Psycho-neurologically Approaching a Field Theory Understanding of Schizophrenia via Research of a Non-normative, Non-pathological Syndrome Synesthesia, and the need

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Psycho-neurologically Approaching a Field Theory Understanding of Schizophrenia via Research of a Non-normative, Non-pathological Syndrome Synesthesia, and the need for more information A1stract 4n past years the study, control, and understanding of schizophrenia has 1een greatly hampered 1y lac% of information, inappropriate tools 7li%e no computers of sufficient comple6ity for handling of compilation and dissemination of data8, o1viously a lac% of appropriate soft.are for such research and perhaps most simply, the incorrect approach3 Since .e must al.ays reconsider, re-evaluate and redirect our attempts at helping the schizophrenic individual, this paper is directed to.ard this effort at seeing the schizophrenic person through the 9filter9 of a 9normal9 condition such as, synesthesia3 :erein various mental and neural mechanisms are pointed to, similar 1oth to schizophrenia and to synesthesia3 This paper .as .ritten to.ard the continuation of research in consideration 1oth a 9normal9 and an ;a1normal9 condition .ith the further comment that this research is complimentary in many .ays3 <hile it is ac%no.ledged that there are many other .ays that do not match up 7surely, or else the t.o conditions .ould 1e the same8 .hat is presented here is the attempt to thin% ;outside the 1o6= and offer an alternative .ay of considering the topic3 Through this type of study, it is con2ectured, the human e6perience could 1e greatly enriched3 This paper .as originally .ritten in '()*3 4 am updating it no. in ,-', ever so slightly .hile attempting not to not ma%e a ma2or overhaul as 4 .anted to %eep the original intent and orientation3 Since this paper .as .ritten there has 1een much more research into it3 4 delivered this paper to my Senior level A1normal Psychology Seminar at <estern <ashington University and .as received .ith a good deal of surprise and interest3 >ne might say they .ere stunned 1ecause .hen 4 finished presenting the paper, there .as silence for a couple of minutes3 As it turned out, 4 hadn5t delivered a 1ad paper, rather the Professor .as surprised that he had not heard of this su12ect and said that perhaps, 4 may have stum1led upon some fundamental research that 4 could pursue? possi1ly for the rest of my life3 :e further said that researchers can search their entire lives for a topic such as this and 4 had possi1ly found it in my Senior year3 Needless to say, 4 .as @uite happy to hear that and received a good deal of respect from the Professor and my fello. undergrads in the seminar3 The !ody 4t .ould seem that there has 1een very little research on the synesthetic personality 7synesthete83 4 have found none at this time3 There is some research on synesthesia itself, 1ut mostly 1et.een the '))-As and the '(,-As3 Although its study .as conducted 1y such prestigious investigators as Price 7'(B(8 there are other references C Pythagoras 9$usic of the Spheres9 7Dth cent3 !3&38

Aristotle 9:armony of colors li%e :armony of Sounds9 7*th &ent3 !3&38

C 0oc%e 7'D(-8, and 0ei1niz 7'B-*8 ;!lind $an Apprehends Scarlet 1y Sound of a Trumpet C C C C C C Ne.ton 7'B-*8 =Parallel !et.een &olors of Spectrum and Notes of $usical Scale= /3 Ear.in 7'B(-8 ;Parallel !et.een &olors and $usical Notes= Fautier 7')*G, ')*D8 ;Eescription of &olored :earing 4nduced 1y :ashish= <undt 7')B*8 9/@uivalence of Pitch and !rightness is 1y Analogy= Fechner 7')BD8 ;Report of colored vo.els= Falton 7'))G8 ;Report of colored vo.els Synesthesia Fre@uent in &hildren=

C !inet 7')(,8 ;Report of &olored Ho.els=, and, 7')(G8 9&olored :earing has Associative !asis C C Flournoy 7')(G8 Revie. of &olored :earing and Ho.els 0a. of !rightness= Scria1ins 7'(''8 APrometheus &omposition for Sound and 0ight

There are as .ell some lesser %no.n 1ut 2ust as fascinating reports on, or sho. cases of, synesthesia3 To start at the 1eginning, the focus of this paper is on synesthesia defined as the cross-modal translation of sensory data? 1e it cognitive, neurological, or .hat-have-you3 This .ill then 1e tied into the condition %no.n as schizophrenia and presented as not necessarily a su1condition or causative factor, 1ut as a .ay to 1etter and more completely study schizophrenia3 There .ill also 1e a discussion of synesthesia as life enhancer and not a detriment to our o1servation of reality or 2ustify the complete elimination of it as a useful element of the :uman condition3 Traditionally, schizophrenia has 1een a la1el for humans acting outside of the realm of continuous, normal social 1ehavior3 The present studies of schizophrenia have 1een .ide and varied? only, in a rather limited sort of .ay3 The conditions of schizophrenia, .hen considered 1y .ay of its symptomology, 1ecome some.hat vague in relation to its causality3 This paper ta%es the stand that schizophrenia is 1oth environmental+1iological, as .ell as genetic3 Also, the .ay to understand the causal relationships for schizophrenia is to turn our attention to the 1rain itself, 9Iin the 1elief that much more fundamental information is needed on the normal .or%ings of the 1rain 1efore .e can hope to understand a1normalities9 7$cFeer, '(B'83 4t is hoped that through the comparative, psycho-physiological processes .e can 1etter achieve a more complete 9picture9 of ho. the 1rain does, and can .or%3 $cFeer 7'(B'8 plainly supports this goal .hen he said 9333as the marvels of 1rain organization are

