99

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4.4.1 Forced Vibrations From Harmonic Excitation

As discussed earlier, forced vibrations are one very important practical mechanism for the
occurrence of vibrations.

x
m
F(t)
c k


Fig. 4.10: Sdof Oscillator with Viscous Damping and External Force

The equation of motion of the damped linear sdof oscillator with an external force is:

( ) t F kx x c x m = + + & & & (4.4.1)

The general solution of this differential equation is:

( ) ( ) ( )
3 2 1
3 2 1
force external from results
part
vibrations free
t x t x t x + =
hom
(4.4.2)
which consists of the homogeneous part resulting from the free vibration and the particular
part resulting from the external disturbance F(t). The homogeneous solution has already been
treated in the last chapter.


















Fig 4.11: Homogeneous and particular part of the solution and superposition
While the homogeneous part of the solution will decay to zero with time we are especially
interested in the stationary solution.


4.4.2 Excitation with Constant Force Amplitude

4.4.1.1 Real Approach
The excitation function is harmonic, is the frequency of excitation

t F t F = cos

) ( (4.4.3)

Eqn. 4.4.1 becomes

t F kx x c x m = + + cos

& & & (4.4.4)

Dividing by the mass m

t
m
F
x
m
k
x
m
c
x = + + cos

& & & (4.4.5)

Introducing again the dimension less damping and the natural circular frequency


0
2
m
c
D = and
m
k
=
2
0


and the amplitude

m
F
f

= (4.4.6)
This yields:

(4.4.7) t f x x D x = + + cos

2
2
0 0
& & &

To solve this differential equation, we make an approach with harmonic functions

t B t A t x + = sin cos ) ( (4.4.8)

This covers also a possible phase lag due to the damping in the system. Differentiating (4.4.8)
to get the velocity and the acceleration and putting this into eqn. 4.4.7 leads to


t f
t B t A t B t A D t B t A
=
+ + + +
cos

) sin cos ( ) cos sin ( 2 sin cos

2
0 0
2 2

(4.4.9)
After separating the coefficients of the sin- and cos-functions and comparing the coefficients
we get:

(4.4.10a) f A B D A

2
2
0 0
2
= + +
100
(4.4.10b) 0 2
2
0 0
2
= + B A D B

From the second equation we see that

A D B B = +
0
2
0
2
2

which leads to

( )
A
D
B
2 2
0
0
2


=

and we put this result into eqn.(4.4.10a):

f A A
D
D A

) (
2
2
2
0
2 2
0
0
0
2
= +


+

f A
D

) (
4
) (
2 2
0
2 2
0
2
2 2
0
=
(
(

| | ) (

4 ) (
2 2
0
2 2
0
2 2 2 2
0
= + f A D

This yields the solution for A and B:

| |
2 2
0
2 2 2 2
0
2 2
0
4 ) (
) (

+

=


D
f
A (4.4.11a)
and

| |
2 2
0
2 2 2 2
0
0
4 ) (
) 2 (

+

=


D
D f
B (4.4.11b)

Introducing the dimensionless ratio of frequencies

0

= =
frequency Natural
frequency Excitation
(4.4.12)



2 2 2 2
2 2
0
4 ) 1 (
) 1 )( /

(


D
f
A
+

= (4.4.13a)
and

2 2 2 2
2
0
4 ) 1 (
) 2 )( /

(


D
D f
B
+
= (4.4.13b)

With A and B we have found the solution for t B t A t x + = sin cos ) ( .
101
Another possibility is to present the solution with amplitude and phase angle:

) cos( ) ( = t C t x (4.4.14)

The amplitude is

2
0
2 2 2 2
2 2

4 ) 1 (
1

f
D
B A C
+
= + = (4.4.15)
Considering that and we get m F f /

= m k /
2
0
=

k
F
D
C

4 ) 1 (
1
2 2 2 2
+
= (4.4.16)

Introducing the dimensionless magnification factor V
1
which only depends on the frequency
ratio and the damping D :

2 2 2 2
1
4 ) 1 (
1
) , (

D
D V
+
= (4.4.17)

we get the amplitude as
k
F
V C

1
= (4.4.18)

and the phase angle (using trigonometric functions similar as in chap.4.2.2) :


2
1
2
) ( tan

= =
D
A
B
(4.4.19)

We can see that as approaches 1 the amplitude grows rapidly, and its value near or at the
resonance is very sensitive to changes of the damping D.

