DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING (2marks and 16 marks questions and answers)

SUBJECT NAME : DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING (EC5A1) UNIT I PART- A 1. Define Ima e An image may be defined as two dimensional light intensity function f(x, y) where x and y denote spatial co ordinate and the amplitude or !alue of f at any point (x, y) is called intensity or grayscale or brightness of the image at that point" !. "#a$ i% D&nami' Ran e( #he range of !alues spanned by the gray scale is called dynamic range of an image" $mage will ha!e high contrast, if the dynamic range is high and image will ha!e dull washed out gray look if the dynamic range is low" ). Define B*i #$ne%% %rightness of an ob&ect is the percei!ed luminance of the surround" #wo ob&ects with different surroundings would ha!e identical luminance but different brightness" 5. "#a$ +, &,- mean$ .& G*a& /e0e/( 'ray le!el refers to a scalar measure of intensity that ranges from black to grays and finally to white" 1. "#a$ +, &,- mean$ .& C,/,* m,+e/( A (olor model is a specification of )* coordinates system and a subspace within that system where each color is represented by a single point" 2. Li%$ $#e #a*+3a*e ,*ien$e+ ',/,* m,+e/% 1" +'% model 2" (,- model )" -$. model /" 01$ model 4. "#a$ i% 5-e an+ %a$-*a$i,n( 0ue is a color attribute that describes a pure color where saturation gi!es a measure of the degree to which a pure color is diluted by white light" 6. Li%$ $#e a77/i'a$i,n% ,f ',/,* m,+e/% 1" +'% model used for color monitors 2 color !ideo camera 2" (,- model used for color printing )" 0$1 model used for color image processing /" -$. model used for color picture transmission 18. "#a$ i% C#*,ma$i' A+,7$i,n( 3 #he hue of a percei!ed color depends on the adoption of the !iewer" 4or example, the American 4lag will not immediately appear red, white, and blue of the !iewer has

been sub&ected to high intensity red light before !iewing the flag" #he color of the flag will appear to shift in hue toward the red component cyan" 11. Define Re%,/-$i,n% +esolution is defined as the smallest number of discernible detail in an image" 1patial resolution is the smallest discernible detail in an image and gray le!el resolution refers to the smallest discernible change is gray le!el" 1!. "#a$ i% mean$ .& 7i9e/( A digital image is composed of a finite number of elements each of which has a particular location or !alue" #hese elements are referred to as pixels or image elements or picture elements or pels elements" 1). Define Di i$a/ ima e 5hen x, y and the amplitude !alues of f all are finite discrete quantities , we call the image digital image" 1:. "#a$ a*e $#e %$e7% in0,/0e+ in DIP( 1" $mage Acquisition 2" 6reprocessing )" 1egmentation /" +epresentation and *escription 7" +ecognition and $nterpretation 15. "#a$ i% *e', ni$i,n an+ In$e*7*e$a$i,n( +ecognition means is a process that assigns a label to an ob&ect based on the information pro!ided by its descriptors" $nterpretation means assigning meaning to a recogni8ed ob&ect" 11. S7e'if& $#e e/emen$% ,f DIP %&%$em 1" $mage Acquisition 2" 1torage )" 6rocessing /" *isplay 12. Li%$ $#e 'a$e ,*ie% ,f +i i$a/ %$,*a e 1" 1hort term storage for use during processing" 2" 9nline storage for relati!ely fast recall" )" Archi!al storage for infrequent access" 14. "#a$ a*e $#e $&7e% ,f /i #$ *e'e7$,*%( #he two types of light receptors are (ones and +ods 16. Diffe*en$ia$e 7#,$,7i' an+ %',$,7i' 0i%i,n 6hotopic !ision 1cotopic !ision

1" #he human being can resol!e the fine details with these cones because each one is connected to its own ner!e end" 2" #his is also known as bright light !ision"

1e!eral rods are connected to one ner!e end" 1o it gi!es the o!erall picture of the image" #his is also known as thin light !ision"

!8. 5,3 ',ne% an+ *,+% a*e +i%$*i.-$e+ in *e$ina( $n each eye, cones are in the range 6 : million and rods are in the range :7 17; million" !1. Define %-.;e'$i0e .*i #$ne%% an+ .*i #$ne%% a+a7$a$i,n 1ub&ecti!e brightness means intensity as preser!ed by the human !isual system" %rightness adaptation means the human !isual system can operate only from scotopic to glare limit" $t cannot operate o!er the range simultaneously" $t accomplishes this large !ariation by changes in its o!erall intensity" !!. Define 3e.e* *a$i, #he ratio of increment of illumination to background of illumination is called as weber ratio"(ie) <i=i $f the ratio (<i=i) is small, then small percentage of change in intensity is needed (ie) good brightness adaptation" $f the ratio (<i=i) is large , then large percentage of change in intensity is needed (ie) poor brightness adaptation" !). "#a$ i% mean$ .& ma'#.an+ effe'$( ,achband effect means the intensity of the stripes is constant" #herefore it preser!es the brightness pattern near the boundaries, these bands are called as machband effect" !:. "#a$ i% %im-/$ane,-% ',n$*a%$( #he region reser!ed brightness not depend on its intensity but also on its background" All centre square ha!e same intensity" 0owe!er they appear to the eye to become darker as the background becomes lighter" !5. "#a$ i% mean$ .& i//-mina$i,n an+ *ef/e'$an'e( $llumination is the amount of source light incident on the scene" $t is represented as i(x, y)" +eflectance is the amount of light reflected by the ob&ect in the scene" $t is represented by r(x, y)" !1. Define %am7/in an+ <-an$i=a$i,n 1ampling means digiti8ing the co ordinate !alue (x, y)" .uanti8ation means digiti8ing the amplitude !alue" !2. >in+ $#e n-m.e* ,f .i$% *e<-i*e+ $, %$,*e a !51 ? !51 ima e 3i$# )! *a& /e0e/% )2 gray le!els > 27 > 7 bits

276 ? 276 ? 7 > )2:6@; bits" !4. "*i$e $#e e97*e%%i,n $, fin+ $#e n-m.e* ,f .i$% $, %$,*e a +i i$a/ ima e( #he number of bits required to store a digital image is b>, A B A k 5hen ,>B, this equation becomes b>BC2k !6. "*i$e %#,*$ n,$e% ,n nei #.,*% ,f a 7i9e/. #he pixel p at co ordinates (x, y) has / neighbors (ie) 2 hori8ontal and 2 !ertical neighbors whose co ordinates is gi!en by (xD1, y), (x 1,y), (x,y 1), (x, yD1)" #his is called as direct neighbors" $t is denoted by B/(6) 4our diagonal neighbors of p ha!e co ordinates (xD1, yD1), (xD1,y 1), (x 1, y 1), (x 1, yD1)" $t is denoted by B*(/)" Eight neighbors of p denoted by B@(6) is a combination of / direct neighbors and / diagonal neighbors" )8. E97/ain $#e $&7e% ,f ',nne'$i0i$&. 1" / connecti!ity 2" @ connecti!ity )" , connecti!ity (mixed connecti!ity) )1. "#a$ i% mean$ .& 7a$#( 6ath from pixel p with co ordinates (x, y) to pixel q with co ordinates (s,t) is a sequence of distinct pixels with co ordinates" )!. Gi0e $#e f,*m-/a f,* 'a/'-/a$in D: an+ D4 +i%$an'e" */ distance ( city block distance) is defined by */(p, q) > Fx sF D Fy tF *@ distance(chess board distance) is defined by *@(p, q) > max(Fx sF, Fy tF)" )). "#a$ i% e,me$*i' $*an%f,*ma$i,n( #ransformation is used to alter the co ordinate description of image" #he basic geometric transformations are 1" $mage translation 2" 1caling )" $mage rotation ):. "#a$ i% ima e $*an%/a$i,n an+ %'a/in ( $mage translation means reposition the image from one co ordinate location to another along straight line path" 1caling is used to alter the si8e of the ob&ect or image (ie) a co ordinate system is scaled by a factor" )5. Define $#e $e*m L-minan'e Guminance measured in lumens (lm), gi!es a measure of the amount of energy an obser!er percei!er from a light source"

PART-B 1. E97/ain B*i #$ne%% a+a7$a$i,n an+ Di%'*imina$i,n #he digital images are displayed as a discrete set of intensities, the eyeHs ability to discriminate between different intensity le!els" 1ub&ecti!e brightness is a logarithmic function of the light intensity incident on the eye" #he long solid cur!e represents the range of intensities t o which the !isual system can adapt" $n photopic !ision alone the range is about 1;C6" $t accomplishes the large !ariation by changes in its o!erall sensiti!ity phenomenon is known as brightness adaptation" #he eyeHs ability to discriminate between different intensity le!els at any specific adaptation"

$D$

#he eye is capable of detecting contouring effects in monochrome $mage whose o!erall intensity is represented by fewer than approximately two do8en le!els" #he second phenomenon called simultaneous contrast is related to the fact that a regionHs percei!ed brightness does not depend on its intensity" #hey app ear to the eye become dark eras the background gets lighter" !.E97/ain %am7/in an+ <-an$i=a$i,n: 4or computer processing, the image function f(x,y)must be digiti8ed both spatially and in amplitude" *igiti8ation of spatial co ordinates is called image sampling and amplitude digiti8ation is called grey le!el quanti8ation" Sam7/in : (onsider a digital image of si8e 1;2/?1;2/,276 with a display area used for the image being the same ,the pixels in the lower resolution images where duplicated inorder to fulfill the entire display "the pixel replication produced a checker board effect, which is !isible in the image of lower resolution "it is not possible to differentiate a 712?712 images from a1;2/?1;2/ under this effect" but a slight increase in grainess and a small decrease in sharpness is noted" A 276?276 image shows a fine checker board pattern in the edges and more pronounced grainess there out the image "these effect is much more !isible in 12@?12@ images and it becomes quite pronounced in 6/?6/ and )2?)2 images" @-an$i=a$i,n: $t discusses the effects produced when the number of bits used to represent the grey le!el in an image is decreased "this is illustrated by reducing the grey le!el required to represent a 1;2/?1;2/,712 image" #he 276,12@,and 6/ le!el image are !isually identical for all practical purposes the )2 le!el images has de!eloped a set of rigid like structure in areas of smooth grey

lines"this effect caused by the user insufficient number of grey le!els in smooth areas of digital image is called a false contouring"this is !isible in images displayed using 16 or lesser gray le!el !alues" ).E97/ain a.,-$ Ma'# .an+ effe'$( #wo phenomena demonstrate that percei!ed brightness is not only a function of intensity" #hey are mach band pattern and simultaneous contrast" Ma'# .an+ 7a$$e*n: $t states that the !isual system tends to undershoot or o!ershoot around the boundary of regions of different intensities "#his is called mach band pattern" Although the width of the stripe is constant, it is percei!ed as if the brightness pattern is strongly scalloped near the boundaries by darker part" 1imultaneous contrast is related to the fact that a regions percei!ed brightness does not depend only on its intensity" $n the figure all the center square ha!e the same intensity howe!er they appear to the eye as the background gets lighter" ExampleI A piece of paper seems white when lying on the desk but can appear when used to shield the eyes while looking at brighter sky" :. E97/ain ',/,* ima e f-n+amen$a/%. Although the process followed by the human brain in percei!ing and interpreting color is a physiopsychological phenomenon that is not yet fully understood, the physical nature of color can be expressed on a formal basis supported by experimental and theoretical results" %asically, the colors that humans and some other animals percei!e in an ob&ect are determined by the nature of the light reflected from the ob&ect" #he !isible light is composed of a relati!ely narrow band of frequencies in the electromagnetic spectrum" A body that reflects light that is balanced in all !isible wa!elengths appears white to the obser!er" 4or example, green ob&ects reflect light with wa!elengths primarily in the 7;; to 7:; nm range while absorbing most of the energy at other wa!elengths" #hree basic quantities are used to describe the quality of a chromatic light sourceI radiance, luminance and brightness" +adiance is the total amount of energy that flows from the light source, and is usually measured in watts(5)" Guminance, measured in lumens(lm), gi!es a measure of the amount of energy an obser!er percei!es from a loght source" 4inally, brightness is a sub&ecti!e descriptor that is practically impossible to measure" 5. E97/ain CMA m,+e/. #his model deals about the cyan,magenta and yellow are the secondary colors of light"5hen a surface coated with cyan pigment is illuminated with white light no red lihgt is reflected from the surface"(yan subtracts red light from reflected white light,which itself is composed of equal amounts of red,green and blue light"in this mode cyan data input or perform an +'% to (,- con!ersion internally" (>1 + ,> 1 ' -> 1 % All color !alues ha!e been normali8ed to the range J;,1K"the light reflected from a surface coated with pure cyan does not contain red "+'% !alues can be obtained easily from a set of (,- !alues by subtracting the indi!idual (my !alues from 1"(ombining these colors

prosuces a black "5hen black is added gi!ing rise to the (,-L color model"#his is four coluring printing " PART-C 1. De%'*i.e $#e f-n+amen$a/ %$e7% in ima e 7*,'e%%in ( *igital image processing encompasses a broad range of hardware, software and theoretical underpinnings"

#he problem domain in this example consists of pieces of mail and the ob&ecti!e is to read the address on each piece" #hus the desired output in this case is a stream of alphanumeric characters" #he first step in the process is image acquisition that is acquire a digital image "#o do so requires an imaging sensor and the capability to digiti8e the signal produced by the sensor" After the digital image has been obtained the next step deals with preprocessing that image" #he key function of this is to impro!e the image in ways that increase the chances for success of the other processes" #he next stage deals with segmentation" %roadly defined segmentation partitions an input image into its constituent parts or ob&ects" #he key role of this is to extract indi!idual characters and words from the background, #he output of the segmentation stage usually is raw pixel data, constituting either the boundary of a region or all the points in the region itself" (hoosing a representation is only part of the solution for transforming raw data into a form suitable for subsequent computer processing" *escription also called feature selection deals with extracting features that result in some quantitati!e information of interest that are basic for differentiating one class of ob&ect from another" #he last stage in!ol!es recognition and interpretation" +ecognition is the process that assigns a label to an ob&ect based on the information pro!ided by its descriptors" $nterpretation in!ol!es assigning meaning to an ensemble of recogni8ed ob&ects" Lnowledge about a problem domain is coded into an image processing system in the form of knowledge database" #his knowledge may be simple as detailing regions of an image where the information of interest is known to be located thus limiting the search that has to be conducted in seeking that information"