unraveled through pain sta%ing research, it is 1ecoming evident that mind and 1ehavior can 1e profoundly influenced 1y @uite understanda1le physical and chemical processes39 This paper .ill also support the supposition that, as &arlson 7'()'8 states 9&hronic schizophrenia is herita1le, acute schizophrenia is environmental3 So, one is contingent upon genetic and 1iological and environmental circumstances, acute schizophrenia is contingent upon 1iological and environmental, ho.ever, environment 7and psychological reactions to it8 may lead to 1iological9 7page DDB83 Stating thus that 1y adapting to an environment 7.hich is itself, perhaps s%e.ed8 one is li%ely to do permanent alterations to the minute structures of the organism3 This is an age old @uestion3 4t is also a partial e6planation for some of the so called ;normal= 1ehaviors .e are currently seeing in society considering some of the a1normal 1ehaviors that are o1serva1le in politics, religion and society in general 1oth on the streets, and in the media3 Not to 1e une6pected, some agree .ith supporting evidence, .hile others oppose, .ith dissenting evidence3 This paper .ill ta%e the pro side of the argument3 That is that humans are dynamic creatures .ith the a1ility to alter their epistemology consciously and as .ell, unconsciously3 The only 9grey9 areas to this stand are the processes at .hich the changed organism transmits the change, and the processes of changing genetically via psycho1iological means3 The psycho1iological processes are not in @uestion 7as .ill 1e e6plained later83 :o.ever, it is 1elieved that near-future research .ill support the vie. this paper upholds3 As .as previously stated, the .ay to study the schizophrenic condition is through its o.n research, and concurrently, the research of normal processes? to 1e eventually, comparatively, utilized3 4t is .ithin the scope of this paper therefore, to propose that the study of the mechanisms of the condition %no.n as synesthesia, are 2ustified3 The usual approach in the literature has 1een to use this .ord as a generic term for, as $ar%s 7'(BJ, p3 G-G8 states 9The cross-modal translation of attri1utes of sensation from one sensory domain to another39 <hich is to say it represents, 9a condition in .hich stimulation from one sensory modality arouses imagery in a different modality9 7&haplin, '(D), p3*(G83 ;4magery= here is used to refer to the te6tual, general ;sense= of a conglomeration of data3 As data translated into shade, color and form results in a visual ;picture=, so data elements for the other senses also translate into an ;image= of .hat they represent3 4t has 1een generally accepted in past research that sensory systems are regarded as discrete and isolated units, each .ith its o.n function, receptors, neural path.ays and cortical areas 70eTourneau, '(B,83 :elmholtz suggested, perhaps at the conceptAs zenith, that there .as no interaction 1et.een the domains of the senses 7:artshorne, '(G*83 4t .as noted 1y Price 7'(B(8, that recent advances in neurophysiology have led to serious considerations regarding intersensory communication3 :e noted that 9physical evidence supporting the potential for communication 1et.een the auditory and visual sensory systems .ithin the central nervous system 7&3N3S38 has 1een supplied 1y a num1er of investigators 7:arris, '(J-? Ades, '(J(? Koung, '(D-? "ung, '(D'? :ernandez-Peon, '(D'? $urata, &ramer and !ach-y-rita, '(B,83 Price indicates that these

investigations have 1een suggested to account for the rene.ed interest in physiological and psychophysical research directed at the determination of .hether cross-modal translations of sensory e6perience do indeed e6ist 1et.een vision and audition3 This type of transfer, often referred to as 9psychochromesthetic synesthesia9, .ill serve as focus in the area of cross-modal translations3 The la1el for 9synesthesia9 has 1een difficult to settle upon, as Price discusses in his thesis3 Since as Price says, there have 1een many accounts of varying forms of synesthesia in the literature 7including that of ;colored-pain=, e3g3, <hipple, '(--? Eo.ney, '(''? Fregson, '(DB? or, familiar connections 1et.een color and thermal sensations giving a scheme of ;.arm= and ;cool= colors, e3g3, Sully, ')B(? <hipple, '(--83 This paper .ill use the more simple term of synesthesia to refer to the specific reference to psychochromesthesic chromesthesia .hich most individuals 7if any8 are familiar .ith, as .ell as the cross-modal translations of sensory data in general? since this is in part the purpose of this paper? to e6plore the normal+a1stract, contrastually of the predominantly 9normal9 individual? and the a1stract, or the 1izarre individual3 >ther forms and names of synesthesia noted 1y Price 7'(B(8 are listed in his thesis and cover most types of cross-modal conditions3 The usual study of synesthesia covers applications for artificial lim1s 7phantom pain, etc38, ;confused= senses, etc3 >rtman 7'(GG8 defined the ;compensation theory= of synesthesia as claiming a ;shift from a defective sense department into a 1etter developed one= 7p3 'D'83 This indicates a compensatory mechanism in sensory su1stitution and has 1een the focus of much sensory compensation research3 Studying these systems can enrich the understanding of the processes of the schizophrenic person more in @uality and in diversification of %no.ledge3 4n time, computers .ill further help us assimilate and apply all this data3 The literature has fe. reports in /nglish and they tend to 1e limited in value3 There have not 1een enough in-depth physiological investigations3 Price indicates most are from the Soviet Union? most are introspective, hearsay, anecdotal, and descriptive3

Theories of &ausation >ne of the ma2or theories of synesthesia is that of >rtmann 7'(GG, p3'DG8? that is, ;.aves of the solar spectrum are multiple fre@uencies of those in the tonal octave3= This is indicating the underlying initiator of all our senses 1eing vi1rational in nature, .hich is not farfetched and in fact, 4 .ould argue, accurate3 Another implication of this is that the cross-modal translations occur at the level of the sensory apparati themselves3 The pro1a1ility of this is @uite high and also, reasona1le 7if you .ill e6cuse me that su12ective overtone83 Fins1erg 7'(,G8, .hile ;physically run do.n and nervously unsta1le= claimed the development of chromesthetic e6periences 7Price, '(B(83 This suggested to him that synesthesia is in ;some form true of everyone=, ;and provided additional support for the

