Cultural Foundations of the Mongol Empire

Without question the story of the spread of the Mongols in the 13th century is one of the most terrifying yet riveting of all human history. Genghis Khan as po!erful a ruler as has ever e"isted too# a loose society of nomads and set in motion the formation of the largest empire in history. $heir victims vie!ed Mongol armies as a destructive force from hell a natural disaster. Genghis Khan%s armies conquered &sia from the 'acific (cean to the )lac# *ea and never lost a +attle. ,is successors +urst into Europe and smashed their !ay to -ienna. $hen they enforced peace and fostered trade. $hey tolerated their su+.ects% diversity and are partly responsi+le for the ma#ing of the modern !orld. & close loo# at the cultural foundations of the Mongol Empire reveals something more than +ar+arity at !or#. $he phrase genghis khan means /universal ruler.0 $he man !ho +ore this title starting in 1123 !as +orn $emuchin the son of a Mongol chieftain. ,e ruled his e"pansive empire for 11 years and left his people !ith a la! code an un+eata+le army and an effective administration4all +uilt from scratch 5he +orro!ed a !riting system6. $emuchin came to +elieve that the Mongol !ay of life !as the +est and that everyone in the !orld should adopt it. 7o one did. &s the Mongols settled do!n their ferocity did too. $he Mongol Empire lasted only around 182 years at !hich point the Mongols retreated to their original homeland and into o+scurity. $he +revity of their supremacy reveals .ust ho! important $emuchin their Genghis Khan !as to their cohesiveness and 9eal. $he Mongols first lived on a steppe an area of lo! hills covered in grass. &griculture !as never successful +ecause of a lac# of rainfall and the climate !as one of e"treme heat in summer and cold in !inter. $he ,uns or ,siung:7u to the Chinese in their day !ere terrors to +oth Europe and China. When their confederation of clans collapsed their descendants filtered into forests in *i+eria. &s hunters they !ere ignored +y their neigh+ors +ut as the descendants of the ,uns moved +ac# out onto the steppe to +ecome herders the Chinese called them Meng!u or Mongols. $emuchin !as +orn in 113; and his life story is li#e that of his people. ,is chieftain father !as poisoned +y $atars a rival steppe people so at the age of nine $emuchin and his family had to flee into the forests and live off game they could #ill and plants they could forage. &fter +eing captured once and escaping to another clan of Mongols $emuchin gre! up in the service of that tri+e%s #han. ,e !as married and +egan to see# re!ard in +attle as he served his master as a sort of mercenary. (ther !arriors !ere someho! dra!n to him and he trained his follo!ers to fight as units something ne! for Mongols. ,e successfully trac#ed do!n and #illed a $atar army and +egan his first massacring of survivors in revenge for his father%s death. ,e !ould +e massacring people for nearly the rest of his life. & personal description of $emuchin survives from a 'ersian !riting in this era and deserves quotation. $he !ould:+e !arrior<chieftain !as /a man of tall stature of vigorous +uild ro+ust in +ody the hair on his face scanty and turned !hite !ith cat%s eyes possessed of dedicated energy discernment genius and understanding a!e: stri#ing a +utcher .ust resolute an overthro!er of enemies intrepid sanguinary and cruel.0 ,e trained his army to o+ey his orders !ithout question to outmaneuver enemy units to attac# !here least e"pected to +ring over!helming force and to leave the