#he knowledge base also can be quite complex such as an interrelated list of all ma&or possible defects in a materials inspection problem or an image database containing high resolution satellite images of a region in connection with change detection application" Although we do not discuss image display explicitly at this point it is important to keep in mind that !iewing the results of image processing can take place at the output of any step" !. E97/ain $#e .a%i' E/emen$% ,f +i i$a/ ima e 7*,'e%%in : 4i!e elements of digital image processing, image acquisitions storage processing communication display 1)Ima e a'<-i%i$i,n : #wo de!ices are required to acquire a digital image ,they are 1)physical de!iceI 6roduces an electric signal proportional to the amount of light energy sensed" 2)a digiti8erI *e!ice for con!erting the electric output into a digital form" !.%$,*a e: An @ bit image of si8e 1;2/?1;2/ requires one million bits of storage"three types of storageI 1"short term storageI $t is used during processing" it is pro!ide by computer memory" it consisits of frame buffer which can store one or more images and can be accessed quickly at the !ideo rates" 2"online storageI $t is used for fast recall" $t normally uses the magnetic disk,5inchester disk with1;;s ;f megabits are commonly used " )"archi!al storageI #hey are passi!e storage de!ices and it is used for infrequent access"magnetic tapes and optical disc are the media" 0igh density magnetic tapes can store 1 megabit in about 1) feet of tape " ))P*,'e%%in : 6rocessing of a digital image p in!ol!es procedures that are expressedin terms of algorithms "with the exception of image acquisition and display most image processing functions can be implemented in software "the need for a speciali8ed hardware is called increased speed in application" Garge scale image processing systems are still being used for massi!e image application "steps are being merge for general purpose small computer equipped with image processing hardware" :)',mm-ni'a$i,nI (ommunication in ip in!ol!es local communication between ip systems and remote communication from one point to another in communication with the transmission of image hardware and software are a!ailable for most of the computers "the telephone line can transmit a max rate of M6;; bits per second"so to transmit a 712?712,@ bit image at

this rate require at last 7 mins"wireless link using intermediate stations such as satellites are much faster but they are costly" 5)+i%7/a&: ,onochrome and colour t! monitors are the principal display de!ices used in modern ips"monitors are dri!en by the outputs of the hardware in the display module of the computer" ). E97/ain $#e S$*-'$-*e ,f $#e 5-man e&e

#he eye is early a sphere, with an a!erage diameter of approximately 2; mm" #hree membrance encloses the eye, 1" (ornea 2" 1clera or (orneaI )" +etina " #he cornea is a tough, transparent tissue that co!ers the anterior surface of the eye" S'/e*a: 1clera is an opaque membrance e that encloses the remainder of the optical globe" C#,*,i+: (horoid directly below the sclera" #his membrance contains a network of blood !essels that ser!e as the ma&or source of nutrition to the eye" (horoid coat is hea!ily pigmented and helps to reduce the amount of extraneous light entering the eye" #he choroid is di!ided into the ciliary body and the iris diaphragm" Len%: #he lens is made up of concentric lay ours of fibrous cells and is suspended by fibrous that attach to the ciliary body" $t contains 6;to :;N of water about 6;Nfat and m ore protein than any other tissue in the eye" Re$ina:

#he innermost membrance of the eye is retina, which lines the inside of the wallHs entire posterior portion" #here are 2 classes of receptors, 1" (ones 2" +ods C,ne%: #he cones in each eye between 6and: million" #hey are located primarily in the central portion of the retina called the fo!ea, and highly sensiti!e to (olour" R,+%: #he number of rods is much largerO some :7 to 17; millions are distributed o!er the retinal surface" 4o!ea as a square sensor array of si8e 1"7mm?1"7mm" :. E97/ain $#e RGB m,+e/ +'% model,each color appears in its primary spectral components of red ,green and blue"#his model is based on a (artesian coordinate system"#his color subspace of interest is the cube"+'% !alues are at three corners cyan"magenta and yellow are at three other corner black is at the origin and white is the at the corner farthest from the origin this model the gray scale extends from black to white along the line &oining these two points "#he different colors in this model are points on or inside the cube and are defined by !ectors extending from the origin" $mages represented in the +'% color model consist of three component images,one for each primary colors"#he no of bits used to represented each pixel in which each red,green and blue images is an @ bit image"Each +'% color pixel of !alues is said to be 2/ bits "#he total no of colors in a 2/ bit +'% images is M2@;)>16:::,216" #he acquiring a color image is basically the process is shown in fig," A color image can be acquired by using three filters,sensiti!e to red,green and blue"5hen we !iew a color scene with a monochrome camera equipped with one of these filters the result is a monochrome image whose intensity is proportional to the response of that filter" +epeating this process with each filter produces three monochrome images that are the +'% component images of the color scene"the subset of color is called the set of safe +'% colors or the set of all system safe colors" $n inter net applications they are called safe 5eb colors or safe browser colors"#here are 276 colors are obtained from different combination but we are using only 216 colors " 5.De%'i.e $#e 5SI ',/,* ima e m,+e/ T#e 5SI C,/,* M,+e/ #he +'%,(,- and other color models are not well suited for describing colors in terms that are practical for human interpretation"4or eg,one does not refer to the color of an automobile by gi!ing the percentage of each of the primaries composing its color" 5hen humans !iew a color ob&ect we describe it by its hue, saturation and brightness" 0ue is a color attribute that describes a pure color" 1aturation gi!es a measure of the degree to which a pure color is diluted by white light" %rightness is a sub&ecti!e descriptor that is practically impossible to measure" $t embodies the achromatic notion of intensity and is one of the key factors in describing color sensation

 $ntensity is a most useful descriptor of monochromatic images" C,n0e*$in ',/,*% f*,m RGB $, 5SI 'i!en an image in +'% color format , the 0 component of each +'% pixel is obtained using the equation

0 > Ptheta )6; theta

if %Q>' if %R'

with theta > cos 1P1=2J+ ') D(+ %)=J(+ ')2 D (+ %)(' %)K1=2S #he saturation component is gi!en by

1 >1 )=(+D'D%)Jmin(+,',%)K
the intensity component is gi!en by

$>1=)(+D'D%)

C,n0e*$in ',/,*% f*,m 5SI $, RGB 'i!en !alues of 01$ in the inter!al J;,1K,we now want to find the corresponding +'% !alues in the same range "5e begin by multiplying 0 by )6;o,which returns the hue to its original range of J;o,)6;oK RG %e'$,*(8,BC1!8,)"when h is in this sector ,the +'% components are gi!en by the equations

% > $ (1 1) + > $ J1 D 1 cos 0=cos(6;o ' > 1 (+ D %)

from it

0)K

'% 1ector(12;o Q> 0 Q 2/;o)"$f the gi!en !alue of 0 is in this ,we first subtract 12;o 0 > 0 12;o
#hen the +'% components are

% > $ (1 T 1) ' > $ J1 D 1 cos 0=cos(6;o 0)K % > 1 (+ D ') %+ 1ector(2/;o Q>0Q>)6;o)"4inally if 0 is in this range we subtract 2/;o from it 0 > 0 2/;o
#hen the +'% components are

' > $ (1 1) % > $ J1 D 1 cos 0=cos(6;o + > 1 (' D %)

0)K

1. De%'*i.e $#e .a%i' *e/a$i,n%#i7 .e$3een $#e 7i9e/% !-D Ma$#ema$i'a/ 7*e/imina*ie% Beighbours of a pixel Ad&acency, (onnecti!ity, +egions and %oundaries *istance measures Nei #.,-*% ,f a 7i9e/ A pixel p at coordinates (x,y) has four hori8ontal and !ertical neighbours whose coordinates are gi!en by (xD1,y), (x 1,y), (x,yD1), (x,y 1)"

#his set of pixels, called the / neighbours of p, is denoted by B/(p)" Each pixel is a unit distance from (x,y) and some of the neighbours of p lie outside the digital image if (x,y) is on the border of the image" #he four diagonal neighbours of p ha!e coordinates (xD1,yD1), (xD1,y 1), (x 1,yD1), (x 1,y 1) And are denoted by B*(p)" #hese points together with the / neighbours are called the @ neighbours of p, denoted by B@(p)" A+;a'en'&D C,nne'$i0i$&D Re i,n% an+ B,-n+a*ie% #hree types of ad&acencyI :-a+;a'en'&" #wo pixels p and q with !alues from U are / ad&acent if q is in the set B/(p)" 4-a+;a'en'&" #wo pixels p and q with !alues from U are @ ad&acent if q is in the set B@(p)" , ad&acency" #wo pixels p and q with !alues from U are m ad&acent if q is in B/(p), or q is in B*(p) and the set B/(p) B/(q) has no pixels whose !alues are from U" A (digital) path (or cur!e) from pixel p with coordinates (x,y) to pixel q with coordinates (s,t) is a sequence of distinct pixels with coordinates (x;,y;), (x1,y1),""""""""""""""""(xn,yn) 5here (x;,y;)> (x,y), (xn,yn)>(s,t) and pixels (xi,yi) and (xi 1,yi 1) are ad&acent for 1Q>iQ>n" B is the length of the path" Di%$an'e mea%-*e% 4or pixels p,q and 8 with coordinates (x,y), (s,t) and (!,w) respecti!ely, * is a distance function or metric if *(p,q)R>; (*(p,q)>; iff p>q), *(p,q) > *(q,p) and *(p,8) Q> *(p,q) D *(q,8) #he Euclidean distance between p and q is defined as, *e(p,q) > J(x s)2D(y t)2K #he */ distance (also called city block distance) between p and q is defined as */(p,q) > Fx sFDFy tF #he *@ distance (also called chessboard distance) between p and q is defined as *@(p,q) > max( Fx sFDFy tF) UNIT II 1. "#a$ i% $#e nee+ f,* $*an%f,*m( #he need for transform is most of the signals or images are time domain signal (ie) signals can be measured with a function of time" #his representation is not always best" 4or most image processing applications anyone of the mathematical transformation are applied to the signal or images to obtain further information from that signal" !. "#a$ i% Ima e T*an%f,*m( An image can be expanded in terms of a discrete set of basis arrays called basis images" #hese basis images can be generated by unitary matrices" Alternati!ely, a gi!en BxB image can be !iewed as an BC2x1 !ectors" An image transform pro!ides a set of coordinates or basis !ectors for !ector space"

). "#a$ a*e $#e a77/i'a$i,n% ,f $*an%f,*m( 1) #o reduce band width 2) #o reduce redundancy )) #o extract feature" :. Gi0e $#e C,n+i$i,n% f,* 7e*fe'$ $*an%f,*m #ranspose of matrix > $n!erse of a matrix" 9rthoganality" 5. "#a$ a*e $#e 7*,7e*$ie% ,f -ni$a*& $*an%f,*m( 1) *eterminant and the Eigen !alues of a unitary matrix ha!e unity magnitude 2) the entropy of a random !ector is preser!ed under a unitary #ransformation )) 1ince the entropy is a measure of a!erage information, this means information is preser!ed under a unitary transformation" 1. Define >,-*ie* $*an%f,*m 7ai* #he 4ourier transform of f(x) denoted by 4(u) is defined by 4(u)> V f(x) e &2Wux dx (1) #he in!erse fourier transform of f(x) is defined by f(x)> V4(u) e&2Wux dx (2) #he equations (1) and (2) are known as fourier transform pair" 2. Define >,-*ie* %7e'$*-m an+ %7e'$*a/ +en%i$& 4ourier spectrum is defined as 4(u) > F4(u)F e &X(u) 5here F4(u)F > +2(u)D$2(u) X(u) > tan 1($(u)=+(u)) 1pectral density is defined by p(u) > F4(u)F2 p(u) > +2(u)D$2(u) 4. Gi0e $#e *e/a$i,n f,* 1-D +i%'*e$e >,-*ie* $*an%f,*m 7ai* #he discrete 4ourier transform is defined by
n1

4(u) > 1=B Y f(x) e T&2Wux=B

x>;

#he in!erse discrete 4ourier transform is gi!en by

n1

Y 4(u) e &2Wux=B x>; #hese equations are known as discrete 4ourier transform pair" f(x) >

6. S7e'if& $#e 7*,7e*$ie% ,f !D >,-*ie* $*an%f,*m. #he properties are 1eparability #ranslation 6eriodicity and con&ugate symmetry +otation *istributi!ity and scaling A!erage !alue Gaplacian (on!olution and correlation sampling 18. Men$i,n $#e %e7a*a.i/i$& 7*,7e*$& in !D >,-*ie* $*an%f,*m #he ad!antage of separable property is that 4(u, !) and f(x, y) can be obtained by successi!e application of 1* 4ourier transform or its in!erse"
n1

4(u, !) >1=B Y 4(x, !) e T&2Wux=B

x>;

5here
n1

4(x, !)>BJ1=B Y f(x, y) e T&2W!y=B

y>;

11. Li%$ $#e P*,7e*$ie% ,f $3i++/e fa'$,*. 1" 6eriodicity 5BC(LDB)> 5BCL 2" 1ymmetry 5BC(LDB=2)> 5BCL 1!. Gi0e $#e P*,7e*$ie% ,f ,ne-+imen%i,na/ D>T 1" #he *4# and unitary *4# matrices are symmetric" 2" #he extensions of the *4# and unitary *4# of a sequence and their in!erse transforms are periodic with period B" )" #he *4# or unitary *4# of a real sequence is con&ugate symmetric about B=2" 1). Gi0e $#e P*,7e*$ie% ,f $3,-+imen%i,na/ D>T 1" 1ymmetric 2" 6eriodic extensions )" 1ampled 4ourier transform /" (on&ugate symmetry" 1:. "#a$ i% mean$ .& ',n0,/-$i,n( #he con!olution of 2 functions is defined by f(x)?g(x) > V f( ) "g(x ) d where is the dummy !ariable

15. S$a$e ',n0,/-$i,n $#e,*em f,* 1D $f f(x) has a fourier transform 4(u) and g(x) has a fourier transform '(u) then f(x)?g(x) has a fourier transform 4(u)"'(u)" (on!olution in x domain can be obtained by taking the in!erse fourier transform of the product 4(u)"'(u)" (on!olution in frequency domain reduces the multiplication in the x domain f(x)"g(x) 4(u)? '(u) #hese 2 results are referred to the con!olution theorem" 11. "#a$ i% 3*a7 a*,-n+ e**,*( #he indi!idual periods of the con!olution will o!erlap and referred to as wrap around error 12. Gi0e $#e f,*m-/a f,* ',**e/a$i,n ,f 1D ',n$in-,-% f-n'$i,n. #he correlation of 2 continuous functions f(x) and g(x) is defined by f(x) o g(x) > V f?( ) g(xD ) d 14. "#a$ a*e $#e 7*,7e*$ie% ,f 5aa* $*an%f,*m. 1" 0aar transform is real and orthogonal" 2" 0aar transform is a !ery fast transform )" 0aar transform has !ery poor energy compaction for images /" #he basic !ectors of 0aar matrix sequensly ordered" 16. "#a$ a*e $#e P*,7e*$ie% ,f S/an$ $*an%f,*m 1" 1lant transform is real and orthogonal" 2" 1lant transform is a fast transform )" 1lant transform has !ery good energy compaction for images /" #he basic !ectors of 1lant matrix are not sequensely ordered" !8. S7e'if& $#e 7*,7e*$ie% ,f f,*3a*+ $*an%f,*ma$i,n Ee*ne/ #he forward transformation kernel is said to be separable if g(x, y, u, !) g(x, y, u, !) > g1(x, u)"g2(y, !) #he forward transformation kernel is symmetric if g1 is functionally equal to g2 g(x, y, u, !) > g1(x, u)" g1(y,!) !1. Define fa%$ "a/%# $*an%f,*m. #he 5alsh transform is defined by
n1 x1

w(u) > 1=B Y f(x) W ( 1) bi(x)"bn 1 i (u) x>; i>; !!. Gi0e $#e *e/a$i,n f,* 1-D DCT. #he 1 * *(# is, B1 ((u)>Z(u)Y f(x) cosJ((2xD1)u[)=2BK where u>;,1,2,\"B 1 A>;