vi1rational theory of chromesthesia3= Si6 years hence, &ollins 7'(,(8 concluded that the associated colors of sound form as an ;essential part of the cognitive e@uipment of the individual=, and that, ;it does not play simply a secondary role in sensation= 7Price, '(B(83 Though synesthesia .as previously thought to 1e a1normal, most researchers eventually agreed that it is not a1normal 7e3g3, $udge, '(,-? Fins1erg, '(,G? Hernon, '(G-? >d1ert, Lar.os%i and Ac%erson, '(*,? Reichard, "a%o1son and <erth, '(*(? Reis, '(DG? 0ehman, '(B,? $ar%s, '(BJ8, this from Price 7'(B(83 Synesthesia .as no longer considered to 1e an indication of a deranged or a1normal mind3 Surely then, if it is not defective, it must 1e normal3 Lelly 7'(G*8, attempting to determine if synesthesia is learned, failed and concluded that it .as of a physiological origin it .as not until '(** .hen :o.ells succeeded in proving a learning theory 1ehind it3 Price noted another intriguing relationship pointed to 1y :arris 7'(J-8, dealing .ith a comparison of energy integration .ithin the eye and ear3 Price states C ;I a pure tone is %no.n to change pitch .hen its amplitude changes3 0i%e.ise, a change in hue is also %no.n to occur .ith variations in intensity 79The !ezold-!ruc%e effect983 Although the mechanisms 1et.een the t.o systems vary, one hydrodynamic and the other photochemical, :arris concluded that, ;333the fundamental .ays in .hich the t.o senses handle .avelength have a num1er of curious similarities= 7'(J-, p3,-83 4n ela1oration upon this, he presented physiologic evidence of a neurological 1asis for intersensory integration3 Eirect connections 1et.een the visual and auditory &NS path.ays, in the mid-1rain and motor nuclei of the 1rain stem, .ere cited as the locus of neural integration3 This implied that chromesthesia may 1e the result of natural 7neural8 anatomical connections 1et.een visual and auditory paths, supporting a physiological 7neural8 theory of colored hearing3 Fradually, .ith the advent of ne. strides in neurology, supporting evidence of this notion also increased 7cf3 Ades, '(J(? Koung, '(D-? "ung, '(D'? :ernandez-Peon, '(D'? $urata et al3, '(DJ? or !ach-y-rita, '(B,83 4n general, chromesthesia .as vie.ed as a normal phenomena of the human mind3 This conclusion, although 1ased on physiology rather than 1ehavioral o1servations, .as also reached 1y Reichard, "a%o1son and <erth 7'(*(8, in their e6amination of a su12ect .ith mar%ed chromesthesia3 0i%e :arris 7'(J-8, they maintained that chromesthetic synesthesia is the result of a physiological mechanism and that it is not so rare as once e6pected3= Perhaps the point here is that synesthesia is rooted in more than one level of actuation, or so it seems to me3 4t also seems that the fe. titles of articles on synesthesia 1egan to change a1out '(D- to those of C 9Narro.ing of the visual fields 1y noise9 7!en%o, '(D,,

C 9The contralateral relationships 1et.een the halves of the visual fields and the ears9 7Naruyama, '(D'8? and, C 9The elicitation of mediators and colors as a function of pure tone fre@uency9 7Reis, '(DG8? from Price 7'(B(83

4t seems that synesthesia had someho. gotten ahead of its zeitgeist and it no. 1ecame undue to study synesthesia outright and openly as 1efore3 Although the mention of synesthesia in these articles .as a1sent, they .ere still e6tensions of earlier research on it3 These studies 7$aruyama, '(D'? !en%o, '(D,8, Price 7'(B(8 noted C 9Igave distinction in that the physical changes in sensitivity noted .ere in the sensory domain to .hich stimulation from one modality had lateralized? as in contrast .here most conventional synesthetic investigations dealt e6clusively .ith conditions .herein stimulation in one modality only aroused imagery in another sensory system3= This .as meaningful since they demonstrated concrete e6amples of cross-modal e6change3 Reis 7'(DG8 in his Eoctoral dissertation found that mediators and colors .ere relia1ly associated to the relative fre@uencies of the stimuli, 1ut not to their a1solute fre@uencies3 :e also noted that synesthetic responses could 1e elicited 1y all his su12ects though only one had previously e6perienced it3 Eavies 7'(B* 4, '(B* 448 found evidence to support intersensory interaction3 !y conditioning su12ects G-- times .ith visual and auditory stimuli, as anticipated, the auditory stimulus .as then enough to elicit the associated visual image 7.ith no retinal stimulation8 .hich .as said to clearly produce distinguisha1le activity .ithin the visual corte6 of the 1rain, supporting a cortical 1asis for communication 1et.een sensory dimensions3 &onsidering that this meant that the visual after-images .ere not retinal 7sensations8, 1ut rather cortical 7perceptual8 phenomena, it seems that chromesthetic response dealt more .ith imagery than physical thresholds3 Thus the vie. of the sensory apparatus theory of synesthesia dims, leaving that of the cortical and neuronal phenomenon theories3 This may indicate a su12ective difference 7or factor8 in the 9o12ective9 study of synesthesia, .hereas the distinction 1et.een imagery and sensation 1ecomes muddled3 4f ho.ever as $ar%s 7'(BJ, p3G'D8 outlines, the t.o are on a continuum, that is, if they have common sensory elements, as is suggested 1y Segal and Fusela 7'(B-8, then 9it might 1e convenient to thin% of the con2unction of imagery and sensation in terms of some common portion of the neural system that 1oth actuate93 $ar%s continued to say that 9the underlying mechanism responsi1le ;for colored-hearing must have finely tuned discriminative a1ility93 Price 7'(B(8 says of $ar%sA study and others C 9The information supplied 1y $ar%s on the various aspects of psychochromosthetic synesthesia 7colored-hearing8 .as impressive and thorough3 Unfortunately, the articles pu1lished 1y him mar%ed the last ma2or contri1utions to the literature on the topic3 /mpirical papers on the su12ect have gro.n scarce the past years39 The lac% of research in synesthesia is nearly vacuous? perhaps for .ant of scope or direction3 There are plenty of researchers claiming need for synesthetic research 7refer to Price 7'(B(8, for a complete list83 The practical applications of synesthesia are all physically oriented in nature? in other .ords, there is nothing in psychology 7pathology, mental health8 areas on it,

