Chapter 5

Piles
6
th
Semester



Compiled by


Dr. Irshad Ahmad


Department of Civil Engineering
N-W.F.P. University of Engineering & Technology
Peshawar



Peshawar, N-W.F.P., Pakistan, 2008


Irshad 2008


ii
Table of Contents
Table of Contents ................................................................................................................................... ii
Chapter 5 foundation settlement ............................................................................................................ 1
5.1 Piles .............................................................................................................................................. 1
5.2 Uses of Piles ................................................................................................................................. 1
5.3 Classification of Piles .................................................................................................................. 2
5.3.1 Classification according to the mechanism of load transfer ................................................. 2
5.3.2 Classification of piles according to their method of installation ........................................... 4
5.3.3 Classification of Piles according to Materials ....................................................................... 5
5.4 Load Capacity of Piles ................................................................................................................. 7
5.5 Driven Piles .................................................................................................................................. 7
5.5.1 Dynamic Pile Formulas ......................................................................................................... 7
5.5.2 PILE DRIVING EQUIPMENT ............................................................................................ 8
5.5.3 HAMMER SELECTION ...................................................................................................... 9
5.6 STATIC PILE FORMULAS ..................................................................................................... 11
5.6.1 COHESIONLESS SOILS ................................................................................................... 12
5.7 COHESIVE SOILS .................................................................................................................... 15
5.7.1 Driven Piles ......................................................................................................................... 15
5.7.2 Bored Piles .......................................................................................................................... 15
5.8 FACTOR OF SAFETY .............................................................................................................. 18
5.9 NEGATIVE SKIN FRICTION .................................................................................................. 18
5.10 PILE GROUP........................................................................................................................... 19
5.10.1 Load Distribution in Pile Group ........................................................................................ 20
5.10.2 Efficiency of Pile Group ................................................................................................... 20
5.10.3 Pile Group in Cohesionless Soils ...................................................................................... 20
5.10.4 Pile Group in Cohesive Soils ............................................................................................ 21
5.11 Settlement of Pile Group .......................................................................................................... 22
5.12 Pile Load Test .......................................................................................................................... 27
5.12.1 Ultimate Load ................................................................................................................... 30
5.12.2 Disadvantages ................................................................................................................... 31
CHAPTER 5
FOUNDATION SETTLEMENT
5.1 Piles
- For piles the length to width (diameter) ratio i.e. Lp/d > 4 , where Lp is the pile length and d is
pile diameter.
- The basic situation for a pile foundation is where soft soil exists near the ground surface which
underlain by rock formation e.g.

Figure 5-1 Pile foundation resting on hard stratum underlying a soft soil layer
5.2 Uses of Piles
Piles are commonly used for the following purposes (Figure 5-2).
- To carry superstructure loads into or through a soil stratum. Both vertical and lateral loads may be
involved.
- To resist uplift or overturning forces such as for basement mats below the W.T. or to support the
tower legs subjected to overturning from lateral loads such as wind.
- To compact loose, cohesionless deposits through a combination of pile volume displacement and
driving vibration, thus increasing their bearing capacity.
Building
Soft Soil
Piles
Firm Soil

2
- To carry the foundation through the depth of scour to provide safety in the event the soil is eroded
away.
- To stiffen the soil beneath machine foundations to control both amplitudes of vibration and the
natural frequency of the system.
- In offshore construction to transmit the loads above the water surface through the water and into
the underlying soil. This case is one in which partially embedded piling is subjected to vertical
(and buckling) as well as lateral loads.


5.3 Classification of Piles
5.3.1 Classification according to the mechanism of load transfer
End/Point Bearing Piles
Figure 5-2 (a) Tension pile to resist overturning movements in tall buildings (b) Shear pile to
resist horizontal forces or movements Friction pile (c) raking piles in harbor and river
installations

(a)
(b)
(c)
tension
compression
Wind

3
If a bedrock or rocklike material is present at a site within a reasonable depth, piles can be extended
to the rock surface (figure 5-3(a)). In this case, the ultimate bearing capacity of the pile depends
entirely of the underlying material; thus the piles are called end or point bearing piles. In most of
these cases the necessary length of the pile can be fairly well established.
Instead of bedrock, if a fairly compact and hard stratum of soil is encountered at a reasonable depth,
piles can be extended a few meters into the hard stratum.
Friction Piles (figure 5-3 b)
When no layer of rock or rocklike material is present at a reasonable depth at a site, point/end bearing
piles become very long and uneconomical. For this type of subsoil condition, piles are driven through
the softer material to specified depth. These types of piles are called friction piles because the load on
the pile is resisted mainly by skin/friction resistance along the side of the pile (pile shaft). Pure
friction piles tend to be quite long, since the load-carrying capacity is a function of the shaft area in
contact with the soil.
In cohesionless soils, such as sands of medium to low density, friction piles are often used to increase
the density and thus the shear strength.
Friction cum end bearing piles
In the majority of cases, however, the load-carrying capacity is dependent on both end-bearing and
shaft friction (figure 5-3 c).