B1 $n!erse f(x)> Y Z(u) c(u) cosJ((2xD1) u[)=2BK U>;

where x>;,1,2,\B 1

!). "*i$e %/an$ $*an%f,*m ma$*i9 SN. 1 aB ; ; bB ; 1 aB ; bB

1 aB ; 1B > 1=]2 1 bB ;

; ; bB $(B=2 1) ; aB ; $(B=2 1)

; $(B=2 1) ; $(B=2 1) ; 1 B=2 1 B=2 ;

!:. Define 5aa* $*an%f,*m. #he 0aar transform can be expressed in matrix form as, #>040 5here 4 > B A B image matrix 0 > B A B transformation matrix # > resulting B A B transform" !5. Define F-L $*an%f,*m. (onsider a set of n or multi dimensional discrete signal represented as column !ector x1,x2,\xn each ha!ing , elements, A1 A2 " " An

A>

#he mean !ector is defined as ,x>EPxS 5here EPxS is the expected !alue of x" , 4or , !ector samples mean !ector is ,x>1=, Y Ak L>1 # #he co !ariant matrix is, (x>EP(A ,x)(A ,x)S 5here # !ector transposition A RB * !ector (x Rnxn matrix" , # 4or , samples, (x>1=, Y (xk ,x)(xk ,x)"

L>1 L G #ransform -> A(A ,A) !1. Gi0e $#e e<-a$i,n f,* %in -/a* 0a/-e +e',m7,%i$i,n ,f an ima e(

^> m>1Yr_]`m Xm# #his equation is called as singular !alue decomposition of an image" !2. "*i$e $#e 7*,7e*$ie% ,f Sin -/a* 0a/-e De',m7,%i$i,n(SGD)( #he 1U* transform !aries drastically from image to image" #he 1U* transform gi!es best energy packing efficiency for any gi!en image" #he 1U* transform is useful in the design of filters finding least square,minimum solution of linear equation and finding rank of large matrices" PART-B 1. "*i$e %#,*$ n,$e% ,n Di%'*e$e C,%ine T*an%f,*m (DCT) I-D DCT $ * *(# is defined as ((u)> Z(u) x>;YB 1f(x)cosJ(2xD1)uW=2BK for u>;,1,2,\\"B 1 $n!erse *(# is defined as f(x)> u>;YB 1 Z(u)((u)cosJ(2xD1)uW=2BK for x>;,1,2,\\"B 1 $n both cases Z(u)>1=]B for u>; and ]2=]B for u>1,2,\\"B 1 !-D DCT $ * *(# is defined as ((u,!)> Z(u) Z(!) x>;YB 1 y>;YB 1f(x,y)cosJ(2xD1)uW=2BKcosJ(2yD1)!W=2BK for u,!>;,1,2,\\"B 1 $n!erse *(# is defined as f(x,y)>u>;YB 1 !>;YB 1 Z(u) Z(!)((u,!)cosJ(2xD1)uW=2BK cosJ(2yD1)uW=2BK for x,y>;,1,2,\\"B 1 $n both cases Z(u)>1=]B for u>; and ]2=]B for u>1,2,\\"B 1 !. De%'*i.e >a%$ >,-*ie* T*an%f,*m #he 4ourier transform of f(x) denoted by 4(u) is defined by 4(u)> V f(x) e &2Wux dx

(1)

#he in!erse fourier transform of f(x) is defined by f(x)> V4(u) e&2Wux dx

(2)

#he equations (1) and (2) are known as fourier transform pair" 4(u)>1=2, x>; 2, 1f(x) 52,ux 4(u)>1=2P1=, x>; , 1f(2x)52,u2x D 1=, x>; , 1f(2xD1)52,u(2xD1) 4(u)>1=2P1=, x>; , 1f(2x)5,ux D 1=, x>; , 1f(2xD1)5,ux "52,u S

4(u)>1=2P4e!en(u)D4odd(u)"52,uS 4(uD,)>1=2P1=, x>; , 1f(2x)5,(uD,)x D 1=, x>; , 1f(2xD1)5,(uD,)x "52,uD, S 4(uD,)>1=2P1=, x>; , 1f(2x)5,ux 1=, x>; , 1f(2xD1)5,ux "52,u S 4(uD,)>1=2J4e!en(u)D4odd(u) "52,uK )."*i$e %#,*$ n,$e% ,n 5,$e//in $*an%f,*m (onsider a set of n or multi dimensional discrete signal represented as column !ector x1,x2,\xn each ha!ing , elements, A1 A2 " " An #he mean !ector is defined as ,x>EPxS,5here EPxS is the expected !alue of x" , 4or , !ector samples mean !ector is ,x>1=, Y Ak L>1 #he co !ariant matrix is, (x>EP(A ,x)(A ,x)S 5here # !ector transposition A RB * !ector,(x Rnxn matrix" , 4or , samples, (x>1=, Y (xk ,x)(xk ,x)" L>1 L G #ransform -> A(A ,A)

A>

4eaturesI

o 0# is based on the statistical properties of !ector representation o 0# has se!eral useful properties that makes an important tool for image processing o $t con!erts discrete signal s into a sequence of uncorrelated coefficients

PART-C 1E97/ain Di%'*e$e >,-*ie* T*an%f,*m in +e$ai/. ID Ca%e 4(u)>1=B x>;YB 1f(x)expJ &2Wux=BK for u>;,1,2,\\"B 1

(1)

f(x)> u>;YB 14(u)J&2Wux=BK, for x>;,1,2,\\"B 1 (2) Equations (1) and (2) called *iscrete 4ourier transform pair #he !alues u>;,1,2,\\\B 1 in the discrete 4ourier transform corresponds to the samples of the continuous transform at !alues ;, au, 2au\"(B 1)au" $n other words 4(u) corresponds 4(uau)" #he terms au and ax related by the expression au>1=Bax !D Ca%e 4(u,!)>1=,B x>;Y, 1y>;YB 1f(x,y)expJ &2Wux=,D!y=BK for u>;,1,2,\\", 1, !>;,1,2,\\""B 1 f(x,y)>x>;Y, 1y>;YB 14(u,!)expJ&2Wux=,D!y=BK for x>;,1,2,\\", 1, y>;,1,2,\\""B 1 4or a square image ,>B, 4# pair will be 4(u, !)>1=B x>;YB 1y>;YB 1f(x,y)expJ &2W(ux D!y)=BK for u, !>;,1,2,\\"B 1 f(x, y)>x>;YB 1y>;YB 14(u,!)expJ&2W(uxD!y)=BK for x, y>;,1,2,\\"B 1 !.E97/ain $#e P*,7e*$ie% ,f !D +i%'*e$e >,-*ie* T*an%f,*m 1. Se7a*a.i/i$& 4(u, !)>1=B x>;YB 1y>;YB 1f(x,y)expJ &2W(ux D!y)=BK for u, !>;,1,2,\\"B 1 f(x, y)>x>;YB 1y>;YB 14(u,!)expJ&2W(uxD!y)=BK for x, y>;,1,2,\\"B 1 4(u,!)>1=B x>;YB 14(x,!)expJ &2Wux=BK where 4(x,!)>BJ1=By>;YB 1f(x,y)expJ &2W!y=B 2" T*an%/a$i,n #he translation properties of the 4ourier #ransorm pair are f(x,y)expJ &2W(u;x D!;y)=BK 4(u u;,! !;) are 4ourier #ransform pair" And f(x x;,y y;) 4(u,!)expJ &2W(ux; D!y;)=BK 5here the double arrow indicates the correspondence between a function and its 4ourier transform" ). Pe*i,+i'i$& an+ C,n;- a$e S&mme$*& 6eriodicityI #he *iscrete 4ourier #ransform and its in!erse are periodic with period BO that is, 4(u,!)>4(uDB,!)>4(u,!DB)>4(uDB,!DB) (on&ugate symmetryI $f f(x,y) is real, the 4ourier transform also exhibits con&ugate symmetry, 4(u,!)>4?( u, !) or b4(u,!) b>b4( u, !) b where 4?(u,!) is the complex con&ugate of 4(u,!)

:. R,$a$i,n

6olar (oordinates x>rcosc, y>rsinc, u>wsind, !>wsind then f(x,y) and 4(u,!) become f(r,c) and 4(w,d) respecti!ely" +otating f(x,y) by an angle c; rotates 4(u,!) by the same angle" 1imilarly rotating 4(u,!) rotates f(x,y) by the same angle" i"e, f(r,cD c;) 4(w,dD c;) 5. Di%$*i.-$i0i$& an+ %'a/in *istributi!ityI #he *iscrete 4ourier #ransform and its in!erse are distributi!e o!er addition but not o!er multiplication" 4Jf1(x,y)Df2(x,y)K>4Jf1(x,y)KD4Jf2(x,y)K 4Jf1(x,y)"f2(x,y)Ke4Jf1(x,y)K"4Jf2(x,y)K 1caling 4or the two scalars a and b, Af(x,y) a4(u,!) and f(ax,by) 1=babb4(u=a,!=b) 1. La7/a'ian #he Gaplacian of a two !ariable function f(x,y) is defined as f2f(x,y)>g2f=gx2Dg2f=gy2 2. C,n0,/-$i,n an+ C,**e/a$i,n (on!olution #he con!olution of two functions f(x) and g(x) denoted by f(x)?g(x) and is defined by the integral, f(x)?g(x)> hVhf(Z)g(x Z)dZ where Z is a dummy !ariable" (on!olution of two functions 4(u) and '(u) in the frequency domain >multiplication of their in!erse f(x) and g(x) respecti!ely" $e, f(x)?g(x) 4(u)'(u) (orrelation #he correlation of two functions f(x) and g(x) denoted by f(x)ig(x) and is defined by the integral, f(x)ig(x)> hVhf?(Z)g(xDZ)dZ where Z is a dummy !ariable" 4or the discrete case fe(x)ige(x)> 1=, ,>;Y, 1f?(m)g(xDm) fe(x)> Pf(x), ;jxjA 1, P; , Ajxj, 1 ge(x)> Pg(x), ;jxj% 1, P; , %jxjB 1 ).Di%'-%% 5a+ama*+ $*an%f,*m in +e$ai/ $* 0adamard transform

0(u)>1=B
>

n 1 x =;

N 1 x =;

f(x) ( 1)

n 1

i =;

b (x) b (u) i i

where g (x, u)> 1=B bi(x) bi(u) which is known as 1* forward 0adamard kernel" bk(x) is the kth bit binary representation of 8 bi (8)>1
i =;

( 1)

f (x) g (x , u )
n 1

$n!erse 1* 0adamard #ransform

f(x ) > f(x ) >

N 1

u =;

0(u)

n 1

i =;

bi(x) bi(u) x>;,1\"B 1

N 1

u =;

h(x,u) > ( 1)

0(u) h(x,u)
n 1 i =;

bi(x) bi(u)

2* 0adamard #ransform

0(u,!) > 1=B

>

n 1 x =;

N 1 y =;

N 1 y =;

f(x , y) ( 1)

n 1

i =;

b (x) b (u) D b (y) b (!) i i i i

n 1 x =;

n 1 u =;

f(x , y) g(x,y,u,!)

where g (x, y ,u , !)> 1=B ( 1) 1imilarly ,f(x,y)>

n 1

i =;

b (x) b (u) D b (y) b (!) i i i i

> 1=B
>

n 1 u =;

N 1

N 1

v =;

0(u"!) ( 1)

n 1

i =;

b (x) b (u) D b (y) b (!) i i i i

f(x,y)>

5here h( x , y , u , !) > 1=B ( 1) i =; J bi(x) bi(u) D bi(y) bi(!) K which is the in!erse kernel #herefore ,forward and re!erse kernel are same 9rdered 0adamard #ransform 1* 9rdered 0adamard #ransform 0(u)>1=B
>

v =; n 1

0 (u"!) h(x, y , u , !)

N 1 x =;

f(x) ( 1)

n 1 b (x) p (u) i i

i =;

n 1 x =;

f (x) g (x , u )

where g (x, u)> 1=B bi(x) pi(u) po(u) > b (n 1) (u) p1 (u) > b (n 1) (u) D b (n 2) (u)
i =;

( 1)

n 1

p2 (u) > b (n 2) (u) D b (n )) (u) " " " " pn 1 (u) > b1(u) D b o (u) $n!erse 0adamard #ransform f(x)>

N 1

u =;

0(u) ( 1)

n 1

i =;

bi(x) pi(u)

f(x)>

N 1

u =;

0(u) h(x,u) ( 1)
n 1 x =; n 1 i =;

where h (x, u)> 2* ordered 0# 6air 0(u,!) > 1=B pi(!)K >

bi(x) pi(u) f(x , y) ( 1)

n 1

n 1 x =;

N 1 y =;

N 1 y =;

i =;

Jbi(x) pi(u) D bi(y)

f(x , y) g(x,y,u,!) ( 1)
n 1 i =;

where g (x, y ,u , !)> 1=B 1imilarly ,f(x,y)> > 1=B f(x,y)> >

Jbi(x) pi(u) D bi(y) pi(!)K

n 1 i =;

n 1

u =;

N 1

v =;

0(u"!) ( 1)

Jbi(x) pi(u) D bi(y) pi(!)K

n 1

u =;

N 1

v =;

0 (u"!) h(x, y , u , !) ( 1)
n 1 i =;

5here h( x , y , u , !) > 1=B

J bi(x) pi(u) D bi(y) pi(!)K

:. E97/ain "a/%# T*an%f,*m 3i$# %-i$a./e e<-a$i,n% "a/%# T*an%f,*m 4or B>2n, 5alsh transform function f(x) is denoted by 5(u)"5(u) is obtained by substituting the forward transformational kernel,

g(x,u)>1=B i>; n 1( 1)bi(x)bn 1 i(u)

#he 5alsh transform of f(x) 5(u)>1=B x>; B 1f(x) i>; n 1( 1)bi(x)bn 1 i(u) 5(u)> x>; B 1f(x)g(x,u)

5here bk(8) is the kth bit in the binary representation of 8 In0e*%e "a/%# T*an%f,*m

f(x) >u>; B 15(u) i>; n 1( 1)bi(x)bn 1 i(u) f(x) > u>; B 15(u)h(x,u)

in!erse transformational kernel, h(x,u)> i>; n 1( 1)bi(x)bn 1 i(u) forward and in!erse transformational kernel differs by 1=B 5hen B>@

u ! ; 1 2 ) / 7 6 :

; D D D D D D D D

1 D D D D

2 D D

) D D

/ D

7 D

6 D

: D

D D D

D D D D

D D D D

D D D D

!D "a/%# T*an%f,*m
5(u,!)>1=B x>; B 1 y>; B 1f(x,y) i>; n 1( 1)bi(x)bn 1 i(u)D bi(y)bn 1 i(!)