to date3 There is a strong indication that this .ill at very least, help complimentary research .ithin the holistic investigation of schizophrenic persons3 The neural level might 1e a good place to e6emplify this, as synesthesia and schizophrenia .or% through similar levels of the neural system, and in similar mechanisms of cross-modal type 1ehavior and perception 7that of confusion, in itself, is a perfect e6ample of .hat multi-modal lin%ages could initiate, .ere they to occur too rapidly, etc383 Synesthesia research is considered to 1e cognitive 1y many, 1ut there is also evidence to indicate that a neural 1asis is also possi1le3 The study of synesthesia 1ranches out t.o separate directions and into many dimensions3 First, there is the perceptual research, of .hich this paper is reticent to delve into 7and thus mostly disregarding my 1ac%ground in Phenomenology8, in an attempt to remain as 9concrete9 as possi1le3 Secondly, the possi1ility of multi-sensory ac@uisition of data cannot 1e ignored any more than the perceptual aspects of synesthesia research can, 1ut this .ill 1e the focus3 $ost discussion of synesthesia is in dualistic translations 1ut anything up to se6tuple 7there 1eing si6 senses8 translations are possi1le, and at that level of modality crossing, it may 1e found that there is a some.hat e6ponential affect3 Allo. me to e6trapolate3 >rtmannAs 7'(GG8 Mpreviously statedN vi1ration theory sho.s that the nature of human organic sensory reception is vi1ratory and as such vi1rations activate more than one sensory mode, and as it has 1een sho.n in past research, this affects not only the primary sensory mode 1eing e6cited or stimulated, 1ut also the other modes of sensory reception? as .as previously, not thought to 1e3 !ornstein 7'(GJ8 stated C The follo.ing has ho.ever 1een clearly ascertained3 !rightness-e6citing stimuli have an effect not only from the muscles upon the eye, 1ut there is induced 1y such stimuli a modification of the .hole organism, .hich can 1e e6perimentally demonstrated on 1oth human 1eings and animals 1y the most varied methods333in addition to333Mthe e6istence of 9inter-modal9 relations of sensesN333.e have found that the capacity for reaction to 1rightness-stimuli is not only an essential characteristic of the sense-organs, as a premodal function, i3e3, antecedent to all other sensory functions? 1ut that 1rightness e6citation encompasses the .hole organism in all its parts, as a fundamental 1iological process 7p3',('G-83 First, it appears that there is a general stimulation of all senses, 1ut .ith one in dominance .hen stimulation occurs, there is a perceptual phenomenon in .hich the sensory data is rearranged into other than .hat input .as availa1le 1y sensory apparatus3 Third, there may 1e another the main path.ay 1et.een the first t.o, that of the neural path.ay connecting the 1rain to the sense-organs and therefore to the environment3 This is the area of sensory plasticity, .hich is the a1ility of one sensory system 7receptors, afferent path.ays, and &NS representation8 to assume the functions of another system 7!achy-rita, '(B,83 This research is generally concerned .ith the use of para-sensory devices to aid in increasing function-a1ility of a normal sense, over that of a degenerative, or non-functional sense-organ? or replacing .hat is not there any longer 7lim1s, eyes, etc383

Lno.ledge of the mechanisms of sensory analysis is of fundamental importance to the study of synesthesia, schizophrenia and the development of practical sensory su1stitution systems3 These artificial systems can also 1e used for studying perceptual mechanisms 7an a1stract from their physicality8? since all input, display, as .ell as the learning process, can 1e controlled 1y the investigator 7!ach-y-rita,'(B,83 As .ill 1e seen, the learning process is closely tied to functional as .ell as, dysfunctional neural paths, sensations, and perceptions3 A very 1asic aspect of learning in psycho1iology is that of the affect of thought to alter the physical structure of the 1rain 7its neural path.ays, chemical concentrations, num1er of neural %no1s, synapses, etc383 4ndeed, this has 1een sho.n in many cases3 !ennett, Eiamond, Lrech, and Rosen.eig 7'(D*8, reported that C ;333the .eight of the corte6, its thic%ness, and the acetylcholine activity are all influenced 1y function3= !ach-y-rita 7'(B,8, found that C ;333e6perience in one sensory modality can affect rather specifically the 1rain regions su1serving that modality3= !ennett, et3 al3 7'(D*8, also stated that C ;333the num1er of synapses may increase .ith sensory enrichment, and that a JO increase in acetylcholine activity may reflect a ,-O increase in the num1er of synapses3= MNote nearly, e6ponentialN The more synapses the more sophisticated the modality? the larger they are, the more information they can convey3 There is great fle6i1ility and adapta1ility .ithin the 1rain3 4n a very controlled study 1y Ro1ertson 7'(DJ8, using the visual corte6 of cats and administering certain drugs discovered that ;the drugs are uncovering synapses and path.ays that already e6ist, 1ut are not utilized under normal circumstances3= This could account for some aspects of synesthesia as .ell as some of schizophrenic onset3 !ach-y-rita 7'(B,8 mentioned that ;central structures and path.ays su1serving any function are potentially larger in num1er than in 1ase-line conditions= and also, the Psu1liminal fringeA of structures and path.ays is considera1le, and under the appropriate conditions these can 1e mo1ilized 1y the central nervous system93 As .ell as this !ach-y-rita suggests that, 9an increase in regional 1lood flo. plays a role in the acceleration of maturation of synaptic loci93 Ferard 7'(D'8 in is rat-light e6periments sho.ed there is 9an increase in the num1er of 1ranches and size and num1er of their terminal %no1s .ith use3= This is relating to the fle6i1ility and involvement of the individual neurons3 These e6periments demonstrated that lateral geniculate structural changes are reversi1le3 That is important and should 1e ruminated on3 4n addition to these alterations in central neurons, mar%ed structural changes .ere also demonstra1le in the outer ple6iform layer of the retina in dar%-reared rats 7&ragg, '(D)83 This indicates some.hat the concept of reciprocity 1et.een environment and the organism3

