DECONSTRUCTING THE SCHOLARLY LITERATURE ON GENDER DIFFERENTIALS IN MATHEMATICS EDUCATION: IMPLICATIONS FOR RESEARCH ON GIRLS LEARNING MATHEMATICS IN BOTSWANA.

Alakanani Alex Nkhwalume Department of Mathematics & Science Education, University of otswana !nkhwalumeaa"at#mopipi$u%$%w& Abstract This paper outlines the authors purpose for reviewing literature on gender differences in mathematics education. An overview of research findings on gender and mathematics from industrial societies (USA, Australia, and UK) and from some developing countries in Southern Africa (South Africa, Mo am!i"ue, and #otswana) is then presented. Some causal factors for the e$istence of gender differences in mathematics achievement are criti"ued and the lin% !etween mathematics and social entities (democrac& and power) are challenged. The implications of the a!ove for research on girls learning mathematics in #otswana (and Africa) are finall& suggested. Introduction 'iterature review should not %e considered as merely part of the re(uirements in scholarly enterprises, %ut as a critical undertakin) in which the investi)ator exercises a constant scepticism on an issue of interest$ *n this paper, literature review is used as a process to criti(ue the conscious and unconscious assumptions of scholarly research on )ender differentials in mathematics education$ *t serves as a (ualitative analysis to determine how these assumptions force the definition of pro%lems and findin)s of such scholarly research efforts$ +he paper examines literature on research studies which have dealt with )ender differentials in mathematics classroom dynamics$ +he disenfranchisement of )irls in mathematics learnin) discourses and )irls, motivational orientations in mathematics are important issues for the human development efforts in otswana$ +he paper draws upon literature from -estern countries, specifically the USA, the U. and Australia where research on )ender differences in mathematics has %een considera%le and influential$ +he socio/political, cultural and socioeconomic contexts in these countries, however, differ from those of Southern Africa in many aspects of development "education, technolo)y, economic, etc$#, %ut there are possi%ilities to draw parallels, al%eit in a

limited way$ +hrou)h considerin) parallels and differences %etween -estern industrial cultures and Africa, the paper examines issues pertinent to African )irls affectin) their education$ +he literature analysis is a)ainst the %ackdrop of pro%lems such as 1*23A*DS and unplanned pre)nancies faced %y )irls within African communities$ otswana "like most of Africa# is )rapplin) with the 1*23A*DS pandemic4 hi)h levels of unemployment and poverty " *D5A, 6777#$ +he African Economic 8ommission "0999:;# states that:
Data from otswana, urundi, 8entral African <epu%lic, U)anda, =am%ia and =im%a%we indicate that )irls 0; to 09 years old have an "1*23A*DS# infection rate four to ten times that of %oys in the same )roup$

+his is the a)e )roup within which research on )ender and mathematics has tended to focus$ Accordin) to >ko?ie "6770#, the otswana study, commissioned %y the African Academy of Sciences <esearch 5ro)ramme, indicated the rate of teena)e pre)nancy %ein) hi)her than that of most other African countries$ 1*23A*DS, unplanned pre)nancies and lack of interest in mathematics are amon)st real pro%lems that )irls in the developin) world face which must %e taken on %oard when em%arkin) on a sociolo)ical research analysis involvin) )ender differences$ Notwithstandin) these developments, the (uestion of how to motivate students in the classroom is a leadin) concern for teachers of all disciplines$ Student motivation %ecomes especially relevant to mathematics education in the li)ht of recurrin) (uestions a%out how to )et more students interested and involved in the su%?ect$ As we proceed in the new millennium, otswana is pla)ued with si)nificant hi)h/school dropout rates and declinin) interest in mathematics amon) secondary school students$ Educators and policy makers need to understand the educational techni(ues that may @suffocate students, interest in learnin), " o))iano and 5ittman, 0996#, then work to rekindle that interest$ +his paper is concerned with the use of mathematics as a 'filter for further education and career choices$ +his affects )irls more as they tend to shy away from the study of hi)her level mathematics, science and en)ineerin) as reflected in the University of otswana yearly intake "Aact ooks 67764 677B4 677C3;4 677;3D#$ +he literature analysis proceeds from an articulation of )irls, reported achievement tendencies within mathematics learnin) discourses in the developed 6

world and explores the situation in Africa, particularly Southern Africa, with a special focus on otswana$ Gender differences in mathematics education
The developed worlds perspective on gender and mathematics

8ontemporary research studies reflect scholars, maturin) view of the complexity of causation of differences %etween males and females in mathematics education$ As Aennema "6777# ri)htly points out, from around 09E7, 'se$ differences index was used to imply that any differences found were %iolo)ically, and thus, )enetically determined, immuta%le and not chan)ea%le$ Durin) the E7,s and F7,s 'se$(related differences criterion was often used to indicate that while the %ehaviour of concern was clearly related to the sex of the su%?ects, it was not necessarily )enetically determined$ 'atey, 'gender differences refers to social or environmental causation of differences that are o%served %etween the sexes$ +his paper critically reviews work %y leadin) researchers in the era of this new understandin) of )ender differences$ Accordin) to 'eder "099D# there were pro%a%ly more research studies pu%lished on )ender and mathematics than any other area %etween 09E7 and 0997$ Aennema "099B, 6777# concluded that while many studies had %een poorly analysed and3or included sexist interpretations, there was evidence to support the existence of differences %etween )irls, and %oys, learnin) of mathematics, particularly in activities that re(uired complex reasonin)4 that the differences increased at a%out the onset of adolescence and were reco)nised %y many leadin) mathematics educators$ Salmon "099F# concurred with the notion that )ender differences increase at secondary school level, particularly in situations that re(uire complex reasonin)$ *n the a%sence of an African position disputin) such views, it suffices to assume that similar differences mi)ht occur in the Southern African contexts$ Studies %y Aennema and Sherman "09EE, 09EF# documented sex/related differences in achievement and participation, and found )ender differences in the election of advanced level mathematics courses$ +hey hypothesised that if females participated in advanced mathematics classes at the same rate that males did, )ender differences would disappear$ Stanley and en%ow "09F7# used interpretations of some of their studies as a refutation of this @ differential course(

ta%ing h&pothesis$ +hey ar)ued that )ender differences in mathematics were )enetic, a claim which was widely attacked and disproved, %ut whose pu%lication had unfortunate repercussions "Gaco%s and Eccles, 09F;#$ Aennema and Sherman "09EE, 09EF# identified as critical, %eliefs a%out the usefulness of, and confidence in learnin) mathematics, with males providin) evidence that they were more confident a%out learnin) mathematics and %elieved that mathematics was, and would %e, more useful to them than did females$ +here was evidence that while youn) men did not stron)ly stereotype mathematics as a male domain, they did %elieve much more stron)ly than did youn) women that mathematics was more appropriate for males than for females$ +he importance of these varia%les "confidence, usefulness and male stereotypin)#, their lon)/term influence, and their differential impact on females and males was re/confirmed %y many other studies "1yde et al., 09974 +artre and Aennema, 09904 'eder, 0996#$ Earlier, Macco%y and Gacklin "09EC# had reported differences %etween females and males in spatial skills, particularly spatial visualiHation or the a%ility to visualiHe movements of )eometric fi)ures in one,s mind$ +he Aennema/Sherman studies and the Aennema and +artre "09F;# lon)itudinal study investi)ated spatial skills or spatial visualisation$ +hey found that while spatial visualisation was positively correlated with mathematics achievement "that does not indicate causation#, not all )irls were handicapped %y inade(uate spatial skills, except those who scored very low on spatial tasks$ Aennema "099B# su))ested that an appropriate curriculum redesi)n could compensate for these weak skills$ >ther studies ".erns and eren%aum, 09904 2oyer, 2oyer and ryden, 099;# reported %oys outperformin) )irls on tests of visual3spatial a%ilities: the a%ility, that is, to draw inferences a%out or to otherwise mentally manipulate pictorial information$ +he male advanta)e in spatial a%ilities was reportedly not lar)e, %ut detecta%le %y middle childhood and persisted across the life span$ 8asey, Nuttall and 5eHaris "099E# concluded that sex differences in visual3spatial a%ilities and the pro%lem/solvin) strate)ies they support contri%ute to sex differences in arithmetic reasonin)$ Althou)h they were not particularly innovative nor offered insi)hts that others were not su))estin), the Aennema/Sherman studies had a ma?or impact since they were pu%lished when