4

5.3.2 Classification of piles according to their method of installation (figure 5-4)
Driven or displacement piles
They are usually preformed before being driven, jacked, screwed or hammered into ground. This
category consists of driven piles of steel or precast concrete and piles formed by driving tubes or
shells which are fitted with a driving shoe. The tubes or shells which are filled with concrete after
driving. Also included in this category are piles formed by placing concrete as the driven piles are
withdrawn.
Bored or Replacement piles
They require a hole to be first bored into which the pile is then formed usually of reinforced concrete.
The shaft (bore) may be cased or uncased depending upon type of soil.

Soft
ground
hard
Soft to
firm
Soft to
firm
Firm to
hard
Soft
Figure 5-3(a) End bearing pile (b) Friction pile (c) friction cum end bearing pile

(a) (b)
(c)

5

5.3.3 Classification of Piles according to Materials
Timber piles
- Timber piles are made of tree trunks driven with small end as a point
- Maximum length: 35 m; optimum length: 9 20m
- Max load for usual conditions: 450 kN; optimum load range = 80240 kN
- Disadvantages: difficult to splice, vulnerable to damage in hard driving, vulnerable to decay
unless treated with preservatives (If timber is below permanent W.T. it will apparently last
for ever), if subjected to alternate wetting & drying, the useful life will be short, partly
embedded piles or piles above W.T. are susceptible to damage from wood borers and other
insects unless treated.
- Advantages: comparatively low initial cost, permanently submerged piles are resistant to
decay, easy to handle, best suited for friction piles in granular material.
(a) (b) (c)
(d)
(e) (f)
Figure 5-4 Principal types of pile: (a) precast RC pile (b) steel H pile (c) shell
pile (d) concrete pile cast as driven tube withdrawn (e) bored pile (cast in
situ), (f) under-reamed bored pile (cast in situ)

6

Steel Piles
- Max length: practically unlimited,
- optimum length: 1250 m
- load for usual conditions = maximum allowable stress x-section area,
- Optimum load range = 3501050 kN
- The members are usually rolled HP shapes/pipe piles. Wide flange beams & I beams
proportioned to withstand the hard driving stress to which the pile may be subjected, In HP
pile the flange thickness= web thickness, pipe piles are either welded or seamless steel pipes,
which may be driven either open ended or closed end. Closed end piles are usually filled with
concrete after driving. Open end piles may be filled but this is not often necessary.
- Advantages: easy to splice, high capacity, small displacement, able to penetrate through light
obstructions, best suited for end bearing on rock, reduce allowable capacity for corrosive
locations or provide corrosion protection.
- Disadvantages: Vulnerable to corrosion, HP section may be damaged/deflected by major
obstruction
Concrete Piles
- Concrete piles may be precast, prestressed, cast in place, or of composite construction.
- Precast concrete piles may be made using ordinary reinforcement or they may be prestressed.
- Pecast piles using ordinary reinforcement are designed to resist bending stresses during
picking up & transport to the site & bending moments from lateral loads and to provide
sufficient resistance to vertical loads and any tension forces developed during driving.
- Prestressed piles are formed by tensioning high strength steel prestress cables, and casting
the concrete about the cable. When the concrete hardens, the prestress cables are cut, with the
tension force in the cables now producing compressive stress in the concrete pile. It is
common to higher-strength concrete (35 to 55 MPa) in prestressed piles because of the large
initial compressive stresses from prestressing. Prestressing the pile tends to counteract any
tension stresses during either handling or driving.
- Max length: 1015 m for precast, 2030 m for prestressed
- Optimum length: 1012 m for precast, 1825m prestressed
- Loads for usual conditions 900 for precast, 8500 kN for prestressed
- Optimum load range: 3503500 kN
- Disadvantages: difficult to handle unless prestressed, high initial cost, considerable
displacement, prestressed piles are difficult to splice.

7
- Advantages: high load capacities, corrosion resistance can be attained, hard driving possible
- Remarks: cylinder piles in particular are suited for bending resistance.
- Cast in place concrete piles are formed by drilling a hole in the ground & filling it with
concrete. The hole may be drilled or formed by driving a shell or casing into the ground.
- Disadvantages of Concrete piles: Concrete piles are considered permanent, however, certain
soil (usually organic) contain materials that may form acids that can damage the concrete.
Salt water may also adversely react with the concrete unless special precautions are taken
when the mix proportions are designed. Additionally, concrete piles used for marine
structures may undergo abrasion from wave action and floating debris in the water. Alternate
freezing & thawing can cause concrete damage in any exposed situation.
Composite piles
- In general, a composite pile is made up of two or more sections of different materials or
different pile types. The upper portion could be cased cast-in-place concrete combined with a
lower portion of timber, steel H or concrete filled steel pipe pile. These piles have limited
application and are employed under special conditions.
5.4 Load Capacity of Piles
Three general methods are available to establish load capacity:
(1) Static Analysis (2) Dynamic Analysis (3) Load Testing (4) Correlation with field tests (SPT,
CPT etc)
Dynamic formulae are used for driven piles. Static formulae are used both for bored and driven piles.
Load testing is the most reliable method to determine the load capacity of the pile in the field. They
should be performed on all piling projects. However, they are considerably more expensive than the
other methods used to determine pile capacity, and economic consideration sometimes preclude their
use on projects. Field tests like SPT, CPT are also used to correlate to load carrying capacity
particularly for cohesionless soils.
5.5 Driven Piles
5.5.1 Dynamic Pile Formulas
Piles are usually forced into the ground by a pile driver or pile hammer. In medieval times piles were
driven by men manually swinging hammer, which consists of a weight raised by ropes or cables and
allowed to drop freely striking the top of the pile. After the drop hammer came the single acting
hammer, double acting hammer, differential acting hammer, diesel pile hammer, vibratory driver.
Dynamic pile formulas are widely used to determine the static capacity of the driven pile. These
formulas are derived starting with the relation
Energy Input = Energy Used + Energy Lost

