Offshore Mechanical and Arctic Engineering, July 11-16, 1999

BENDING MOMENT CAPACITY OF PIPES

Sren Hauch and Yong Bai
American Bureau of Shipping
Offshore Technology Department
Houston, Texas
USA
ABSTRACT
In most modern pipeline design, the required minimum all
thic!ness is determined "ased on a ma#imum alloa"le hoop
stress under design pressure$ %his is an efficient ay to come up
ith an initial all thic!ness design, "ased on the assumption that
pressure ill "e the go&erning load$ 'oe&er, a pipeline may "e
su"(ected to additional loads due to installation, sea"ed contours,
impacts and high-pressure)high-temperature operating conditions
for hich the "ending moment capacity is often the limiting
parameter$ If in-place analyses for the optimal route predict that
the ma#imum alloa"le moment to a pipeline is going to "e
e#ceeded, it ill "e necessary to either increase the all thic!ness
or, more con&entionally, to perform sea"ed inter&ention to reduce
the "ending of the pipe$
In this paper the "ending moment capacity for metallic pipes has
"een in&estigated ith the intention of optimising the cost
effecti&eness in the sea"ed inter&ention design ithout
compromising the safety of the pipe$ %he focus has "een on the
deri&ation of an analytical solution for the ultimate load carrying
capacity of pipes su"(ected to com"ined pressure, longitudinal
force and "ending$ %he deri&ed analytical solution has "een
thoroughly compared against results o"tained "y the finite element
method$
%he result of the study is a set of equations for calculating the
ma#imum alloa"le "ending moment including proposed safety
factors for different target safety le&els$ %he ma#imum alloa"le
moment is gi&en as a function of initial out-of-roundness, true
longitudinal force and internal)e#ternal o&erpressure$ %he
equations can "e used for materials ith isotropic as ell as an-
isotropic stress)strain characteristics in the longitudinal and hoop
direction$ %he analytical approach gi&en herein may also "e used
for risers and piping if safety factors are cali"rated in accordance
ith appropriate target safety le&els$
Keywords: *ocal "uc!ling, +ollapse, +apacity, ,ending,
-ressure, *ongitudinal force, Metallic pipelines and risers$
NOMENCLATURE
A Area
D Average diameter
E Youngs modulus
F True longitudinal force
Fl Ultimate true longitudinal force
f0 Initial out-of-roundness
M Moment
MC Bending moment caacit!
M Ultimate "lastic# moment
$ressure
c C%aracteristic collase ressure
e E&ternal ressure
el Elastic collase ressure
i Internal ressure
l Ultimate ressure
$lastic collase ressure
! Yield ressure
r Average ie radius
'MT' 'ecified Minimum Tensile 'trengt%
'MY' 'ecified Minimum Yield 'trengt%
t (ominal )all t%ic*ness
'trengt% anisotro! factor
! Distance to cross sectional mass centre
C Condition load factor
+ 'trengt% utilisation factor
Curvature
$oissons ratio
% ,oo stress
%l -imit %oo stress for ure ressure
l -ongitudinal stress
ll -imit longitudinal stress for ure longitudinal force
Angle from .ending lane to lastic neutral a&is
OMAE.99, -*-99-/011 'auch 2 ,ai 1
Offshore Mechanical and Arctic Engineering, July 11-16, 1999
INTRODUCTION
3oadays design of risers and offshore pipelines is often "ased on
a *imit 4tate design approach$ In a *imit 4tate design, all
foreseea"le failure scenarios are considered and the system is
designed against the failure mode that is most critical to structural
safety$ A pipe must sustain installation loads and operational
loads$ In addition e#ternal loads such as those induced "y a&es,
current, une&en sea"ed, tral-"oard impact, pullo&er, e#pansion
due to temperature changes etc need to "e considered$ E#perience
has shon that the main load effect on offshore pipes is "ending
com"ined ith longitudinal force hile su"(ected to e#ternal
hydrostatic pressure during installation and internal pressure hile
in operation$ A pipe su"(ected to increased "ending may fail due
to local "uc!ling)collapse or fracture, "ut it is the local
"uc!ling)collapse *imit 4tate that commonly dictates the design$
%he local "uc!ling and collapse strength of metallic pipes has
"een the main su"(ect for many studies in offshore and ci&il
engineering and this paper should "e seen as a supplement to the
ongoing de"ate$ 4ee Murphey 2 *angner 5196/7, 8inter et al
5196/7, Ellinas 519667, Mohare" et al 519997, ,ai et al 51991,
199:7 etc$
BENDING MOMENT CAPACITY
%he pipe cross sectional "ending moment is directly proportional
to the pipe cur&ature, see ;igure 1$ %he e#ample illustrates an
initial straight pipe ith lo <)t 5=607 su"(ected to a load scenario
here pressure and longitudinal force are !ept constant hile an
increasing cur&ature is applied$
4 t a r t o f c a t a s t r o p h i c a l l y
c a p a c i t y r e d u c t i o n O n s e t o f " u c ! l i n g
* i m i t p o i n t
4 o f t e n i n g r e g i o n