forward transformational kernel, g(x,y,u,!)>1=BP i>; n 1( 1)bi(x)bn 1 i(u) D bi(y)bn 1 i(!)S 5(u,!)> x>; B 1 y>; B 1f(x,y)g(x,y,u,!) !D In0e*%e "a/%# T*an%f,*m f(x,y) >u>; B 1 !>; B 15(u,!) i>; n 1( 1)bi(x)bn 1 i(u) D bi(y)bn 1 i(!) f(x,y) > u>; B 1 !>; B 15(u,!)h(x,y,u,!) in!erse transformational kernel, h(x,y,u,!)> i>; n 1( 1)bi(x)bn 1 i(u) D bi(y)bn 1 i(!)
5alsh transformational kernels are separable and symmetric g(x,y,u,!)>g1(x,u) g1(y,!)

h(x,y,u,!) >h1(x,u) h1(y,!) P1=]B i>; n 1( 1)bi(x)bn 1 i(u)S P1=]B i>; n 1( 1)bi(y)bn 1 i(!)S
5alsh #ransform can be obtained by successi!e doubling method

5(u)>1=2J5e!en(u)D5odd(!)K 5(uDm)>1=2J5e!en(u) 5odd(!)K ,>B=2 u>;,1,\",B 1

5. E97/ain Di%'*e$e ',%ine $*an%f,*m in +e$ai/

#he discrete cosine transform(*(#) gets its name from the fact that the rows of the B?B transform matrix ( are obtained as a function of cosines" F(Fi,j=
(2 j +1)i i=0,j=0,1,....N-1 2N (2 j +1)i 2 = N cos i=1,2.....N-1,j=0,1,....N-1 2N
1 = N cos

The rows of the transform matrix are shown in graphical form" 0ere the amount of !ariation increases as we progress down the rowO that is the frequency of the rows increases as we go from top to bottom"

6) ;) ))

:) 1) /)

2) 7)

4ig "%asic set of the discrete cosine transform" #he numbers correspond to the row of the transform matrix" Also, the basis matrices show increased !ariation as we go from the top left matrix, corresponding to the 00 coefficient, to the bottom right matrix, corresponding (B 1)(B 1) coefficient" to the #he *(# is closely related to the discrete 4ourier transform(*4#) and *(# can be obtained from *4#" $n terms of compression, the *(# performs better than the *4#"

$n *4#, to find the 4ourier coefficients for s sequence of length B, we assume that the sequence is periodic with period B" #he *4# assumes that the sequence outside the inter!al beha!es in a different manner" #his introduces sharp discontinuities, at the beginning and the end of the sequence" $n order to represent these sharp discontinuities, the *4# needs non8ero coefficients for the high frequency components" %ecause these components are needed only at the two end points of the sequence, their effect needs to be cancelled out at other points in the sequence" #hus, the *4# ad&usts other coefficients accordingly" 5hen we discard the high frequency coefficients during the compression process, the coefficients that were cancelling out the high frequency effect in other parts of the sequence result in the introduction of additional distortion" #he *(# can be obtained using the *4# by mirroring the original B point sequence to obtain a 2B point sequence" #he *(# is simply the first B points of the resulting 2B point *4#" 5hen we take the *4# of the 2B point mirrored sequence, we again ha!e to assume periodicity" 0ere it does not introduce any sharp discontinuities at the edges" #he *(# is better at energy compaction for most correlated sources when compared to the *4#" 4or ,arko! sources with high correlation coefficient ,

EJ xnxn + 1K EJ xn 2K

#he compaction ability of the *(# is !ery close to that of the LG#" As many sources can be modelled as ,arko! sources with high !alues for , this superior compaction ability has made the *(# the most popular transform" $t is a part of many international standards, including k6E',,6E' and (($## 0"261" UNIT III 1" S7e'if& $#e ,.;e'$i0e ,f ima e en#an'emen$ $e'#ni<-e. #he ob&ecti!e of enhancement technique is to process an image so that the result is more suitable than the original image for a particular application" 2" Li%$ $#e ! 'a$e ,*ie% ,f ima e en#an'emen$. 1patial domain refers to image plane itself 2 approaches in this category are based on direct manipulation of picture image" 4requency domain methods based on modifying the image by fourier transform" ). "#a$ i% $#e 7-*7,%e ,f ima e a0e*a in ( An important application of image a!eraging is in the field of astronomy, where imaging with !ery low light le!els is routine, causing sensor noise frequently to render single images !irtually useless for analysis" :. "#a$ i% mean$ .& ma%Ein ( ,ask is the small 2 * array in which the !alues of mask co efficient determines the nature of process"

#he enhancement technique based on this type of approach is referred to as mask processing"

5. Define #i%$, *am. #he histogram of a digital image with gray le!els in the range J;, G 1K is a discrete function h(rk)>nk" rk kth gray le!el nk number of pixels in the image ha!ing gray le!el rk" 1."#a$ i% mean$ .& #i%$, *am e<-a/i=a$i,n(

k k 1k> #(rk) > Y 6r(r&) > Y n&=n where k>;,1,2,\"G 1 &>; &>; #his transformation is called histogram equali8ation" 2.Diffe*en$ia$e /inea* %7a$ia/ fi/$e* an+ n,n-/inea* %7a$ia/ fi/$e*. %.n,. 1" 2" Linea* %7a$ia/ fi/$e* +esponse is a sum of products of the filter co efficient" + > w( 1, 1) f(x 1,y 1) D w( 1,;) f(x 1,y) D \ D w(;,;) f(x,y) D \ D w(1,;) f(xD1,y) D w(1,1) f(xD1,yD1)" N,n-/inea* %7a$ia/ fi/$e* #hey do not explicitly use co efficients in the sum of products" + > w181 D w282 D \ DwM8M M > Y wi8i i>1

4. Gi0e $#e ma%E -%e+ f,* #i # .,,%$ fi/$e*in .

; 1 ;

1 AD/ 1

; 1 ;

1 1 1

1 AD@ 1

1 1 1

6. "#a$ i% mean$ .& /a7/a'ian fi/$e*( #he laplacian for a function f(x,y) of 2 !ariables is defined as,
2 2 2 2 2

ff > g f = g x D g f = g y

18. "*i$e $#e %$e7% in0,/0e+ in f*e<-en'& +,main fi/$e*in . 1" ,ultiply the input image by ( 1) to center the transform" 2" (ompute 4(u,!), the *4# of the image from (1)" )" ,ultiply 4(u,!) by a filter function 0(u,!)" /" (ompute the in!erse *4# of the result in ())" 7" 9btain the real part of the result in (/)" 6" ,ultiply the result in (7) by ( 1) 11. "#a$ +, &,- mean .& P,in$ 7*,'e%%in ( $mage enhancement at any 6oint in an image depends only on the gray le!el at that point is often referred to as 6oint processing" 1!. Define De*i0a$i0e fi/$e*( 4or a function f (x, y), the gradient f at co ordinate (x, y) is defined as the !ector af > gf=gx gf=gy af > mag (af) > PJ(gf=gx) 2 D(gf=gy) 2 KS 1=2 1). Define %7a$ia/ fi/$e*in 1patial filtering is the process of mo!ing the filter mask from point to point in an image" 4or linear spatial filter, the response is gi!en by a sum of products of the filter coefficients, and the corresponding image pixels in the area spanned by the filter mask" 1:. "#a$ i% a Me+ian fi/$e*( #he median filter replaces the !alue of a pixel by the median of the gray le!els in the neighborhood of that pixel" 15. "#a$ i% ma9im-m fi/$e* an+ minim-m fi/$e*( #he 1;;th percentile is maximum filter is used in finding brightest points in an image" #he ;th percentile filter is minimum filter used for finding darkest points in an image" 11. "*i$e $#e a77/i'a$i,n ,f %#a*7enin fi/$e*% 1" Electronic printing and medical imaging to industrial application 2" Autonomous target detection in smart weapons" 12. Name $#e +iffe*en$ $&7e% ,f +e*i0a$i0e fi/$e*% 1" 6erwitt operators 2" +oberts cross gradient operators )" 1obel operators 14. "#a$ i% mean$ .& Ima e Re%$,*a$i,n( +estoration attempts to reconstruct or reco!er an image that has been degraded by using a clear knowledge of the degrading phenomenon"

16. "#a$ a*e $#e $3, 7*,7e*$ie% in Linea* O7e*a$,*( Additi!ity 0omogenity !8. Gi0e $#e a++i$i0i$& 7*,7e*$& ,f Linea* O7e*a$,* 0Jf1(x,y)Df2(x,y)K>0Jf1(x,y)KD0Jf2(x,y)K #he additi!e property says that if 0 is the linear operator,the response to a sum of two is equal to the sum of the two responses" !1. 5,3 a +e *a+a$i,n 7*,'e%% i% m,+e/e+(

l(x,y) 0 f(x,y) A system operator 0, which together with an additi!e white noise term l(x,y) a operates on an input image f(x,y) to produce a degraded image g(x,y)" !!.Gi0e $#e #,m, eni$& 7*,7e*$& in Linea* O7e*a$,* 0Jk1f1(x,y)K>k1 0Jf1(x,y)K #he homogeneity property says that,the response to a constant multiple of any input is equal to the response to that input multiplied by the same constant" !). Gi0e $#e *e/a$i,n f,* +e *a+a$i,n m,+e/ f,* ',n$in-,-% f-n'$i,n g(x,y) > hVhVf(Z,m)n(x Z,y m)"dZdmDl(x,y) !:. "#a$ i% >*e+#,/m in$e *a/ ,f fi*%$ Ein+( h g(x,y) > VVf(Z,m)h(x,Z,y,m)dZ dm h which is called the superposition or con!olution or fredholm integral of first kind" $t states that if the response of 0 to an impulse is known, the response to any input f(Z,m) can be calculated by means of fredholm integral" !5. Define 'i*'-/an$ ma$*i9 A square matrix, in which each row is a circular shift of the preceding row and the first row is a circular shift of the last row, is called circulant matrix" he(o) he(1) " " he(, 1) he(;) he(, 2)\\\\ he(1) he(, 1)\\\" he(2)

g(x,y)

0e >

" he(, 1) he(, 2) he(, ))\\\" he(;) !1. "#a$ i% $#e ',n'e7$ a/ e.*ai' a77*,a'#( #he concept of algebraic approach is to estimate the original image which minimi8es a predefined criterion of performances !2. "#a$ a*e $#e $3, me$#,+% ,f a/ e.*ai' a77*,a'#( ^nconstrained restoration approach (onstrained restoration approach !4. Define G*a&-/e0e/ in$e*7,/a$i,n 'ray le!el interpolation deals with the assignment of gray le!els to pixels in the spatially transformed image !6. "#a$ i% mean$ .& N,i%e 7*,.a.i/i$& +en%i$& f-n'$i,n( #he spatial noise descriptor is the statistical beha!ior of gray le!el !alues in the noise component of the model" )8. "#& $#e *e%$,*a$i,n i% 'a//e+ a% -n',n%$*aine+ *e%$,*a$i,n( $n the absence of any knowledge about the noise onH, a meaningful criterion function is to seek an fC such that 0 fC approximates of in a least square sense by assuming the noise term is as small as possible" 5here 0 > system operator" fC > estimated input image" g > degraded image" )1. "#i'# i% $#e m,%$ f*e<-en$ me$#,+ $, ,0e*',me $#e +iffi'-/$& $, f,*m-/a$e $#e %7a$ia/ *e/,'a$i,n ,f 7i9e/%( #he point is the most frequent method, which are subsets of pixels whose location in the input (distorted) and output (corrected) imaged is known precisely" )!. "#a$ a*e $#e $#*ee me$#,+% ,f e%$ima$in $#e +e *a+a$i,n f-n'$i,n( 1" 9bser!ation 2" Experimentation )" ,athematical modeling" )). "#a$ a*e $#e $&7e% ,f n,i%e m,+e/%( 'uassian noise +ayleigh noise Erlang noise Exponential noise ^niform noise $mpulse noise ):. Gi0e $#e *e/a$i,n f,* -a%%ian n,i%e

'uassian noiseI #he 6*4 guassian random !ariable p is gi!en by 6(p)>e (p q)2=2r2=]2Wr p R'ray le!el !alue r Rstandard de!iation r2 R!arian8e of p q Rmean of the grayle!el !alue p )5. Gi0e $#e *e/a$i,n f,* *a&/ei # n,i%e +ayleigh noiseI #he 6*4 is 6(p)> 2(8 a)e (8sa)2=b=b ; mean standard de!iation q>aD]Wb=/ r2>b(/ W)=/

for pR>a for pQa

)1. Gi0e $#e *e/a$i,n f,* Gamma n,i%e 'amma noiseI #he 6*4 is 6(p)>ab 8b 1 ae a8=(b 1) ; mean q>b=a standard de!iation r2>b=a2 )2. Gi0e $#e *e/a$i,n f,* E97,nen$ia/ n,i%e Exponential noise #he 6*4 is 6(p)> ae a8 pR>; ; pQ; mean q>1=a standard de!iation r2>1=a2 )4. Gi0e $#e *e/a$i,n f,* Unif,*m n,i%e ^niform noiseI #he 6*4 is 6(p)>1=(b a) if aQ>pQ>b ; otherwise mean q>aDb=2 standard de!iation r2>(b a)2=12 )6. Gi0e $#e *e/a$i,n f,* Im7-/%e n,i%e $mpulse noiseI #he 6*4 is 6(p) >6a for 8>a 6b for 8>b ; 9therwise :8. "#a$ i% in0e*%e fi/$e*in (

for pR>; for pQ;

#he simplest approach to restoration is direct in!erse filtering, an estimate 4C(u,!) of the transform of the original image simply by di!iding the transform of the degraded image 'C(u,!) by the degradation function" 4C (u,!) > 'C(u,!)=0(u,!) :1. "#a$ i% 7%e-+, in0e*%e fi/$e*( $t is the stabili8ed !ersion of the in!erse filter"4or a linear shift in!ariant system with frequency response 0(u,!) the pseudo in!erse filter is defined as 0 (u,!)>1=(0(u,!) 0>=; ; 0>; :!. "#a$ i% mean$ .& /ea%$ mean %<-a*e fi/$e*( #he limitation of in!erse and pseudo in!erse filter is !ery sensiti!e noise" #he wiener filtering is a method of restoring images in the presence of blurr as well as noise" :). Gi0e $#e +iffe*en'e .e$3een En#an'emen$ an+ Re%$,*a$i,n Enhancement technique is based primarily on the pleasing aspects it might present to the !iewer" 4or exampleI (ontrast 1tretching" 5here as +emo!al of image blur by applying a deblurrings function is considered a restoration technique

PART-B 1.Di%'-%% +iffe*en$ mean fi/$e*% A*i$#me$i' mean fi/$e* tC(x,y)>1=mn u g(s,t) (s,t)v1xy Ge,me$*i' mean fi/$e* An image restored using a geometric mean filter is gi!en by the expression fC(x,y) > J [ g(s,t) K (s,t)v1xy here ,each restored pixel is gi!en by the product of the pixels in the subimage window , raised to the power 1=mn 5a*m,ni' fi/$e*% #he harmonic mean filtering operation is gi!en by the expression t C(x,y) > mn=Y(1=g(s,t)) C,n$*a #a*m,ni' mean fi/$e* (ontra harmonic mean filtering operation yields a restored image based on the expression .D1 . fC(x,y)>Yg(x,t) =Yg(s,t) where . is called the order of the filter"#his filter is well suited for reducing or !irtually eliminating the effect of salt and pepper noise" !. D*a3 $#e +e *a+a$i,n m,+e/ an+ e97/ain. 4(x,y) *egadation function D '(x,y) +estoration filters(s)