Fessard 7'(D'8 found that C 9333a cortical neuron has a large num1er of connections to each of many other neurons, and this great interneuronal interconnectivity may .ell 1e one 1asis of 1rain plasticity3 The recent studies 1y Shlaer 7'(B'8 have provided strong support for the modifia1ility of cortical connections 1y means of perceptual learning manipulation 7!ach-y-rita, '(B,83 !ach-y-rita also noted that even cells in primary sensory cortical areas e6hi1it polymodal convergenceI39 AndI3 C 9Ithe .ide-spread polysensory convergence in the &NS presents a su1strate for plastic changes39 Part of the reason for this may 1e the regenerative po.ers of the 1rain3 <hen one area is damaged C 9333other 1rain areas are availa1le to assume functions of lost neural tissue333the &NS is also capa1le of adapting to ne. classes of functions on a given sensory system= 7!ach-y-rita, '(B,83 !ut this is ta%en care of since ;333impairment of one sensory channel leads to greater use of other modalities and to greater cere1ral development 7;compensation=8=? and, ;the transducer functions can, ho.ever, 1e mediated 1y artificial receptors 7i1id383 !ach-y-rita 7'(B,8 also mentions redundancy, .ell %no.n in sensory research3 :e says of it that C The 1rain nearly al.ays receives varied information a1out the same thing from a large num1er of receptors and from different sense organs 7"ung, '(D'83 <e are sometimes una.are .hich of the sensory inputs 7e3g3, touch, sight, smell, or sound8, availa1le singly or in com1inations, .ere used to identify an o12ect3 4ndeed, modality identification is often lost in the higher integrating levels3 The sensory information is, nevertheless, ade@uately used for the perceptual and 1ehavioral responses necessary, and this is accomplished 1y integrating mechanisms3 C 0ashley 7'(J)8 assumed that the 1illions of neurons in the cere1ral net.or% are organized into a num1er of systems, 1ut that the systems are not anatomically separate, so that the same neurons in different permutations may participate in many systems3 :e considered that the corte6 must 1e regarded as a great net.or% of constantly active rever1eratory circuits 70ashley,'(J'8, and that differential responses depend on the pattern of cells .hich are e6cited in com1ination3 4n a discussion of the visual corte6, 0ashley 7'(J'8 pointed out that this area is a net.or% of cells of short action and that its integrative functions are an e6pression of the properties of such a net.or%3 :e considered the nerve net active in rhythmic and spatial organization to 1e 9 333 almost coe6tensive .ith the nervous system9, and, he stated, 94 strongly suspect that many phenomena of generalization, 1oth sensory and conceptual, are products, not of simple s.itching, 1ut of interaction of comple6 patterns of organization .ithin such systems 7of nets83

C Foldstein 7'(G'8 concluded from his studies on 1rain-in2ured patients that so long as a given system can function, even at lo. efficiency, the organism .ill not shift to the use of another mechanism and thus, compensatory mechanisms do not develop3 4n this connection, &holden 7'(J*8 .as led to conclude that it .as first necessary to die as a sighted person 1efore 1eing re1orn as a 1lind person3 There is no reason .hy these 9e6tra9 neural cells and path.ays cannot 1e utilized to either result in schizophrenic 1ehavior, or that of a condition li%e synesthesia? as the ;patient=, ;directs= and ;orchestrates= his 1rain, perhaps un.ittingly, to avoid ;normal= channels of operation3 This may sho. no pathology as the 1rain .ould naturally develop in this .ay3 Also, this may 1e a ;conscious= and purposeful function of evolution in the su12ect species or an entirely inadvertent one3

Eiscussion So it does appear that senses, synesthesia and also perhaps, schizophrenia, are at least some.hat cognitive in nature3 :o.ever, there may still 1e physiologically related causative factors involved3 As !ornstein 7'(GD8 indicated in his paperAs title, it is 9the functional relations of the sense organs to one another and to the organism as a .hole9, that matters3 Nevertheless, 4 1elieve synesthesia is related to cognitive factors, although, the initiators may .ell have 1een physiological3 4n an e6periment in .hich the muscles of the eyes .ere paralyzed 7:ammond, $erton, and Sutton, '(JD8, the su12ect, $erton, .as given curare .hich 1loc%s nicotinic cholinergic synapses 7&arlson, p3')B, '()'83 $erton 9.illed9 an up.ard movement .ith his eyes3 /verything .as a1le to function perfectly e6cept that the eyes did not move3 Nevertheless, every time $erton 9.illed9 a movement of his eyes, he felt as if the .hole .orld .as moving, precisely follo.ing his gaze3 Since such a perceptual change can 1e noted 1y 9.ill po.er9 as .ell as 7or perhaps instead of8 %inetic 7muscle movement8, from this it is a small step to a distortion of cognitive functions resulting in synesthesia? or perhaps, schizophrenia3 A study 1y >.en, and Riley 7'(B)8, found that more than the normal amount of dopamine receptors have 1een found in the 1rain of schizophrenics3 4t has 1een suggested that schizophrenia occurs as a result of increased postsynaptic effects of dopamine, although this may 1e a secondary effect 7&arlson, '()'83 Since 1oth acetylcholine and dopamine are neurotransmitters, there may 1e an effect .e are as yet una.are of3 As acetylcholine level is related to increases in the num1er of synapses, there may 1e a definite tie 1et.een the t.o .hich may come to light after more investigation3 So, the t.o conditions of synesthesia and schizophrenia may have some cognitive and 1iochemical connections? .hich supports the study of one, to further %no.ledge of the other3

