7-1

7 Chapter 7
Design for shear loads
7.1 Introduction
The aim of chapter 4 was to show how to calculate the main reinforcement of a beam
subjected to bending moments and axial forces which give rise to distributions of
normal stresses in cross-sections. The main principle was that steel reinforcement is
provided in those areas where the concrete cracks due to large tensile stresses.
Figure 7.1-1 shows a beam in a four point bending disposition. The central part of the
beam is loaded in pure bending; the longitudinal reinforcement is calculated as
indicated in chapter 4. The two parts of the beam between the concentrated forces and
the supports are subjected to a more complex loading because of the combination of the
bending moment and the shear force. Yet, in the early days of reinforced concrete,
people tried out the behaviour of beams with only longitudinal reinforcement and
observed for increasing loads the appearance of inclined cracks in the zones with shear
loads. Without special reinforcement to bridge the inclined cracks, it is even observed
that failure of the beam is determined by shear: one crack is prolonged suddenly up to
the upper side of the beam which causes the total collapse of the structural element (as
shown in figure 7.1-2). This type of failure happens in a sudden (brittle) way and has
thus absolutely to be avoided. The logical solution is to provide inclined reinforcement,
perpendicular to the cracks (figure 7.1-3), but a valuable alternative is to use vertical
links (or stirrups) which bridge the crack at a certain angle.


Shear force
Bending moment


Figure 7.1-1
Four point bending test, applied on a beam with only longitudinal reinforcement


7-2


Figure 7.1-2
Typical failure mode for a beam with only longitudinal reinforcement: a shear crack
leads to total collapse in a sudden way



(b) (a)

Figure 7.1-3
Two possible solutions to bridge shear cracks; (a) inclined shear reinforcement:
longitudinal bars (main reinforcement on the bottom side) may be bent up to the upper
side of the beam instead of being simply curtailed; (b) vertical shear reinforcement:
links or stirrups

7.2 Members not requiring shear reinforcement
7.2.1 Introduction
Providing shear reinforcement leads to a substantial cost; it is thus useful to analyse the
conditions which may allow omitting this type of reinforcement. This paragraph focuses
on the determination of the shear resistance of members without shear reinforcement.

7.2.2 A starting point: overview of results from theory of elasticity for beams with
continuous, homogeneous, isotropic and elastic materials
The following paragraph presents an overview of main notions and formulas concerning
shear forces and shear stresses in a beam loaded in bending, taken from theory of
elasticity and strength of materials courses. The formulas are valid for homogeneous,
isotropic, continuous and elastic materials. The setting is defined in figure 7.2.2-1.

7-3

M
V
+
- y
z
G
-
x
P
V
y
> 0 M
z
> 0
x
NA
N' N'+dN'
dx

Figure 7.2.2-1
Principle figure for the elaboration of the formulas for shear stresses in beams loaded in
bending


Main results are:
longitudinal shear force dx b dN
b
. . ' =
rotation equilibrium in a cross-section leads to (figure 7.2.2-2):
z N M '. =
z dN dM '. =



z
NA
M
N'
N

Figure 7.2.2-2
Rotation equilibrium in a cross-section of a beam loaded in bending

the relationship between V
y
and M
z
(in absolute values):
dx
dM
V
z
y
=

the shear stress on the level of the NA:

z b
V
dx z b
dM
dx b
dN
NL
. . . .
'
= = = (7.2.2-1)

the formula of JOURAWSKI for the shear stress in a certain point (or on a certain
level) of the cross-section:
7-4

z
z
xy
I b
S V
.
.
= (7.2.2-2)
with
xy
the y-component of the shear stress on an elementary surface perpendicular to
the x-axis;
V the shear load in the cross-section;
b the width of the cross-section at the level where the shear stress is
determined;
z
I the moment of inertia of the full cross-section with respect to the z-axis (axis
passing through the centre of gravity G);
z
S the static moment of the part of the cross-section situated above the level
where the stress is determined, with respect to the z-axis.

xy
is characterized by a parabolic distribution for a rectangular cross-section,
with maximum value at the level of the NA equal to
h b
V
.
.
2
3
.