8
The Energy used equals the driving resistance (Pu) the pile movement (s).
Energy lost is due to friction, heat, hammer rebound, vibration and elastic compression of the pile, the
pacing assembly, and the soil.
5.5.2 PILE DRIVING EQUIPMENT
Piles are installed by a special pile driving device know as a pile hammer. The hammer may be
suspended from the boom of a crawler crane, supported on a large frame called a pile driver or carried
on a barge for construction in water. In all cases, the hammer is guided between two parallel steel
members called leads. The leads may be adjusted at various angles for driving vertical and batter
piles.
Several types of hammers are in use and each of which are different sizes. The hammer types are:
Drop hammer
The drop hammer consists of a heavy ram in between the leads. The ram is lifted up to a certain
height and released to drop on the pile. This type is slow and therefore not in common use. It is used
in the cases where only a small number of piles are driven.
Single-acting hammer
In single acting hammer a heavy ram is lifted up by steam or compressed air but dropped by its own
weight. The energy of a single acting hammer is equal to the weight of the ram times the height of
fall.
Double-acting hammer
The double-acting hammer employs steam or air for lifting the ram and for accelerating the
downward stroke. The energy of a double-acting hammer is equal to the (weight of the ram + mean
effective pressure x the effective area of ram) x times the height of fall.
Diesel hammer
The diesel hammer is a small, light weight and highly mobile. They use gasoline for fuel. To start the
operation, the ram is raised, and the fuel is injected. As the ram is released, the ram falls and
compresses air and fuel. The air and fuel becomes hot because of the compression and the air-fuel
mixture is ignited. The resulting explosion (1) advances the pile and (2) lifts the ram. If the pile
advance is very great as in soft soils, the ram is not lifted by the explosion sufficiently to ignite the
air-fuel mixture on the next cycle, requiring that the ram be again manually lifted.
Vibratory hammer
The principle of the vibratory driver is two counter-rotating eccentric weights. The driving unit
vibrates at high frequency and provides two vertical impulses-one up and one down. The downward
pulse acts with the pile weight to increase the apparent gravity force. These hammers have reduced
driving vibrations, reduced noise, and great speed of penetration.

9
5.5.3 HAMMER SELECTION
Generally the size of hammer is more important factor than type of hammer.
A heavy pile should be driven by a heavy hammer delivering large energy. Preferably the weight of
the hammer should be at least on-half the total weight of the pile, and the deriving energy should be at
least one foot-pound for each pound of pile weight.
Each type of hammer has its use under suitable conditions. The advantages and disadvantages of each
type are summarized below:
Single-acting hammer
They are advantageous when driving heavy piles in compact or hard soils; the heavy ram striking at
low velocity produces least damage due to impact. The disadvantages are low driving speed and
large headroom requirement.
Double-acting hammer
They are generally used to drive piles of light or moderate weight in soils of average resistance
against driving. This type of hammer can drive piles at fast speed, requires less headroom and can be
used to extract piles by turning them [i.e. the double-acting hammer] upside down.
Diesel hammer
They are similar in application as double-acting hammers, but driving may become difficult in
extremely soft ground.
Vibratory hammer
They have fairly good results in silty and clayey deposits. They are used in heavy clays or soils with
appreciable numbers of boulders. These hammers have reduced driving vibrations, reduced noise, and
great speed of penetration.

10

11

5.6 STATIC PILE FORMULAS
The ultimate load which can be carried by a pile is equal to the sum of the base resistance and the
shaft resistance (figure 5-5).
P
u
+ W
p
= A
b
q
b(gross)
+ A
s
q
s


P
u
is the ultimate load that can be carried at top of pile, q
b
ultimate (gross) bearing capacity at base
level, A
b
= base area of pile, q
s
=ultimate shearing/skin resistance per unit area, A
s
= perimeter area of
pile, and Wp = weight of the pile.
Subtracting Ws from both sides of the equation. Where Ws is effective soil weight replaced/displaced
due to pile volume. Ws = 'LA
b
where ' is the effective weight of soil, and L is pile length.
P
u
+ (W
p
Ws)= A
b
q
b(gross)
+ A
s
q
s
-Ws
P
u
+ (W
p
Ws) = A
b
q
b(gross)
+ A
s
q
s
- 'LA
b