The maximum of the magnification curve for a given D can be found at


0
2
2 1

res
res
D

= = (4.4.20)

If D is very small then 1
res
. The maximum amplitude for this D then is


2
1 max
1 2
1

) , (

D D
k
F
D V
k
F
C
res

= = (4.4.21)

For 0: V
1
1: the system behaves quasi-statically, for very large values of : V
1
0: the
vibrations are very small.
102

0

=

2 2 2 2 1
D 4 ) 1 (
1
V
+
=
D=0,7071
D=0,5
D=0,3
D=0,2
D=0,1
D=0,05
5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10








V
1














0

=
2
1
D 2
arctan


=
D=0,7071 D=0,5
D=0
D=0,05 D=0,2 D=0,1

180
150
120
90
60
30
0
5 4. 4 3. 3 2. 2 1. 1 0. 0























Fig.4.12: Magnification factor V
1
and phase angle to describe the vibration behavior of the
damped oscillator under constant force amplitude excitation
103
4.4.1.2 Complex Approach

Let us first recall that we can represent a real harmonic functions by a complex exponential
function using

t i t e
t i
+ =

sin cos

From this we can derive that


2
cos
t i t i
e e
t

+
= (4.4.22)
and
i
e e
t
t i t i
2
sin


= (4.4.23)

The harmonic force is


t i t i t i t i
e
F
e
F
e e
F
t F t F

+ = + = =
2

) (
2

cos

) ( (4.4.24)

This means that we have to solve the equation of motion twice, for the exp(it) and the
exp(-it) term. For the first step we make the approach

(4.4.25a)
t i
e x t x
+
=
1 1
) (
(4.4.25b)
t i
e x t x

=
2 2
) (

Putting both approaches into the equation of motion yields


t i t i
e
F
e x k c i m

= + +
2

) (
1
2
(4.4.26a)

t i t i
e
F
e x k c i m

= +
2

) (
2
2
(4.4.26b)

Dividing by k and introducing the frequency ratio (eqn.(4.4.12))
| |
k
F
x i D
2

2 ) 1 (
1
2
= + and | |
k
F
x i D
2

2 ) 1 (
2
2
= (4.4.27)

The solution for x
1
and x
2
are


k
F
D
i D
x
2

4 ) 1 (
2 ) 1 (

2 2 2 2
2
1


+

= (4.4.28a)

k
F
D
i D
x
2

4 ) 1 (
2 ) 1 (

2 2 2 2
2
2


+
+
= (4.4.28b)
104

As we can see, the solution of one part is the conjugate complex of the other:


2 1
x x = (4.4.29)

The solution for x(t) is combined from the two partial solutions, which we just have found:


t i t i
e x e x t x

+ =
2 1
) ( (4.4.30)

This can be resolved:

t x i t x t x i t x t x + + + = sin cos sin cos ) (
2 2 1 1


and using the fact that
2 1
x x = , we finally get


{ } { } t x t x t x = sin Im 2 cos Re 2 ) (
1 1
(4.4.31)

The factor of 2 compensates the factor associated with the force amplitude. All the
information can be extracted from only so that only this part of the solution has to be
solved.
1
x

t
k
F
D
D
t
k
F
D
t x
+
+
+

= sin

4 ) 1 (
2
cos

4 ) 1 (
) 1 (
) (
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2




(4.4.32)

which is the same result as eqn. (4.4.8) with (4.4.13).
Also the magnitude (
1
x ) and phase can be obtained in the same way and yield the previous
results:

Magnitude:
( )
( ) F
k
D V F
k
D
x
V factor ion magnificat

1
,

1
4 1
1

1
1

=
+
=
4 4 4 3 4 4 4 2 1
(4.4.33)

Phase:
{ }
{ } 1
2
Re
Im
tan
1
1

= =
D
x
x
(4.4.34)