M
* i n e a r l i m i t
Figure /0 E&amles of .ending moment versus curvature relation1
<ifferent significant points can "e identified from the moment-
cur&ature relationship$ 8hen applying cur&ature to a pipe, it ill
first "e su"(ected to glo"al deformation inside the material.s
elastic range and no permanent change in shape is seen$ ,y glo"al
deformation is here meant a deformation that can "e loo!ed upon
as uniform o&er a range larger than 1-9 times the pipe diameter$
After the *I3EA> *IMI% of the pipe material has "een reached
the pipe ill no longer return to its initial shape after unloading,
"ut the deformation ill still "e characterised as glo"al$ If the
cur&ature is increased further, material or geometrical
imperfections ill initiate O34E% O; *O+A* ,?+@*I3A$
Imperfections in geometry and)or material may influence here
and at hich cur&ature the onset of local "uc!ling occurs, "ut ill
for all practical use, as long as they are small, not influence the
?*%IMA%E MOME3% +A-A+I%B significantly$ After the
onset of local "uc!ling has occurred, the glo"al deformation ill
continue, "ut more and more of the applied "ending energy ill "e
accumulated in the local "uc!le hich ill continue until the
ultimate moment capacity is reached$ At this point, the ma#imum
"ending resistance of the pipe is reached and a geometrical
collapse ill occur if the cur&ature is additionally increased$ ?ntil
the point of 4%A>% O; +A%A4%>O-'I+ +A-A+I%B
>E<?+%IO3 has "een reached, the geometric collapse ill "e
CsloD and the changes in cross sectional area negligi"le$ After
this point, material softening sets in and the pipe cross section ill
collapse$ ;or pipes that in addition to "ending is su"(ected to
longitudinal force and)or pressure close to the ultimate capacity,
start of catastrophic capacity reduction occurs immediately after
the ultimate moment capacity has "een reached$ %he moment
cur&ature relationship for these load conditions ill "e closer to
that presented "y the dashed line in ;igure 1$
%he moment cur&ature relationship pro&ides information
necessary for design against failure due to "ending$ <epending on
the function of the pipe, any of the points descri"ed a"o&e can "e
used as design limit$ If the pipe is part of a carrying structure, the
elastic limit may "e an o"&ious choice as the design limit$
'oe&er, for pipelines and risers here the glo"al shape is less
important, this criterion ill "e o&erly conser&ati&e due to the
significant resources in the elastic-plastic range$ 'igher design
strength can therefore "e o"tained "y using design criteria "ased
on the stress)strain le&els reached at the point of onset for local
"uc!ling or at the ultimate moment capacity$ ;or displacement-
controlled configurations, it can e&en "e accepta"le to allo the
deformation of the pipe to continue into the softening region 5not
in design7$ %he rationale of this is the !noledge of the carrying
capacity ith high deformations com"ined ith a precise
prediction of the deformation pattern and its amplitude$
%he moment capacity for metallic pipes is a function of many
parameters and the most common are listed "elo in ar"itrary
sequenceE
<iameter o&er all thic!ness ratio
Material stress-strain relationship
Material imperfections
8elding 5*ongitudinal as ell as circumferential7
Initial out-of-roundness
>eduction in all thic!ness due to e$g$ corrosion
+rac!s 5in pipe and)or elding7
*ocal stress concentrations due to e$g$ coating
Additional loads and their amplitude
%emperature
%he focus of this study has "een the de&elopment of an equation
to prediction the ultimate moment capacity of pipes$ %he equation
is to account for initial out-of-roundness, longitudinal force and
internal)e#ternal o&erpressure for materials ith either isotropic or
an-isotropic characteristics in longitudinal and hoop direction$
4olutions o"tained from "oth analytical e#pressions and "y the
finite element method are descri"ed in this paper and the results
co&ers a diameter o&er all thic!ness ratio from 10 to 60$ %he
remaining parameters gi&en in the list may also "e of some
OMAE.99, -*-99-/011 'auch 2 ,ai F
?ltimate moment capacity
Offshore Mechanical and Arctic Engineering, July 11-16, 1999
importance in the design of pipelines, "ut the main parameters
ill generally "e those that are studied in this paper$
FAILURE MODES
As pointed out in the pre&ious section the ultimate moment
capacity is highly dependent on the amount of longitudinal force
and pressure loads and for cases ith high e#ternal pressure also
initial out-of-roundness$ %o clarify the approach used in the
de&elopment of the analytical equations and to gi&e a "etter
understanding of the o"tained results, characteristics of the
ultimate strength for pipes su"(ected to single loads and com"ined
loads are discussed "elo$
%he cross sectional deformations (ust "efore failure of pipes
su"(ected to single loads are shon in ;igure F$
P u r e p r e s s u r e P u r e l o n g i t u d i n a l f o r c e P u r e b e n d i n g
Figure 20 $ie cross sectional deformation of ies su.3ected to
single loads1
PURE BENDING
A pipe su"(ected to increasing pure "ending ill fail as a result of
increased o&alisation of the cross section and reduced slope in the
stress-strain cur&e$ ?p to a certain le&el of o&alisation, the
decrease in moment of inertia ill "e counter"alanced "y
increased pipe all stresses due to strain hardening$ 8hen the loss
in moment of inertia can no longer "e compensated for "y the
strain hardening, the moment capacity has "een reached and
catastrophic cross sectional collapse ill occur if additional
"ending is applied$ ;or lo <)t, the failure ill "e initiated on the
tensile side of the pipe due to stresses at the outer fi"res e#ceeding
the limiting longitudinal stress$ ;or <)t higher than appro#imately
10-1/, the hoop strength of the pipe ill "e so lo compared to
the tensile strength that the failure mode ill "e an inard
"uc!ling on the compressi&e side of the pipe$ %he geometrical
imperfections 5e#cluding corrosion7 that are normally alloed in
pipeline design ill not significantly influence the moment
capacity for pure "ending, and the capacity can "e calculated as,
4?-E>, 519967E
t D 'MY'
t
D
M

,
_

F
001/ $ 0 0/ $ 1 5 0 7
here < is the a&erage pipe diameter, t the all thic!ness and
4MB4 the 4pecified Minimum Bield 4trength$
( ) 'MY' t D ) 001/ $ 0 0/ $ 1 represents the a&erage
longitudinal cross sectional stress at failure as a function of the
diameter o&er all thic!ness ratio$ %he a&erage pipe diameter is
conser&ati&ely used in here hile 4?-E>, used the outer
diameter$
PURE EXTERNAL PRESSURE
%heoretically, a circular pipe ithout imperfections should
continue "eing circular hen su"(ected to increasing uniform
e#ternal pressure$ 'oe&er, due to material and)or geometrical
imperfections, there ill alays "e a flattening of the pipe, hich
ith increased e#ternal pressure ill end ith a total collapse of
the cross section$ %he change in out-of-roundness, caused "y the
e#ternal pressure, introduces circumferential "ending stresses,
here the highest stresses occur respecti&ely at the top)"ottom and
to sides of the flattened cross-section$ ;or lo <)t ratios,
material softening ill occur at these points and the points ill
"eha&e as a !ind of hinge at collapse$ %he a&erage hoop stress at
failure due to e#ternal pressure changes ith the <)t ratio$ ;or
small <)t ratios, the failure is go&erned "y yielding of the cross
section, hile for larger <)t ratios it is go&erned "y elastic
"uc!ling$ ,y elastic "uc!ling is meant that the collapse occurs
"efore the a&erage hoop stress o&er the cross section has reached
the yield stress$ At <)t ratios in-"eteen, the failure is a
com"ination of yielding and elastic collapse$
4e&eral formulations ha&e "een proposed for estimating the
e#ternal collapse pressure, "ut in this paper, only %imoshen!o.s
and 'aagsma.s equations are descri"ed$ %imoshen!o.s equation,
hich gi&es the pressure at "eginning yield in the e#treme fi"res,
ill in general represent a loer "ound, hile 'aagsma.s
equation, using a fully plastic yielding condition, ill represent an
upper "ound for the collapse pressure$ %he collapse pressure of
pipes is &ery dependent on geometrical imperfections and here in
special initial out-of-roundness$ ,oth %imoshen!o.s and
'aagsma.s collapse equation account for initial out-of-roundness
inside the range that is normally alloed in pipeline design$
%imoshen!o.s equation gi&ing the pressure causing yield at the
e#treme pipe fi"reE
0 / $ 1 1
0 F
+
1
]
1