the concern with )ender and mathematics was )rowin) internationally$ +hey were identified %y -al%er) & 1aertel "0996# and others as amon) the most often (uoted social science and educational research studies durin) the F7,s and 97,s$ +he pro%lems of )ender and mathematics were defined and documented in terms of the study of advanced mathematics courses, the learnin) of mathematics, and selected related varia%les that appeared relevant %oth to students, selection of courses and learnin) of mathematics$ +he Aennema/Sherman Mathematics Attitude Scales have %een widely used as )uidelines for plannin) interventions and research studies$ 8amp%ell "09FD# found that )irlsI lack of confidence in themselves as mathematics learners, their perception of mathematics as difficult, and their view that mathematics is a male activity, all had impact on )irlsI attitudes, achievement, and participation in advanced courses$ *n a lon)itudinal study of sixth, ei)hth, tenth, and twelfth )rades, +artre and Aennema "0990# found that, for )irls, viewin) mathematics as a male domain was correlated to mathematics achievement$ Jirls in sin)le/sex schools or in out/of/school mathematics pro?ects / who did not see mathematics as an exclusively male domain tended to have hi)her mathematics success$ -hen this dynamic was chan)ed to make mathematics accessi%le to %oth )irls and %oys, )irls, interest and involvement were found to rise$ <eyes and Stanic "09FF# and Secada "0996# have ar)ued that socioeconomic status and ethnicity interact with )ender to influence mathematics learnin)$ Aor)asH and 'eder "099F# share the view that )ender differentials in participation rates are associated with the interaction of positive attitudes and %eliefs a%out mathematics and socioeconomic status$ +he transfera%ility of these findin)s, %ased on -estern cultural concepts, poses a pro%lem for African contexts$ Socioeconomic status indicators in the otswana for instance, somewhat differ from the U. model and need %e appropriately contextualised$ +he (uestion of ethnicity also %ecomes pro%lematic in otswana context since a%out F;K of the population is of +swana ethnic ori)in$ Moreover, ethnic differences have never %een of si)nificance and mi)ht not necessarily affect )ender differences in mathematics in the same way as in -estern contexts$
Trends of gender differences in mathematics from the United Kingdom

+he )ender )ap in performance throu)hout the su%?ects in the United .in)dom has %een shiftin) in favour of )irls since the early 0997s$ *n national curriculum tests and at hi)her level J8SE )rades, )irls outperform %oys$ Aor example, in 099E, C9K of )irls achieved five or more hi)her )rade J8SEs compared with C7K %oys "DfEE, 099E#$ 1owever, at the lower levels of J8SE attainment, the )ender )ap is smaller in percenta)e point terms$ *n 099E, F$FK of %oys and D$;K of )irls failed to )ain J8SE (ualifications "DfEE, 099E#$ +hese fi)ures show some of the paradoxes in )ender and attainment$ Males )ain most of the hi)her education top awards %ut the trend is for )irls in )eneral to do %etter in pu%lic examinations than %oys L differences which are apparent in the earlier years of schoolin)$ 8onse(uently, current concerns a%out schoolin) are now more related to %oys, underachievement "as demonstrated in pu%lic examinations# than to that of )irls$ +he (uestion is whether such outcomes at school and hi)her education reflect approaches to assessment, methods of teachin), and3or expectations of society$ +he >fS+ED "677B# report found that %oys pro)ress more than )irls in mathematics throu)hout schools$ <esearch indicated that in mathematics the )ap %etween %oys and )irls attainin) level C and a%ove at the end of .ey Sta)e 6 was only one percenta)e point, with %oys at EBK and )irls at E6K4 however, B6K of %oys achieved level ; and a%ove whilst only 6DK )irls did ">fS+ED, 677B:0B#$ Accordin) to >fS+ED "677B:0C# althou)h the differences are smaller than those in En)lish, it is a continuous trend and it is therefore still vital to understand why )irls perform %etter in certain su%?ects such as literacy and underachieve in comparison to %oys in mathematics$ >ne key reason may %e the perception )irls have of this su%?ect area$ +he 099F >fS+ED <eport on @<ecent <esearch on Jender and Education 5erformance, stated that Mscience, mathematics, technolo)y, *8+ and 5E are rated as @masculine, %y pupils and preferred %y %oysN "Arnot et al., 099F:B0#$ Jirls rated En)lish, humanities, music, 5SE and <E as feminine and preferred %y )irls$ 1owever, Archer and Macrae "0990# are cited in the same >fS+ED report su))estin) that mathematics has %ecome more )ender neutral perhaps reflected in the smaller )ap %etween )enders than that of literacy$ +he reason the )ap has %ecome smaller may %e %ecause )irls are more prepared to tackle @masculine, su%?ects$

5u%lic concern a%out the underperformance of %oys has risen since the early 0997s as )irls outstripped their male classmates academically$ Althou)h the proportion )ettin) five 8,s or %etter increased from BFK in 099D to CDK in 677B, the )ender )ap remained steady at 07 percenta)e points in favour of )irls$ oth %oys and )irls in deprived areas )ot much lower )rades than their more advanta)ed peers$ ut while )irls in poor areas were improvin) faster than those in affluent areas, the )ap %etween rich and poor %oys remained constant$ Dr$ De%orah -ilson, ristol University expert on the )ender )ap in schools, ar)ued that the differences are likely to %e a result of factors outside school: M+he effect of poverty on exam results is )reater than the effect of )ender$ *f we focus more on the reasons for poverty affectin) performance we mi)ht )et %etter results for %oth %oys and )irlsN "T)S, *+ August ,--.#$ Accordin) to Mendick "6776#, in En)land, the evolvin) )endered patterns of attainment in mathematics need to %e ?uxtaposed with the unchan)in) )endered patterns of participation in the su%?ect$ +here are very few remainin) differences %etween the attainment of male and female students in either J8SE, AS, or A/level mathematics examinations "taken at a)es 0DO, 0EO and 0F respectively# "Jorard et al$, 67704 Juardian, 6776a, 6776%#$ Althou)h %oys are still more likely to secure the top AP and A )rades at J8SE and A/level respectively, the differences are small and )ettin) smaller$ *n contrast to these shiftin) patterns of attainment, the decision to continue with advanced mathematics remains hi)hly )endered in favour of %oys$ +his polariHation persists despite decades of feminist intervention4 as Shaw "099;:07E# ar)ues: Mthe most strikin) feature of su%?ect choice is that the freer it is, the more )endered it is$N *n fact, from 099C to 6776, the proportion of the total num%er of 0E and 0F year/olds entered for A/level mathematics in En)land who are male showed little chan)e, droppin) only sli)htly from D;K to DBK "Jovernment Statistical Service, 099; to 67764 Juardian, 6776%#$ +his )reater participation of males in mathematics courses %ecomes more pronounced as you )o up the levels from A/level, to under)raduate, and then to post)raduate, and is reflected in the lar)er num%er of men than women workin) in mathematically/oriented fields$ Mendick "6776:0# ar)ued:

+he )ender )ap in maths performance in this country, while still mar)inally in favour of %oys, is continuin) to narrow "Smithers, 67774 Jorard et al$, 6770#$ 1owever, the )ender )ap in participation in maths remains in spite of more than two decades of feminist initiatives for chan)e$ Moreover, maths %ecomes increasin)ly male dominated as we pro)ress from sixth/form "a)es 0D to 09# to under)raduate levels, and from under)raduate to post)raduate levels " oaler, 6777#$$$ )irls continue to disproportionately opt out of maths, a powerful area of the curriculum that provides a @critical filter, "Sells, 09F7# to hi)h status areas of academia and employment$