4.4.1.3 Complex Approach, Alternative

Instead of eqn. (4.4.24), we can write

= + = =
t i t i t i
e
F
e e
F
t F t F
2

Re 2 ) (
2

cos

) (
or
{
t i
e F t F t F

= =

Re cos

) ( } (4.4.35)
105

According to this approach, we formulate the steady state response as

{
t i
e X t x

=

Re ) ( } (4.4.36)

The complex amplitude X

is determined from the equation of motion, solving

( ) { } { }
t i t i
e F e X k c i m

= + +

Re

Re
2
(4.4.37)

The real parts are equal if the complex expression is equal:

(4.4.38) ( )
t i t i
e F e X k c i m

= + +

2

Elimination of the time function yields:

(4.4.39) ( F X k c i m

2
= + + )
)
)

The expression in brackets is also called the dynamic stiffness

( c i m k k
dyn
+ =
2
) ( (4.4.40)

Now we solve (4.4.39) to get the complex amplitude:


( c i m k
F
X
+
=
2

(4.4.41)
The expression
( )
Input
Output
F
X
c i m k
H = =
+
=

1
) (
2
(4.4.42)

is the complex Frequency Response Function (FRF). Introducing the dimensionless frequency
as before yields:


( )
k
F
D i
X

2 1
1

2
+
= (4.4.43)

Because

( )
{ } { } { }
t i t i i t i
e X e e x e x t x

= = =

Re Re Re ) cos(

(4.4.44)

we take the magnitude and phase lag of this complex result x

(4.4.45)
i
e x X

= ) (

which leads to the same result as before, see (4.4.33) and (4.4.34):
106
( )
( ) F
k
D V F
k
D
x
V factor ion magnificat

1
,

1
4 1
1

1
1

=
+
=
4 4 4 3 4 4 4 2 1
(4.4.33)

{ }
{ }
1
2

Re

Im
tan

= =
D
X
X
(4.4.34)



4.4.2 Harmonic Force from Imbalance Excitation




c

m
k
2
m
k
2
k
2
k
2

m
M
x


Fig. 4.13: Sdof oscillator with unbalance excitation

The total mass of the system consists of the mass m
M
and the two rotating unbalance masses
m
u
:

2
2
U
M
m
m m + = (4.4.46)

The disturbance force from the unbalance is depending on the angular speed , is the
excentricity:

( ) t m t F
U Unbalance
= cos (4.4.47)

Now, following the same way as before (real or complex) leads to the solution:

) cos( ) ( = t C t x

where

Amplitude:
( )
( )
m
m
D V
m
m
D
C x
U U



,
4 1

3
=
+
= =
(4.4.48)
107
Phase:
1
2
tan

=
D
(4.4.49)

Magnification factor ( )
( ) 4 1

,
3

D
D
+
= V (4.4.50)

The phase is the same expression as in the previous case, however, the magnification factor is
different, because the force amplitude is increasing with increasing angular speed.
0

=

2 2 2 2
2
3
D 4 ) 1 (
V
+

=
D=0,7071
D=0,5
D=0,3
D=0,2
D=0,1
D=0,05
5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0
0
1
2
3
4
5 V
3

6
7
8
9
10




















Fig. 4.14: Magnification factor V
3
for the case of imbalance excitation

As can be seen: for 0: V
1
0: there is no force if the system is not rotating or rotates only
slowly, for very large values of : V
1
1: that means that the mass m is vibrating with an
amplitude ( m
u
/m), but the common center of gravity of total system m and m
u
does not
move.


108
4.4.3 Support Motion / Ground Motion

4.4.3.1 Case 1

u(t)
c
k
m
x


Fig. 4.15: Excitation of the sdof oscillator by harmonic motion of one spring end

The equation of motion for this system is


( ) t ku kx x c x m = + + & & &
(4.4.51)

Under harmonic excitation:

(4.4.52) ( ) t u t u = cos

The mathematical treatment is nearly identical to the first case, only the excitation function is
different: the excitation is replaced by u here. This leads to the result for the amplitude
of vibration
k F /

Amplitude:
( )
( ) u D V u
D
x
functionV mag
,
4 1
1

1
.
1

=
+
=
4 4 4 3 4 4 4 2 1
(4.4.53)