,
_

+ +
el c el c

t
D f

5 0 7
hereE
pel G
1
F
7 1 5
F

,
_

D
t E

5 0 7
pp G
D
t
'MY' F 5 0 7
andE
pc G +haracteristic collapse pressure
f0 G Initial out-of-roundness, 5<ma#-<min7)<
< G A&erage diameter
t G 8all thic!ness
4MB4 G 4pecified Minimum Bield 4trength, hoop direction
E G Boung.s Module
G -oisson.s ratio
OMAE.99, -*-99-/011 'auch 2 ,ai 1
Offshore Mechanical and Arctic Engineering, July 11-16, 1999
It should "e noted that the pressure Hpc. determined in accordance
to Eq$ 5F7 is loer than the actual collapse pressure of the pipe and
it "ecomes equal to the latter only in the case of a perfectly round
pipe$ 'ence, "y using Hpc. calculated from Eq$ 5F7 as the ultimate
&alue of pressure, the results ill normally "e on the safe side
5%imoshen!o and Aere, 19617$
'aagsma.s equation gi&ing the pressure at hich fully plastic
yielding o&er the all thic!ness occurs can "e e#pressed asE
0
F
0
F F 1
+
,
_

+
el c el c el c

t
D
f
5 0 7
and represent the theoretical upper "ound for the collapse
pressure$ ;or lo <)t, the collapse pressure ill "e closer to the
collapse pressure calculated "y 'aagsma.s equation than that
calculated "y %imoshen!o.s equation 5'aagsma and 4chaap,
19617$
%he use of %imoshen!o.s and 'aagsma.s equations relates
specifically to pipes ith initially linear elastic material properties
here the elastic collapse pressure can "e deri&ed from classical
analysis$ %his ould "e appropriate for seamless pipes or for pipes
that ha&e "een su"(ected to an annealing process$ 'oe&er, for
pipes fa"ricated using the ?O, %>, or ?OE method there are
significant non-linearity.s in the material properties in the hoop
direction, due to residual strains and the ,auschinger effect$ %hese
effects may "e accounted for "y introducing a strength reduction
factor to the plastic collapse pressure term gi&en "y Eq$ 597$ In this
study no attempt has "een gi&en to this reduction factor, "ut
according to <3I F000 the plastic collapse pressure is to "e
reduced ith :J for ?O and %>, pipes and ith 1/J for ?OE
pipes$
PURE INTERNAL PRESSURE
;or -ure internal pressure, the failure mode ill "e "ursting of the
cross-section$ <ue to the pressure, the pipe cross section e#pands
and the pipe all thic!ness decreases$ %he decrease in pipe all
thic!ness is compensated for "y an increase in the hoop stress$ At
a certain pressure, the material strain hardening can no longer
compensate for the pipe all thinning and the ma#imum internal
pressure has "een reached$ %he "ursting pressure can in
accordance ith A-I 519967 "e gi&en asE
( )
D
t
'MT' 'MY'
.urst

+
F
/ $ 0 5 0 7
here ( ) 'MT' 'MY' + / $ 0 is the hoop stress at failure$
PURE TENSION
;or pure tension, the failure of the pipe, as for "ursting, ill "e a
result of pipe all thinning$ 8hen the longitudinal tensile force is
increased, the pipe cross section ill narro don and the pipe
all thic!ness decrease$ At a certain tensile force, the cross
sectional area of the pipe ill "e reduced so much that the
ma#imum tensile stress for the pipe material is reached$ An
additional increase in tensile force ill no cause the pipe to fail$
%he ultimate tensile force can "e calculated asE
( ) A 'MT' 'MY' F
l
+ / $ 0 5 0 7
here A is the cross sectional area and
( ) 'MT' 'MY' + / $ 0 the longitudinal tensile stress at
failure$
PURE COMPRESSION
A pipe su"(ected to increasing compressi&e force ill "e su"(ected
to Euler "uc!ling$ If the compressi&e force is further increased,
the pipe ill finally fail due to local "uc!ling$ If the pipe is
restrained e#cept for in the longitudinal direction, the ma#imum
compressi&e force may "e ta!en asE
( ) A 'MT' 'MY' F
l
+ / $ 0 5 0 7
here A is the cross sectional area and
( ) 'MT' 'MY' + / $ 0 the longitudinal compressi&e stress at
failure$
COMBINED LOADS
;or pipes su"(ected to single loads, the failure is, as descri"ed
a"o&e, dominated "y either longitudinal or hoop stresses$ %his
interaction can, neglecting the radial stress component and the
shear stress components, "e descri"ed asE
1 F
F
F
F
F
+
%l
%
%l ll
% l
ll
l

5 0 7
here l is the applied longitudinal stress, h the applied hoop
stress and ll and hl the limit stress in their respecti&e direction$
%he limit stress may differ depending on hether the applied load
is compressi&e or tensile$ is a strength anisotropy factor
depending on the ratio "eteen the limit stress in the longitudinal
and hoop direction respecti&ely$ %he folloing definition for the
strength anisotropy factor has "een suggested "y the authors of
this paper for e#ternal and internal o&erpressure respecti&elyE
l
c
F
D