+he a%ove su))ests that althou)h )irls are doin) %etter than %oys overall across the su%?ect areas in the U., they still fall %ehind when choosin) mathematics at hi)her levels of the education system$ Mendick also portrays mathematics as a powerful su%?ect, a si)nifier of intelli)ence that acts as a @critical filter, controllin) entry to hi)her status areas of academia and employment$ +hus, for those concerned with social ?ustice, it is pertinent to ask how it is that people come to choose mathematics and in what ways this process is )endered, which is the point of concern for this paper$ Accordin) to evan "677;#, the findin)s from the review of existin) research included evidence that )irls outperform %oys in mathematics up to the %e)innin) of A/level, %ut that the differences are small, and are not consistent across all components of the su%?ect4 attitudes to mathematics vary accordin) to )ender4 there are si)nificant differences in the expectations of %oys and )irls re)ardin) their own performance in mathematics4 %oys and )irls differ in their typical learnin) styles4 and that a%ility )roupin) impacts differently on %oys and )irls$ evan,s "677;# interviews revealed that teachers with very limited exposure to formal research were a%le to articulate ?ud)ments a%out )ender differences in learnin) mathematics %ased solely on classroom experience4 and that their intuitive ?ud)ments were often %roadly correct, %ut tended to exa))erate the extent of any real differences$ 5resently there is no comparative research concernin) otswana teachers, ?ud)ments on )ender differences in the learnin) of mathematics$ Sparkes "0999# pointed out that the )ender )ap in the U. was related to a variety of social issues includin): parents, educational attainment, )rowin) up dependent on an income support recipient3eli)i%le for free school meals, housin) tenure and conditions, family structure "such as

lone parent family#, parental interest, involvement, practice, etc$ +hese trends are different from the situation in otswana and any comparisons need a contextual analysis of the situation$
Perspectives from Africa with specific reference to Southern Africa

Jender differences in mathematics education in developin) countries are one critical area of research that needs further exploration$ +here is limited information a%out the status of contextual research on women and )irls in those settin)s in relationship to their mathematical education$ As .itetu "677C:D/E# acknowled)es from an African view:
Unfortunately, while a lot of )ender pro)rammes have %een carried out, not much research has %een done within the classroom in the continent$ >ur understandin) of )ender in classroom practices is most often %ased on what has %een studied in -estern Europe and North America$ * would like to ar)ue that there is always a cultural an)le in studies of social practices$

Aortunately, there are emer)in) research efforts in the area of mathematics as the African continent %e)ins to face up to the realities of )ender differences in classroom practices$ +he persistent patriarchal attitudes in Africa tended to prevent researchers from pro%lematisin) the )ender issue$ *nvesti)atin) )ender differences and lack South African learners, attitudes towards

mathematics, Mahlomaholo and Sematle "677C:C/;# reported that:

+he differences %etween %oys and )irls were very clear at all levels of analysisQ Aor example they ")irls# said it was %ecause of parental pressure3choice or %ecause their friends were studyin) the discipline, or %ecause their teachers instructed them to study mathematics$ >thers even went to the extent of citin) chance or fate as responsi%le for them takin) mathematics as an area of studyQ +hey were apolo)etic and not takin) responsi%ility on themselvesQ +hey even expressed their em%arrassment at not %ein) )ood at mathematics, they also expressed the fear for their teachers whom they compared to lionsQ they tended to a)ree that mathematics is for all and not for a particular )ender$

Aor the )irls in Mahlomaholo and Sematle "677C:D/E#, mathematics was Mtoo difficultN and
Qthey were fed up with the su%?ect andQ cannot %e expected to continue with a su%?ect that they were failin) so dismallyQ did not even have an interest in the su%?ect as it demanded too much work and time to study while the %oys saw much value in the disciplineQ+here is no reason at all why some human %ein)s do not have appropriate views re)ardin) the study of mathematics, it is

only %ecause the views of a culture and a milieu that undermines women speak throu)h them and have manifested themselves firmly in their minds$

*n their study of three successful women in mathematics related careers, Mahlomaholo and Mathamela "677C:B# reported the prevalence of a conventional patriarchal approach in the South African society$ +hey ar)ued that:
*t tends to privile)e male interests and their privile)ed positions at the expense of women throu)h the %elief that the status (uo where male dominate is natural and )ivenQ Schools tend to operate in line with this approach$

+o underscore how the three women persevered in mathematics within the hostile cultural attitudes, Mahlomaholo and Mathamela "677C:E# ar)ued that:
Qsocialisation and up%rin)in), includin) home and family %ack)round, as well as parental support, were identified as factors that ena%led the three women to )o %eyond the limitations of their situations$

Mahlomaholo and Mathamela were convinced that %eyond contextual and social factors the women had stron) conceptions of themselves$ +hey had self/%elief in their a%ilities and a love for mathematics, which could not %e dampened either %y teachers, ne)ative remarks or the social structure,s ne)ative stereotypes$ +he study identified social contextual factors and intra/psychic motivational factors as responsi%le for ena%lin) female learners of mathematics to either excel or fail at the su%?ect$ 8assy "677C:;/D# reported from MoHam%i(ue that: MAlthou)h the main aim of the education policy of the country is to promote, amon) others, )ender e(uity in access to all education levels, there are more females than males, who do not %enefit from this$ +his )ender discrepancy increases over the education levels, %ein) more at the tertiary level and particularly in mathematics and its related fields$N 8assy found si)nificant differences %etween the patterns of attitudes towards mathematics expressed %y %oys and )irls in which %oys rated their attitudes more positively than )irls did$ oys were more confident in workin) in mathematics than )irls, and )irls were more convinced that mathematics was a male domain than %oys$

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Aurthermore, )irls were reported to %elieve much more than %oys that mathematics is more appropriate for males than for females$ oth )irls and %oys were found to a)ree that mathematics was useful$ +hese findin)s are not different from what has %een reported in -estern research studies$ 5erhaps this was to %e expected since the study used the Aennema/Sherman Mathematics Attitude Scale with its ro%ust -estern cultural (uestionin) style$ 8assy "677C:D# acknowled)es that: Mthe ma?ority of )irls did not like the connotation of the items$N +his calls for a more contextualised itemisation of the scales adopted from -estern research contexts$ 8hacko "677C# presented another study from a Southern African perspective on the pro%lems of students in learnin) mathematics and the approaches used in teachin) mathematics in South Africa$ 8hacko reported no differences %etween )irls and %oys in terms of likin) the su%?ect$ 8hacko "677C:C# wrote:
Q they do like mathematics and would like to do well in it %ut for them it is a very difficult su%?ect$ +his interest in doin) mathematics came out more prominently in township schools where they considered it important for future ?o%s$ +he South African students, %elief that mathematics is difficult was found amon) secondary school students in =im%a%we "8hacko, 6777#$

8hacko "677C:C/;# further ar)ues that students were encoura)ed to do well in mathematics %ecause Mtheir )oals in life are somethin) that is ur)in) them to like mathematics which accordin) to 1annula "6776# is @the value of mathematics / related goals in the students glo!al goal structure$,N *t seems, from 8hacko,s ar)uments that the li%ing of mathematics was not intrinsic to the students, %ut driven %y the ur)e to do well in the su%?ect %ecause of the need and importance it presented for their future tra?ectories$ Accordin) to 8hacko "677C:F#, )irls in township schools seemed to spend more of out of school time on household chores, which could affect their studies$ +he same could %e said a%out otswana )irls as 8hacko "677C:;/D# further ar)ued:
Q chores took most of their time while school work was at the end when they were already tired to concentrate$ +his is more a developin) country pro%lem where chores in the house are kept for )irls, which could affect the time they spent on learnin) and their vision for the future$ Q Some of the )irls in the township schools said that when they do not find time to complete homework, due to the reprimand from teachers, they would rather miss school$ >nce they miss school, it %ecomes difficult to catch up, which eventually lead to failure and drop out$

00

Some of these pro%lems are uni(ue to the African contexts, and cannot %e i)nored when em%arkin) on research on )ender and mathematics$ 8hacko "677C:F# reported that the ma?ority of students wanted mathematics to %e made fun and to %e related to life where they can see its use$ MJirls in particular would like to see the content related to situations in life where these could %e applied$N Some reported %ein) shy and afraid to tell teachers that they did not understand, to avoid %ein) ridiculed in pu%lic "%y fellow classmates or teachers#$ Some of these issues are distinctive features of )ender differences in African contexts which distin)uish them from those of -estern industrial societies$ Arom the researcher,s experiences of teachin) in secondary schools in otswana and Nottin)ham "U.#, there seems to %e common )round with 8hacko,s ar)uments$ >ver the years there have %een efforts to address the )ender disparities in education in Africa, with a particular concern on the enrolment of )irls, which for years has %een very low$ As .itetu "677C# put it:
+he im%alance in %oys, and )irls, participation in schoolin) was linked to the a)e/lon) %elief in male superiority and female su%ordination$ +his situation was further explained as a))ravated %y patriarchal practices, which )ave )irls no traditional ri)hts to successionQ encoura)ed preference to %e )iven to the education of a %oy rather than of a )irl$