Figure 7.2.2-3 presents a beam loaded by a uniformly distributed load. In uncracked
situation, and assuming continuous, homogeneous, isotropic and elastic material, one
obtains the set of trajectories of the principal stresses. The orientation and magnitude of
the stresses are determined in each point with a theory of elasticity approach; MOHRs
circle can be used for graphical representation. Figure 7.2.2-4 presents in a schematic
way the reasoning that permits to determine the principal orientations, the principal
elementary areas and principal stresses in a point A on the NA (
x
= 0;
xy
max) and in
point B in the cross-section. It is observed in point A that the principal tensile stress has
the same magnitude as the shear stress and is oriented with an angle of 45 with respect
to the axis of the beam. In punt B, the principal elementary area with the largest
principal tensile stress is much more horizontally oriented. These results help to
understand the crack pattern due to shear load in a beam in reinforced concrete with
only main reinforcement and in which, from a macroscopic point of view, the concrete
may be considered as a homogeneous material: see figure 7.2.2-5.



Figure 7.2.2-3
Principal stress trajectories in uncracked situation (continuous, homogeneous, isotropic
and elastic material)
7-5



x
y
+
+

V > 0
I b
S V
.
.
=
A
B

X
A

Y
A
= pole
A

1A
Y
B

pole
B

1B
X
B

A
B
Tensile zone cracks

Figure 7.2.2-4
Application of MOHRs circle for the identification of the principle tensile stress at the
NA (axis of the beam); deduction of the crack pattern influenced by the presence of
shear

7-6


Figure 7.2.2-5
Figure (a) presents the trajectories of the principle compression stresses in an uncracked
beam; figure (b) presents the experimentally observed crack pattern obtained by a four
points bending test on a beam in reinforced concrete without shear reinforcement
(WIGHT, 2009)

7.2.3 Effect of the cracking in reinforced concrete (beam without shear
reinforcement)
The appearance of cracks has an important influence on the further distribution of
internal forces. As cracks develop in the lower part of the beam, the NA is shifted
upwards which leads to the vertical elongation of the cracks; these cracks only deviate
towards the 45 orientation on the level of the new NA. This explains why the crack
pattern shown in figure 7.2.3-1 is characterized by much more vertical cracks than the
45 disposition in uncracked material. When load intensity increases, cracking
continues until one crack becomes instable: that means that the crack develops in a
brittle way over the whole depth of the beam. Internal equilibrium is not possible any
more and failure is reached.

Figure 7.2.3-1
7-7
Crack development with increasing load, in a beam in reinforced concrete with main
reinforcement and without shear reinforcement (WALRAVEN, 1995)

Another consequence of the cracking is that equations (7.2.2-1) and (7.2.2-2) are strictly
not valid anymore. Moreover, the stress distribution in the cross-section, in ULS, is non-
linear and is thus highly different from the distribution in uncracked state.

Note:
WALRAVEN (1995) assumes that the following formula still allows
determining a reasonable estimation of the mean" shear stress in a section in
reinforced concrete:

z b
V
.
= (7.2.3-1)
with
b = the width of the cross-section or the minimum width of the web of I- or T-
beams;
z = the lever arm, which in first approximation can be taken as 0,9.d.

7.2.4 Mechanisms of the transfer of shear loads in a cracked beam in reinforced
concrete
Figure 7.2.4-1 gives an overview of the different mechanisms which explain the transfer
of the shear load in a beam in reinforced concrete without shear reinforcement.


(a)
V
V
(b)
(c)
(d)

Figure 7.2.4-1
Mechanisms for shear load transfer in cracked reinforced concrete:
(a) uncracked concrete in compression; (b) tensile stresses at the tip of the crack;
(c) granulate interlocking; (d) dowel action

The following mechanisms are identified:
the uncracked compression concrete in the upper part of the beam (above the
shear crack) is able to transfer high shear loads;
7-8
tensile contact stresses are present at the crack tip as long as both sides are not
separated more than w 0,15 mm (WALRAVEN, 1995). In order to further open
the crack tip, an additional tensile force has to be developed;
the shear displacement of one part of the beam with respect to the other part is
hindered by the mechanical friction resistance provided by the sliding of two
irregular crack surfaces. This is called the aggregate interlocking effect;
the shear displacement of one part of the beam with respect to the other part is
also hindered by the dowel action of the main reinforcement bars. On top of the
local shear resistance of the steel bars, one may also take account of the resistance
to local crushing of the concrete adjacent to the bars: figure 7.2.4-2.