P
u
+ (W
p
Ws) = (q
b(gross)
- 'L)A
b
+ A
s
q
s

P
u
+ (W
p
Ws) = (q
b(gross)
- oo')A
b
+ A
s
q
s

Where oo'='L is effective vertical stress at pile base
P
u
+(W
p
Ws) = A
b
q
b
+ A
s
q
s

P
u
= A
b
q
b
+ A
s
q
s
(W
p
Ws)
P
u
= A
b
q
b
+ A
s
q
s
W
P
u
is the ultimate load that can be carried at top of pile, q
b
ultimate (net) bearing capacity at base
level, A
b
= base area of pile, q
s
=ultimate shearing/skin resistance per unit area, A
s
= perimeter area of
pile, W= Wp Ws = weight of the pile effective weight of soil replaced. In most cases Wp~ Ws
and hence W~0.
P
u
= A
b
q
b
+ A
s
q
s

However in the case of under-reamed piles (figure 5-4 f) the reduction in pressure on the soil at base
level due to the removal of soil is greater than the subsequent increase in pressure due to the weight of
the pile and hence use equation-1 (i.e. do not assume that W
p
~ W
s
)


12

5.6.1 COHESIONLESS SOILS
End bearing Resistance (q
b
)
The ultimate B.C. and settlement of a pile depends mainly on the relative density of sand. However, if
a pile is driven into sand the relative density adjoining the pile is increased by compaction due to soil
displacement (except in dense sands, which may be loosened). The soil characteristics governing
ultimate bearing capacity and settlement, therefore, are different from the original characteristics prior
to driving. This fact, in addition to the heterogeneous nature of sand deposits, makes the prediction of
pile behavior by analytical methods extremely difficult.
The ultimate (net) B.C. at base level can be expressed as
q
b
= cN
c
+ o
o
' N
q
+ B N

-o
o
' [o
o
' is subtracted to get net value of q
b
]
Where o
o
' is the effective overburden pressure at base level of pile.
q
b
= cN
c
+ o
o
'(N
q
-1) + B N

c=0 for sand and 1/2BN

term can be neglected because the B (width/diameter of pile) is small

compared to the length of pile. so
q
b
= o
o
' (N
q
-1) ~ o
o
'N
q
(N
q
-1) ~ N
q
[because reduction of N
q
by 1 is a substantial
refinement not justified by estimated soil parameters]. N
q
is a B.C. factor (figure 5-6)

q
s

q
b

W
P

Figure 5-5 Free body diagram of a pile
P
u


13

Figure 5-6: Values of Nq for pile formulae (Meyerhof, 1976)
Friction/Shaft Resistance (qs):
The average value of skin resistance (q
s
) over the length of pile embedded in sand can be expressed as
o o tan ' ' + = c q
s

Where
'
'
o s
K o o = and c=0
o o tan
'
o s s
K q =
K
s
a coefficient of earth pressure dependent largely on the relative density of the soil, ' o = average
effective pressure in the layer perpendicular to q
s
(i.e. horizontal).
'
o
o = average effective vertical
overburden pressure in the layer, and o=angle of friction between the pile and the soil.

Table 5-1 K
s
and o values
Pile Type o
K
s

Loose Sand Dense Sand
Concrete 3/4 | 1.0 2.0
Steel 20 0.5 1.0
Wood 2/3 | 1.5 4.0
Bored or Jetted
pile
0.5


14
Variation of q
b
and q
s
with depth
The above equations for q
b
and q
s
indicate a linear increase with depth of q
b
and q
s
. However, tests on
full scale and model piles have shown that these equations are valid up to certain depth called critical
depth (z
c
). Below this depth z
c
(=15d to 20d, conservatively take z
c
= 15 d), base (q
b
) and shaft/skin
(q
s
) resistances do not develop linearly [i.e. become constant]. This is because the vertical effective
stress adjacent to the pile is not necessarily equal to the effective overburden pressure (away from the
effect of pile) but reaches a limiting value at critical depth z
c
(figure 5-7).

q
b
and q
s
from SPT Test
Ultimate base resistance q
b
Due to the critical depth limitation and to the difficulty of obtaining values of the required parameters,
the above equations are difficult to apply in practice. It is preferable to use empirical correlations
The following empirical correlations have been proposed by Meyerhof for driven piles in sand.
q
b
= (40N
55
)L
b
/B s 400N
55
(kN/m
2
)
N= is the value of standard penetration resistance in the vicinity of the pile base. Use any applicable
SPT N corrections discussed in earlier chapter-3.
B = width or diameter of pile point
L
b
= the length of pile embedded in sand
W.T.
d
o
oc
'
d
o
oc
'
z
c
=15 d
z
c
=15d
Figure 5-7 Effective vertical stress distribution diagram adjacent to pile