To approach this another .ay, letAs consider the Eiagnostic and Statistical $anual of $ental Eisorders, Grd ed3, 7ES$ 4448, stated symptomology of schizophrenia3 To save space 4 .ill only generally cover this3 A synesthete feels in control, a schizophrenic does not3 A schizophrenic has hallucinations and+or delusions? synesthetics could 1e similar to hallucinations, 1ut only to delusions if it 7the condition8 got out of control, leaving the person su12ect to un.anted stimuli at a random interval? .hich as it is .ell %no.n, causes a variety of pro1lems? psychologically as .ell as, physiologically3 4n .hich case a synesthete under the right conditions may reasona1ly 1ecome a schizophrenic 7this is reasona1le since schizophrenia is considered a1normal, and synesthesia is not83 Though 4Ave come across no such case, a thorough search of the schizophrenic case studies and literature, may very .ell turn up an e6ample or t.o3 :o.ever on the o1verse side, 4 donAt 1elieve it .ould 1e due to the many conditions, states, and processes outlined here in this paper? .hich has 1een a vehicle to indicate a novel 7and perhaps, very helpful8 means of learning more a1out schizophrenia? not to mention, synesthesia, .hich also can 1e a great deal of help for its o.n sa%e3 Again, 4 .ould li%e to emphasize that a restructuring is necessary of the .ays in .hich .e go a1out ;correcting= .hat is ;.rong= in our 1eing and our universe 7along .ith those inherent pro1lems83 >ur present theories and practices have not solved the pro1lem and in some cases, have e6aggerated, or irritated them3 4 .ould li%e to mention here, Szaz and his thoughts on the myth of ;mental illness=, as there is such to consider here3 Though no room e6ists for it, still, it is there3 Szaz C ;The norm from .hich deviation is measured, .hen one spea%s of a mental illness, is a 9psychosocial and ethical9 one3 Ket, the remedy is sought in terms of 9medical9 measures .hich -- it is hoped and assumed -- are free from .ide differences of ethical value3 C ;4 do not here propose to offer a ne. conception of 9psychiatric illness9 or a ne. form of 9therapy93 $y aim is more modest and yet also more am1itious3 4t is to suggest that the phenomenon no. called mental illness 1e loo%ed at afresh and more simply, that at least some of them 1e removed from the category of illnesses, and that they 1e regarded as the e6pressions of manAs struggle .ith the pro1lem of ho. he should live3 $any of the AE:E la1eled children are a prime e6ample, .hen considered to 1e a1normal3 <hen these children, e6pected to survive among our modern and highly structured .orld are given access to a seemingly less structured and modern .orld 7say, the .orld of farm life for instance .ith less stringent constraints on time and 1ehavior8? the child can 1e considered @uite normal3 &onsidering that AE:E is not a 1rand ne. invention, .hy did comments on the AE:E child go from ;he5s 2ust 1eing a 1oy=, to ;.hat is .rong .ith himQ= Firls may e6hi1it different 1ehaviors in this realm and severe cases not.ithstanding here in this e6ample3 !ut 4 1elieve the point is made clear3 C ;Finally, the myth of mental illness encourages us to 1elieve in its logical corollary that social intercourse .ould 1e harmonious, satisfying, and the secure 1asis of a 9good life9

.ere it not for the disrupting influences of mental illness or 9psychopathology93 :o.ever, universal human happiness, in this form at least, is 1ut another e6ample of a .ishful fantasy3 4 1elieve that human happiness is possi1le--not 2ust for a select fe., 1ut on a scale hitherto unimagina1le3 Surely there are those individuals .ho are seriously at odds .ith .hat is generally considered good ;mental health=, 1ut there are al.ays even more .ho could 1e perfectly functional if not for the constraints put on most of us in our modern .orld3 C ;!ut this can 1e achieved only if many men, not 2ust a fe., are .illing and a1le to confront fran%ly, and tac%le courageously, their ethical, personal, and social conflicts3= Therefore life, li%e 1lindness, directs the schizophrenic person to see% other modes of living, surviving? as a 1lind person .ould increase usage of sound, touch, etc3? a schizophrenic .ill see% stimulation from other sources than daily interaction .ith society3 4t is a @uestion of one modality of interaction, 1eing too ludicrous to consider usage of, and finding another to continue on .ith reality 7reality+unrealityR-as opposed to sight+other-than-sight83 $ar%s 7'(BJ8 1elieves that C ;<hat synesthesia provides to cognition is, in essence, a shorthand3 Synesthesia is not 2ust something that is tac%ed onto ordinary sense perception and cognition3 Rather, it is an integral part of perception and cognition3 >ne of its special roles is to summarize important cognitive distinctions in a convenient and economical .ay3= Therefore, this ;normal= condition 1ecame much more important than ever 1efore3 :e continues C ;333it is 1oth enriching 7as in the synesthetic responses to music8 in its content and economical in its mode--economical that is, as compared to alternative means of cognitive enrichment, such as linguistic ela1oration3 4n this sense, it may 1e of some use to treat synesthetic cognition as an ad2unct 7alternative 1eing too strong a contrast8 to ver1al cognition3 Synesthetic, cross-modal, sensory cognition is 1oth less a1stract and more dense in informational content39 Thus Synesthesia 1ecomes a much more important and intricate condition than ever 1efore 7.here is the &343A3 no.Q83 Speculations <hat if .e overly stressed ourselves until .e gre. ne. neuronal lin%s in our head, thus structuring a personality .ith 1izarre perceptions? since, .ith no apparent 1rain damage, incorrect lin%ages .ill not 1e noticea1le other than physically 1eing there3 Perhaps shoc% therapy 1rutalizes these tender, ne. neuronal lin%s till they are num1? so, temporary sta1ility is achievedQ 4f all this .ere true then schizophrenics should 1e stopped of their 9unaccepta1le9 1ehavior, as @uic%ly as possi1le .ithout doing any %ind of further damage in the process3 They must then 1e .or%ed into 9normal9 environments and 1ehaviors as soon as is possi1le, .ithout doing