9
F

5 0 7
l
.
F
D

9
F

5 0 7
;or pipes under com"ined pressure and longitudinal force, Eq$ 597
may "e used to find the pipe strength capacity$ Alternati&es to Eq$
597 are Ion Mises, %resca.s, 'ill.s and %sai-'ill.s yield condition$
E#perimental tests ha&e "een performed "y e$g$ +orona and
@yria!ides 519667$ ;or com"ined pressure and longitudinal force,
the failure mode ill "e similar to the ones for single loads$
In general, the ultimate strength interaction "eteen longitudinal
force and "ending may "e e#pressed "y the fully plastic
interaction cur&e for tu"ular cross-sections$ 'oe&er, if <)t is
higher than 1/, local "uc!ling may occur at the compressi&e side,
leading to a failure slightly inside the fully plastic interaction
cur&e, +hen and 4ohal 519667$ 8hen tension is dominating, the
OMAE.99, -*-99-/011 'auch 2 ,ai 9
Offshore Mechanical and Arctic Engineering, July 11-16, 1999
pipe capacity ill "e higher than the fully plastic condition due to
tensile and strain-hardening effects$
As indicated in ;igure F, pressure and "ending "oth lead to a cross
sectional failure$ ,ending ill alays lead to o&alisation and
finally collapse, hile pipes fails in different modes for e#ternal
and internal o&erpressure$ 8hen "ending is com"ined ith
e#ternal o&erpressure, "oth loads ill tend to increase the
o&alisation, hich leads to a rapid decrease in capacity$ ;or
"ending com"ined ith internal o&erpressure, the to failure
modes or! against each other and there"y CstrengthenD the pipe$
;or high internal o&erpressure, the collapse ill alays "e
initiated on the tensile side of the pipe due to stresses at the outer
fi"res e#ceeding the material limit tensile stress$ On the
compressi&e side of the pipe, the high internal pressure ill tend
to initiate an outard "uc!le, hich ill increase the pipe
diameter locally and there"y increase the moment of inertia and
the "ending moment capacity of the pipe$ %he moment capacity
ill therefore "e e#pected to "e higher for internal o&erpressure
compared ith a corresponding e#ternal pressure$
ADDITIONAL FAILURE MODE
In addition to the failure modes descri"ed a"o&e, fracture is a
possi"le failure mode for all the descri"ed load conditions$ In
particular for the com"ination of tension, high internal pressure
and "ending, it is important to chec! against fracture "ecause of
the high tensile stress le&el at the limit "ending moment$ %he
fracture criteria are not included in this paper, "ut shall "e
addressed in design$
EXPRESSION FOR ULTIMATE MOMENT CAPACITY
In the folloing section, an analytical solution to the ultimate
moment capacity for pipes su"(ected to com"ined loads is deri&ed$
%o !eep the comple#ity of the equations on a reasona"le le&el, the
folloing assumptions ha&e "een madeE
%he pipe is geometrically perfect e#cept for initial out-of-
roundness
%he cross sectional geometry does not change "efore the
ultimate moment is reached
%he cross sectional stress distri"ution at failure can "e
idealised in accordance ith ;igure 1$
%he interaction "eteen limit longitudinal and hoop stress can
"e descri"ed in accordance ith Eq$ 597
FAILURE LIMIT STRESS
%he pipe all stress condition for the "ending moment *imit 4tate
can "e considered as that of a material under "i-a#ial loads$ It is in
here assumed that the interaction "eteen a&erage cross sectional
longitudinal and hoop stress at pipe failure can "e descri"ed "y
Eq$ 51F7$ %he failure limit stresses are here, neglecting the radial
stress component and the shear stress components, descri"ed as a
function of the longitudinal stress Hl., the hoop stress Hh. and the
failure limit stresses under uni-a#ial load Hll. and Hhl. in their
respecti&e direction$ %he a"solute &alue of the uni-a#ial limit
stresses, hich should not mista!enly "e ta!en as the yield stress,
are to "e used, hile the actual stresses are to "e ta!en as positi&e
hen in tension and negati&e hen in compression$
1 F
F
F
F
F
+
%l
%
%l ll
% l
ll
l

5 0 7
here is a strength anisotropy factor depending on the hl)ll
ratio$
4ol&ing the second-degree equation for the longitudinal stress Hl.
gi&esE
( )
F
F
1 1

,
_

t
%l
%
ll
%l
%
ll l

5 0 7
com is no defined as the limit longitudinal compressi&e stress in
the pipe all and there"y equal to l as determined a"o&e ith the
negati&e sign "efore the square root$ %he limit tensile stress tens is
accordingly equal to l ith the positi&e sign in front of the square
root$
( )
F
F
1 1

,
_

%l
%
ll
%l
%
ll com

5 0 7
( )
F
F
1 1

,
_

+
%l
%
ll
%l
%
ll tens

5 0 7
THE BENDING MOMENT
%he "ending moment capacity of a pipe can "y idealising the cross
sectional stress distri"ution at failure in accordance ith ;igure 1$,
"e calculated asE
( ) tens tens tens com com com C
! A ! A M
% l


+
,
5 0 7
8here Acomp and Atens are respecti&ely the cross sectional area in
compression and tension, ! their mass centres distance to the
pipe mass centre and the idealised stress le&el$

A t e n s
A c o m p
- l a n o f " e n d i n g
r a v
t
t e n s
y t e n s
y c o m p
c o m p
- l a s t i c
n e u t r a l
a # e s
Figure 40 $ie cross section )it% stress distri.ution diagram
"das%ed line# and idealised stress diagram for lastified cross
section "full line#1
OMAE.99, -*-99-/011 'auch 2 ,ai /
Offshore Mechanical and Arctic Engineering, July 11-16, 1999
;or a geometrical perfect circular pipe, the area in compression
and tension can appro#imately "e calculated asE
t r A
com
F
5 0 7
( ) t r A
tens
F 5 0 7
%he distance from the mass centre to the pipe cross section centre
can "e ta!en asE
( )

sin
r !
com

5 0 7
( )

sin
r !
tens 5 0 7
here r is the a&erage pipe all radius and the angle from the
"ending plan to the plastic neutral a#is$ %he plastic neutral a#is is
defined as the a#is at hich the longitudinal pipe all stresses
change from tensile to compressi&e, see ;igure 1$
Inserting Eq$ 51:7 to 5F07 in Eq$ 5167 gi&es the "ending moment
capacity asE
( )
( ) ( )
tens com C
tr tr M
% l


sin F sin F
F F
,
+
5 0 7
LOCATION OF FULLY PLASTIC NEUTRAL AXIS
%he angle to the fully plastic neutral a#is from the plane of
"ending can "e deduced from the folloing simplified e#pression
for the true longitudinal pipe all forceE
tens tens com com
A A F +
5 0 7
here the area in compression Acomp is calculated asE
t r A
com
F
5 0 7
and the area in tension Atens asK
( ) t r A
tens
F 5 0 7
Ai&ingE
( ) ( )
tens com
t r F + F
5 0 7
4ol&ing Eq$ 5F/7 for gi&esE
( )
tens com
tens
t r
t r F