15
Skin friction resistance
Skin friction resistance is N q
s
2 = [kN/m
2
]
Where N is the average value of standard penetration resistance over the embedded length of the pile
within the sand stratum.
The values of q
s
should be halved in the case of small displacement piles such as steel H piles. For
bored piles the values of q
b
and q
s
are approximately 1/3 and 1/2, respectively, of the corresponding
values for driven piles.
5.7 COHESIVE SOILS
5.7.1 Driven Piles
In the case of driven piles, the clay adjacent to the pile is displaced both laterally and vertically.
Upward displacement of the clay results in heaving of the ground surface around the pile and can
cause a reduction in the bearing capacity of adjacent piles already installed. The clay in the disturbed
zone around the pile is completely remoulded during driving. The excess porewater pressure set up by
the driving stresses dissipates within a few months as the disturbed zone is relatively narrow (of the
order B): in general, dissipation is virtually complete before significant structural load is applied to
the pile. Dissipation is accompanied by an increase in skin friction. Thus the skin friction at the end of
dissipation is normally appropriate in design.
5.7.2 Bored Piles
In the case of bored piles, a thin layer of clay (of the order of 25 mm) immediately adjoining the
shaft will be remoulded during boring. In addition, a gradual softening of the clay will take place
adjacent to the shaft due to stress release, pore water seeping from the surrounding clay towards the
shaft. Water can also be absorbed from wet concrete when it comes in contact with the clay.
Softening is accompanied by a reduction in shear strength and a reduction in skin friction.
Construction of a bored pile, therefore, should be completed as quickly as possible. Limited
reconsolidation of the remoulded and softened clay takes place after installation of the pile.
Base Resistance
The relavent shear strength for the determination of the base resistance of a pile in clay is the
undrained strength at base level. The ultimate bearing capacity is expressed as
q
b
= c
u
N
c
+ o
o
' N
q
+ B N

-o
o
' [o
o
' is subtracted to get net value of q
b
]
1/2BN

term can be neglected because the B (width/diameter of pile) is small compared to the length
of pile and for |u=0, Nq=1, we get
q
b
= c
u
N
c
where N
c
= 9, and cu is undrained shear strength at pile base
Skin Resistance

16
Total Stress (Undrained Conditions |
u
=0)
Total stress analyses are relevant, for example, for a short-term loading conditions such as from wind
or earthquake loads. These loads are so rapidly applied that excess pore water pressure is developed
in the clay- the clay is under undrained condition. In such cases-total stress parameters are used.
) tan(
u a s
c q | o + = [where c
a
is average adhesion]
0 ) tan( =
u
| o as |
u
=0
Hence
u a s
c c q = = o is a coefficient depending on type of clay, the method of installation, and the
pile material. The appropriate value of o is obtained from load tests. Values of o range from 0.3 to 1.
u
c is the average undrained shear strength. One difficulty with this approach is that there is usually a
considerable scatter in the plot of undrained shear strength against depth and it may be difficult to
define the value of
u
c . See figure 5-8 for different values of o.
Effective Stress (drained conditions)
An alternative approach is to express skin friction in terms of effective stress. The zone of soil
disturbance around the pile is relatively thin, therefore dissipation of the positive or negative excess
pore water pressure set up during installation should virtually be complete by the time the structural
load is applied. In principle, therefore, an effective stress approach has more justification than one
based on total stress. In terms of effective stress the skin friction can be expressed as
) ' tan( '
'
| o
o s s
K c q + =
) ' tan(
'
| o
o s s
K q = [c=0 for saturated clay under drained conditions]
Where K
s
is the average coefficient of earth pressure and
'
o
o is the average effective overburden
pressure adjacent to the pile shaft. Failure is assumed to take place in the remoulded soil close to the
pile shaft, therefore the angle of friction between the pile and the soil is represented by the angle of
shearing resistance in terms of effective stress (|) for the remoulded clay: the cohesion intercept for
remoulded clay will be zero. The above equation can also be written as
'
o s
q o | = [where ) ' tan(| |
s
K = ]
Approximate value of | can be deduced by making assumptions regarding the value of K
s
, especially
in the case of normally consolidated clays. However, the coefficient is generally obtained empirically
from the results of load test carried out a few months after installation. Correlations with loading tests
have shown that for soft clays | falls within a narrow range of values (0.25 to 0.4), irrespective of the
clay type.

17


Figure 5-8 Relationship between the adhesion factor o and undrained shear strength s
u


18
5.8 FACTOR OF SAFETY
The base resistance requires a larger deformation for full mobilization than the shaft resistance,
therefore different values of load factor may be appropriate for the two components, the higher factor
being applied to the base resistance.
In the case of large-diameter bored piles, including underreamed piles, the shaft resistance may be
fully mobilized at working load and it is advisable to ensure a load factor of 3 for base resistance,
with a factor of 1 for shaft resistance, in addition to the specified over all load factor (generally 2) for
the pile.
5.9 NEGATIVE SKIN FRICTION
When piles are driven through a layer of fill material which slowly compacts or consolidates due to
its own weight, or if the layers underlying the fill consolidate under the weight of the fill, a downward
drag is imposed in the pile shaft (figure 5-9).
The skin friction between the pile and soil therefore acts in a downward direction. The force due to
this downward or negative skin friction is thus carried by the pile instead of helping to support the
external load on the pile.
Negative skin friction increases gradually as consolidation of the clay layer proceeds, the effective
overburden pressure gradually increasing as the excess pore water pressure dissipates.