any %ind of further damage in the process3 The 9normal9 environment 7decided upon 1y the therapist in charge, according to general social trends, .ith allo.ances for artistic-type e6ceptions8 must remain consistent .ith group therapy, and general support of fello. citizen clients 7patients, as .ell as staff--though 4 disli%e the term 9patient983 Eiet must 1e optimal? e6ercise en2oya1le, 1ut ade@uate? and stimulation 1y a .ell-rounded set of varying events and responsi1ilities 7.hich are rotated li1erally, unless the client ta%es to one form of activity passionately, i3e3, artistic passion83 A one-on-one relationship is also necessary .ith at least t.o 9significant9 others3 This could 1e the case Eoctor, a staff mem1er, and family mem1er, etc3, in any varying, 1ut consistent, degree3 They should ho.ever, 1e someone closely related to the e6istence and care of the schizophrenic person3 Eiscovery of their incident leading to internment, and the incidences peripheral to it, are necessary, and must 1e re-e6amined 1oth, .ithout, and .ith the ;patient=, so as to 91ridge9 ne. 9gaps9? to put do.n the 1ad 1ehavior, and to outnum1er the 9.rong-thought-developed synapses9 involved in the schizophrenic 1ehavior3 The environmental aspects of this condition cannot 1e over emphasized3 <hile preparing research for the present paper 4 noticed some unusual 1ehaviors 1eing e6hi1ited 1y myself3 Kou may also find a relative factor in this e6perience3 4 %ept trying to 1egin the paper, 1ut simply could not 9collect9 myself3 So3334 %ept putting this off, chal%ing it up to procrastination, .hich 4Am .ell %no.n for3 >nce 4 straightened up the mess of 1oo%s, papers, articles, etc3, around my apartment, 4 1egan to notice a coalescence, a Festalt, forming .ithin my mind3 As if my rearrangement of my immediate environment .as shaping my thought processes 7it .as @uite stri%ing83 4 literally could ;see= the transformation ta%e place and suddenly, after .ee%s of de1ate, analysis, and confusion, 4 could ;see= the order, the thesis, the path to ta%e .ithin the present paper3 4f this paper seems difficult at times, it is your perception of the paper necessarily 1eing limited to only these pages 1efore you3 4 appro6imate that at least si6ty to one hundred pages .ould 1e necessary to give a good e6planation of this intricate su12ect and 4 .as forced to discard many pages of research and con2ecture in order to stic% to the designated num1er of pages3 This to me .as a clear e6ample of .hat some schizophrenics go through in trying to communicate to others3 Perhaps if someone else, say my roommate, had straightened up my notes, sho.ed me ho. they .ere to 1e arranged even generally so, 7so that 4 access them .ith some initial degree of organization8, 4 could have had the same Festalt of .hat direction to ta%e in .riting and finalizing this paper3 So either 4, or my roommate, .ould have ta%en the place of Therapist3 4n my case it .as myself3 And so, do most of us .ho are consider ;healthy=3 This .as a precise lesson for me3 No. once again, our friend $ar%s 7'(BJ8 C ;333Synesthesia is pro1a1ly not really lost in the cognitive transition from childhood to adulthood, 1ut is merely diminished in its magnitude, importance, and+or, its salience

C 333 synesthetic correspondences may provide a primitive origin containing fi6ed relationships upon .hich a1stract language can 1uild and provide fle6i1ility 3 C 333 "ust ho. that ver1al mechanism operates remains a @uestion, 1ut .hatever it is, a price is paid for the fle6i1ility it provides The sym1olic manipulations arise at least one step, pro1a1ly several steps, removed from the sense perceptions descri1ed, and there1y .e lose the immediacy, the richness, and the vivacity of sensory synesthesia3 Sometimes the purely sensory correspondences can 1e reached or regained, for instance, under the influence of drugs3 Thus, !audelaire 7')D-8 the hashish smo%er, could perceive, as !audelaire 7')JB8 the poet cognized, ho. ;0es parfums, les couleurs et les sons se repondent3= <hich 4 loosely 7had to8 translate to 1e ;The fragrances 7or flavors8 of the colors, and the sounds, 4 myself, guarantee3= 4f some of this sounds li%e science 7or speculative8 fiction, it is due to our perception too readily accepting our past, as .ell as 1eing too linear in our o.n scientific thought 7.hich really isn5t as necessary as is generally thought 1y scholars83 $uch of this presented material is accepted no. as fact3 And at this point, .e must ma%e diverse use of the data .e have3 <e have massive amounts of data availa1le to us? it is no. all a1out ho. to ma%e use of it3 &onsider no. all this in relation to synesthesia3 4f you train your child as a synesthesthetic 7a synesthete8, his 7or her8 neurons .ould continue to gro. as a result in that direction 7.ith controlled thought, taught 1y the parent and teachers83 4t .ould 1ecome pleasantly managea1le, and @uite desira1le3 Perhaps one day, our children .ill come home at night and instead of rela6ing .ith a drin%, or a drug, or some other ;hypnotic= 7TH, video game, 4nternet, Face1oo%, EHEs, etc38, they .ill instead recline in a comforta1le chair and simply rela6 and naturally hallucinate controlled, colorful, and desired images to a 1lend of perhaps soothing 7or raucous8, 1ut colorful music3 !ut it could 1y they .ould 1urn incense to aide synethesis, or sit in a vi1ratory chair that gives touch alterations 7heat, cold, vi1ration, motion, etc38, or something else3 This could 1ecome a feat that one could naturally and automatically ;turn on= at an instant, say during a 1rea% at .or%, 1et.een classes at school, stuc% in a traffic 2am, or to lessen the tedium on a train, 1oat or plane trip3 This could ho.ever, lead to a ne. type of psychedelic revolution li%e .e5ve never 1efore dreamed3 <ho are .e that .e should deny our children something so very possi1le and reasona1le and so very, very specialQ <hat other great .onders are .e letting ourselves out ofQ <hat cures 7or cuesQ8 have .e missed 1ecause the solutions seemed ;far fetched=, as psychology once .as, or colored .ith the sounds of reasona1le con2ectureQ

References C American Psychiatric Association, Eiagnostic and Statistical $anual of $ental Eisorders, Grd ed3 7ES$ 4448, <ashington, E3&3, APA, p3')'-'(G 7'()-83 C !ach-y-rita, P3, !rain $echanisms in Sensory Su1stitution3 Academic Press, N3K3 7'(B,83 C !ennett, /303, Eiamond, $3&3, Lrech, E3, and Rosen.eig, N3R3, &hemical and anatomical plasticity of 1rain, Science, '*D, D'--D'(3 From !ach-y-rita 7'(B,8 a1ove3 C !ornstein, U3, >n the functional relations of the sense organs to one another and to the organism as a .hole, "ournal of Feneral Psychology, vol3 'J, p3''B-'G' 7'(GD83 C &arlson, N3R3, Physiology of !ehavior, Grd ed3, Allyn and !acon, 4nc3, !oston 7'()'83