+hese small/scale investi)ations are recent efforts towards a %etter understandin) of )ender differentials in mathematics from an African perspective$
Some experiences from otswana on gender and mathematics

otswana, unlike the USA, the U., Australia and other advanced countries where )ender and mathematics literature is widely reported, is not a hi)hly hetero)eneous society$ +his is not to claim its homo)eneity, %ut that the layers, divisions and cultures are fewer and hence, the pattern of female differences in mathematics varies across fewer layers$ +hat means varia%les such as socioeconomic status and ethnicity need to %e viewed differently %y evaluatin) the prevailin) social structures$

06

Efforts to study )ender differences in

otswana mathematics classroom dynamics have %arely

%e)un$ +he tendency, as it has %een the case all over Africa, was to encoura)e )irls, access to education a)ainst traditional attitudes that hindered their participation$ Althou)h this is still a pro%lem in many African countries, "677C:B# reports:
*n some countries of the south " otswana, 'esotho, Nami%ia and Mauritius#, female enrolment levels actually exceeded that of males at %oth primary and secondary levels$

otswana seems to have overcome this hurdle as .itetu

Althou)h the e(uality achieved in enrolments for learners of %oth sexes in these countries is course for cele%ration, the classroom situation tells a different story, particularly in the study of mathematics and the natural sciences$ +here are small num%ers of )irls who continue with mathematics %eyond secondary education, yet mathematics continues to define the course (ualifications in many areas of further studies$ 5erhaps the fairly %alanced num%ers of )irls and %oys at University over the years "a%out ;7K respectively#, have masked any )ender disparities$ A study %y .aino "677B# confronted the pro%lem of )ender differentials in mathematics in otswana Gunior Secondary schools %y identifyin) three themes formin) the ma?or areas of concern for investi)ation$ +hese are Mstudents, interest in learnin) mathematics, feelin)s in mathematics class and interactions in a mathematics classN ".aino, 677B:B/;#$ .aino alluded to the idea that studies done in otswana Mindicated that cultural expectations of society could )ive rise to differences in performance %etween )irls and %oys in school su%?ectsN and that Msuch expectations could influence occupational choices %etween the two sexesN ".aino, 677B:6#$ .aino "677B:B# found no si)nificant differences in interest for mathematics %etween )irls and %oys$ +hose who indicated low interest in mathematics cited its difficulty as the main reason$ Still others felt that they Mneeded more help in mathematics learnin) and others did not consider mathematics to %e in their future careers$N .aino "677B:C# reports that %oys felt Mmore comforta%le in mathematics classesN while )irls were more worried$ +he discomfort in mathematics classes was attri%uted to %ein) Mafraid of mathematics teachersN and %ein) Mshy in class$N +his resonates with the likenin) of teachers to lions %y the )irls in Mahlomaholo and Sematle "677C:;#, and 8hacko,s "677C# similar findin)s on fear of teachers and shyness in class$

0B

.aino "677B:;# indicted that respondents had no pro%lems interactin) in mathematics classes with classmates of the opposite sex$ 1owever:
Q a%out a (uarter of the students of %oth sexesQ said they had some pro%lems when studyin) with students of opposite sexes$ Q More )irls than %oys lau)h at the opposite sex when one fails to answer the (uestion correctly in class$

+he )irls accused the %oys of resortin) to intimacy, harassment and intimidation in class$ +he %oys complained of lack of concentration as they admired )irls and kept lookin) at their faces$ .aino "677B# ar)ues that the study was not conclusive and re(uired further analysis$ 1owever, it )ives a )limpse of )ender differentials in mathematics education in otswana$ +hat more )irls were afraid of teachers and more worried durin) lessons is cause for concern$ +he use of corporal punishment %y teachers durin) mathematics classes ".aino, 677B:D# is another hurdle$ +he students, shyness and their tendency to lau)h at each other,s incorrect responses add more complexity$ Such factors are not widely reported in -estern cultural research studies, which makes the need to contextualise research on )ender and mathematics in Africa more apparent$ Are gender differences due to classroom interaction with teachers! Some have ar)ued that teachers have theories and %elief systems that influence their perceptions, plans and actions in the classroom "Aennema, 0997# which affect and shape classroom dynamics$ Since %ehaviour is )uided %y a personally held system of %eliefs, values and principles "5eterson and ar)er, 09F;#, there are si)ns that teachers, sex/related %eliefs a%out children mi)ht influence their "teachers,# classroom %ehaviour "Jood and Aindley, 09F;#$ +his su))ests that teachers, %eliefs or expectations mi)ht directly influence their classroom %ehaviour and thus need to continually (uestion how their %elief systems affect learners$ Many studies have documented the relative easiness of identifyin) differential teacher interactions with )irls and %oys "'eder and Aennema, 0997#$ *n particular, teachers interact more with %oys, praise and scold %oys more, and call on %oys more than )irls "+aole, =onneveld & Nkhwalume, 099B#$ 1owever, the impact of this differential treatment is unclear and difficult to ascertain$ +here was no evidence that all differential teacher treatment of %oys and )irls is very 0C

closely related to )ender differences in mathematics "'eder, 09F64 Eccles &

lumenfeld, 09F;4

.oehler, 0997#$ 1owever, Aennema and 5eterson "09FD# found that small differences in teacher %ehaviour com%ined with the or)anisation of instruction, made up a pattern of classroom or)anisation that appeared to favour males$ Aor instance, competitive activities encoura)ed %oys, learnin) and had a ne)ative influence on )irls, learnin), while the opposite was true of cooperative learnin)$ Since competitive activities were much more prevalent than cooperative activities, it appeared that classrooms were more often favoura%le to %oys, than to )irls, learnin)$ Aennema and 5eterson "09F;# proposed the Autonomous 0earning #ehaviours model, which su))ested that %ecause of societal influences "of which teachers and classrooms were the main components# and personal %elief systems "lowered confidence, attri%utional style, %elief in usefulness#, females did not participate in learnin) activities that ena%led them to %ecome independent learners of mathematics$ +his model still appears valid in the context of otswana, althou)h some may ar)ue that independence in mathematical thinkin) may %e learned throu)h workin) in cooperation with others to solve mathematical pro%lems$ *dentifyin) %ehaviours in classrooms that influence )ender differences in learnin) and patterns has %een difficult$ Aactors that many %elieved to %e self/evident have not %een shown to %e particularly important, and there is no reason to %elieve that there is sufficient evidence to conclude that teachers interactin) more or differently with )irls than with %oys is a ma?or contri%utor to the development of )ender differences in mathematics$ Aor instance in America, many intervention pro)rammes were desi)ned to help teachers reco)nise how they treat %oys and )irls differently$ Unfortunately, such pro)rammes do not appear to have %een successful in eliminatin) )ender differences in mathematics "Aennema, 6777#$ Differential teacher treatment of %oys and )irls in otswana "+aole, =onneveld and Nkhwalume, 099B# is merely one piece of the complexity of the causes of )ender differences in mathematics$ "o females learn mathematics differentl# to males! A series of meta/analyses of extant work on )ender differences was reported in the USA, Australia, and 8anada "1yde, Aennema, and 'amon, 09974 1yde, Aennema, <yan, and Arost, 0997#$ +here were indications that while )ender differences in mathematics achievement mi)ht