Boise 0 is a linear positi!e in!ariant process the the degraded image is gi!en in the spatial domain by g(x,y)>h(x,y)?f(x,y)Dw(x,y) where h(x,y) is the spatial representation of the degradation function and the symbol x?y indicates spatial con!olution" #he con!olution in the spatial domain is equal to multiplication in the frequency domain" #he equi!alent frequency domain representation is '(u,!)>0(u,!)4(u,!)DB(u,!) 5here the terms in capital letters are the 4ourier transforms of the corresponding terms in the pre!ious equation" )."*i$e %#,*$ n,$e% ,n Me+ian >i/$e*% In$*,+-'$i,n: ,edian 4ilter is one of the part of the smoothing filter" Bo mask is used in the median filters" 5e choose )x) sub image arranged in ascending order and lea!e first four !alues" ) 7 : 2 1; 2; ); M / 2,),/,7,:,M,1;,2;,); #ake the median !alue" #his median filter is the non linear spatial filtering" 1)median filtering smoothing 2),ax filter )),in filter Ma9 fi/$e*: +>,ax ,ax filter gi!es the brightest points Min fi/$e*: +>,in $t helps to get the largest point in the image" :. "*i$e %#,*$ n,$e% ,n "iene* >i/$e*in . #he in!erse filtering approach makes no explicit pro!ision for handling noise" An approach that incorporate both the degradation function and statistical characteristics of noise into the restoration process" #he method is founded on considering images and noise as random processes,and the ob&ecti!e is to find an estimate f of the uncorrupted image f such that the mean square error between them is minimi8ed" #his error measure is gi!en by

2 e >EP(f fC)2S where EP"Sis the expected !alue of the argument" $t is assumed that the noise and the image are uncorrelated,that one or other has 8ero meanIand that the gray le!els in the estimate are a linear function of the le!els in the degradated image" %ased on these conditions,the minimum of the error function in Eq is gi!en in the frequency domain by the expression #his result is known as the wiener filter after B"5iener,who proposed the concepts in the year shown"the filter which consists of the term inside the brackets also is commonly referred to as the minimum mean square error filter or the least square error filter" 5e include references at the end of sources containing detailed deri!ations of the wiener filter" #he restored image in the spatial domain is gi!en by the in!erse 4ourier transform of the frequency domain estimate 4(u,!)" $f the noise is 8ero,then the noise power spectrum !anishes and the wiener filter reduces to the in!erse filter" 0owe!er the power spectrum of the undegraded image seldom is known" 5here k is a specified constant" Example illustrates the power spectrum of wiener filtering o!er direct in!erse filtering"the !alue of L was chosen interacti!ely to yield the best !isual results" o $t illustrates the full in!erse filtered result similarly is the radially limited in!erse filter " #hese images are duplicated here for con!enience in making comparisons" As expected ,the in!erse filter produced an unusable image"#he noise in the inring filter" #he wiener filter result is by no means perfect,but it does gi!e us a hint as to image content" #he noise is still quite !isible, but the text can be seen through a xcurtainy of noise"

PART-C 1.E97/ain 5i%$, *am 7*,'e%%in #he 0istogram of the digital image with gray le!els in the range J;,G 1Kis the discrete function p(rk)>nk=n where rk is the kth gray le!el, nk is the number of pixel,n is the total number of pixel in the image and k>;,1,2,\\"G 1" 6(rk) gi!es the an estimate probability of occurrence of gray le!el rk"" 4igure show the the histogram of four basic types of images" 4igureI 0istogram corresponding to four basic image types

5i%$*, *am E<-a/i=a$i,n Get the !ariable r represent the gray le!els in the image to be enhanced" #he pixel !alue are continous quantities normali8ed that lie in the inter!al J;,1K with r>; represent black with r>1 represent white" #he transformation of the form 1>#(r) \\\\\\\\\\\\\(1) 5hich produce a le!el s for e!ery pixel !alue r in the original image"it satisfy conditionI o #(r) is the single !alued and monotonically increasing in the inter!al ;jrj1 and o ;j#(r)j1 for ;jrj1 (ondition 1 preser!es the order from black to white in the gray scale" (ondition 2 guarantees a mapping that is consistent with the allowed range of pixel !alues" +># z(s) ;jsj1 \\\\\\\\\""(2) #he probability density function of the transformed grayle!el is 6s(s)>Jpr(r)dr=dsK r># z(s) \\\\\\\\"()) (onsider the transformation function 1>#(r)> V6r(w)dw ;jrj1 \\\\\\\\"(/) 5here w is the dummy !ariable of integration " 4rom Eqn(/) the deri!ati!e of s with respect to r is ds=dr>pr(r) 1ubstituting dr=ds into eqn()) yields 6s(s)>J1K ;jsj1

5i%$, *am S7e'fi'a$i,n 0istogram equali8ation method does not lent itself to interacti!e application " Get 6r(r) and 68(8) be the original and desired probability function" 1uppose the histogram equali8ation is utili8ed on the original image 1>#(r)>V6r(w) dw \\\\\\\\\\\\\"(7) *esired image le!els could be equali8ed using the transformation function U>'(8)>V6r(w)dw \\\\\\\\\\\""(6) #he in!erse process is, 8>' z(!)" 0ere 6s(s) and 6!(!) are identical uniform densities p>' z(s) Assume that ' z(s) is single !alued, the procedure can be summari8ed as follow 1" Equali8e the le!el of the original image using eqn(/) 2" 1pecify the desired density function and obtain the transformation function '(8) using eqn(6) )" Apply the in!erse transformation function p>' z(s) to the le!el obtained in step 1" we can obtain result in combined transformation function 8>' zJ#(r)K \\\\\\\\\\\""(:) 0istogram specification for digital image is limited one 1" 4irst specify a particular histogram by digiti8ing the gi!en function" 2" 1pecifying a histogram shape by means of a graphic de!ice whose output is fed into the processor executing the histogram specification algorithm" !. E97/ain S7a$ia/ >i/$e*in #he use of spatial mask for the image processing usually called spatial filtering and spatial mask are spatial filters" #he linear filter classified into o Gow pass o 0igh pass o %and pass filtering (onsider )?) mask 51 5/ 5: 52 57 5@ 5) 56 5M

*enoting the gray le!el of pixels under the mask at any location by 81,82,8)\\,8M, the response of a linear mask is +>w181D w282 D\\\""DwM8M

Sm,,$#in >i/$e*% Gowpass 1patial filteringI #he filter has to ha!e positi!e coefficient" #he response would be the sum of gray le!els of nine pixels which could cause + to be out of the gray le!el range" #he solution is to scale the sum by di!iding + by M"#he use of the form of mask are called neighborhood a!eraging 1 1 1 1=M 1 1 1 1 1 1

,edian filteringI #o achi!e noise reduction rather than blurring" #he gray le!el of each pixel is replaced by the median of the gray le!el in the neighbourhood of that pixel S#a*7enin >i/$e*% %asic highpass spatial filteringI #he filter should be positi!e ecoefficient near the center and negati!e in the outer periphery" #he sum of the coefficient are ;" #his eliminate the 8ero frequency term reducing significantly the global contrast of the image 1 1=M? 1 1 @ 1 1

1 1 1 0igh{boost filteringI #he definition is 0igh boost>(A)(9riginal) Gowpass >(A 1) (9riginal)D 9riginal TGowpass >(A 1) (9riginal)D0ignpass *eri!ati!e 4iltersI A!eraging is anlog to integration , differentiation can be expected to ha!e opposite effect and thus sharpen the image ). E97/ain $#e Ge,me$*i' T*an%f,*ma$i,n% -%e+ in ima e *e%$,*a$i,n. 'eometric transformations are used for image restoration, modify the spatial relationship between the pixels in an image" 'eometric transformations are often called rubber sheet transformations, because they are may be !iewed as the process of printing an image on a sheet of rubber" #he geometric transformations consists of two basic operationsI (1) 1patial transformation (2) 'ray le!el interpolation

1.S7a$ia/ $*an%f,*ma$i,n%:An image f of pixel coordinates(x,y) undergoes geometric distortion to produce an image g with coordinates(xH,yH)"this transformation may be expressed as xH>r(x,y) yH>s(x,y) where r(x,y) and s(xH,yH) are the spatial transformations that produced the geometrically distorted image g(xH,yH)" $f r(x,y) and s(x,y) were known analytically reco!ering f(x,y) from the distorted image g(xH,yH) by applying the transformations in re!erse might possible theoretically" #he method used most frequently to formulate the spatial relocation of pixels by the use of tiepoints,which are a subset of pixels whose location in the input and output image is known precisely" #he !ertices of the quadrilaterals are corresponding tiepoints" r(x,y)>c1xDc2yDc)xyDc/ 1(x,y)>c7xDc6yDc:xyDc@ xH>c1xDc2yDc)xyDc/ yH>c7xDc6yDc:xyDc@ 1ince there are a total of eight known tiepoints these equations can be sol!ed for eight coefficients ci,i>1,2,\@" #he coefficient constitute the geometric distortion model used to transform all pixels within the quadrilateral region defined by the tiepoints used to obtain the coefficients" #iepoints are established by a number of different techniques depending on the application" !. G*a& /e0e/ In$e*7,/a$i,n: *epending on the !alues of coefficients ci equations can yield noninteger !alues for xH and yH" %ecause the distorted image g is digital ,its pixel !alues are defined only at integer co ordinates " #hus using non integer !alues for xH, yH causes a mapping into locations of g for which no gray le!els are defined" #he technique is used to accomplish this is called gray le!el interpolation" :.De%'*i.e #,m,m,*7#i' fi/$e*in #he illumination T reflectance model can be used to de!elop a frequency domain procedure for impro!ing the appearance of an image by simultaneous gray T le!el compression and contrast enhancement" An image can be expressed as the product of illumination and reflectance components" f(x,y) > i(x,y) r(x,y) 4(f(x,y)) > 4(i(x,y) r(x,y)) 5here 4 i(u,!)) and 4(r(u,!)) are the 4ourier transformation of i(x,y)and r(x,y) respecti!ely"

#he in!erse (exponential) operation yields the desird enhanced image, denoted by g(x,y)O that is, GnJf(x,y)K > lnJi(x,y) r(x,y)K 4Jln(f(x,y))K > 4Jln(i(x,y)KD4Jln( r(x,y))K #his method is based on a special case of a class of systems know as homomorphism systems" $n this particular application, #he key to the approach is the separation of the illumination and reflectance components achie!ed in the from" #he homomorphism filter function can then operate on these on these component separately" #he illumination components of an image generally is characteri8ed by slow spatial !ariations" 5hile the reflectance component tends to !ary abruptly, particularly at the &unction, while the reflectance component tends to !ary abruptly, particularly at the &unctions of dissimilar ob&ects" A good deal of control can be gained o!er the illumination and reflectance components with a homomorphic filter" #his control requires specification of a filter function 0(u"!) that affects the low and high T frequency components of the 4ourier transform in different ways"

5.E97/ain $#e +iffe*en$ N,i%e Di%$*i.-$i,n in +e$ai/. In$*,+-'$i,n: Boise are unwanted signal which corrupts the original signal" 9rigin of noise source is during image acquisition and=or transmission and digiti8ation" *uring capturing ,performance of imaging sensors are affected by the en!ironmental conditions due to the quality of sensors" $mage acquisition are the principle source of noise" *ue to the interference in the transmission it will affect the transmission of the image" T&7e%: +ayleigh noiseI #he 6*4 is 6(p)> 2(8 a)e (8sa)2=b=b for pR>a ; for pQa mean standard de!iation Gamma n,i%e: #he 6*4 is q>aD]Wb=/ r2>b(/ W)=/

6(p)>ab 8b 1 ae a8=(b 1) for pR>; ; for pQ; mean q>b=a standard de!iation r2>b=a2 E97,nen$ia/ n,i%e #he 6*4 is 6(p)> ae a8 pR>; ; pQ; mean q>1=a standard de!iation r2>1=a2 Unif,*m n,i%e: #he 6*4 is 6(p)>1=(b a) if aQ>pQ>b ; otherwise mean q>aDb=2 standard de!iation r2>(b a)2=12 Im7-/%e n,i%e: #he 6*4 is 6(p) >6a for 8>a 6b for 8>b ; 9therwise UNIT I G 1. "#a$ i% %e men$a$i,n( 1egmentation subdi!ides on image in to its constitute regions or ob&ects" #he le!el to which the subdi!ides is carried depends on the problem being sol!ed "#hat is segmentation should when the ob&ects of interest in application ha!e been isolated" !. "*i$e $#e a77/i'a$i,n% ,f %e men$a$i,n" *etection of isolated points" *etection of lines and edges in an image" ). "#a$ a*e $#e $#*ee $&7e% ,f +i%',n$in-i$& in +i i$a/ ima e( 6oints, lines and edges" :. 5,3 $#e +e*i0a$i0e% a*e ,.$aine+ in e+ e +e$e'$i,n +-*in f,*m-/a$i,n( #he first deri!ati!e at any point in an image is obtained by using the magnitude of the gradient at that point" 1imilarly the second deri!ati!es are obtained by using the laplacian" 5. "*i$e a.,-$ /inEin e+ e 7,in$%. #he approach for linking edge points is to analy8e the characteristics of pixels in a small neighborhood ()x) or 7x7) about e!ery point (x,y)in an image that has undergone edge detection" All points that are similar are linked, forming a boundary of pixels that share some common properties"

1. "#a$ a*e $#e $3, 7*,7e*$ie% -%e+ f,* e%$a./i%#in %imi/a*i$& ,f e+ e 7i9e/%( (1) #he strength of the response of the gradient operator used to produce the edge pixel" (2) #he direction of the gradient" 2. "#a$ i% e+ e( An edge isa set of connected pixels that lie on the boundary between two regions edges are more closely modeled as ha!ing a ramplike profile" #he slope of the ramp is in!ersely proportional to the degree of blurring in the edge" 4. Gi0e $#e 7*,7e*$ie% ,f $#e %e',n+ +e*i0a$i0e a*,-n+ an e+ e( #he sign of the second deri!ati!e can be used to determine whether an edge pixel lies on the dark or light side of an edge" $t produces two !alues for e!ery edge in an image" An imaginary straightline &oining the extreme positi!e and negati!e !alues of the second deri!ati!e would cross 8ero near the midpoint of the edge" 6. Define G*a+ien$ O7e*a$,*( 4irst order deri!ati!es of a digital image are based on !arious approximation of the 2 * gradient" #he gradient of an image f(x,y) at location(x,y) is defined as the !ector ,agnitude of the !ector is af>mag( af )>J'x2D 'y2K1=2 h(x,y)>tan 1('y='x) h(x,y) is the direction angle of !ector af 18. "#a$ i% mean$ .& ,.;e'$ 7,in$ an+ .a'E *,-n+ 7,in$( #o execute the ob&ects from the background is to select a threshold # that separate these modes" #hen any point (x,y) for which f(x,y)R# is called an ob&ect point" 9therwise the point is called background point" 11. "#a$ i% /,.a/D L,'a/ an+ +&nami' ,* a+a7$i0e $#*e%#,/+( 5hen #hreshold # depends only on f(x,y) then the threshold is called global " $f # depends both on f(x,y) and p(x,y) is called local" $f # depends on the spatial coordinates x and y the threshold is called dynamic or adapti!e where f(x,y) is the original image" 1!. Define *e i,n *,3in ( +egion growing is a procedure that groups pixels or subregions in to layer regions based on predefined criteria" #he basic approach is to start with a set of seed points and from there grow regions by appending to each seed these neighbouring pixels that ha!e properties similar to the seed" 1). S7e'if& $#e %$e7% in0,/0e+ in %7/i$$in an+ me* in ( 1plit into / dis&oint quadrants any region +i for which 6(+i)>4AG1E" ,erge any ad&acent regions +& and +k for which 6(+&^+k)>#+^E" 1top when no further merging or splitting is positi!e"