F
F
5 0 7
or
( )
l
tens com
tens l
t r F


F ,

5 0 7
FINAL EXPRESSION FOR MOMENT CAPACITY
4u"stituting the e#pression for the plastic neutral a#is, Eq$ 5F:7,
into the equation for the moment capacity, Eq$ 5F17 gi&esE
( )
( ) ( )
tens
tens com
tens l
com
tens com
tens l
C
tr tr M
% l

,
_

,
_

sin F sin F
F F
,
5 0 7
and su"stituting the e#pression for tensile and compressi&e stress,
Eq$ 5197 and 51/7 into Eq$ 5F67 gi&es the final e#pression for the
"ending moment capacityE
( )
( )
( )

,
_

,
_

,
_

F
F
F
F F
,
1 1
F
cos 1 1 9
%l
%
%l
%
ll
l
%l
%
ll C
tr M
% l

5 0 7
or alternati&ely and more useful in design situationsE
( )
( )
( )

,
_

,
_

,
_

F
F
F
F
,
1 1
F
cos 1 1
l
l l
l
F C

F
F

M M

5 0 7
here
MC G ?ltimate "ending moment capacity
M 5 -lastic moment
G -ressure acting on the pipe
l G ?ltimate pressure capacity
F G %rue longitudinal force acting on the pipe
Fl G %rue longitudinal ultimate force
8hen the uni-a#ial limit stress in the circumferential and
longitudinal direction are ta!en as the material yield stress and
set to L, Eq$ 5F97 and 5107 specialises to that presented "y among
others 8inter et al 5196/7 and Mohare" et al 519997$
APPLICABLE RANGE FOR MOMENT CAPACITY EQUATION
%o a&oid comple# solutions hen sol&ing Eq$ 5107, the
e#pressions under the square root must "e positi&e, hich gi&es
the theoretical range for the pressure toE
F F
1
1
1
1

5 0 7
here the ultimate pressure pl depends on the load condition and
on the ratio "eteen the limit force and the limit pressure$
4ince the all thic!ness design is "ased on the operating pressure
of the pipeline, this range should not gi&e any pro"lems in the
design$
OMAE.99, -*-99-/011 'auch 2 ,ai 6
Offshore Mechanical and Arctic Engineering, July 11-16, 1999
Ai&en the physical limitation that the angle to the plastic neutral
a#is must "e "eteen 0 and 160 degrees, the equation is &alid for
the folloing range of longitudinal forceE
( ) ( )
F
F
F
F
1 1 1 1

,
_

,
_

l l l l l

F
F

5 0 7
here the ultimate loads ;l and pl depend on the load condition
and on the ratio "eteen the ultimate true longitudinal force ;l
and the ultimate pressure pl$
;or the design of pipelines, this range is normally not going to
gi&e any pro"lems, "ut again, the range may "e reduced due to the
question of fracture$
FINITE ELEMENT MODEL
%his section descri"es ho a pipe section is modelled using the
finite element method$ %he finite element method is a method
here a physical system, such as an engineering component or
structure, is di&ided into small su" regions)elements$ Each element
is an essential simple unit in space for hich the "eha&iour can "e
calculated "y a shape function interpolated from the nodal &alues
of the element$ %his in such a ay that inter-element continuity
tends to "e maintained in the assem"lage$ +onnecting the shape
functions for each element no forms an appro#imating function
for the entire physical system$ In the finite element formulation,
the principles of &irtual or! together ith the esta"lished shape
functions are used to transform the differential equations of
equili"rium into alge"raic equations$ In a fe ords, the finite
element method can "e defined as a >ayleigh->itM method in
hich the appro#imating field is interpolated in piece ise fashion
from the degree of freedom that are nodal &alues of the field$ %he
modelled pipe section is su"(ect to pressure, longitudinal force and
"ending ith the purpose of pro&o!ing structural failure of the
pipe$ %he deformation pattern at failure ill introduce "oth
geometrical and material non-linearity$ %he non-linearity of the
"uc!ling)collapse phenomenon ma!es finite element analyses
superior to analytical e#pressions for estimating the strength
capacity$

In order to get a relia"le finite element prediction of the
"uc!ling)collapse deformation "eha&iour the folloing factors
must "e ta!en into accountE
A proper representation of the constituti&e la of the pipe
material
A proper representation of the "oundary conditions
A proper application of the load sequence
%he a"ility to address large deformations, large rotations, and
finite strains
%he a"ility to model)descri"e all rele&ant failure modes
%he material definition included in the finite element model is of
high importance, since the model is su"(ected to deformations
long into the elasto-plastic range$ In the post-"uc!ling phase,
strain le&els "eteen 10J and F0J are usual and the material
definition should therefore at least "e go&erning up to this le&el$ In
the present analyses, a >am"erg-Osgood stress-strain relationship
has "een used$ ;or this, to points on the stress-strain cur&e are
required along ith the material Boung.s modules$ %he to points
can "e anyhere along the cur&e, and for the present model,
4pecified Minimum Bield 4trength 54MB47 associated ith a
strain of 0$/J and the 4pecified Minimum %ensile 4trength
54M%47 corresponding to appro#imately F0J strain has "een
used$ %he material yield limit has "een defined as appro#imately
60J of 4MB4$
%he ad&antage in using 4MB4 and 4M%4 instead of a stress-strain
cur&e o"tained from a specific test is that the statistical uncertainty
in the material stress-strain relation is accounted for$ It is there"y
ensured that the stress-strain cur&e used in a finite element
analysis in general ill "e more conser&ati&e than that from a
specific la"oratory test$
%o reduce computing time, symmetry of the pro"lem has "een
used to reduce the finite element model to one-quarter of a pipe
section, see ;igure 9$ %he length of the model is to times the
pipe diameter, hich in general ill "e sufficient to catch all
"uc!ling)collapse failure modes$
%he general-purpose shell element used in the present model
accounts for finite mem"rane strains and allos for changes in shell
thic!ness, hich ma!es it suita"le for large-strain analysis$ %he
element definition allos for trans&erse shear deformation and uses
thic! shell theory hen the shell thic!ness increases and discrete
@irchoff thin shell theory as the thic!ness decreases$
;igure 9 shos an e#ample of a "uc!led)collapsed finite element
model representing an initial perfect pipe su"(ected to pure "ending$
Figure 60 Model e&amle of .uc*led7collased ie section1
;or a further discussion and &erification of the used finite element
model, see ,ai et al 519917, Mohare" et al 519997, ,ruschi et al
5199/7 and 'auch 2 ,ai 519967$
ANALYTICAL SOLUTION VERSUS FINITE ELEMENT
RESULTS
In the folloing, the a"o&e-presented equations are compared
ith results o"tained from finite element analyses$ ;irst are the
capacity equations for pipes su"(ected to single loads compared
ith finite element results for a <)t ratio from 10 to 60$ 4econdly
the moment capacity equations for com"ined longitudinal force,
pressure and "ending are compared against finite element results$
OMAE.99, -*-99-/011 'auch 2 ,ai :
Offshore Mechanical and Arctic Engineering, July 11-16, 1999
STRENGTH CAPACITY OF PIPES SUBJECTED TO SINGLE LOADS
As a &erification of the finite element model, the strength
capacities for single loads o"tained from finite element analyses
are compared against the &erified analytical e#pressions descri"ed
in the pre&ious sections of this paper$ %he strength capacity has
"een compared for a large range of diameter o&er all thic!ness
to demonstrate the finite element model.s capa"ility to catch the
right failure mode independently of the <)t ratio$
;or all analyses presented in this paper, the a&erage pipe diameter
is 0$/066m, 4MB4 G 9/0 M-a and 4M%4 G /10 M-a$ In ;igure /
the "ending moment capacity found from finite element analysis
has "een compared against the "ending moment capacity
equation, Eq$ 517$ In ;igure 6 the limit tensile longitudinal force
Eq$ 5:7, in ;igure : the collapse pressure Eq$ 5F, /7 and in ;igure 6
the "ursting pressure Eq$ 567 are compared against finite element
results$ %he good agreement presented in figure /-6 "eteen finite
element results and analytical solutions generally accepted "y the
industry, gi&es good reasons to e#pect that the finite element
model also gi&e relia"le predictions for com"ined loads$
10 20 30 40 50 60
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
x 10
6
Diameter Over Wall Thickness
U
l
t
i
m
a
t
e