0;

have decreased, they still existed in tasks that re(uired functionin) at hi)h co)nitive levels$ *t also seemed that when tests measured pro%lem solvin) at the most complex co)nitive level, the more apt there were to %e )ender differences in mathematics in favour of males$ +he international assessment reported %y 1anna "09F9# showed results that %asically confirmed this assertion$ Arom a -estern perspective, scholars documented that differential mathematics achievement and participation of females and males existed4 some related educational and psycholo)ical varia%les were identified4 explanatory models were then proposed4 interventions, %ased on the identified varia%les, were desi)ned to alleviate the documented differences$ *n the USA, for instance, intervention pro)rammes such as Math EU<E.A, the Dou)las Science *nstitute "DS*#, >peration SMA<+ "Science, Mathematics and <elevant +echnolo)y#, ERUA'S, JESA "Jender Ethnic Expectations3Student Achievement# and SEED "Seekin) Educational E(uity and Diversity# were desi)ned to lure )irls into mathematics, science and en)ineerin) careers$ As the research on )ender differentials in mathematics )ained momentum in -estern societies, some %e)an to investi)ate this phenomenon from the co)nitive science perspective$ Aennema et al. "099F# em%arked on a three/year lon)itudinal study of teachers and their students$ As Aennema "6777:9# reported, they concluded that:
Ma?or )ender differences in performance usually don,t appear until sometime in adolescence when they are more often exhi%ited in complex mathematics tasks, particularly on tests of pro%lem solvin)$ +he )ender differences that were reported in this study stron)ly su))est that more )irls than %oys were followin) a pattern of mathematical development and learnin) that was not %ased on understandin)$ And the lack of understandin) %ecomes more critical as students pro)ress throu)h school$ -hile it is possi%le to learn to do arithmetic procedures in the early )rades without understandin), it %ecomes more and more difficult to learn advanced ideas unless a foundation of understandin) is present from the very %e)innin)$

Some %elieved that somethin) was takin) place in the classrooms that encoura)ed these )ender differences to emer)e$ 1yde and Guffee "099F# su))ested that in classrooms where teachers have the freedom to make instructional decisions, their stereotypical %eliefs a%out )ender and mathematics could lead them to interact differently with %oys and )irls, and that in turn would lead to the differences found$ 1owever, from otswana perspective, where similar teachers,

0D

classroom %iases were reported "+aole, =onneveld and Nkhwalume, 099B#, this was re)ardless of the teachers, %eliefs, hence this raises more (uestions than answers$ Another hypothesis pointed to children,s choice of strate)ies to report$ Aennema "6777:00# su))ests that M5erhaps )irls chose to use strate)ies that could make their ideas clear partly %ecause their teachers and peers wanted to understand each child,s thinkin)$N Accordin) to 1yde and Guffee "099F#, )irls, more than %oys, are more socially aware of others, needs and3or more compliant$ Aennema "6777:00# further wrote:
*t is clear that co)nitive science methodolo)ies are providin) tools for us to )ain deeper understandin) of the complexity of )ender differences$ -e are ?ust %e)innin) to understand differences in mental activities %etween )irls and %oys and to assess their impact on learnin)$ -e also know that teachers, thou)hts a%out )irls and %oys influence their instructional decisions$ Understandin) teachers, %eliefs and knowled)e a%out )irls and %oys will provide important information as we plan interventions to achieve e(uity$

*n the wake of these ar)uments, (uestions arise as to whether females learn mathematics differently than do males$ +his raises further (uestions of whether special pro)rammes should %e developed for females$ >ne way to approach the pro%lem of a )endered mathematics is not to look at the su%?ect, %ut to examine the way that people think and learn within the su%?ect$ elenky et al$,s "09FD# study which identified women,s ways of thinkin) and knowin) is one such approach$ Aemale/friendly instruction has %een %randed one way of helpin) )irls learn mathematics %etter$ Accordin) to Aennema "6777:06#:
>thers have interpreted discussions arisin) from the %elief a%out a female world/view and applied the ideas to descri%in) female/friendly instruction$ Such instruction usually includes such thin)s as the )reater inclusion of cooperation rather than of competition in classrooms, small )roup rather than individual work, more communication, and3or more socially relevant mathematics$ >thers have ar)ued for sin)le/sex schools oriented to the mathematics instruction of females$ <unnin) throu)h these su))estions, it seems to me, is a %asic %elief that females learn differently and perform differently in mathematics than do males$ +his %elief is dramatically different than the %elief of a universal way of human thinkin) espoused %y the co)nitive scientists$

Aennema,s ar)uments are important for this paper since she (uestions the methodolo)y applied to studies on )ender differences in mathematics$ +he voices of those tar)eted for investi)ations are an important part of a sociolo)ical en(uiry that this analysis advocates$ *t is, therefore, imperative to present research findin)s throu)h the voices of the informants$ +his calls for 0E

researchers in African contexts to understand and criti(ue claims a%out female learners in the developed world from the African )irls, personal experiences in learnin) mathematics$ oaler "6776:CB# su))ested that Mstudents, knowled)e development Q was constituted %y the peda)o)ical practices which they en)a)ed$N +his was an advocation for an intricate relationship %etween knowled)e and practices from a comparison %etween the traditional 'demonstration and student practice approach to teachin) and teacher desi)ned 'open(ended pro1ects. *n oaler,s studies, the open/ended pro?ects and discussion/oriented mathematics classrooms tended to make students perform %etter and identify themselves with the su%?ect$ >n the contrary, many of those learnin) throu)h traditional methods Mtalked a%out their dislike of mathematics, and their plans to leave the su%?ect as soon as they were a%leQN oaler "6776:CD#$ Earlier, the 8utler/'andsman "0990# study on 'e)o +8 reported that when the learnin) structure was chan)ed to truly inte)rate )irls and %oys into team pro?ects and to provide )irls with an opportunity to select pro?ects, )irls %e)an to express considera%le interest %ecause they had the opportunity to share the %oysI expertise in le)os$ +he chan)e in classroom structure to place )irls in positions of relative power and importance as spokespersons ena%led )irls to %oth familiarise themselves with computer lan)ua)e and to develop the skills and confidence to explain the pro?ect and reflect on the pro%lem solvin) strate)ies their )roup employed$ Aennema "099;# and 1anna "099D# reported a )rowin) %ody of scientific literature explorin) )ender and mathematics learnin) %ased on research on students in hi)h schools and universities$ +his research demonstrates that content, context and ways of instruction have )ender implications: )irls3women prefer pro%lems with a people3nature content, women do %etter in internal3pro?ect/oriented assessment than in traditional timed examinations, and %enefit from a teachin) style stressin) colla%oration and open/ended pro%lems$ Earlier, 1opper "09FE# su))ested open/ended pro?ects, supportive and co/operative classroom environments as %eneficial to )irls, learnin)$ 5hilippou and 8hristou "099F# ar)ued that to chan)e the existin) %eliefs and attitudes a%out mathematics and its learnin) involves en)a)in) students in personal exploratory activities,

0F

experimentation and reflection resultin) in modified ima)es as part of personal knowled)e, a new perspective of teachin) and learnin) that would lead to chan)e in classroom practice$ +his adds more complexity to the efforts in search of remedies for the )ender disparities in mathematics education$ +hese are innovative su))estions, perhaps well suited and possi%le in developed countries, %ut their implications for the developin) world are pro%lematic$ +heir applica%ility re(uires a careful study of the existin) cultural and social structural differences %etween developed and developin) countries such as otswana$ 'iterature, however, seem to su))est that indeed )irls learn mathematics differently to their male counterparts$ +his rather adds to the complexity of the de%ate on )ender differentials in mathematics education$ $in%ing numerac#& democrac# and power' The implied role of mathematics in the socio( political scene Some authors continue to identify mathematics as a dominantly male science$ Ernest "099;# descri%ed the widespread pu%lic ima)e of mathematics as @difficult, cold, a%stract, theoretical, ultra/rational, remote and inaccessi%le,$ 1e noted the similarity to Jilli)an,s "09F6# @separated stereotyped male values,$ +eachin) mathematics consistent with Jilli)an,s connected, female values should %e %ased on, and valorise, relationships, connections, empathy, carin), feelin)s, intuition and tend to %e holistic and human centred in its concerns$ At the same time knowled)e of mathematics is claimed to %e an important feature of democratic competence and also as a means of empowerment " enn, 099E4 Niss, 099C4 Skovsmose, 099F#$ Jal "099F# and 'indenskov and -ede)e "6770# have in the same vein linked numeracy with democracy and empowerment$ +hese are important o%servations with far/reachin) conse(uences for education and research, %ut mi)ht have unintended )ender implications$ Aor instance, if empowerment and democracy are linked to numeracy, this mi)ht in turn %e taken to imply that innumeracy "or lack of mathematics# causes lack of power and lack of democratic competence$ 1ence with the wide spread pu%lic %elief that women are less numerate compared to men, women are %y implication misreco)nised as havin) less democratic competence and an o%?ective reason is )iven for their %ein) less powerful in society$