1:. Define 7a$$e*n. A pattern is a quantitati!e or structural description of an ob&ecti!e or some other entity of interest in an image, 15. Define 7a$$e*n '/a%%. A pattern class is a family of patterns that share some common properties "6attern classes are denoted w1,w2, wm, where , is the number of classes " 11.Li%$ $#e $#*ee 7a$$e*n a**an emen$%. Uectors 1trings #reestching 12. Gi0e $#e +e'i%i,n $#e,*e$i' me$#,+%. ,atching ,atching by minimum distance classifier ,atching by correlation 14. Define $*ainin 7a$$e*n an+ $*ainin %e$. #he patterns used to estimate the parameters are called training patterns,anda set of such patterns from each class is called a training set" 16. Define $*ainin #he process by which a training set is used to obtain decision functions is called learning or training" !8. "#a$ a*e $#e /a&e*% in .a'E 7*,7a a$i,n ne$3,*E( $nput layer, 0idden layer and out put layer PART HB 1" "*i$e %#,*$ n,$e% ,n ima e %e men$a$i,n. 1egmentation subdi!ides on image in to its constitute regions or ob&ects" #he le!el to which the subdi!ides is carried depends on the problem being sol!ed " ExamplesI $n autonomous air to ground target acquisition applications identifying !ehicles on a road is of interest" #he first step is to segment the road from the image and then to segment the elements of the road down to ob&ects of a range of si8es that correspond potential !ehicles" $n target acquistition ,the system designer has n control of the en!ironment" 1o the usual approach is to focus on selecting the types of sensors most likely to enhance the ob&ects of interest " Example is the use of infrared imaging to detect ob&ects with a strong heat signature,such as tanks in motion" 1egmentation algorithms for monochrome images are based on one of the two basic properties of gray le!el !alues " #hey are discontinuity and similarity"

%ased on the first category ,the approach is based on abrupt changes in gray le!el and the areas of interest based on this category are detection of isolated points and detection of lines and edges in an image" %ased on the second category the approach is based on thresholding, region growing and region splitting and merging " #he concept of segmenting an image based on discontinuity or similarity of the gray le!el !alues of its pixels is applicable to both static and dynamic images"

!. "*i$e %#,*$ n,$e% ,n e+ e +e$e'$i,n E+ e De$e'$i,n: Edge detection is xlocaly image processing methods designed to detect edge pixels" (oncept that is based on a measure of intensity le!el discontinuity at a point" $t is possible to link edge points into edge segments, and sometimes these segments are linked in such a way that they correspond to boundaries, but this is not always the case" T#e ima e *a+ien$ an+ i$% 7*,7e*$ie%: #he tool of choice for finding edge strength and direction at location (x,y) of an image, f, is the gradient, denoted by ft, a and defined as the !ector gx gt=gx ft|grad(t)| gy > gt=gy

#he magnitude length of !ector ft, denoted as M(x,y) M(x,y)>mag(ft)>]gx}Dgy} $s the !alue of the rate of change in the direction of the gradient !ector" #he direction of the gradient !ector is gi!en by the angle Z(x,y)>tan~z gy=gx measured with respect to the x axis" 4ollows, using these differences as our estimates of the partials, that gt=gx> 2 and gt=gy>2 at the point in equation" #hen gx gt=gx 2 ft> > > gy gt=gy 2

from which we obtain M(x,y)>2]2 at that point" G*a+ien$ ,7e*a$,*%: 9btaining the gradient of an image requires computing the partials deri!ati!es gt=gx and gt=gy at e!ery pixel location in the image" gx>gt(x,y)= gx> t(xD1,y) t(x,y) gy>gt(x,y)= gy> t(x,yD1) t(x,y) An approach used frequently is to approximate the gradient by absolute !alueI ft'x D 'y

T#e La7/a'ian #he laplacian of a 2 * function f(x,y) is a second order deri!ati!es defined as f}t>g}t=g}xDg}t=g}y #he first laplacian is combined with smoothing as a precursor to finding edges !ia 8ero crossings" (onsider the function" f} t>@87 (81D82D8)D8/D86D8:D8@D8M) ; 1 ; 1 / 1 ; 1 ; )."*i$e S#,*$ n,$e% ,n e+ e /inEin .& /,'a/ 7*,'e%%in . 9ne of the simplest approaches f or linking edge points is to analy8e the characteristics of the pixels in a small neighborhood about e!ery point in an image that has undergone edge detection" #wo properties used for establishing similarity of edge pixels in the analysis are #he strength of the response of the gradient operator used to produce the edge pixel, #he direction of the gradient" #he first property is gi!en by the !alue of ff" #hus an edge pixel with coordinates (xH,yH) and in the predefined neighborhood of (x,y) is similar in magnitude to the pixel at (x,y) if Fff(x,y) f(xH,yH)FQ># where # is a nonnegati!e threshold" #he direction of the gradient !ector is gi!en by Z(x,y)>tan~z gy=gx #hen an edge pixel at (xH,yH) in the predefined neighborhood of (x,y) has an angle similar to the pixel at (x,y) if F Z(x,y)> Z(xH,yH)FQA where A is an angle threshold" Bote that the direction of the edge at (x,y) in reality is perpendicular to the direction of the gradient !ector at that point" A point in the predefined neighborhood of (x,y) is linked to the pixel at (xH,yH) if both magnitude and direction criteria are satisfied" #his process is repeated for e!ery location in the image" A record must be kept of linked points as the center of the neighborhood is mo!ed from pixel to pixel" A simple bookkeeping procedure is to assign a different gray le!el to each set of linked edge pixels" :."*i$e %#,*$ n,$e% ,n $#e a77/i'a$i,n% ,f a*$ifi'ia/ ne-*a/ ne$3,*E% in ima e 7*,'e%%in " #he real time automatic images processing and pattern recognition are !ery important for many problems in medicine, physics, geology, space research, military applications and so on" 4or example, it is necessary for pilots and dri!ers for immediate decision making in poor !isibility conditions" An approach to image enhancement through artificial neural networkHs (ABB) processing is proposed"ABB is for images enhancement through approximation of image transform function T" #his function is approximated with use of ABB which is trained e!olutionary in the time of test images processing" Each ABB is genetically encoded as the list of its connections" #runcation selection is used for parental subpopulation formation" 9riginal crosso!er and mutation operators, which respect structures of the ABBs undergoing recombination and mutation, are used" Bodes with

sigmoid acti!ation functions are considered" #he population si8e adapts to the properties of e!olution during the algorithm run using simple resi8ing strategy" $n this application pixel by pixel brightness processing with use of ABB paradigm is adopted" #he topology of ABB is tuned simultaneously with connections weights" #he ABB approximating T function should ha!e three input nodes and one output node" *uring the training we e!aluate each ABB with respect to the !isual quality of the processed images" #he three step procedure for image enhancement is proposedI (1) multiplicati!e ad&ustment of image brightness (2) local le!el processing using ABBO ()) global le!el auto smoothing algorithm" #he artificial neural network training stage with use of single 12@12@ pixels image takes about :; seconds on the $ntel 6entium $U ) '08 processor" After completion of the learning process the obtained artificial neural network is ready to process arbitrary images that were not presented during the training" #he processing time for 712712 pixels image is about ;"27 second" #he ABB, as a rule, included ) input nodes, one or more hidden nodes and one output node"

6A+# ( 1.Di%'-%% *e i,n ,*ien$e+ %e men$a$i,n in +e$ai/

#he ob&ecti!e of segmentation is to partition an image into regions" 5e approached this problem by finding boundaries between based on discontinuities in gray le!els, segmentation was accomplished !ia thresholds based on the distribution of pixels properties, such as gray le!el !alues or color" Ba%i' >,*m-/a$i,n: Get +epresent the region of image" 5e may !iew segmentation as a process that partition + into n subregions,+1,+2,\\\\\\,such that n (a) u+i>+ i>1 (.) +i is a connected region, i>1,2,\\\\""n" (') +i+&>for all i and &,ie&" (+) 6(+i)>#+^E for i>1,2,\\\\\\\\n" (e) 6(+i^+&)>4AG1E for ie&" 0ere, 6(+i) is a logical predicate defined o!er the points in set +i and is the null set" (ondition (a) indicates that the segmentation must be complete that is e!ery pixel must be in a region" (ondition (b) requires that points in a region must be connected in some predefined sense" (ondition(c) indicates that the regions must be dis&oint" (ondition(d) deals with the properties that must be satisfied by the pixels in a segmented region" Re i,n G*,3in : As its name implies region growing is a procedure that groups pixel or subregions into larger regions based on predefined criteria" #he basic approach is to start with a set of xseedy points and from these grow regions" $f the result of these computation shows clusters of !alues, the pixels whose properties place them near the centroid of these clusters can be used as seeds" *escriptors alone can yield misleading results if connecti!ity or ad&acency information is not used in the region growing process" Re i,n S7/i$$in an+ Me* in : #he procedure &ust discussed grows regions from a set of seed points" An alternati!e into subdi!ided an image initially into a set of arbitrary, dis&ointed regions and then merge and=or split the regions in an attempt to satisfy the conditions" +1 +) +2

+/1 +/2 +/) +// 1" 1plit into four dis&oint quadrants any region +i for which 6(+i)>4AG1E" 2" ,erge any ad&acent regions +& and +k for which 6(+&^+k)>#+^E" )" 1top when no further merging or splitting is possible" ,ean and standard de!iation of pixels in a region to quantify the texture of region" R,/e ,f $#*e%#,/+in :

5e introduced a simple model in which an image f(x,y) is formed as the product of a reflectance component r(x,y) and an illumination components i(x,y)" consider the computer generated reflectance function" #he histogram of this function is clearly bimodal and could be portioned easily by placing a single global threshold, #, in the histogram !alley" ,ultiplying the reflectance function by the illumination function" 9riginal !alley was !irtually eliminated, making segmentation by a single threshold an impossible task" Although we seldom ha!e the reflectance function by itself to work with, this simple illustration shows that the reflecti!e nature of ob&ects and background can be such that they are separable" t(x,y)>i(x,y)r(x,y) #aking the natural logarithm of this equation yields a sumI 8(x,y)>ln t(x,y) >ln i(x,y)Dln r(x,y) >i (x,y)Dr (x,y) $f i (x,y) and r (x,y) are independent random !ariable, the histogram of 8(x,y) is gi!en by the con!olution of the histogram of i (x,y) and r (x,y)" %ut if i (x,y) had a border histogram the con!olution process would smear the histogram of r (x,y), yielding a histogram for 8(x,y) whose shape could be quite different from that of the histogram of r (x,y)" #he degree of distortion depends on the broadness of the histogram of i (x,y), which in turn depends on the nonuniformity of the illumination function" 5e ha!e dealt with the logarithm of t(x,y), instead of dealing with the image function directly" 5hen access to the illumination source is a!ailable, a solution frequently used in practice to compensate for nonuniformity is to pro&ect the illumination pattern onto a constant, white reflecti!e surface" #his yields an image g(x,y)>ki(x,y), where k is a constant that depends on the surface and i(x,y) is the illumination pattern" 4or any image t(x,y)>i(x,y)r(x,y) obtained from the same illumination function, simply di!iding t(x,y) by g(x,y) yields a normali8ed function h(x,y)> t(x,y)=g(x,y)> r(x,y)=k" #hus, if r(x,y) can be segmented by using a single threshold #, then h(x,y) can be segmented by using single threshold of !alue #=k" 2"E97/ain Ba'E 7*,7, a$i,n ne-*a/ ne$3,*E% in +e$ai/

4igI 1tructure of a basic neuron Ba'E 7*,7a a$i,n $*ainin a/ ,*i$#m: %asic neuronI 4igure shows the 1tructure of a basic neuron" A set of inputs applied either from the outside of from a pre!ious layer" Each of these is multiplied by a weight and the products are summed" #his summation of this products is turned BE# and must be calculated for each neuron in the network" After BE# is calculated an acti!ation function 4 is applied to modify it, thereby producing the signal out 5here, BE#>x1w1Dx2w2D\\\\\\\\xnwn n BE#>uxiwi i>1 and out>4(BE#)

4igI %ack propagation neural network M-/$i/a&e* Ba'E P*,7a a$i,n Ne$3,*E: 4igure shows the %ack propagation neural network "#he first set of neurons ser!e only as distribution points" #hey perform no input summation" #he input signal is simply passed into the weight on there outputs" Each neuron in subsequent layers

produces BE# and 9^# signals as described abo!e" A neuron is associated with the set of weights that connects to its input" #he input of distribution layer is designated as layer ;" %ackpropagation can be applied to network with a number of layers" 0owe!er only two layers of weights are needed to demonstrate the algorithm" S$e7% in0,/0e+ in .a'E7*,7a a$i,n $*ainin : 1elect the next training pair from the training set" Apply input !ector to the network input" (alculate the output of the network" (alculate the error between the output network and the desired output" Ad&ust the weight of the network in a way that minimi8es the error" +epeat steps1 through / for each !ector in the training until the error for the entire set acceptably low" >,*3a*+ 7a%%: 1tep 1 and 2 can be expressed in !ector form as followsI an input !ector x is applied and the output !ector y is produced" (alculations in multilayer network are done layer by layer starting at the layer nearest to the inputs" #he BE# !alue of each neuron in the first layer is calculated as the weight sum of its neurons input" #he acti!ation function 4 then osquashesH BE# to produce the 9^# !alue for each neuron in that layer" 9nce a set a output for a layer is found, it ser!es as input to the next layer" #his process is repeated layer by layer until the final set of output network is produced" Re0e*%e .ia%: %ecause a target !alue is a!ailable for each neuron in the output layer, ad&usting ht associated weights id easily accomplished as a modification of the delta rule" $nterior layers are referred to as hidden layers as their outputs has no target !alues for comparison" 0ence the training is more complicated" 0idden layers ha!e no target !ectors so the ordinary training process described abo!e can not be used" ).Di%%'-%% in +e$ai/ ,n 7a$$e*n an+ 7a$$e*n '/a%%e%. A pattern is a quantitati!e or structural description of an ob&ecti!e or some other entity of interest in an image, A pattern class is a family of patterns that share some common properties "6attern classes are denoted w1,w2, wm, where , is the number of classes #hree principle pattern arrangements used in practice are !ectors(for quantitati!e descriptors ) and strings and trees (for structural descriptions) " 6attern!ectors are represented by bold lower case letters such as 9D&, and =Dwhere Each component x represent the ith descriptors"6attern !ectors are represented in coloumns (i"e" n x 1; marices) or in the equilant form x>Mx1,x2, xn)#,# transpose" #he nature of the pattern !ector depends on the measurement technique used to describe the physical pattern itself" Ex" $f we want to describe the three types of iris floers(iris setosa,!irginica,and !ersicolor)by measuring the width and length of the petals"$t is represented in the !ector form x>Jx1,x2K#Ox1,x2 correspond to width length respecti!ely"#hree pattern classes are w1,w2,w) corresponding to the three !erities"