enemy helpless. When his o!n master enlisted a young rival to ta#e out $emuchin out of envy the three leaders met in +attle. $emuchin%s master $oghrul Khan !as #illed. $emuchin%s forces captured the other chieftain and e"ecuted him. &t a ceremony that follo!ed $emuchin !as elected Genghis Khan. ,aving suffered from the rivalry all around him Genghis Khan decided to act on the destiny given him +y his ne! title and unite all Mongols under his o!n rule. ,e promoted other chieftains into his o!n administration and developed !hat he called the Great =asa a +ody of la! orders and instructions that told his governors ho! to govern ho! crimes should +e punished and even ho! good Mongol households should +e run. *ome!here along the !ay he announced that $engri the god of the s#y had made him a shaman !ho !as supposed to march across the !orld at the head of an army. For the ne"t t!enty years Genghis Khan fought to +ring a huge empire under his personal control. ,e literally did set out to conquer the !hole !orld. )elieving that everyone in the !orld should aspire to +e a Mongol nomad he gained a terri+le reputation +ecause he tolerated no resistance. ,is o!n vassals soon learned that diso+edience meant death. When enemy rulers spouted defiance he assem+led huge armies as many as 122 222 strong to annihilate that ruler%s people. )ecause of their fanatic o+edience and trained s#ill in coordinating their attac#s Mongol armies could defeat forces many times their o!n si9e. >f a city resisted Genghis Khan he moved up siege engines and utterly destroyed it sle! all its defenders and chased a!ay all its fe! surviving inha+itants as if the idea of a city offended him. =et he spared as many cities as he destroyed even though Mongols thought city d!ellers to +e soft useless people. Genghis Khan created a disciplined cavalry culture from one previously made up of disorgani9ed looters. Mongol cavalrymen !ere divided into light and heavy troops all !earing some degree of leather armor e"cept on their +ac#s 5to discourage them from retreating a crime punisha+le +y death6. $hey used +o!s capa+le of firing arro!s up to 322 yards and practiced !ith them regularly. &t least one Mongol archer !as so s#illed as to +e a+le to silence a trumpeter stationed to !arn his city +y shooting the man through the nec# from over 122 yards a!ay? Mongols also carried +attle:a"es scimitars lances and small shields. $hey stole or +ought siege !eapons including +ron9e cannon and e"plosive charges from the Chinese. Genghis Khan selected the fastest most effective and most maneuvera+le medieval !arrior the cavalry archer and dispensed !ith infantrymen. ,is a+ility to move rapidly across long distances as much as 122 miles a day !as due to his !arriors% a+ility to endure many days and nights in the saddle !hile eating sleeping and fighting. &ll Mongol !arriors !ere ordered to +e on guard at all times and to fight to the death for each other. Genghis Khan distri+uted mem+ers of a clan into different units to avoid rivalries developing among units +ased on family loyalties. Mongol cavalrymen !ere therefore fiercely loyal to Genghis Khan alone. ,e gave them confidence +y training them continually. ,e insured unit cohesion and victory +y not allo!ing his !arriors to loot a conquered city until all the fighting !as over. Even dead Mongol !arriors got an even share of the +ooty that !ould then +e sent +ac# to their families. Genghis Khan also used spies scouts and a system of signaling !ith fires and flags that allo!ed him to position his troops at the right places in the proper formations depending on !hat type of enemy army he faced and !hat the enemy commanders did. ,e therefore possessed the information and psychological edge of ,anni+al. ,e often

employed the feigned retreat of the Gree#s at Marathon. ,e could unite or divide his forces instantly even in dim light as could 7athan )edford Forrest. Mongols even attac#ed in the dar#. &fter +rea#ing into a city that had defended itself Genghis Khan massacred the +ul# of the population +ut allo!ed a fe! people to escape so as to spread the ne!s in order to secure quic# surrender from neigh+oring cities. &s a destroyer of cities he resem+les William $ecumseh *herman minus the massacre part. &s one !ho rallied men he resem+led $ecumseh. ,e fattened his horses on summer grasses then attac#ed on into the !inter !hen his forces required less !ater. >n short he com+ined the consummate s#ills of many famous generals and created military superiority in his day unli#e any army +efore or since. $en thousand of the +est !arriors in Genghis Khan%s army +ecame his personal +odyguard all s!orn to give their lives in his defense or at his command. @oyalty to him !as such that he could send a messenger over vast distances to order the e"ecution of even a general !ho had made a mista#e and that man !ould instantly su+mit. $he Great Wall of China !as little hindrance to him. ,e depopulated northern China and turned its estates into hunting and gra9ing grounds for his army. Millions of people !ere #illed during his campaigns and millions more had all their property destroyed. $here are areas of his empire that have still never recovered from the devastation A22 years later? &fter forcing su+mission and tri+ute from conquered peoples Genghis Khan +rought order safety and therefore trade. While his ideal !orld !ould +e one +ig grassland he pitied city d!ellers +ut let them live if they surrendered !ithout a fight. $he =asa or la! code !as !ritten on a series of scrolls and imposed order on the entire Mongol Empire. Genghis Khan therefore codified many Mongol ta+oos li#e those against spilling +lood indoors or even against relieving oneself indoors or in a stream. $he death penalty !as decreed for these crimes and for lying falsely accusing another adultery 5in one%s o!n tri+e6 and stealing. >f a thief stole a horse though the punishment !as to return the horse along !ith nine others. >f the horse thief didn%t have enough horses to pay this penalty his children !ere ta#en. >f he had no children then he !ould +e #illed. *pea#ing of children many +lood feuds among the Mongol people !ere settled !hen Genghis Khan simply decreed that all children !ere legitimate and entitled to inherit property regardless of !ho their actual parents !ere. ,e also a+olished slavery for Mongols although the enslavement of conquered peoples !as permitted. $he =asa even esta+lished hunting seasons similar to our o!n to protect animals during their +irthing seasons. *ome =asa principles !ere merely guidelines li#e the one that suggested drin#ing of alcohol only three times a month. >n his quest to govern his empire Genghis Khan esta+lished rest areas for trade caravans and a system of sending messages li#e that of the 'ony E"press in the &merican !est minus the e"change of messages from man to man. Mongol /postmen0 simply rode their o!n team of horses up to 122 miles per day. Mongols% homes !ere circular tents made of felt pressed from !ool. & yurt as they !ere called !as sym+olically a sealed cham+er free from the dirt and violence of the outside !orld. $hese tents easily !ithstood the high !inds and frigid temperatures of Mongolia +ut could +e easily disassem+led and rapidly pac#ed. Mongols !ere polygamous and men !ere allo!ed to marry as many !omen as they could support. When a man died his heir !as e"pected to marry all the !ido!s e"cept his o!n +iological mother so that the clan !ould continue in sta+ility. With plenty of horses and