09

Accordin) to 1ennin)sen "6776:B#:

Q althou)h numeracy does contri%ute to democratic competence, there are no studies that have esta%lished a positive correlation %etween level of numeracy3mathematics competence and democratic competence$ -e have no proof that other activities or competencies do not contri%ute the same or more to democratic competence$ Speakin) a%out numeracy and democracy to)ether, we have to acknowled)e different and possi%ly )endered ways we develop as democratic citiHens, not privile)in) any one particular way$ +he same holds true for numeracy and empowerment$

Jender seems to act as a useful reminder a%out the ever/present inhomo)eneities in society, a perspective that ena%les differences to %e fore)rounded and reinterpreted$ arnes "09FF:;F# ar)ued that Msocial power is the capacity for action "em%edded# in a society, and Q is possessed %y those with discretion in the direction of social actionN$ +akin) knowled)e to %e accepted )enerally held %elief, routinely implicated in social action and consonant with 5ierre ourdieu,s "0990# notion of cultural capital, arnes asserts that the distri%ution of knowled)e in the society defines the distri%ution of power$ *n similar vein, .lein "6777a# considers numeracy not as a thin) to %e possessed, %ut as a capacity for action$ All these ar)uments indicate that knowled)e of mathematics has %een elevated to )reat hei)hts in the recent past, and has even entered the political spectrum, due to technolo)ical development and3or advancement$ )ave we so far found solutions for gender differences in mathematics education! *n the wake of sustained -estern research in this area, it is reasona%le to assume that some common solution to )ender differences in mathematics has %een found$ Aennema "6777:0B# ar)ues that there are complexities in dealin) with )ender and mathematics issues:
+hat females participate in mathematics/related careers less than do males is one of the few accepted facts$ +hat differences exist in the learnin) of mathematics seems clear also, althou)h many scholars %elieve either that the differences are diminishin) or that any differences that exist are unimportant$

Aor)asH, 'eder, & 2ale "0999# su))ested that females appear to hold more ne)ative values a%out mathematics and their own relationship with mathematics than do males %ut there is some evidence that these differences are decreasin)$ 1owever, Aennema "6777:0;# further conceded:

67

* think * %ecame an educational researcher %ecause * %elieved that * would discover +<U+1$ +hat has not happened and * %elieve that if truth can %e found from educational research, it is not in the area of )ender and mathematics$ ut, research has deepened our knowled)e a%out )ender and mathematics and the many, many studies a%out )ender have provided some insi)ht into the ine(ualities that have existed and that has led to hei)htened awareness of thin)s that need to %e chan)ed$

+his su))ests that we are not there yet and that research into )ender and mathematics will continue$ -estern studies have provided some )uidin) principles from which researchers in Africa can proceed$ +he differin) social structures with their differin) cultures and traditions must form part of the points of departure %etween -estern and African contextual research studies$ *t cannot %e assumed that what is known from -estern research on )ender and mathematics fits into African contexts unpro%lematically$ +here are different social fields in operation due to differences in economic, political and educational developments$ Africa has %een stru))lin) over the years to %rin) the enrolments of )irls at par with those of %oys$ +his deficit in enrolment was necessitated %y the importance that patriarchal he)emonies placed on the %oy/child$ +his hurdle has %een overcome in many countries and hence the recent efforts to explore the )ender differences in mathematics in the continent$$ *hat lessons can we learn for further research on African girls in mathematics! +here are some differences worth notin) %etween themes on )ender and mathematics from -estern contexts and those emer)in) from African research efforts$ +he (uestion of )ender differences diminishin) or %ecomin) unimportant in the -est "Aennema, 6777# does not )ive comfort to researchers in African contexts where such research is ?ust emer)in)$ *n contrast, Mahlomaholo and Sematle "677C:D# reported from South Africa that Mthe differences %etween %oys and )irls were clear at all levels of analysis$N -estern Studies advocate for new perspectives of teachin) and learnin) that would lead to chan)e in classroom practice$ +he difficulty for African efforts is lack of the political will to chan)e attitudes$ Also, lack of resources mi)ht mean that even if differences are identified, chan)es mi)ht take lon) to materialise$ +eachin) mathematics consistent with the connected female values "Jilli)an, 09F6# in African contexts re(uires a separation of such values from those imposed on )irls throu)h the patriarchal

60

system usually misreco)nised as female values$ 8oncepts such as usefulness and confidence in learnin) mathematics4 spatial skills3visualisation4 and viewin) mathematics as a male domain need further investi)ation from an African perspective$ +he influence of a prevalent conventional patriarchal approach "Mahlomaholo and Mathamela, 677C# which privile)es male interests need investi)ation for a fair comparison with trends from -estern studies$ Arom the vast -estern research on )ender differences in mathematics and the emer)in) research efforts from Africa, there is evidence of different economic, cultural and political social fields in operation which play a role in contextual research studies$ Aor instance, the dispositions reflected in )irls, @shyness, and @lau)hin) at each other, in class mi)ht %e ac(uired in the African social structure as part of their ha!ituses related to their up%rin)in)$ +hese concepts mi)ht %e experienced differently in -estern cultures where children are usually raised in ways that encoura)e them to %ecome independent and to act somewhat like e(uals to their parents "Shaffer, 6777#$ *t may %e that the cate)ories of -estern research methodolo)y may not prove to %e effective in these settin)s, and that still other viewpoints are needed that would further enrich work in this area$ Jiven the differin) contexts in which women in different countries experience mathematics, do all countries share similar issues and concerns re)ardin) women,s mathematics educationS +his is most likely the case and hence the need to contextualise investi)ations on )ender differences in Africa$ *n many countries represented in the study of )ender and mathematics, there seems to exist a need to understand how to impact policy, research, and classroom practice in the lon) run, rather than at a superficial level$ Jirls %ein) @afraid of teachers, and anxious a%out the intimidation and harassment from the %oys, are some of the complex issues to consider when em%arkin) on )ender related studies in Africa$ +he use of corporal punishment as it happens in otswana is a pro%lem that )irls complain a%out, and studies of this nature have to pro%lematise it$ *n the U., corporal punishment is an offence punisha%le %y law$ +he way learners are treated in the different contexts "-estern versus African# means African %ased research has to consider those differences$

66

+his calls for ways of usin) information from -estern research studies with some caution$ +he adoption of @standard, methods of data collection without considerin) the different contexts under which the scales or methods were esta%lished may lead to improper applications and distorted results$ *t is, therefore, important to use what is known as the %asis for clarifyin) the methodolo)y for research in African contexts$ y advocatin) the representation of the voices of the informants, this paper is partly respondin) to the literature on )ender differences in mathematics as analysed$ Since teachers, thou)hts from their %eliefs and knowled)e a%out )irls and %oys influence their instructional decisions "Aennema, 6777#, an understandin) of these concepts from an African perspective is necessary for African research$ +he differin) socioeconomic status and ethnic compositions are important points of contrast %etween -estern and African contexts whose consideration is paramount to social research$ +onclusive summar# +he thrust of the analysis of literature on )ender and mathematics was on the implications for )irls learnin) mathematics in otswana$ +he literature from -estern Europe, the USA and Australia indicates a decline in the )ap %etween %oys, and )irls, achievements in mathematics$ 1owever, it also indicates that %oys pro)ress more than )irls in mathematics throu)hout schools "particularly in the U.#$ Jirls have %een found to fall %ehind when choosin) mathematics at hi)her levels of the education system$ +he literature also indicates that no isolated causal factors have %een found for the )ender differences in mathematics education, which points to the complexities of factors involved$ *n Southern Africa, like in most of Africa, research on )ender and mathematics is a recent phenomenon$ +his is partly %ecause, until recently, African societies did not view )ender as an issue of concern due to their patriarchal social structures$ <esearch studies carried out in the Southern African re)ion so far su))est the prevalence of )ender differences in favour of the male learner$ Arom otswana, .aino,s "677B# study on the su%?ect was not conclusive and re(uired otswana national examination results, however, show )irls further analysis$ +he recent

outperformin) %oys at primary and ?unior secondary levels, %ut %ein) outperformed at senior