The magnification factor again is V
1
. Also, the phase relation is identical as before:

Phase:
1
2
tan

=
D
(4.4.54)



109
4.4.3.2 Case 2


c
k
m
x
u(t)


Fig. 4.16: Excitation of the sdof oscillator by harmonic motion of the spring/damper
combination


The equation of motion now also contains the velocity u : &

ku u c kx x c x m + = + + & & & &
(4.4.55)




Amplitude of vibration and phase shift becomes

Amplitude:
( )
( ) u D V u
D
D
x
V function Magn
,
4 1
4 1

2
.
2

=
+
+
=
4 4 4 3 4 4 4 2 1
(4.4.56)


Phase:
( ) 4 1
2
tan

D
D
+
= (4.4.57)

As can be seen the phase now is different due to the fact that the damper force depending on
the relative velocity between ground motion and motion of the mass plays a role. The
amplitude behaviour is described by the magnification factor V
2
.


110


1

0

=

2 2 2 2
2 2
2
D 4 ) 1 (
D 4 1
V
+
+
=
2
D=0,7071
D=0,5
D=0,3
D=0,2
D=0,1
D=0,05
5 4 3 2 1 0


1



8

V
2
6



4


2


0




Fig. 4.17: Magnification factor V
2
for the case of ground excitation via spring and
damper

Notice that all curves have an intersection point at 2 = which means that for 2 >
higher damping does not lead to smaller amplitudes but increases the amplitudes. This is due
to the fact that larger relative velocities (due to higher frequencies ) make the damper stiffer
and hence the damping forces.
Further cases of ground motion excitation are possible.
111

4.4 Excitation by Impacts

4.5.1 Impact of finite duration
T
i
F(t)
t
F

F(t)
k c
x
m


Fig. 4.18: Sdof Oscillator under impact loading

We consider an impact of finite length T
i
and constant force level during the impact

The
impact duration T
i
is much smaller than the period of vibration T:


D
i
T

T
2
= <<

With the initial condition that there is no initial displacement x
0
= 0 we can calculate the
velocity by means of the impulse of the force

i
T
T F dt F mv p
i

0
0
= = =

This leads to the initial velocity :


m
T F
v
i

0
= (4.5.1)

Using the results of the viscously damped free oscillator for D < 1,

( )
(
(
(

|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

t D B t D A e t x
D D
t D
43 42 1 43 42 1

0 0
1 sin 1 cos
0
(4.5.2)

we can immediately find the result with the initial conditions x
0
and v
0:

112
and 0 0
0
= = A x
D
i
v
D
v
B
m
T F

0
0
0
0
1

= v (4.5.3)

so that the system response to the impact is a decaying oscillation where we have assumed
that the damping D < 1:

( ) ( t e
v
t x
D
t D
D

sin
0
0
= ) (4.5.4)




4.5.2 DIRAC-Impact


F
t


Fig. 4.19: DIRAC-Impact


The DIRAC-Impact is defined by

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 1 ,
0
0 0

= =

dt t but
t
t
t t F t F (4.5.5)

is the Kronecker symbol. The duration of this impact is infinitely short but the impact is
infinitely large. However, the integral is equal to 1 or , respectively. For the initial
displacement and calculation of the initial velocity following the previous chapter, we
get
F

0
0
= x

( ) ( t e
m
F
t
D
t D
D

sin

= ) x (4.5.6)

For , the response x(t) is equal to the impulse response function (IRF) h(t) 1

= F
113
( ) ( t e
m
t
D
t D
D

sin
1
0

= ) h (4.5.7)

The IRF is an important characteristic of a dynamic system in control theory.


4.5 Excitation by Forces with Arbitrary Time Functions

F( )
+
F
t
t
x

Fig. 4.20: Interpretation of an arbitrary time function as series of DIRAC-impulses

Using the results of the previous chapters we can solve the problem of an arbitrary time
function F(t) as subsequent series of Dirac-impacts, where the initial conditions follow from
the time history of the system.