sheep a river near+y and a fe! chests filled !ith utensils idols and !eapons Mongols !ere at home in their tents. *leeping arrangements !ere laid out according to particular positions in the family and food !as prepared inside at a central hearth at !hich the fire !as never permitted to go out. $heir diet consisted almost entirely of protein either in the form of meat or dairy products. When it !as impossi+le to coo# meat Mongols merely ate it ra! or !armed it +y holding it +et!een their o!n thighs and their horse all day. While Mongol !arriors on campaign !ould sometimes resort to drin#ing their horses% +lood only a Mongol on the +rin# of starvation !ould thin# of slaughtering a horse to eat. $hey fermented +oth mil# in the summer and rice millet and honey 5 all imported from China6 in the !inter to produce the alcoholic +everages that !ere partly the undoing of the Mongol Empire. (f course conquered peoples yielded up !ine. Genghis Khan did not impose the shamanistic religion of the Mongols on conquered peoples nor adopt any religious ideas from them. Muslims )uddhists Christians and other religious peoples conquered +y the Mongols preached loyalty to the Mongol Khans as a !ay of preserving their o!n religious freedom. $he Mongols themselves !ere animists !ho +elieved spirits inha+ited trees prominent roc#s rivers fire idols +ut especially the s#y. *hamans !ere granted immunity from ta"es military service or any other pu+lic service +y the =asa +ecause they !ere gifted men !ho !ere thought to +e a+le to connect this !orld to the spirit !orld. Genghis Khan #ept many shamans as a part of his personal retinue +ut in the great crises of his life he merely !ent out and starved himself on some mountain until he also sa! visions. ,e +rought along someone to record !hatever he said during these trances and then acted unerringly on !hatever !as thus revealed. $hat system seemed to turn out !ell for him noB $his statement !ill sound almost trivial after all you%ve read +ut death !as a common occurrence around the Mongols. $heir devotion to +attle caused Mongol !arriors to give their lives !ithout a moment%s hesitation. Fatal illness and accidents !ere common. & Mongol child had his forehead slashed +y his father immediately upon +irth presuma+ly to acquaint the +a+y !ith the coming life of hardship. & form of capital punishment !as merely to +rea# the +ac# of the criminal and leave him to die of thirst. $hese e"amples of violence are recounted to convey .ust ho! used Mongols !ere to death4they sa! it all around themC they inflicted it on all races classes ages and on +oth se"es. $he =asa%s proscri+ed method of slaughtering an animal !as to cut open its chest and squee9e its heart until it stopped +eating. $heir approach to death !as therefore !ith fatalism rather than !ith fear. Chieftains !ere +uried !ith their possessions their favorite animals their !eapons and sometimes !ith their !ives and servants !ho !ould +e #illed at the funeral. &mong Mongols of the Golden ,orde 5stay tuned for !ho they !ere6 a horse !as driven +ac# and forth over the site of a tom+ until it died of e"haustion. $hat horse%s s#in !ould then +e pierced on the end of a long pole and left a+ove the grave as some type of offering or to !ard off evil spirits. Curiously most Mongol graves !ere not mar#ed for remem+ering the death of the deceased !as considered an insult. Great pains !ere ta#en to conceal +urial sites and sometimes even those doing the concealing !ere #illed to hide the secret. $here are several theories of ho! Genghis Khan died on &ugust 1A 111; !hile on campaign. ,e is thought to have succum+ed to disease to in.uries sustained falling from his horse or from in.uries received !hile raping a conquered queen. ,e had

conquered the largest realm of any ruler in history in less than t!enty years. &s his funeral procession crossed his empire the attendants #illed all foreigners they encountered to leave no !itnesses. ,is follo!ers +uried his +ody +eneath a tree on the slopes of )ur#han Khaldun in his homeland. ,e had made the mountain a prominent scene in many of his youthful adventures a for+idden 9one and it remained off limits to the outside !orld until the 12th century. $he actual site remains a great mystery to this day. $he tom+ is said to +e protected +y +oth natural and supernatural guardians. $he Mongols mourned the loss of Genghis Khan for t!o years and then had a forty:day festival of hunting feasting and drin#ing. When these festivities died do!n the Mongol assem+ly elected Genghis Khan%s hand:pic#ed son (godei to +e the ne"t Khan. Genghis Khan had selected this son +ecause of his shre!d understanding of people and his a+ility to ma#e friends easily. ,e thought (godei had the +est chance of carrying on his system. Without the strength of mind and !ill possessed +y Genghis Khan ho!ever (godei and other descendants of the Dniversal Euler !ere eventually overthro!n +y the civili9ations they found so repugnant. $he Mongols man for man !ere the +est soldiers to ever go on campaign. $his s#ill in conquering ho!ever did not equate automatically into a s#ill in governing. Furthermore (godei soon parted !ith the austerity of his father. ,e loved lu"ury !hereas Genghis Khan had actually feared it. )y 1132 (godei had done the unthin#a+le he had founded Kara#orum the Mongols% first city.