V
V

Figure 7.2.4-2
Dowel action of the main reinforcement and resistance to local crushing of the
concrete adjacent to the bars


It can thus be concluded that the following factors determine the shear load bearing
capacity of beams without shear reinforcement:
the concrete class;
the main reinforcement ratio (a larger ratio also leads to smaller crack widths);
the width of the cross-section;
the depth of the cross-section. An important observation is that shear load bearing
capacity indeed increases with depth but less than proportional. This is a well
known phenomenon in the course on failure mechanics: a large crack is more
sensitive for instable elongation than a short crack (small sections are more
efficient to bear shear loads);
an eventual axial force, which may influence the crack width.

7-9
7.2.5 The shear resistance of a beam in reinforced concrete without shear
reinforcement
Reference: EN 1992-1-1:2004; 6.2.2

The design value for the shear resistance V
Rd,c
in a beam without shear reinforcement is
determined by means of the following empirical formula:

d b k f k C V
w cp ck l c Rd c Rd
. . . ) . . 100 .( .
1
3
1
, , (

+ = (7.2.5-1)

with a minimum of:

[ ] d b k v V
w cp min imum c Rd
. . .
1 min , ,
+ = (7.2.5-2)

where:
V
Rd,c
is expressed in N;
f
ck
is expressed in MPa;

d
k
200
1+ = with d in mm and k 2;
d = effective depth determining the distance between the centre of gravity of the
main reinforcement to the most compressed concrete fibres (top layer of beam);

w
b = smallest width of the cross-section in the tensile area;

c
Ed
cp
A
N
= < 0,2.f
cd


Ed
N (expressed in N): axial force in the cross-section due to loading or
prestressing (positive sign for compressive load);

c
A (expressed in mm
2
): area of concrete cross-section;
02 , 0
.
=
d b
A
w
sl
l
;
with =
sl
A area of the tensile reinforcement which extends at the least over the
distance d+l
bd
beyond the section considered (see figure 7.2.5-1). Note: l
bd
is the
required anchorage length, discussed in chapter 6 in these course notes;

c
c Rd
C

18 , 0
,
= ; assuming
c
= 1,5 leads to C
Rd,c
= 0,12;
k
1
= 0,15;
v
min
= 0,035.k
3/2
.f
ck
1/2
;

The introduction of the recommended values k
1
= 0,15 , C
Rd,c
= 0,12 and v
min
in
equations (7.2.5-1) and (7.2.5-2) leads to the following equations for the design value of
the shear resistance of a beam without shear reinforcement:
7-10

d b f k V
w cp ck l c Rd
. . . 15 , 0 ) . . 100 .( . 12 , 0
3
1
, (

+ = (7.2.5-3)
with a mimimum of:

[ ] d b f k V
w cp ck imum c Rd
. . . 15 , 0 . . 035 , 0
2 / 1 2 / 3
min , ,
+ = (7.2.5-4)



Figure 7.2.5-1
Definition of A
sl
in the formula for the calculation of the shear resistance of a beam
without shear reinforcement: one can only take account of those bars which are
adequately anchored; (a) end support; (b) intermediate support (Figure 6.3 in EN 1992-
1-1:2004)


The verification of the shear load bearing capacity of a structural member without shear
reinforcement is thus performed by the comparison, in the cross-section to be
considered, of the design value of the imposed shear load V
Ed
with V
Rdc
.

7.3 Members requiring design shear reinforcement
7.3.1 Introduction
If preliminary calculation shows that the shear load bearing capacity of the member
without shear reinforcement, is not large enough to withstand the imposed shear force
(thus if V
Ed
> V
Rd,c
), an adequate shear reinforcement is necessary. The shear
reinforcement provides replacement of the shear load bearing capacity which disappears
gradually with growing cracks, the reduction of the thickness of the compressed
concrete arch and the increased crack width which reduces the granulate interlocking
resistance. The presence of shear reinforcement allows to further increase loads while
avoiding catastrophic beam shear failure before the full exploitation of the bending
capacity.
Throughout the years, it was not easy to find an international agreement on a shear
reinforcement calculation model. The models proposed in the CEB-FIP Model Code
(precursor of EC2) and later on in the EC2, have been reworked several times.
The shear reinforcement calculation model has been developed on the basis of
remarkable experimental results.
7-11