M
o
m
e
n
t

C
a
p
a
c
i
t
y
X = FE results
___
= Analytical
Figure 80 Moment caacit! as a function of diameter over )all
t%ic*ness for a ie su.3ected to ure .ending1
10 20 30 40 50 60
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
x 10
7
Diameter Over Wall Thickness
U
l
t
i
m
a
t
e

T
r
u
e

L
o
n
g
i
t
u
d
i
n
a
l

F
o
r
c
e
X
= FE results
___
= Analytical
Figure 90 -imit longitudinal force as a function of diameter over
)all t%ic*ness for a ie su.3ected to ure tensile force1
10 20 30 40 50 60
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
x 10
7
Diameter Over Wall Thickness
C
o
l
l
a
p
s
e

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
X = FE results
___
= Haagsma
- - - = Timoshenko
Figure :0 Collase ressure as a function of diameter over )all
t%ic*ness for a ie su.3ected to ure e&ternal overressure1
Initial out-of-roundness f0 e;ual to /18<1
10 20 30 40 50 60
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
x 10
7
Diameter Over Wall Thickness
B
u
r
s
t

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
X = FE results
___
= Analytical
Figure =0 Bursting ressure as a function of diameter over )all
t%ic*ness for a ie su.3ected to ure internal overressure1
STRENGTH CAPACITY FOR COMBINED LOADS
;or the results presented in ;igures 9-19 the folloing pipe
dimensions ha&e "een usedE
<)t G 1/
fo G 1$/ J
4MB4 G 9/0 M-a
4M%4 G /10 M-a
G 1)/ for e#ternal o&erpressure and F)1 for
internal o&erpressure
;igures 9 and 10 sho the moment capacity surface gi&en "y Eq$
5117$ In ;igure 9, the moment capacity surface is seen from the
e#ternal pressure, compressi&e longitudinal force side and in
;igure 10 it is seen from a"o&e$ ;igures / to 6 ha&e demonstrated
that for single loads, the failure surface agrees ell ith finite
element analyses for a large <)t range$ %o demonstrate that Eq$
5117 also agrees ith finite element analyses for com"ined loads,
the failure surface has "een cut for different fi#ed &alues of
longitudinal force and pressure respecti&ely as demonstrated in
OMAE.99, -*-99-/011 'auch 2 ,ai 6
Offshore Mechanical and Arctic Engineering, July 11-16, 1999
;igure 10 "y the full straight lines$ %he cuts and respecti&e finite
element results are shon in ;igures 11 to 19$ In ;igure 11 the
moment capacity is plotted as a function of pressure$ %he limit
pressure for e#ternal o&erpressure is gi&en "y 'aagsma.s collapse
equation Eq$ 5/7 and the limit pressure for internal o&erpressure "y
the "ursting pressure Eq$ 567$ ;or the non-pressurised pipe, the
moment capacity is gi&en "y Eq$ 517$ In ;igure 1F, the moment
capacity is plotted as a function of longitudinal force$ %he limit
force has "een gi&en "y Eq$ 5:7 and 567$ ;or a gi&en ater depth,
the e#ternal pressure ill "e appro#imately constant, hile the
a#ial force may &ary along the pipe$ ;igure 11 shos the moment
capacity as a function of longitudinal force for an e#ternal
o&erpressure equal to 0$6 times the collapse pressure calculated "y
'aagsma.s collapse equation Eq$ 5/7$ ;igure 19 again shos the
moment capacity as a function of longitudinal force, "ut this time
for an internal o&erpressure equal to 0$9 times the plastic "uc!ling
pressure gi&en "y Eq$ 597$ ,ased on the results presented in
;igures 11 to 19, it is concluded that the analytically deduced
moment capacity and finite element results are in good agreement
for the entire range of longitudinal force and pressure$ 'oe&er,
the equations tend to "e a slightly non-conser&ati&e for e#ternal
pressure &ery close to the collapse pressure$ %his is in agreement
ith the pre&ious discussion a"out %imoshen!o.s and 'aagsma.s
collapse equations$
Figure >0 -imit .ending moment surface as a function of ressure
and longitudinal force1
Figure /00 -imit .ending moment surface as a function of
ressure and longitudinal force including cross sections for )%ic%
comarison .et)een anal!tical solution and results from finite
element anal!ses %as .een erformed1
-0.5 0 0.5 1
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
Pressure / Plastic Collapse Pressure
M
o
m
e
n
t

/

P
l
a
s
t
i
c

M
o
m
e
n
t
X = FE results
___
= Analytical
Figure //0 (ormalised .ending moment caacit! as a function of
ressure1 (o longitudinal force is alied1
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
True Longitudinal Force / Ultimate True Longitudinal Force
M
o
m
e
n
t

