude of the tsunami Response to tsunami requires good emergency planning and preparation, an educated and trained public which has access to information, dissemination of this info needs to be efficient and reliable

TORNADOES Tornadoes account for a higher number of fatalities on average than hurricanes o Short warning time (10-15 minutes) o Catastrophic nature of damage o Even the weakest tornadoes have wind speeds of hurricane force A tornado is a violently rotating column of air extending between, and in contact with, a cloud and the surface of the earth The most common way to identify the strength of a tornado is through an examination of the damage caused While weak tornadoes are almost exclusively small, some extremely powerful tornadoes can also be relatively small Long lived tornadoes can generally be of any EF-rating other than EF-0 How do we know how strong the wind speeds in a tornado are? Using a mobile Doppler radar o Can measure the speed of wind because the beam that is received by the radar will have a different frequency depending on the motion of the water drops

Over 85% of world-wide tornado reports occur in North America o Warm-moist air source o Cold air source o All significant mountain ranges are oriented north-south States with the largest number of tornadoes are located in tornado alley o Tornado alley corresponds to a northeast-southwest orientation of strong fronts travelling across the central United States in the spring and early summer, and to the orientation of the upper-level jet stream Tornadoes are most frequent in the spring and summer (most common in the evenings because its near the time of day where temperatures are the warmest at the surface + time thunderstorms had the chance to form and mature) All tornadoes form within thunderstorms o These thunderstorms can be found in: landfalling hurricanes, within supercell thunderstorms, in squall lines (often located ahead of cold fronts) How do thunderstorms form? Requires 3 elements o 1. A source of moisture o 2. A conditionally unstable atmosphere o 3. A mechanism to trigger a thunderstorm updraft, either through forced lifting or heating In order to get a thunderstorm, you have to go out on a LIM (Lift, Instability, Moisture) The combination of warm, moist air at the surface and cool dry air aloft leads to instability As a parcel of air rises, it moves into regions of lower pressure. So the air in the parcel expands and the volume becomes larger. This means the air in the parcel must perform more work to inhabit the increased volume which will result in a lower kinetic energy and the temperature must fall, However, if a lifting mechanism can cause air to rise to a level where condensation is reached, the air becomes saturated and latent heat is released (which slows the rate of cooling) and causes the instability to form a thunderstorm. The Moist Adiabatic Rate is variable, but always less negative than the dry adiabatic Airmass thunderstorms occur in 3 stages o 1. Cumulus (warm, buoyant plume with updrafts) o 2. Mature (combination of both updrafts and downdrafts) o 3. Dissipating (falling precipitation shuts off the updrafts all downdrafts and system self destructs) Airmass thunderstorms dont typically produce tornadoes because: o Updrafts are suppressed by the weight of the water o There is no inherent rotation to work with Both liabilities can be overcome by shear Wind shear is responsible for producing rotation The updraft is tilted by the shear, removing the updraft from the precipitation area. At this point, the thunderstorm is called a supercell Eventually, this rotating updraft produces a small scale low pressure system called a mesocyclone About 10% of the time, this rotation becomes stretched by the rear flank downdraft and concentrated into a tornado Tornado Warning: Means that a tornado is believed to be present in the warning area Tornado Watch: States that conditions are favorable for tornadoes to form (may be given as much as 12 hours in advance of an anticipated event) Tornado safety measures move to a designated shelter such as a basement if at home, if there is no basement, move to an interior room and avoid windows and if outside, move to a low elevation away from any possible airborne objects

AVALANCHES Avalanches are flows which move under the influence of gravity Direct effects impact, burial Indirect effects tsunamis generated if an avalanche enters a lake Avalanche Zones o Starting zone: where an avalanche is initiated Fs = shear strength/shear stress (if <1, then the slope is unstable and prone to failure) As the slope angle increases, shear strength decreases while shear stress increases At a certain point, shear stress exceeds the shear strength, and failure of the mass occurs o Avalanche track: where it goes 2 types of snow avalanches: flow avalanches (from slabs) and airborne powder snow avalanches (from loose snow on surface) Head, body, and the tail of the flow Vertical and lateral gradients in solids concentration and in density: A lower dense portion which is highly hazardous and destructive An overlying more dilute portion which can also be hazardous and destructive since it is turbulent Flow Avalanches Granular flows Unexpanded There is a high-density core near the base of the flow o In this zone, particles collide, resulting in friction and producing heat o When the avalanche flow stops, freezing can occur, making the deposit very hard Airborne Powder Snow Avalanches

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Move faster than flow avalanches Highly dilute Expanded Turbulent flows Runout area: where it dissipates Powder snow avalanches flow around obstacles, while flow avalanches do not When powder snow avalanches hit a barrier, the lower dense portion of the flow is stopped while the more dilute cloud behaves like a fluid which can flow around or over the obstacle Avalanche causes: Involves people backcountry skiing, snowmobilers Mostly dry slabs that are prone to failure and lee slopes are most hazardous Engineering works reforestation to stabilize slopes and snow, highways are located to avoid avalanche tracks or the use of defense structures Deflectors (must be gradual, otherwise the avalanche will overflow the deflector), Arresters (used to slow or stop avalanches), Splitters (they redirect and divert avalanche flow around the structure), Mounds (used to retard the flowing snow at the end of the runout zone), Snow Sheds (allow the avalanche to pass over the structure)

ICE STORMS Caused by an accumulation of freezing rain Among the most devastating winter weather events Can halt air and ground transportation Can weigh down and snap power lines and trees Freezing rain tend to occur in very narrow bands For water to freeze, ice nuclei must be present When the temperature falls below 0C, the droplets supercool o Freezing rainstorms occur when supercooled drizzle or rain fall onto objects and freeze Synoptic Conditions for an Ice Storm o Occurs to the north of a warm front and to the west of a surface cyclone o North of a cold front in a cold-air dome associated with a high pressure system Cyclone Development o Initially, there is a boundary, or front, separating warm air to the south from cold air to the north. The front is often stationary o A wave on the front will form as an upper level disturbance embedded in the jet stream moves over the front. The front develops a kink where the wave is developing o As the wave intensifies, both cold and warm fronts become better organized Normally, the temperature decreases with increasing elevation. HOWEVER, during freezing rain events, the temperature INCREASES with height near the surface, and then, farther above, the temperature decreases with height o The layer in which the temperature increases with height is called an inversion An inversion is formed when warm, moist air from the south flows above the dome of cold air What makes an ice storm so severe? o Persistence o Intensity o Phase (supercooled water) o Location The Ice Storm of 1998 o Nearly 5 days o A nearly stationary frontal system existed to the south of the Saint Lawrence River Valley for 5 days o Warm, moist air flowed over a cold air dome in the Saint Lawrence River Valley o Cold Air Damming Cold dense air can get trapped along the eastern slopes of the Appalachians and Rocky Mountains o Montreal has a particular vulnerability to ice storms because of its location in the Saint Lawrence Valley The Saint Lawrence Valley has a strong preference for west-southwesterly and northeasterly flows Most higher wind speeds are associated with westerly flow o Safety measures close off unneeded rooms, stuff towels in cracks under doors, cover windows at night, eat to maintain energy for heat, wear layers of loose-fitting, lightweight, warm clothing