6B

secondary and in further education "E<+D, Ministry of Education, 677;#$ +his calls for further research to find out why )irls are not pro)ressin) as well as %oys in further mathematics education$ +he link %etween mathematics and democracy also needs further investi)ation as women continue to stru))le for e(uality with men in politics and within the socioeconomic spectrum$ +his is in the %ackdrop of claims of links %etween numeracy, democracy and empowerment " enn, 099E4 Niss, 099C4 Skovsmose, 099F, Jal, 099F, 'indenskov and -ede)e, 6770#$ Jirls, lack of pro)ress in further mathematics may %e misconstrued as leadin) to lack of numeracy, which may imply their misreco)nition as havin) less democratic competence and therefore, %ein) less powerful in society$ Any research on )ender differences in mathematics education in otswana or elsewhere in Africa needs to %e contextualised in order to capture the realities of the African social structure$ M>ur understandin) of )ender in classroom practices is most often %ased on what has %een studied in -estern Europe and North America$ * would like to ar)ue that there is always a cultural an)le in studies of social practicesN .itetu "677C:D/E#$ Applyin) -estern cultural research scales on African studies without thorou)h contextual analyses of such scales may produce misleadin) results$ All that the literature points to, are continued efforts to find ways of makin) mathematics female/ learner friendly$ Aor otswana, this would )o a lon) way to meet one of the needs of Joal ; of the Dakar Ainal Aramework on the attainment of Education for All "EAA#: MQ achieving gender equality in education by 2015, with a focus on ensuring girls full and equal access to and achievement in basic education of good quality (The -orld Education Aorum, Dakar, Sene)al: April 6777#$

6C

I $I,G-AP).
0$ 6$ 3. 4. ;$ D$ E$ F$ 9$ 07$ 00$ 06$ 0B$ 0C$ 0;$ 0D$ 0E$ 0F$ 09$ 67$ 60$ 66$ 6B$ 6C$ 6;$ 6D$ Africa Economic 8ommission "AE8# "0999#$ Traditional and Cultural Practices Harmful to the Girl Child: A Cross-Sectional Review$ +he United Nations$ Arnot, M$, Jray, G$, Games, M$, <udduck, G$ with Duveen, J$ "099F#$ Recent Research on Gender and Educational Performance. 'ondon 2fST)345MS2$ Barnes, B. (1988). The Nature of Power. Cambridge: Polity Press. Belenky, M. F., Clichy, B. M., Goldberger, N. R. & Tarule, J. M. (1986). Womens ways of knowing: The development of self, voice and mind. New York: Basic Books, Inc. enn, <$ "099E#$ Adults count too$ Mathematics for em owerment$ 'eicester: N*A8E$ evan, <$ M$ "677;#$ Gender and mathematics: !hat can. research tell us a"out how we teach. mathematics to "o#s and $irls% 5aper presented at +eacher <esearch 8onference 677C, 09th March 677C at the irmin)ham NE8$ oaler, G$ "6776#$ +he development of disciplinary relationships: knowled)e, practice, and identity in mathematics classrooms$ The &earnin$ of Mathematics' (("0#:C6/CE$ o))iano, A$ .$ & 5ittman, +$ S$ "0996#$ Achievement and motivation: A social develo ment ers ective $ 8am%rid)e: 8am%rid)e University 5ress$ otswana *nstitute for Development 5olicy Analysis " *D5A# <eport "Au)ust 6777#: )m acts of H)*+A),S on Povert# and )ncome )ne-ualit# in .otswana$ Ja%orone: Jovernment 5rinters$ ourdieu, 5$ "0990#$ The Political /ntolo$# of Martin Heide$$er. >xford: 5olity 5ress$ 8amp%ell, 5$ $ "09FD#$ -hatIs a nice )irl like you doin) in a math classS Phi ,elta 0a an, /0:;0D 677$ 8asey, M$ $, Nuttall, <$ '$, & 5eHaris, E$ "099E#$ Mediators of )ender differences in mathematics colle)e entrance test scores: A comparison of spatial skills within internalised %eliefs and anxieties$ ,evelo mental Ps#cholo$#, 11:DD9/DF7$ 8assy, $ "677C#$ Pu ils1 $ender and attitude towards mathematics in Mo2am"i-ue. 5aper presented at the 07th *nternational 8on)ress on Mathematical Education$ Denmark, 8openha)en$ 8hacko, *$ "677C#$ 3rom T)MSS 4 R to Pro"lem solution. 5aper presented at the 07th *nternational 8on)ress on Mathematical Education$ Denmark, 8openha)en$ 8utler/'andsman, D$ "0990#$ &e$o TC lo$o: .rid$in$ the $ender $a . 5aper prepared for the 'o)o Action <esearch 8olla%orative$ Eccles, G$ S$, & lumenfeld, 5$ "09F;#$ 8lassroom experiences and student )ender: Are there differences and do they matterS *n '$ 8$ -ilkinson & 8$ $ Marrett "Eds$#, Gender influences in classroom interaction. New Tork: Academic 5ress$ Ernest, 5$ "099;# I2alues, Jender and *ma)es of Mathematics: A 5hilosophical 5erspectiveI *nternational Gournal for Mathematical Education in Science and +echnolo)y, 6D "B# CC9/CD6$ Aennema, E$ "0997#$ Gustice, e(uity and mathematics education$ *n E$ Aennema& J$ 'eder "Eds$#, Mathematics and $ender, "pp$0/9#$ NT: Aennema, E$ "099B#$ *nvited Aaculty 5resentation for Jender E(uity for Mathematics and Science: A 8onference of the -oodrow -ilson 'eadership 5ro)ram for +eachers, 8N ;6F0, 5rinceton$ Aennema, E$ "099;#$ Mathematics, Jender and <esearch$ *n $ Jrevholm & 1anna, J$ "Eds$#, Gender and Mathematics Education: an )CM) Stud#, Sweden 099B, 'und: 'und University 5res, C;/DC$ Aennema, E$ "6777#$ Gender and mathematics: !hat is 5nown and what do ) wish was 5nown% 5aper presented at the Aifth Annual Aorum of the National *nstitute for Science Education, May 66/6B$ -isconsin 8enter for educational <esearch$ Aennema, E$ & 5eterson, 5$ "09F;#$ MAutonomous learnin) %ehaviour: A possi%le explanation of )ender differences in mathematics$N *n '$ 8$ -ilkinson & 8$ $ Marrett "Eds$#, Gender-related ,ifferences in Classroom )nteractions. New Tork: Academic 5ress$ pp 0E/BE$ Aennema, E$, & 5eterson, 5$'$ "09FD#$ +eacher/student interactions and sex/related differences in learnin) mathematics$ Teachin$ 6 Teacher Education, 2"0#:09/C6$ Aennema, E$, & Sherman, G$ "09EE#$ Sex/related differences in mathematics achievement, spatial visualiHation, and affective factors$ American Educational Research 7ournal' 89"0#:;0/E0$ Aennema, E$, & Sherman, G$ "09EF#$ Sex related differences in mathematics achievement and related factors: A further study$ 7ournal for Research in Mathematics Education, 3:0F9/67B$ Aor)asH, 1$ G$ & 'eder, J$ 8$ "099F#$ Affective Dimensions and +ertiary Mathematics Students$ *n A$ >livier & .$ Newstead "Eds$#, Proceedin$s of the ((nd Conference of the )nternational Grou for the Ps#cholo$# of Mathematics Education' *ol (, University of Stellen%osch, South Africa, pp$69D/B7B$