/

P
l
a
s
t
i
c

M
o
m
e
n
t
X = FE results
___
= Analytical
Figure /20 (ormalised .ending moment caacit! as a function of
longitudinal force1 $ressure e;ual to ?ero1
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
True Longitudinal Force / Ultimate True Longitudinal Force
M
o
m
e
n
t

/

P
l
a
s
t
i
c

M
o
m
e
n
t
X = FE results
___
= Analytical
Figure /40 (ormalised .ending moment caacit! as a function of
longitudinal force1 $ressure e;ual to 01= times ,aagsmas
collase ressure E;1 "8#1
OMAE.99, -*-99-/011 'auch 2 ,ai 9
Offshore Mechanical and Arctic Engineering, July 11-16, 1999
-0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
True Longitudinal Force / Ultimate True Longitudinal Force
M
o
m
e
n
t

/

P
l
a
s
t
i
c

M
o
m
e
n
t
X = FE results
___
= Analytical
Figure /60 (ormalised .ending moment caacit! as a function of
longitudinal force1 $ressure e;ual to 01> times t%e lastic
.uc*ling ressure E;1 "6#1
USAGE/SAFETY FACTORS
%he local "uc!ling chec! can "e separated into a chec! for load
controlled situations 5"ending moment7 and one for displacement
controlled situations 5strain le&el7$ 8hen no usage)safety factors
are applied in the "uc!ling chec! calculations, the to chec!s
ought to result in the same "ending capacity$ In design though,
usage)safety factors are introduced to account for modelling and
input uncertainties$ %he reduction in "ending capacity introduced
"y the usage factors ill not "e the same for load and
displacement controlled situations$ <ue to the pipe moment &ersus
strain relationship, a higher alloa"le strength can "e achie&ed for
a gi&en target safety le&el "y using a strain-"ased criterion than "y
a moment criterion$ In this paper only the alloa"le "ending
moment criterion is gi&en$ %his criterion can "e used for "oth load
and displacement controlled situations, "ut may as mentioned "e
o&erly conser&ati&e for displacement controlled situations$
%he usage factor approach presented in this paper is "ased on
shrin!ing the failure surface shon in ;igures 9 and 10$ Instead of
representing the "ending moment capacity, the surface is scaled to
represent the ma#imum alloa"le "ending moment associated
ith a gi&en target safety le&el$ %he shape of the failure surface
gi&en Eq$ 5107 is dictated "y four parametersK the plastic moment
Mp, the limit longitudinal force ;l, the limit pressure -l and the
strength anisotropy factor $ %o shrin! the failure surface usage
factors are applied to the plastic moment, longitudinal limit force
and the limit pressure respecti&ely$ %he usage factors are functions
of modelling, geometrical and material uncertainties and ill
therefore &ary for the three capacity parameters$ In general, the
&ariation ill "e small and for simplification purposes, the most
conser&ati&e usage factor may "e applied to all capacity loads$
%he strength anisotropy factor is a function of the longitudinal
limit force and the limit pressure, "ut for simplicity, no usage
factor has "een applied to this parameter$ %he modelling
uncertainty is highly connected to the use of the equation$ In the
4?-E>, 519967 pro(ect, the use of the moment criteria is di&ided
into four unli!e scenariosK 17 pipelines resting on une&en sea"ed,
F7 pressure test condition, 17 continuous stiff supported pipe and
97 all other scenarios$ %o account for the &ariation in modelling
uncertainty, a condition load factor C is applied to the plastic
moment and the limit longitudinal force$ %he pressure, hich is a
function of internal pressure and ater depth, ill not "e
su"(ected to the same model uncertainty and the condition load
factor ill "e close to one and is presently ignored$ ,ased on the
a"o&e discussion, the ma#imum alloa"le "ending moment may
"e e#pressed asE
( )
( )
( )

,
_

,
_

,
_

F
F
F
F
,
1 1
F
cos 1 1
l +$
l +$ l +F
c
l +$

c
+M
F Allo)a.le

F
F

M M

5 0 7
here
MAllo)a.le G Alloa"le "ending moment
C G +ondition load factor
+ G 4trength usage factors
%he usage)safety factor methodology used in Eq$ 5117 ensures that
the safety le&els are uniformly maintained for all load
com"inations$
In the folloing guideline for "ending strength calculations, the
suggested condition load factor is in accordance ith the results
presented in the 4?-E>, 519967 report, later used in <3I
5F0007$ %he strength usage factors +M, +F and +$ are "ased on
comparison ith e#isting codes and the engineering e#perience of
the authors$
GUIDELINE FOR BENDING STRENGTH CALCULATIONS
LOCAL BUCKLING:
;or pipelines su"(ected to com"ined pressure, longitudinal force
and "ending, local "uc!ling may occur$ %he failure mode may
"e yielding of the cross section or "uc!ling on the compressi&e
side of the pipe$ %he criteria gi&en in this guideline may "e used
to calculate the ma#imum alloa"le "ending moment for a
gi&en scenario$ It shall "e noted that the ma#imum alloa"le
"ending moment gi&en in this guideline does not ta!e fracture
into account and that fracture criteria therefore may reduce the
"ending capacity of the pipe$ %his particularly applies for high-
tension ) high internal pressure load conditions$
LOAD VERSUS DISPLACEMENT CONTROLLED SITUATIONS:
%he local "uc!ling chec! can "e separated into a chec! for load
controlled situations 5"ending moment7 and one for
displacement controlled situations 5strain le&el7$ <ue to the
relation "eteen applied "ending moment and ma#imum strain
in pipes, a higher alloa"le strength for a gi&en target safety
le&el can "e achie&ed "y using a strain-"ased criterion rather
than a "ending moment criterion$ %he "ending moment criterion
can due to this, conser&ati&ely "e used for "oth load and
displacement controlled situations$ In this guideline only the
"ending moment criterion is gi&en$
OMAE.99, -*-99-/011 'auch 2 ,ai 10
Offshore Mechanical and Arctic Engineering, July 11-16, 1999
LOCAL BUCKLING AND ACCUMULATED OUT-OF-
ROUNDNESS:
Increased out-of-roundness due to installation and cyclic
operating loads may aggra&ate local "uc!ling and is to "e
considered$ It is recommended that out-of-roundness, due to
through life loads, "e simulated using e$g$ finite element
analysis$
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE BENDING MOMENT:
%he alloa"le "ending moment for local "uc!ling under load
controlled situations can "e e#pressed asE
( )
( )
( )