%ecause the petals of all flowers !ary in width and length to some degree the pattern !ectors describing three flowers also will !ary, not only between different classes ,but also with in a class" #he result of this classic feature selection problem shows that the degree of class seperability depends strongly on the choice of pattern measurements selected for an application"

UNIT G 1. "#a$ i% ima e ',m7*e%%i,n( $mage compression refers to the process of redundancy amount of data required to represent the gi!en quantity of information for digital image" #he basis of reduction process is remo!al of redundant data" !. "#a$ i% Da$a C,m7*e%%i,n( *ata compression requires the identification and extraction of source redundancy" $n other words, data compression seeks to reduce the number of bits used to store or transmit information"

). "#a$ a*e $3, main $&7e% ,f Da$a ',m7*e%%i,n( Gossless compression can reco!er the exact original data after compression" $t is used mainly for compressing database records, spreadsheets or word processing files, where exact replication of the original is essential" Gossy compression will result in a certain loss of accuracy in exchange for a substantial increase in compression" Gossy compression is more effecti!e when used to compress graphic images and digitised !oice where losses outside !isual or aural perception can be tolerated" :. "#a$ i% $#e nee+ f,* C,m7*e%%i,n( $n terms of storage, the capacity of a storage de!ice can be effecti!ely increased with methods that compress a body of data on its way to a storage de!ice and decompresses it when it is retrie!ed" $n terms of communications, the bandwidth of a digital communication link can be effecti!ely increased by compressing data at the sending end and decompressing data at the recei!ing end" At any gi!en time, the ability of the $nternet to transfer data is fixed" #hus, if data can effecti!ely be compressed where!er possible, significant impro!ements of data throughput can be achie!ed" ,any files can be combined into one compressed document making sending easier" 5. "#a$ a*e +iffe*en$ C,m7*e%%i,n Me$#,+%( +un Gength Encoding (+GE) Arithmetic coding 0uffman coding and #ransform coding 1. Define i% ',+in *e+-n+an'&( $f the gray le!el of an image is coded in a way that uses more code words than necessary to represent each gray le!el, then the resulting image is said to contain coding redundancy" 2. Define in$e*7i9e/ *e+-n+an'&( #he !alue of any gi!en pixel can be predicted from the !alues of its neighbors" #he information carried by is small" #herefore the !isual contribution of a single pixel to an image is redundant" 9therwise called as spatial redundant geometric redundant or interpixel redundant" EgI +un length coding 4. "#a$ i% *-n /en $# ',+in ( +un length Encoding, or +GE is a technique used to reduce the si8e of a repeating string of characters" #his repeating string is called a runO typically +GE encodes a run of symbols into two bytes, a count and a symbol" +GE can compress any type of data regardless of its information content, but the content of data to be compressed affects the compression ratio" (ompression is normally measured with the compression ratioI 6. Define ',m7*e%%i,n *a$i,. C,m7*e%%i,n Ra$i, > original si8e = compressed si8eI 1 18. Define 7%&'#, 0i%-a/ *e+-n+an'&( $n normal !isual processing certain information has less importance than other information" 1o this information is said to be psycho !isual redundant"

11. Define en',+e* 1ource encoder is responsible for remo!ing the coding and interpixel redundancy and psycho !isual redundancy" #here are two components A) 1ource Encoder %) (hannel Encoder 1!. Define %,-*'e en',+e* 1ource encoder performs three operations 1) ,apper this transforms the input data into non !isual format" $t reduces the interpixel redundancy" 2) .uanti8er $t reduces the psycho !isual redundancy of the input images "#his step is omitted if the system is error free" )) 1ymbol encoder #his reduces the coding redundancy "#his is the final stage of encoding process" 1). Define '#anne/ en',+e* #he channel encoder reduces reduces the impact of the channel noise by inserting redundant bits into the source encoded data" EgI 0amming code 1:. "#a$ a*e $#e $&7e% ,f +e',+e*( 1ource decoder has two components a) 1ymbol decoder #his performs in!erse operation of symbol encoder" b) $n!erse mapping #his performs in!erse operation of mapper" (hannel decoder this is omitted if the system is error free" 15. "#a$ a*e $#e ,7e*a$i,n% 7e*f,*me+ .& e**,* f*ee ',m7*e%%i,n( 1) *e!ising an alternati!e representation of the image in which its interpixel redundant are reduced" 2) (oding the representation to eliminate coding redundancy 11. "#a$ i% Ga*ia./e Len $# C,+in ( Uariable Gength (oding is the simplest approach to error free compression" $t reduces only the coding redundancy" $t assigns the shortest possible codeword to the most probable gray le!els" 12. Define 5-ffman ',+in 0uffman coding is a popular technique for remo!ing coding redundancy" 5hen coding the symbols of an information source the 0uffman code yields the smallest possible number of code words, code symbols per source symbol" 14. Define B/,'E ',+e Each source symbol is mapped into fixed sequence of code symbols or code words" 1o it is called as block code" 16. Define in%$an$ane,-% ',+e

A code word that is not a prefix of any other code word is called instantaneous or prefix codeword" !8. Define a*i$#me$i' ',+in $n arithmetic coding one to one corresponds between source symbols and code word doesnHt exist where as the single arithmetic code word assigned for a sequence of source symbols" A code word defines an inter!al of number between ; and 1" !1. "#a$ i% .i$ 7/ane De',m7,%i$i,n( An effecti!e technique for reducing an imageHs interpixel redundancies is to process the imageHs bit plane indi!idually" #his technique is based on the concept of decomposing multile!el images into a series of binary images and compressing each binary image !ia one of se!eral well known binary compression methods" !!. D*a3 $#e ./,'E +ia *am ,f $*an%f,*m ',+in %&%$em $nput image 5a!elet transform .uanti8er 1ymbol encoder (ompressed image

(ompressed image

1ymbol decoder

$n!erse wa!elet transform

*ecompressed image

!). 5,3 effe'$i0ene%% ,f <-an$i=a$i,n 'an .e im7*,0e+( $ntroducing an enlarged quanti8ation inter!al around 8ero, called a dead 8ero" Adapting the si8e of the quanti8ation inter!als from scale to scale" $n either case, the selected quanti8ation inter!als must be transmitted to the decoder with the encoded image bit stream" !:. "#a$ a*e $#e ',+in %&%$em% in JPEG( 1" A lossy baseline coding system, which is based on the *(# and is adequate for most compression application" 2" An extended coding system for greater compression, higher precision or progressi!e reconstruction applications" )" a lossless independent coding system for re!ersible compression" !5. "#a$ i% JPEG( #he acronym is expanded as koint 6hotographic Expert 'roup" $t is an international standard in 1MM2" $t perfectly 5orks with color and grayscale images, ,any applications e"g", satellite, medical,""" !1. "#a$ a*e $#e .a%i' %$e7% in JPEG(

#he ,a&or 1teps in k6E' (oding in!ol!eI *(# (*iscrete (osine #ransformation) .uanti8ation pig8ag 1can *6(, on *( component +GE on A( (omponents Entropy (oding !2. "#a$ i% MPEG( #he acronym is expanded as ,o!ing 6icture Expert 'roup" $t is an international standard in 1MM2" $t perfectly 5orks with !ideo and also used in teleconferencing !4. D*a3 $#e JPEG En',+e*.

!6. D*a3 $#e JPEG De',+e*.

)8. "#a$ i% =i =a %e<-en'e( #he purpose of the pig 8ag 1canI #o group low frequency coefficients in top of !ector" ,aps @ x @ to a 1 x 6/ !ector

)1. Define I-f*ame $ frame is $ntraframe or $ndependent frame" An $ frame is compressed independently of all frames" $t resembles a k6E' encoded image" $t is the reference point for the motion estimation needed to generate subsequent 6 and 6 frame" )!. Define P-f*ame 6 frame is called predicti!e frame" A 6 frame is the compressed difference between the current frame and a prediction of it based on the pre!ious $ or 6 frame )). Define B-f*ame % frame is the bidirectional frame" A % frame is the compressed difference between the current frame and a prediction of it based on the pre!ious $ or 6 frame or next 6 frame" Accordingly the decoder must ha!e access to both past and future reference frames"

PART B

1. Define C,m7*e%%i,n an+ e97/ain +a$a Re+-n+an'& in ima e ',m7*e%%i,n C,m7*e%%i,nI $t is the process of reducing the si8e of the gi!en data or an image" $t will help us to reduce the storage space required to store an image or 4ile" Da$a Re+-n+an'&: #he data or words that either pro!ide no rele!ant information or simply restate that which is already known "$t is said to be data redundancy" (onsider B1 and B2 number of information carrying units in two data sets that represent the same information *ata +edundancy +d > 1 1=(r 5here (r is called the (ompression +atio" 3 T&7e% ,f Re+-n+an'& #here are three basic +edundancy and they are classified as 1) (oding +edundancy 2) $nterpixel +edundancy )) 6sycho!isual +edundancy" (r>B1=B2"

1" (oding +edundancy I 5e de!eloped this technique for image enhancement by histogram processing on the assumption that the grey le!els of an image are random quantities" 0ere the grey le!el histogram of the image also can pro!ide a great deal of insight in the construction of codes to reduce the amount of data used to represent it" 2" $nterpixel +edundancy I $norder to reduce the interpixel redundancy in an image, the 2 * pixel array normally used for human !iewing and interpretation must be transformed in to more efficient form" )" 6sycho!isual +edundancyI (ertain information simply has less relati!e importance than other information in the normal !isual processing" #his information is called 6syco!isual +edundant"

!. E97/ain $#e C,+in 7#a%e in JPEG

$n this approach the lable for the *( and A( coefficient are coded differently using 0uffman codes" #he *( coefficient !alues partitioned into categories" #he categories are then 0uffman coded" #he A( coefficient is generated in slightly different manner" #here are two special codesI End of block(E94) and p+G #ableI (oding of the differences of the *( labels ; 1 1 ) 2 2 ) : \\\\\\\\" / / \\\ : \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\" #ableI sample table for obtaining the 0uffman code for a gi!en label !alue and run length 1 2 ) p=( (odeword ;=; 1;1; ;=1 ;; \\\\\\\\ p=c 1=1 (odeword 11;; \"" p=( (odeword 4=; 11111111;;1 4=1 11111111111111;1;1 ;

#o encode the A( coefficient 4irst using pig8ag scan" 5e obtain M ) ; ; ; ; ; \\\ ; #he first !alue belong to category 1" transmit the code corresponding to ;=1 follow by a single bit 1 to indicate that the !alue being transmitted is 1 and not 1 "1imillarly other A( coefficient code are transmited" #o obtain the reconstruction of the original block *equanti8ation is performed and taking in!erse transform of the coefficient we get the reconstructed block ).E97/ain 5-ffman ',+in 3i$# an e9am7/e. #his technique was de!eloped by *a!id 0uffman"

#he codes generated using this technique or procedure are called 0uffman codes" #hese codes are prefix codes and are optimum for a gi!en model"

#he 0uffman procedure is based on two obser!ations regarding optimum prefix codes 1"$n an optimum code, symbols that occur more frequently will ha!e shorter code words than symbols that occur less frequently" 2"in an optimum code ,the two symbols that occur least frequently will ha!e the same length De%i n ,f a 5-ffman C,+e #o design a 0uffman code ,we first sort the letters in descending probability 4ind the 0uffman code for the followingI 6(A)>;"2, p(%)>;"1, p(()>;"2,p(*)>;";7,p(E)>;"),p(4)>;";7,p(')>;"1

>in+ $#e a0e*a e /en $# an+ en$*,7& A0e*a e /en $# CIC

k= 1

7(aE)/(aE)

$>)(;"2)D)(;"1)D)(;"2)D7(;";7)D1(;"))D7(;";7)D/(;"1) >2": bits=symbol En$*,7& C5(aE)C k= 1

7(aE)/, !7(aE)

>;":66: >in+ Effi'ien'&

Effi'ien'& C = En$*,7&Ia0e*a e /en $# >;"2@/N >in+ *e+-n+an'& Re+-n+an'& CRe C1- = ;":16 PART -C 1) Define C,m7*e%%i,n an+ E97/ain $#e ene*a/ ',m7*e%%i,n %&%$em m,+e/ C,m7*e%%i,nI $t is the process of reducing the si8e of the gi!en data or an image" $t will help us to reduce the storage space required to store an image or 4ile" $mage (ompression ,odelI #here are two 1tructural model and they are broadly (lassified as follows 1" An Encoder 2" A *ecoder"

Encoder

(hannel

*ecoder

An $nput image f(x,y) is fed in to encoder and create a set of symbols and after transmission o!er the channel ,the encoded representation is fed in to the decoder" A Gene*a/ C,m7*e%%i,n %&%$em m,+e/: #he 'eneral system model consist of the following components,#hey are broadly classified as 1" 1ource Encoder 2" (hannel Encoder )" (hannel /" (hannel *ecoder 7" 1ouce *ecoder

1ource Encoder

(hannel Encoder

(hannel

(hannel *ecoder

1ource *ecode r

#he 1ource Encoder 5ill remo!es the input redundancies" #he channel encoder will increase the noise immunity of the source encoderHs output" $f the channel between encoder and decoder is noise free then the channel encoder and decoder can be omitted"

,apper

.uanti8e r

1ymbol Encoder

MAPPER: $t transforms the input data in to a format designed to reduce the interpixel redundancy in the input image" @UANTIJER: $t reduce the accuracy of the mapperHs output" SAMBOL ENCODER: $t creates a fixed or !ariable length code to represent the quanti8erHs output and maps the output in accordance with the code"

1ymbol decoder

$n!erse mapper

SAMBOL DECODER: #he in!erse operation of the source encoderHs symbol will be performed and maps the blocks" 2"Explain the concepts of Embedded pero #ree coding

Ep5 coder was introduced by 1hapiro" $t is a quanti8ation and coding strategy that characteristics of the wa!elet decomposition"#he particular characteristic used by the Ep5 algorithm is that there are wa!elet coefficients in different subbands that represent the same spatial location in the image" $n 1; band decomposition ,the coefficient a in the upper left corner of band $ represents the same spatial location as coefficient a1 represents the same spatial location as coefficients a11,a12,a1),a1/ in band U" Each of these pixel represents the same spatial location as four pixels in band U$$$"

a $$ U a) a/

U$ $

U$$

5e can !isuali8e the relationships of these coefficients in form of treeI#he coefficient a forms the root of the tree with three descendants a1,a2,a)" Ep5 algorithm is a multiple pass algorithm,with each pass consisting of two steps" 1"significance map encoding or the dominant pass 2"refinement or the subordinate pass $f (max is the !alue of the largest coefficient,the initial !alue of the threshold #; is gi!en by JGog (maxK #;>2 #his selection guarantees that the largest coefficient will lie in the inter!alJ#;,2#;K"$n each pass,the threshold #i is reduced to half the !alue it had in the pre!ious passI #i>1=2(#i 1) 4or gi!en !alue of #i,we assign one of four possible labels to the coefficientsI