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6E$ Aor)asH, 1$ G$, 'eder, J$ 8$, & 2ale, 8$ "0999#$ Jender and mathematics: 8han)in) perspectives$ *n .$ D$ >wens & G$ Mcousley "Eds$#, Research in mathematics education in Australia 8::;-8:::. Sydney, Australia: ME<JA$ 6F$ Jal, *$ "099F#$ Numeracy Education and Empowerment: <esearch 8hallen)es$ *n M$ van Jroenesti?n & 8o%en, D$ "eds$#$ Proceedin$s of the fifth international confernce of Adults &earnin$ Mthematics. <A&M-=> $ 'ondon: Joldsmiths University of 'ondon$ 69$ Jilli)an, 8$ "09F6#$ )n a different voice. 8am%rid)e: 1arvard University 5ress$ B7$ Jood, +$ '$ & Aindley, M$ G$ "09F;#$ Sex role expectations and achievement$ *n G$ $ Dusek "Ed$#, Teacher e? ectancies "pp$ 6E0/B76#$ 1illsdale, N$ G: 'awrence Erl%aum$ B0$ Jorard, S$, <ees, J$ and Salis%ury, G$ "6770#$ *nvesti)atin) the patterns of differential attainment of %oys and )irls at school$ .ritish Educational Research 7ournal, 6E"6#: 06;/B9$ B6$ Jovernment Statistics Services "099; L 6776$ otswana Jovernment$ BB$ 1anna, J$ "09F9#$ Mathematics achievement of )irls and %oys in )rade ei)ht: <esults from twenty countries$ Educational Studies in Mathematics' (@"6#, 66;/6B6$ BC$ 1anna, J$ "099D#$ Towards Gender E-ualit# in Mathematics Education: An *8M* Study, Dordrecht: .luwer$ B;$ 1ennin)sen, *$ "6776#$ Jender in Numeracy$ Adult &earnin$ Maths Aewsletter' 8=: 0/B$ BD$ 1opper, $ "09FE#$ Co-o erative learnin$ : an overview . Nottin)ham: University of Nottin)ham School of Education$ BE$ 1yde, G$ S$, Aennema, E$, & 'emon, S$ G$ "0997#$ Jender differences in mathematics performance: A meta/ analysis$ P#scholo$ical .ulletin, 450:0B9/0;;$ BF$ 1yde, G$ S$, Aennema, E$, <yan, M$, & Arost, '$ A$ "0997#$ Jender differences in mathematics attitude and affect: A meta/analysis$ Ps#cholo$# of !omen Buarterl#' 89, 699/B6C$ B9$ Gaco%s, G$ E$, & Eccles, G$ S$ "09F;#$ Jender differences in math a%ility: +he impact of media reports on parents$ Educational Research' 89"B#, 67/6;$ C7$ .aino, '$ M$ "677B#$ Students1 attitudes and interaction in learnin$ mathematics in .otswana 7unior Secondar# schools$ 5aper presented at the 1awaii *nternational 8onference on Education, Ganuary E/07$ 1awaii, 1onolulu, Sheraton -aikiki 1otel$ C0$ .itetu, 8$ "677C#$ Gender in education: An overview of develo in$ trends in Africa. 8<*'E -orkin) 5apers$ Department of 'in)uistics and Modern En)lish 'an)ua)e, 'ancaster University$ C6$ .erns, .$ A$, & eren%aum, S$ A$ "0990#$ Sex differences in spatial a%ility in children$ .ehavior Genetics, 24:BFB/B9D$ CB$ .lein, M$ "6777a#$ *s there more numeracy than meets the eyeS Stories of socialisation and su%?ectification in school mathematics$ *n G$ ana & A$ 8hapman "Eds$#, Mathematics education "e#ond (@@@. 5roceedin)s of the 6Brd Annual 8onference of the Mathematics Education <esearch Jroup of Australia, 0:E6/EF$ 5erth: Mathematics Education <esearch Jroup of Australia$ CC$ .oehler, M$ S$ "0997#$ M 8lassrooms, teachers and )ender differences in mathematics$N *n E$ Aennema & J$ 'eder "Eds$#, Mathematics and Gender$ New Tork: +eachers 8olle)e 5ress$ C;$ 'indenskov, '$ & -ede)e, + "6770#$ Aumerac# as an Anal#tical Tool in Maathematics Education and Research. 8entre for <esearch in 'earnin) Mathematics 67703B0$ <oskilde: <U8$ CD$ Mahlomaholo, S$& Mathamela, M$ "677C#$ ,em#stification of the learnin$ of mathematics: Anal#sis of narratives from feminist ers ective. 5aper presented at the 07th *nternational 8on)ress on Mathematical Education$ Denmark, 8openha)en$ CE$ Mahlomaholo, S$& Sematle, M$ "677C#$ Gender differences and "lac5 learners1 attitudes towards mathematics in selected hi$h schools in South Africa$ 5aper presented at the 07th *nternational 8on)ress on Mathematical Education$ Denmark, 8openha)en$ CF$ Mendick, 1$ "6776#$ Narratives of )ender and mathematics$ *n Proceedin$s of the third international conference of Mathematics Education and Societ# <MESC>$ Denmark 6776$ C9$ Niss, M$ "099C#$ Mathematics in Society$ *n <$ iehler et al$ "eds$#, ,idactics of Mathematics as a Scientific ,isci line. Dordrecht: .luwer Academic 5u%lishers BDE/EF$ ;7$ >ko?ie, 8$ E$ "6770#$ 3emale Dnder-Schoolin$ in Africa as Assessed "# the African Academ# of Sciences Research Pro$ramme. 5aper presented at the *nternational 8ollo(uium L Jender, 5opulation and Development in Africa, A%id?an, Ni)eria, 0D/60 Guly 6770$ ;0$ 5eterson, 5$ '$ & ar)er, S$ A$ "09F;#$ Attri%ution theory and teacher expectancy$ *n G$ $ Dusek "Ed$#, Teacher e? ectancies "pp$ 6E0/B76#$ 1illsdale, N$ G: 'awrence Erl%aum$

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;6$ 5hilippou, J$ N$ & 8hristou, 8$ "099F#$ eliefs, teacher education and the history of mathematics$ *n A$ >livier & .$ Newstead "Eds$#, Proceedin$s of the ((th Conference of the )nternational Grou for the Ps#cholo$# of Mathematics Education' *ol. 9, University of Stellen%osch, South Africa, pp$ 0/F$ ;B$ Salmon, 5$ "099F#$ &ife at School: Education and Ps#cholo$#$ Suffolk: St$ Edmunds%ur) 5ress 'td$ ;C$ Secada, -$ J$, Aennema, E$ & Ada?ian, '$ $ "099;#$ Aew directions for e-uit# in mathematics education. 8am%rid)e: 8am%rid)e University 5ress$ ;;$ Secada, -$ J$ "0996#$ <ace, ethnicity, social class, lan)ua)e, and achievement in mathematics$ *n D$ A$ Jrouws "Ed$#, Hand"oo5 of research on mathematics teachin$ and learnin$. New Tork: Macmillan$ ;D$ Shaffer, D$ <$ "6777#$ Social and Personalit# ,evelo ment "Cth ed$#$ elmont, 8A: -adsworth3+homson 'earnin)$ ;E$ Shaw, G$ "099;#$ Education' Gender and An?iet#$ 'ondon: +aylor and Arancis$ ;F$ Skovsmose, >$ "099F#$ 'inkin) Mathematics Education and Democracy: 8itiHenship, Mathematical archaeolo)y, Mathemacy and Deli%erative *nteraction$ Eentral"latt fFr ,ida5ti5 der Mathemati5' :G "D#:09;/ 67B$ ;9$ +aole, G$, =onneveld, M$ & Nkhwalume, A$ A$ "099B#$ +he mathematics classroom: *nteraction or distractionS Proceedin$s of the 3irst Annual Conference of Southern African Association for Research in Mathematics and Science Education "SAA<MSE#, <hodes University, South Africa, Ganuary, 099B$ D7$ +he -orld Education Aorum, Education for All Joals4 Dakar, Sene)al: April 6777 D0$ University Aact ook "Ae%ruary, 67764 677B3C4 677C3;#$ )nstitutional Research. Ja%orone: University of otswana, Department of *nstitutional 5lannin)$ D6$ 2oyer, D$, 2oyer, S$, & ryden, M$ 5$ "099;#$ Ma)nitude of sex differences in spatial a%ilities: A meta analysis and consideration of critical varia%les$ Ps#cholo$ical .ulletin, 440, 6;7/6E7$ DB$ -al%er), 1$, & 1aertel, J$ "0996#$ Educational psycholo)y,s first century$ 7ournal of Educational Ps#cholo$#' G9"0#: D/09$

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