q
sN

q
b

q
sN

q
s

Fill: consolidating
under own weight
Soft clay: consolidating
under weight of fill
Firm or Hard bearing
layer
Figure 5-9 Negative skin friction
P
u


19
P
u
+ q
sN
As = q
b
A
b
+ q
s
A
s
where q
sN
is negative skin friction (downward), A
sN
is the
corresponding surface area of pile, q
s
is the skin friction (upward) and A
s
is the corresponding surface
areas of pile, A
b
is the end bearing area of pile.
To calculate negative skin friction equation
'
o N s
q o | = can be used. In normally consolidated clays,
a value of |=0.25 represents a reasonable upper limit to negative skin friction for preliminary design
purposes.
It should be noted that there will be a reduction in effective overburden pressure adjacent to the pile
in the bearing stratum due to the transfer of part of the overlying soil weight to the pile: if the bearing
stratum is sand, this will result in a reduction in bearing capacity above the critical depth.
5.10 PILE GROUP
Rarely is the foundation likely to consist of a single pile. Generally, there will be a minimum of two
of three piles under a foundation element or footing to allow for misalignments and other inadvertent
eccentricities.
The group of piles is installed fairly close together (typically 2B-4B where B is the width or diameter
of a single pile) and joined by a slab, known as the Pile Cap, cast on top of the piles.
The cap is usually in contact with the soil in which case part of the structural load is carried directly
on the soil immediately below the surface. The group of piles in this case is called piled foundation. If
the cap is clear of the ground surface, the piles in the group are referred to as free-standing (figure 5-
10).


Pile Cap
Pile Cap
(a) (b)
Figure 5-10 (a) A group of free-standing piles (b) A group of piled foundation



20
5.10.1 Load Distribution in Pile Group
It is generally assumed that the load distribution between the piles in an axially loaded group is
uniform.
However experimental evidence indicates that for a group in sand the piles at the center of the group
carry greater loads than those on the perimeter.
In clay, on the other hand, the piles on the perimeter of the group carry greater loads than on those at
the center.
5.10.2 Efficiency of Pile Group
In general the ultimate load which can be supported by a group of N piles is not equal to N times the
ultimate load of a single isolated pile of the same dimensions in the same soil. Where N is the number
of piles in a group. So
[in general] Ultimate load of Pile Group = N Ultimate load of a single pile
The ratio of the average load per pile in a group at failure to the ultimate load for a single pile is
defined as the efficiency of the group ().
Average load per pile in a group at failure = Ultimate group load / N
= ( Ultimate group load ] / ( N Ultimate Individual load )
5.10.3 Pile Group in Cohesionless Soils
Driven Piles
The driving of a group of piles into loose sand or medium-dense sand causes compaction of the sand
between the piles, provided that the spacing is less than about 8B: consequently the efficiency of the
group is greater than unity. The maximum efficiency is reached at a spacing of 2 to 3 diameters and
generally ranges between 1.3 to 2. It is recommended that in this case the design value of =1 be
taken.
In the case of piles driven into dense sand, the group efficiency is less than unity due to loosening of
the sand and the overlapping of zones of shear (figure 5-11).
Bored Piles
However, for a group of bored piles the efficiency may be as low as 2/3 because the sand between the
piles is not compacted during installation but the zones of shear of adjacent piles will overlap.

21











Figure 5-11 Stress surrounding a friction pile and the summing effects of a pile group
5.10.4 Pile Group in Cohesive Soils
A closely spaced group of piles (spacing = 2B to 3B) in clay may fail as a unit, with shear failure
taking place around the perimeter of the group and below the area covered by the piles and the
enclosed soil. This is referred to as Block Failure. (figure 5-12)
The ultimate load in the case of a pile group which fails as a block is given by
u sg b bg ug
c A q A P + =
Four piles contributing
to this stress zone
Three piles contributing to
this stress zone
Two piles contributing to
this stress zone

22
A
bg
= base are of the group = Bg Lg; A
sg
= perimeter area of the group = 2D(B
g
+ L
g
); c
u
=
undrained shear strength at depth D
u
c = average undrained shear strength between 0 and D below the ground.
qb=cuNc where N
c
=5.14 (1+0.2B
g
/L
g
) [ 1 + \(0.053D/B
g
) ] s 9
) ( 2
g g u g g u c ug
L B D c L B c N P + + =
Design Ultimate Load
Piled Foundation
The ultimate load should be taken as the lesser of the
Block Failure value (2) The sum of the individual pile values
Free Standing Group of Piles
The ultimate load should be taken as the lesser of the
(1) Block Failure value (2) 2/3 of the sum of the individual pile values
5.11 Settlement of Pile Group
The settlement of pile group is always greater than the settlement of a corresponding single pile, as a
result of the overlapping of the individual zones of influence of the piles in the group. The bulbs of
pressure of a single pile and a pile group (with piles of the same length as the single pile) are of the
form illustrated in figure 5-13. The settlement ratio of a group is defined as the ratio of the settlement
of the group to the settlement of a single pile when both are carrying the same proportion of their
ultimate load.
5.11.1 Settlement of pile group in clay
In order to estimate settlement for a pile group, it is assumed that the total load is carried by an
Equivalent raft located at a depth of 2L/3 where L is the length of piles (figure 5-14). It may be
assumed as shown in figure 5-14 that the load is spread from the perimeter of the pile group at a slope
of 1 horizontal to 4 vertical to allow for that part of the load transferred to the soil by skin friction.
The vertical stress increment at any depth below the equivalent raft may be estimated by assuming in
turn that the total load is spread to the underlying soil at a slope of 1 horizontal to 2 vertical.
It should be appreciated that settlement is normally the limiting design criterion for pile groups in
both sands and clays.