C &haplin, "3P3, Eictionary of Psychology, Eell Pu1lishing &o3, N3K3, '(D)3 From Price 7'(B(8 1elo.3 C &ragg, !3F3, Are there structural alterations in synapses related to functioningQ Proc3 Roy3 Soc3, Sere ! 'B', G'(-G,G3 From !ach-y-rita 7'(B,8 a1ove3 C Eavies, P3, &onditioned after images3 43 !ritish "ournal of Psychology, vol3 DJ, no3 ,, p3'('-,-* 7'(B*83 From Price 7'(B(8 1elo.3 C Eavies, P3, &onditioned after images, 443 !ritish "ournal of Psychology, vol3 DJ, no3 G, p3GBB-G(G 7'(B*83 From Price 7'(B*8 1elo.3 C Fessard, A3, The role of neuronal net.or%s in sensory communication .ithin the 1rain, 4n Sensory &ommunication, $4T Press, &am1ridge, $ass3 From !ach-y-rita a1ove3 C Ferard, R3U3, The fi6ation of e6perience3 4n !rain $echanisms and 0earning, >6ford, p3,'-GJ 7'(D'83 From !ach-y-rita a1ove3 C :ammond, P3:3, $erton, !3A3, and Sutton, F3F3, Nervous gradation of muscular contraction3 !ritish $edical !ulletin, ',, ,'*-,') 7'(JD83 From &arlson 7'()'8 a1ove3 C :artshorne, &3, The Philosophy and Psychology of Sensation, Lenni%at Printers, BB-)J, 7'(D), first ed3, '('*83 From Price 7'(B(8 1elo.3 C :o.ells, T3:3, The e6perimental development of color-tone synesthesia, "ournal of /6perimental Psychology, vol3 G*, no3 ,, )B-'-G 7'(**83 C "ung, R3, Neuronal integration in the visual corte6 and its significance for visual information3 4n Sensory &ommunication, $4T Press, &am1ridge, $ass3 D,B-DB* 7'(D'83 From !ach-y-rita 7'(B,8 a1ove3

C Lelly, /303, An e6perimental attempt to produce artificial chromesthesia 1y the techni@ue of the conditioned response, "ournal of /6perimental Psychology, vol3 SH44, no3 G, p3G'J-G*' 7'(G*83 From Price 7'(B(8 1elo.3 C 0ashley, L3S3, The pro1lem of serial order in 1ehavior3 4n &ere1ral $echanisms in !ehavior, <iley, N3K3, '',-'GD 7'(J'83 From !ach-y-rita 7'(B,8 a1ove3 C 0ashley, L3S3, &ere1ral organization and 1ehavior, Ass3 Res3 Nerv3 $ent3 Eis3, Res3 Pu1l3, GD, '-') 7'(J)83 From !ach-y-rita 7'(B,8 a1ove3 C $ar%s, 03/3, >n colored-hearing synesthesia &ross-modal translations of sensory dimensions, Psychological !ulletin, vol3 ),, no3 G, p3G-G-GG' 7'(BJ83 C $cFeer, P303, The &hemistry of mind, American Scientist, vol3 J(, 7$ar-Apr8, p3,,',,( 7'(B'83 C >rtmann, >3, Theories of synesthesia in light of a case color-hearing, :uman !iology, vol3 J', p3'JJ-,'' 7'(GG83 From Price 7'(B(8 1elo.3 C >.en, /3, &ross, A3"3, &ro., T3"3, 0ongden, :3, Poulter, $3, and Riley, F3"3, 4ncreased dopamine-receptor sensitivity in schizophrenia, 0ancet, ,7)-)G8, ,,G-,,D, '(B)3 From &arlson 7'()'8 a1ove3 C Price, "3S3, Psychromesthetic synesthesia the cross-modality matching of color and sound, $asterAs Thesis, <estern <ashington University 7'(B(83 C Reis, :3A3, Synesthesia the elicitation of mediators and colors as a function of stimulus tone fre@uency, Eissertation, University of Lentuc%y 7'(DG83 From Price 7'(B(8 a1ove3 C Ro1ertson, A3E3"3, Anaesthesia and receptive fields, Nature, 0ondon, ,-J, )- 7'(DJ83 From !ach-y-rita 7'(B,8 a1ove3 C Schlaer, S3, The relation 1et.een visual acuity and illumination, "ournal of Fen3 Physiol3, ,', 'DJ-')), '(GB3 From !ach-y-rita 7'(B,8 a1ove3 C Szaz, T3, 9<hat is mental illnessQ9 from 0a., 0i1erty, and Psychiatry, in Reason T Responsi1ility, Jth ed3, edited 1y Fein1erg, "3, <ads.orth Pu1lishing &ompany, !elmont, &alifornia 7'()'83

Related Reading C &ollins, $3, A case of synesthesia, "ournal of Feneral Psychology, vol3 ,, p3',-,B 7'(,(83 C :aer, "303, The psychedelic environment a ne. psychological phenomenon3 "ournal of Pop &ulture, vol3 G, no3 ,, p3,D--,DD 7'(D(83 C Lravitz, "3 and :illa1rant, <3, The Future 4s No., Readings 4n 4ntroductory Psychology, F3/3 Peacoc% Pu1lishers, 4tasca, 4llinois, 7'(BB8? utilizing the follo.ing four articles C C C C Lety, S3S3, 4t5s not all in your head 7'(BD8, ,G*-,*-3 $artindale, &3, <hat ma%es creative people different 7'(BJ8, 'J(-'DD3 Ramey, /3R3, !oredom the most prevalent American disease 7'(B*8, ,*--,*)3 Anonymous, &an psychiatrists tell the sane from the insaneQ 7'(BG8, ,-)-,''3

C $ar%s, 03/3, Synesthesia the luc%y people .ith the mi6ed-up senses, Psychology Today, *)-J,, "une 7'(BJ83 C Par%er, F3, Re-searching the schizophrenogenic mother, The "ournal of Nervous and $ental Eisease, vol3 'B-, no3 ), *J,-*D, 7'(),83 C Riggs, 03A3, and Laro.s%i, T3, Synaesthesia, !ritish "ournal of Psychology, vol3 *, ,,),G) 7'(''83 C Sharpe, E3T3, The Psychology of &olor and Eesign, Nelson-:all &o3, &hicago 7'(B*83

C Simpson, R3:3, Uuinn, $3, and Ausu1el, E3P3, Synesthesia in children association of colors .ith pure tone fre@uencies, The "ournal of Fenetic Psychology, vol3 )(, (J-'-G 7'(JD83 C #igler, $3"3, Tone shapes a novel type of synaesthesia, "ournal of Feneral Psychology, vol3 G, ,BB-,)B 7'(G-83