The solution is given by the Duhamel-Integral or convolution integral:



= =

t t
D
t D
D
d F t h d F t e
m
t
0 0
) (
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ) ( sin(
1
) (
0

x (4.6.1)

As can be seen, the integral contains the response of the sdof oscillator with respect to a
DIRAC-impact multiplied with the actual force F(), which is integrated from time 0 to t.
114
4.7 Periodic Excitations

4.7.1 Fourier Series Representation of Signals

Periodic signals can be decomposed into an infinite series of trigonometric functions, called
Fourier series.




















Fig. 4.21: Scheme of signal decomposition by trigonometric functions


F
t
T

Fig. 4.22: Example of a periodic signal: periodic impacts

The period of the signal is T and the corresponding fundamental frequency is

T

2
= (4.7.1)
115
Now, the periodic signal x(t) can be represented as follows


) sin( ) cos(
2
) (
1
0

=
+ + =
k
k k
t k b t k a
a
t x
(4.7.2)

The Fourier-coefficients a
0
, a
k
and b
k
must be determined. They describe how strong the
corresponding trigonometric function is present in the signal x(t). The coefficient a
0
is the
double mean value of the signal in the interval 0T:

=
T
dt t x
T
a
0
0
) (
2
(4.7.3)

and represents the off-set of the signal. The other coefficients can be determined from

( )

=
T
k
dt t k t x
T
a
0
cos ) (
2
(4.7.4)

( )

=
T
k
dt t k t x
T
b
0
sin ) (
2
(4.7.5)

The individual frequencies of this terms are

T
k
k
k


2
= = (4.7.6)

for k = 1 we call the frequency
1
fundamental frequency or basic harmonic and the
frequencies for k = 2,3, the second, third, harmonic (or generally higher harmonics).


4.7.1.1 Alternative real Representation

We can write the Fourier series as a sum of cosine functions with amplitude c
k
and a phase
shift
k

) cos( ) (
1
0

=
+ + =
k
k k
t k c c t x (4.7.7)


2 2
k k k
b a c + = and ) arctan(
k
k
k
a
b
= (4.7.8)

4.7.1.2 Alternative complex Representation

The real trigonometric functions can also be transformed into complex exponential
expression:
116

=
=
k
t ik
k
e X t x

) ( (4.7.9)

The X
k
are the complex Fourier coefficients which can be determined by solving the integral:

=
T
t ik
k
dt e t x
T
X
0
) (
1

(4.7.10a)

or
|

=
T
k
dt t k i t k t x
T
X
0
sin cos ) (
1
| (4.7.10b)

which clearly shows the relation to the real Fourier coefficients series given by eqns.(4.7.4)
and (4.7.5):

{ } { }
2
Im ;
2
Re
k
k
k
k
b
X
a
X = =

The connection to the other real representation (chap. 4.7.11) is

k k
c X =
{ }
{ }
)
Re
Im
( tan
k
k
k
X
X
= (4.7.11)

The coefficients with negative index are the conjugate complex values of the corresponding
positive ones:

(4.7.12)
*
k k
X X =

4.7.2 Forced Vibration Under General Periodic Excitation

x
m
F(t)
c k


Fig. 4.23: Sdof oscillator under periodic excitation

117
Let us use once more the single dof oscillator but now the force is a periodic function which
can be represented by a Fourier series

=
+ + =
1
0
) sin( ) cos(
2
) (
k
sk ck
t k F t k F
F
t F (4.7.13)

The F
ck
and F
sk
are the Fourier coefficients which can be determined according to the last
chapter (eqns. 4.7.3.-4.7.5). The response due to such an excitation is

=
+ + =
1
1 1
0
) sin( ) , ( ) cos( ) , (
2
) (
k
k
sk
k k
ck
k
t k
k
F
D V t k
k
F
D V
k
F
t x (4.7.14)

with the frequency ratio
0

=
k
k
= ,... 2 , 1 k (4.7.15)

Each individual frequency is considered with its special amplification factor V and individual
phase shift, which in the present case can be calculated from

2 2 2 2
1
4 ) 1 (
1
) , (
k k
k
D
D V

+
= (4.7.16)

2
1
2
tan
k
k
k
D

= (4.7.17)

For the other cases of mass unbalance excitation or ground excitation the procedure works
analogously. The appropriate V-functions have to be used and the correct pre-factors (which is
in the present case 1/k) have to be used.



118