1"significance positi!e(sp) 2"significant negati!e(sn) )"8erotree root(8r) /"isolated 8ero(i8) #he coefficients labeled significant are simply those that fall in the outer le!els of the quanti8ed and are assigned an initial reconstructed !alue of 1"7#i or 1"7#i,depending on whether the coefficient is positi!e or negati!e" ).Di%'-%% MPEG',m7*e%%i,n %$an+a*+ In$*,+-'$i,n: #he basic structure of the compression algorithm proposed by mpeg is !ery similar to that of $#^ # 0"261 $n mpeg the blocks are organi8ed in macro blocks which are defined in the same manner as that of 0"261 algorithm #he mpeg standard initially had applications that require digital storage and retrie!al as a ma&or focus >*ame% I->*ame% ,peg includes some frames periodically that are coded without any reference to the past 4rames" #hese frames are called $ frames $ frames do not use temporal correlation for prediction"#hus the number of frames between two consecuti!e $frames is a trade off between compression efficiency and con!enience" P an+ B f*ame% $n order to impro!e the compression efficiency mpeg1 algorithm contains two other types of framesI predicti!e coded and bidirectionally predicti!e coded frames 'enerally the compression efficiency of 6 frames is substantially higher than $frames An'#,* f*ame% #he $ and 6 frames are sometimes are anchor frames #o compensate for the reduction in the amount of compression due to the frequent use of $frames the mpeg standard introduced %frames G*,-7 ,f 7i'$-*e%(GOP) '96 is a small random access unit in the !ideo sequence #he '96 structure is set up as a tradeoff between the high compression efficiency of ,otion compensated coding and the coding and the fast picture acquisition capability of periodic intra only processing #he format for mpeg is !ery flexible howe!er the mpeg committee has pro!ided some suggested !alue for the !arious parameters 4or ,peg 1 these suggested !alues are called the constraint parameter bitstream MPEG! $t takes a toolkit approach pro!iding a number of subsets each containing different options 4or a particular application the user can select from a set of profiles and le!els T&7e% ,f 7*,fi/e%

1imple ,ain 1nr scalable 1patially scalable 0igh 1imple profile uses the %frames"but remo!al of the %frames makes the requirements simpler" MPEG : 6ro!ides a more abstract approach to the coding of multimedia"#he standard !iews the multimedia scene as a collection of ob&ects"#hese ob&ects can be coded independently" Ganguage called the binary format for scenes based on the !irtual reality modeling language has been de!eloped by ,peg" #he protocol for managing the elementary streams and their multiplexed !ersion called the deli!ery multimedia integration framework is a part of ,peg/ #he different ob&ects that makeup the scene are coded and sent to the multiplexer #he information about the presence of these ob&ects is also pro!ided to the motion compensator predictor $t is also used in facial animation controlled by facial definition parameter $t allows for ob&ect scalability"

*(#

,otion texture coding

Uideo ,ultiplex

.1

$n!erse *(#

6redictor 1 switch 6redictor 2 6redictor )

4rame store

1hape coding

,otio n estimat ion

MPEG2I 4ocus on the de!elopment of a multimedia content description interface seems to be somewhat remo!ed from the study of data compression #hese acti!ities relate to the core principles of data compression which is the de!elopment of compact descriptions of information :. Di%'-%% a.,-$ Ge'$,* <-an$i=a$i,n 7*,'e+-*e in +e$ai/
1ource output 'roup into !ectors Encoder 4ind closest code !ector *ecoder #able lookup +econstruction ^nblock

$n !ector quanti8ation we group the source output into blocks or !ectors" #his !ector of source outputs forms the input to the !ector quanti8er" At both the encoder and decoder of the !ector quanti8er, we ha!e a set of G dimensional !ectors called the codebook of the !ector quanti8er" #he !ectors in this codebook are known as code !ectors" Each code !ector is assigned a binary index" At the encoder, the input !ector is compared to each code !ector in order to find the code !ector closest to the input !ector $n order to inform the decoder about which code !ector was found to be the closest to the input !ector, we transmit or store the binary index of the code !ector" %ecause the decoder has exactly the same codebook, it can retrie!e the code !ector Although the encoder ha!e to perform considerable amount of computations in order to find the closest reproduction !ector to the !ector of source outputs, the decoding consists of a table lookup" #his makes !ector quanti8ation a !ery attracti!e encoding scheme for applications in which the resources a!ailable for decoding are considerably less than the resources a!ailable for encoding A+0an$a e% ,f 0e'$,* <-an$i=a$i,n ,0e* %'a/a* <-an$i=a$i,n 4or a gi!en rate (bits per sample), use of !ector quanti8ation results in lower distortion than when scalar quanti8ation is used at the same rate Uectors of source output !alues tend to fall in clusters" %y selecting the quanti8er output points to lie in these clusters, we ha!e more accurate representation of the source output

U%e: 9ne application for which !ector quanti8er has been extremely popular is image compression" Di%a+0an$a e ,f 0e'$,* <-an$i=a$i,n: Uector quanti8ation applications operate at low rates" 4or applications such as high quality !ideo coding, which requires higher rates this is definitely a problem" #o sol!e these problems, there are se!eral approaches which entails some structure in the quanti8ation process T*ee %$*-'$-*e% 0e'$,* <-an$i=e*%: #his structure organi8es codebook in such a way that it is easy to pick which part contains the desired output !ector S$*-'$-*e+ 0e'$,* <-an$i=e*%: #ree structured !ector quanti8er sol!es the complexity problem, but acerbates the storage problem 5e now take entirely different tacks and de!elop !ector quanti8e that do not ha!e these storage problemsO howe!er we pay for this relief in other ways 5. E97/ain A*i$#me$i' ',+in 3i$# an e9am7/e A/ ,*i$#m Im7/emen$a$i,n 1equence being encoded asI ln>ln 1D(un 1 ln 1)fx(xn 1) un> ln 1D(un 1 ln 1)fx(xn) n becomes larger !alues gets closer and closer together" #he inter!als becomes narrower, there are ) possibilities 1" the inter!al is entirely confined to the lower half of the unit inter!al J;,;"7) 2" the inter!al is entirely confined to the upper half of the unit inter!al J;"7,1) )" the inter!al is in the midpoint of the unit inter!al 5e want to ha!e the sub inter!al (tag) in the full J;,1) inter!al E1IJ;,;"7) E1(x)>2x E1IJ;"7,1) E1(x)>2(x ;"7) #his process of generating the bits if the tag without waiting to see the entire sequence is called incremental encoding Ta ene*a$i,n 3i$# %'a/in E I A>Pa1,a2,a)S 6(a1)>;"@ 6(a2)>;";2 6(a))>;"1@ 4x(1)>;"@ 4x(2)>;"@2 4x())>1 Encode the sequence 1)21 S,/-$i,n: first element is 1 $nitiali8e u;>1 l;>; l1>;D(1 ;);>; u1>;D(1 ;);"@>;"@ #he inter!al J;,;"@) is either in the upper or the lower half of unit inter!al so proceed

 1econd element ) l2>;D(;"@ ;);"@2>;"676 u2>;D(;"@ ;);"1>;"@ inter!al J;"676,;"@) is in the upper limit" 1end the binary code 1 and scale l2>2(;"676 ;"7)>;")12 u2>2(;"@ ;"7)>;"6 #hird element 2 l)>;")12D(;"6 ;")12);"@>;"7/2/ u)>;")12D(;"6 ;")12);"@2>;"7/@16 inter!al J;"7/2/,;"7/@16) is in the upper limit" 1end the binary code 1 and scale l)>2(;"7/2/ ;"7)>;";@/@ u)>2(;"7/@16 ;"7)>;";M6)2 inter!al J;";@/@,;";M6)2) is in the lower limit" 1end the binary code ; and scale l)>2?;";@/@>;"16M6 u)>2?;";M6)2>;"1M26/ inter!al J;"16M6,;"1M26/) is in the lower limit" 1end the binary code ; and scale l)>2?;"16M6>;"))M2 u)>2?;"1M26/>;")@72@ inter!al J;"))M2,;")@72@) is in the lower limit" 1end the binary code ; and scale l)>2?;"))M2>;"6:@/ u)>2?;")@72@>;"::;76 inter!al J;"6:@/,;"::;76) is in the upper limit" 1end the binary code 1 and scale l)>2(;"6:@/ ;"7)>;")76@ u)>2(;"::;76 ;"7)>;"7/112 #he inter!al J;")7M@,;"7/112) is either in the upper or the lower half of unit inter!al so proceed 4ourth element 1 /> l ;")76@D(;"7/112 ;")76@);>;")76@ u/>;")76@D(;"7/112 ;")76@);"@>;"7;/276 1top the encoding" %inary sequence generated is 11;;;1" #ransmit 1 followed by many ; required by the word length 1. E97/ain a.,-$ JPEG ',m7*e%%i,n %'#eme in +e$ai/.

k6E' is a transform coding approach using *(#" (onsider @?@ block of the image as shown in table #able I an @?@ block of an image 12/ 127 122 12; 122 11M 11: 11@ 121 121 12; 11M 11M 12; 12; 11@ 127 12/ 12) 122 121 121 12; 12; 12/ 12/ 127 127 126 127 12/ 12/ 12: 12: 12@ 12M 1); 12@ 12: 127 1/) 1/2 1/) 1/2 1/; 1)M 1)M 1)M 17; 1/@ 172 172 172 172 17; 171 176 17M 17@ 177 17@ 17@ 17: 176

T#e T*an%f,*m
#he transform used in the kpeg scheme is the *(# "#he input image is first xle!el shifted by 2p 1 ie) subtract 2p 1 from each pixel !alue" #hen the image is di!ided into blockes of si8e @?@ , which are transformed using an @?@ forward *(# "#he table show the *(# coefficient" #ableI #he *(# coefficient )M"@@ 6"76 1;2"/) /"76 ):":: 1")1 7"6: 2"2/ )"): ;":/ 7"M@ ;"1) )"M: 7"72 )"/) ;"71 2"2/ 1"22 2"26 1"12 1":: ;"27 1")2 ;"@1 1":7 ;":: ;"/7 ;":: 2")M ;"77 1";: ;"@: ;"): 1";@ ;")7 ;"6) 1"7; 2"21 1"/1 ;"22 ;"62 2"67 1"MM ;"26 ;";71 ;"@/ ;"M6 ;";M ;":M 1"1) 1";7 ;"/@ ;"1; ;"2) ;"1) ;"1: 1"); ;":6 1"/6 ;";; ;"72 ;"1) ;")) ;";1

@-an$i=a$i,n
#he k6E' algorithm uses uniform midthread quanti8ation to quanti8e the !arious coefficient" #he quanti8er step si8es are organi8ed in a table called the quanti8ation table as shown in table #ableI 1ample .uanti8ation table 16 11 1; 16 2/ /; 71 61 12 12 1/ 1M 26 7@ 6; 77 1/ 1) 16 2/ /; 7: 6M 76 1/ 1: 22 2M 71 @: @; 62 1@ 22 ): 76 6@ 1;M1;) :: 2/ )7 77 6/ @1 1;/ 11) M2 /M 6/ :@ @: 1;) 121 12; 1;1 :2 M2 M7 M@ 12 1;; 1;) MM #he lable corresponding to the quanti8ed !alue of the transform coefficient ci& is obtained as Gi&>ci&=.i&D;"7

5here .i& is the (i,&)th element of the quanti8ation table" #he reconstructed !alue is obtained by multiplying the lable with corresponding entry in the quanti8ation table #ableI #he quanti8er lable 21 ; ; ; ; ; ; M ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ) ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ;

C,+in
$n this approach the lable for the *( and A( coefficient are coded differently using 0uffman codes" #he *( coefficient !alues partitioned into categories" #he categories are then 0uffman coded" #he A( coefficient is generated in slightly different manner" #here are two special codesI End of block(E94) and p+G #ableI (oding of the differences of the *( labels 1 1 2 ) : ) \\\\\\\\" 1 2 / ; 1 2 / ) \\\ :

#ableI sample table for obtaining the 0uffman code for a gi!en label !alue and run length p=( (odeword ;=; 1;1; ;=1 ;; \\\\\\\\ p=c 1=1 (odeword 11;; \"" p=( (odeword 4=; 11111111;;1 4=1 11111111111111;1;1

#o encode the A( coefficient 4irst using pig8ag scan" 5e obtain M ) ; ; ; ; ; \\\ ; #he first !alue belong to category 1" transmit the code corresponding to ;=1 follow by a single bit 1 to indicate that the !alue being transmitted is 1 and not 1 "1imillarly other A( coefficient code are transmited" #o obtain the reconstruction of the original block *equanti8ation is performed and taking in!erse transform of the coefficient we get the reconstructed block 2. De%'*i.e $#e ',n'e7$% ,f *-n /en $# ',+in #he model that gi!es rise to run length coding is the capon modelJ/;K, a two state marko! model with state sw and sb #he transition probabilities p(w=b) and p(b=w), and the probability of being in each state p(sw) and p(sb), completely specify this model "

4or facsimile images, p(w=w) and p(w=b) are generally significantly higher than p(b=w) and p(b=b) #he marko! model is represented by the state diagram #he entropy using a probability model and the iid assumption was significantly more than the entropy using the marko! model Get us try to interpret what the model says about the structure of the data " #he highly skewed nature of the probabilities p(b=w) and p(w=w),and to a lesser extent p( w=b) and p(b=b), says that once a pixel takes on a particular color, it is highly likely that the following pixels will also be of the same color

1o, rather than code the color of each pixel separately , we can simply code the length of the runs of each color " 4or example, if we had 1M; white pixels followed by ); black pixels , followed by another 21; white pixels , instead of coding the /); pixels indi!idually, we would code the sequence 1M;, );, 21;, along with an indication of the color of the first string of pixels " (oding the lengths of runs instead of coding indi!idual !alues is called run length coding

CCITT GROUP ) AND :-RECOMMENDATIONS T.: AND T.1 #he one dimensional coding scheme is a run length coding scheme in which each line is represented as a series of alternating white runs and black runs" #he first run is always a white run" $f the first pixel is a black pixel, then we assume that we ha!e a white run of length 8ero" +uns of different lengths occur with different probabilities, therefore they are coded using a !ariable length code"" #he number of possible lengths of runs is extremely large and it is not simply feasible to build a codebook that large" #herefore instead of generating a 0uffman code for each run length r1, the the run length is expressed in the form +1>6/?mDt for t>;"1\"6) and m>1,2\""2: 5hen we ha!e to represent a run length r1, instead of finding a code for r1,we use the corresponding codes for m and t" #he codes for t are called the terminating codes and the codes for m are called make up codes"

Except for the optional codes, there are separate codes for black and white run lengths" #his coding scheme is generally referred to as a modified 0uffman scheme $n the two dimensional scheme ,instead of reporting the run lengths ,which in terms our ,arko! model is the length of time we remain in one state ,we report the transition times when we mo!e from one state to another state"