,
_

,
_

,
_

F
F
F
F
,
1 1
F
cos 1 1
l +$
l +$ l +F
c
l +$

c
+M
F Allo)a.le

F
F

M M

here
MAllo)a.le G Alloa"le "ending moment
M 5 -lastic moment
l G *imit pressure
G -ressure acting on the pipe
Fl G *imit longitudinal force
F G *ongitudinal force acting on the pipe
G 4trength anisotropy factor
C G +ondition load factor
+ G 4trength usage factor
STRENGTH ANISOTROPY FACTOR:
l
c
F
D

9
F

for e#ternal o&erpressure

l
.
F
D

9
F

for internal o&erpressure

If possi"le, the strength anisotropy factor should "e &erified "y
finite element analyses$
PLASTIC (LIMIT) MOMENT:
%he limit moment may "e gi&en asE
( )
t D 'MY'
t
D
M
$ F C

,
_

F
0 , 0
001/ $ 0 0/ $ 1
here
4MB4 G 4pecified Minimum Bield 4trength in
longitudinal direction
< G A&erage diameter
t G 8all thic!ness
LIMIT LONGITUDINAL FORCE FOR COMPRESSION AND
TENSION:
%he limit longitudinal force may "e estimated asE
( ) A 'MT' 'MY' F
l
+ / $ 0
here
A G +ross sectional area, hich may "e
calculated as <t$
4MB4 G 4pecified Minimum Bield 4trength in
longitudinal direction
4M%4 G 4pecified Minimum %ensile 4trength in
longitudinal direction
LIMIT PRESSURE FOR EXTERNAL OVERPRESSURE
CONDITION:
%he limit e#ternal pressure Hpl. is to "e calculated "ased onE
0
F
0
F F 1
+
,
_

+
el l el l el l

t
D
f
here
pel G
1
F
7 1 5
F

,
_

D
t E

pp G
D
t
'MY'
fa.
F

17
f0 G Initial out-of-roundness
F7
, 5<ma#-<min7)<
4MB4 G 4pecified Minimum Bield 4trength in hoop
direction
E G Boung.s Module
G -oisson.s ratio
Auidance noteE
17
fa" is 0$9F/ for pipes fa"ricated "y the ?O precess, 0$6/ for
pipes fa"ricated "y the ?OE process and 1 for seamless or
annealed pipes$
F7
Out-of-roundness caused during the construction phase and
due to cyclic loading is to "e included, "ut not flattening due
to e#ternal ater pressure or "ending in as-laid position$
LIMIT PRESSURE FOR INTERNAL OVERPRESSURE
CONDITION:
%he limit pressure ill "e equal to the "ursting pressure and
may "e ta!en asE
( )
D
t
'MY' 'MT'
l
F
/ $ 0 +
here
4MB4 G 4pecified Minimum Bield 4trength in hoop
direction
4M%4 G 4pecified Minimum %ensile 4trength in hoop
direction
LOAD AND USAGE FACTORS:
*oad factor + and usage factor > are listed in %a"le 1$
Ta.le /0 -oad and usage factors1
4afety +lasses
4afety factors
*o 3ormal 'igh
+
?ne&en sea"ed 1$0: 1$0: 1$0:
-ressure test 0$91 0$91 0$91
4tiff supported 0$6F 0$6F 0$6F
Otherise 1$00 1$00 1$00
>-
-ressure 0$9/ 0$91 0$90
OMAE.99, -*-99-/011 'auch 2 ,ai 11
Offshore Mechanical and Arctic Engineering, July 11-16, 1999
>;
*ongitudinal force 0$90 0$6/ 0$60
>M
Moment 0$60 0$:1 0$6/
Auidance notesE
- *oad +ondition ;actors may "e com"ined e$g$ *oad
+ondition ;actor for pressure test of pipelines resting on
une&en sea"ed, 1$0:0$91 G 1$00
- 4afety class is lo for temporary phases$ ;or the operating
phase, safety class is normal and high for area classified as
Mone 1 and Mone F respecti&ely$
CONCLUSIONS
%he moment capacity equations in the e#isting codes are for some
load conditions o&erly conser&ati&e and for others non-
conser&ati&e$ %his paper presents a ne set of design equations
that are accurate and simple$ %he deri&ed analytical equations
ha&e "een "ased on the mechanism of failure modes and ha&e
"een e#tensi&ely compared ith finite element results$ %he use of
safety factors has "een simplified compared ith e#isting codes
and the target safety le&els are in accordance ith <3I 5F0007,
I4O 519967 and A-I 519967$ %he applied safety factor
methodology ensures that the target safety le&els are uniformly
maintained for all load com"inations$ It is the hope of the authors
that this paper ill help engineers in their aim to design safer and
more cost-effecti&e pipes$
It is recommended that the strength anisotropy factor "e
in&estigated in more detail$
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
%he authors ac!noledge their earlier employer formerly J -
@enny A)4 no A,, -ipeline and >iser 4ection for their support
and understanding ithout hich this paper ould not ha&e "een
possi"le$
REFERENCES
A-I 519967 CDesign@ Construction@ Aeration and Maintenance
of Affs%ore ,!drocar.on $ielines "-imit 'tate Design#D$

,ai, B$, Igland, >$ and Moan, %$ 519917 CTu.e Collase under
Com.ined $ressure@ Tension and BendingD, International Journal of
Offshore and -olar Engineering, Iol$ 15F7, pp$ 1F1-1F9$
,ai, B$, Igland, >$ and Moan, %$ 5199:7 CTu.e Collase under
Com.ined E&ternal $ressure@ Tension and BendingD, Journal of
Marine 4tructures, Iol$ 10, 3o$ /, pp$ 169-910$
,ruschi, >$, Monti, -$, ,olMoni, A$, %agliaferri, >$ 5199/7, CFinite
Element Met%od as (umerical -a.orator! for Anal!sing $ieline
+esonse under Internal $ressure@ A&ial -oad@ Bending MomentD
OMAE.9/$
+hen, 8$ ;$, and 4ohal, I$ 4$ 519667, CC!lindrical Mem.ers In
Affs%ore 'tructuresD %hin-8alled 4tructure, Iol$ 6 1966$ 4pecial
Issue on Offshore 4tructures, Else&ier Applied 4cience$
Aalam"os, %$I$ 519967, BCuide to 'ta.ilit! Design Criteria for
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