23
Pile Cap
Pile Cap
(a) A group of free-standing piles
(b) A group of piled foundation
L
g

B
g

D
D
L
g

B
g

D
Figure 5-12Block failure of pile group in clay
(c ) Dimensions of Failure block

24


Figure 5-13 Bulbs of pressure for a single and a pile group


Figure 5-14 Equivalent raft concept
5.11.2 Settlement of pile group in sand


25



26

Solution


27

5.12 Pile Load Test
The loading of a test pile enables the ultimate load to be determined directly and provides a means of
assessing the accuracy of predicted values.


Tests may also be carried out in which loading is stopped when the proposed working load has been
exceeded by a specified percentage.

28
Figure 5-15 shows a schematic diagram of the pile load test arrangement for testing in axial
compression in the field. The load is applied to the pile by a hydraulic jack. The load is applied in
suitable increments, allowing sufficient time between increments for settlement to be substantially
complete. According to ASTM D1143, the test pile is loaded in eight equal increments up to a
maximum load, usually twice the predetermined working (allowable) load. Unloading stages are
normally included in the test program. This testing procedure is Maintained load test (or Controlled
load test).

In constant rate of penetration (CRP) test the pile is jacked into the soil at a constant speed, the
load applied in order to maintain the penetration being continuously measured. Suitable rates of
penetration for tests in sands and clays are 1.5 mm/min and 0.75 mm/min respectively.
Another type of pile load test is cyclic loading, in which an increment load is repeatedly applied and
removed.
Driven piles in clays should not be tested for at least a month after installation to allow most of the
increase in skin friction (a result of dissipation of the excess pore water pressure due to the driving
stresses) to take place. Load tests on piles in sand can be carried out immediately after the piles are
driven.

29





30


5.12.1 Ultimate Load
Figure 5-15 shows load settlement diagram obtained from fried loading and unloading. For any load
Q, the pile settlement can be calculated as follows. When Q=Q1,
net settlement, s
net(1)
= s
t(1)
s
e(1)

When Q=Q2
net settlement, s
net(2)
= s
t(2)
s
e(2)

and so on.
Where s
net
= net settlement
s
e
= elastic settlement of the pile itself

31
s
t
= total settlement
These values of Q can be plotted in a graph against the corresponding net settlement, s
net
as shown in
figure 5-15 (c). The ultimate load of the pile can be determined from this graph. Pile settlement may
increase with load to a certain point, beyond which the load settlement curve becomes vertical. The
load corresponding to the point where Q-snet becomes vertical is the ultimate load, Qu, for the pile. It
is shown by curve 1 of the figure 5-15 (c ).
In many cases, the latter stage of the load-settlement curve is almost linear, showing large degree of
settlement for a small increment of load; it is shown by curve 2 in figure 5-15 ( c). The ultimate load
for such cases is determined from the point of the curve where this steep linear portion starts.
5.12.2 Disadvantages
The performance of single pile does not correspond to actual conditions of performance underneath
the structure within the entire group of piles. (2) The loading test must be performed at the actual
construction site and under real conditions of the blueprint conditions which are often difficult to
fulfill and to execute. (3) This method of test requires specially heavy, sturdy equipment and
platforms, precise settlement measuring devices, large quantities of dead load, or powerful hydraulic
jacks. (4) The aforementioned conditions and factors make this kind of pile bearing capacity test very
expensive.

32



























Figure 5-15 (a) Schematic diagram of pile load test arrangement; (b) plot of load against total
settlement (c) plot of load against net settlement

33

Figure 5-16 Schematic setup for applying vertical load to the test pile using a hydraulic jack
acting against an anchored reaction frame


34
Problem 5-1Single Pile in Sand
A 12m long, 305mm square section pile is to be embedded in sand. Water table is encountered at 2m
depth below the ground surface. Sand has the following properties: =16.8 kN/m
3
above WT, sat=18
kN/m
3
, |'=35. Angle of friction between soil and pile is taken to be o=0.6|', lateral earth pressure
coefficient Ks=1.4. Calculate the ultimate compressive load.
Solution:
End-bearing resistance:
q
b
= o
o
'Nq (Nq=42 given)
q
b
= 54.742=2297.4 kPa
Friction resistance:
o o tan
'
o s s
K q =
First find average vertical effective stress along the pile length, it is equal to the area
under vertical effective stress distribution diagram divided by the length of pile.
2 '
kN/m 46 = 4.575) - (12 54.7 + 2) - (4.575 54.7)/2 + (33.6 + 2)/2 (33.6 12 / 1 =
o
o
kPa k K q
o s s
7 . 24 ) 35 6 . 0 tan( 46 4 . 1 tan
'
= = = o o
Ultimate compressive load (Pu)
Pu = A
b
q
b
+ A
s
q
s

A
b
=0.305
2
= 0.093 m
2
, A
s
= 40.30512= 14.64 m
2

Pu= 0.0932297.4 + 14.6424.7 = 213.6 + 361.6 = 575.2 kN
L=12m








zc=150.305
=4.575 m

B
g
=2.25m

12m










=34.6+(17.6-
9.81)2.6
=54.85

17.62

4.6m

2m

12m

3
/ 3 . 17 m kN =


3
/ 6 . 17 m kN
soil
=
16.82=33.6 kPa
(18-9.81)(4.575-2)+33.6
=54.7 kPa
o
o
'=54.7 kPa
2m

35
Example 5-2 Single Pile Capacity in Sand using SPT
A precast concrete pile 450 mm square in section and 9 m long is to be driven into a river bed which
consists of a depth of sand. The standard penetration resistance (N) at the pile base is 24, and the
average value of N along the pile length is 13. Calculate the ultimate compressive and tensile load
carrying capacity of the pile.

Solution
N = 24
13 = N
L
b
= 9.0 m
Ultimate compressive load capacity = A
b
q
b
+ A
s
q
s

Ultimate tensile load capacity = A
s
q
s
+Wp (weight of pile)
q
b
= (40N)Lb/B s 400N (kN/m
2
)
qb = 40 24 9/ 0.45 =
N q
s
2 = [kN/m
2
]
=2 13 = 26 kN/m
2

Solve yourself
Problem 5-3, Single Pile in Clay
A 400mm, square section concrete pile is driven to an embedded depth of 12m in a cohesive soil,
which has the following properties, |u=0, =20 kN/m
3
both above & below W.T., cu at 12m depth is
85.4 kPa. The water table is at a depth of 3m. Assume |=0.4. Calculate safe load capacity for the pile
adopting a FOS of 3 for the base shear and factor of safety of 2.5 for skin resistance.
L=12m







203=60 kPa
(20-9.81)(12-3)+60=151.7 kPa
3m

36
Solution
End bearing resistance
kPa cN q
c b
6 . 768 4 . 85 9 9c = = = =
Skin/friction resistance:
'
=
o s
q o |
Let us find average effective overburden pressure
kPa
o
9 . 86 )] 3 12 ( 2 / ) 60 7 . 151 ( 2 / ) 60 3 [( 12 / 1 = + + =
'
o
kPa q
o s
7 . 34 9 . 86 4 . 0 = =
'
= o |
Ultimate & Allowable Compressive loads:

s s b b u
q A q A P + =
kN P
u
792 2 . 666 8 . 125 7 . 34 12 ) 4 . 0 4 ( 6 . 786 ) 4 . 0 4 . 0 ( = + = + =
kN P
a
308
5 . 2
2 . 666
3
8 . 125
= + =
Problem 5-4Pile Group in Clay
Determine the safe load capacity for a square group of 9 piles in cohesive soil. Safety factor 2.5
against block failure. =20 kN/m
3
, cu at the base 85.4 kPa, average undrained shear strength =60.2
kPa, |u=0. Pu for single pile is equal to 819 kN.
Given Data
No of piles = n = 9, =20 kN/m3, cu (base) = 85.4 kN/m2, cu (avg.) = 60.2 kPa
P
u
(single pile) = 819 kN
Required
Safe Load Capacity of pile group = Pug
Solution
s s b b gp u
q A q A P + =
) (


37
2
/ 2 . 60 m kN c q
u s
= =
c u b
N c q =
Find N
c
by using the relation:-
9 053 . 0 1 2 . 0 1 14 . 5 s
(
(

+
(
(

+ =
g g
g
c
B
D
L
B
N
9
25 . 2
12
053 . 0 1
25 . 2
25 . 2
2 . 0 1 14 . 5 s
(

+
(

+ =
c
N
9 45 . 9 > =
c
N
So take 9 =
c
N
kPa N c q
c u b
6 . 768 9 4 . 85 = = =
2
0625 . 5 25 . 2 25 . 2 m A
b
= =
depth Parameter A
s
=

2
108 12 ) 25 . 2 25 . 2 ( 2 m A
s
= + =
kN P
gp u
10392 2 . 60 108 6 . 768 0625 . 5
) (
= + =

Ultimate load for piled foundation (Pile cap resting over group).
(a) Base Failure Value=10392 kN
(b) Such as of induced pile cap=8199=7371 kN

Minimum of (a) & (b) is selected for Pu(group)= 7371 kN
kN
FOS
P
P
u
allowable
4 . 2948
5 . 2
7371
= = =




12 m
2.25 m
2.25 m