7.3.2 Remarquable experimental results
7.3.2.1 Result 1: beams in reinforced concrete may be analyzed by means of an
analoguous truss
Experiments on beams with shear reinforcement (links for example) reveal that the
crack pattern is determined by the presence of the links: figure 7.3.2-1. The cracks in the
zone loaded by shear, show a regular pattern and are even somewhat parallel in long
beams. In between the cracks, compressive concrete struts are identified. The struts
guide the loads applied on the upper side of the beam towards the lower side of the
beam; from there on, the loads are back again transferred towards the upper side by
means of the links; this is a regular process all along the length of the beam.
These experimental observations are the basis of the papers written independently by
the Swiss engineer RITTER in 1899 and the German engineer MRSCH in 1902, in
which they both proposed to describe the shear load transfer in reinforced concrete
beams by means of an analogous truss (WIGHT, 2009).


z.cotg
z
V
A
sw


s


Figure 7.3.2-1
Schematic representation of the regular crack pattern in a beam in reinforced concrete
with shear reinforcement: identification of an analogous truss. A
sw
represents the cross-
section of 1 link with two legs


The truss system is composed of fours types of members:
- the non-cracked arch with compressed concrete at the upper side of the
beam, acts as the top compression member of the truss;
- the horizontal tension steel (main reinforcement) acts as bottom chord of the
truss; the distance between top and bottom member is the lever arm z;
7-12
- the diagonal compression members inclined at an angle , represent the
concrete compression struts between the (parallel) shear cracks;
- the transverse tension members in the truss, characterized by the distance
z.cotg between them, represent the shear reinforcement (in this example
composed of vertical links).

7.3.2.2 Result 2: the relationship between imposed shear load and the necessary shear
reinforcement
The area A
sv
of a vertical member in the truss in figure 7.3.2-1, is equal to:


s
z
A A
sw s

cotg .
. = (7.3.2-1)
with
A
sw
the cross-section of 1 link (2 vertical legs);
s the distance between adjacent links.
The force that has to be resisted by the vertical member is indeed the shear load V.
Consequently, the tensile stress
sv
in the vertical member is:

cotg .
.
z
s
A
V
A
V
sw s
s
= = (7.3.2-2)

The steel stress (in the links) has to be limited to the design strength f
ywd
. This
reasoning, fully based on the truss analogy, leads to the value of the maximum shear
load that can be supported:


ywd
sw
u
f z
s
A
V . cotg . . = (7.3.2-3)

However, experimental results (WALRAVEN, 1995) show that the real behaviour does
not fully coincide with the one suggested by the truss analogy. Figure 7.3.2-2 shows, in
a schematic way, the experimentally measured relationship between the steel stress
sv

in the shear reinforcement and the applied shear load V; the solid line shows the
experimental relationship while the dashed line shows the relationship according to the
truss analogy via expression (7.3.2-2).


V
c
Applied shear
load V
Effective stress
measured in the
vertical legs of the
links
stress in links
according to truss
analogy model
f
ywd

sv
V
c

7-13
Figure 7.3.2-2
The steel stress
sv
in the vertical links in function of the imposed shear load V: solid
line = experimental measurement; dashed line = theoretical relationship according to the
truss analogy

Figure 7.3.2-2 shows that the shear reinforcement is practically not working when
small values of shear loads are applied. Shear reinforcement is only activated (increase
of steel stress
sv
in the links) from the moment on that a shear crack appears. It is
learned from the experiments that in cracked situation, the imposed shear load V is
transferred by two mechanisms:
- partly by the truss mechanism;
- partly by an extra bearing mechanism, which can be explained by:
the fact that the hinges in the idealized truss system are not
hinges at all in reality; the nodes of the truss transfer also
moments;
crack surfaces are not smooth and straight, but are very irregular
in shape;
a part of the load is transferred by the uncracked compression
arch to the supports and by the dowel action of the main
reinforcement.
The sum of all non-truss mechanisms can be called V
c
; it is as if this part of the load
transfer is taken care off by the concrete (c < concrete). It is observed that
- V
c
is practically constant during loading, on the condition that the
mechanisms which explain the concrete part V
c
are not too much destroyed
by too large crack widths;
- V
c
is practically equal to the shear load that causes inclined cracks to appear.
This leads to the assumption that this shear load is nothing else than the
shear load bearing capacity V
Rd,c
of the same beam but without shear
reinforcement.

The experimental result mentioned above, has been confirmed for cross-sections with
various shapes and reinforcement ratios. It is an important result which has lead to the
rule in earlier versions of EC2 (1995, 1998) that shear reinforcement in beams could be
calculated for the shear load (V-V
Rd,c
) only. The actual version of EC2 (2004) adopts
another point of vue (see further).

7.3.3 Analogous truss models

7-14
h
d
A
s

F
cd

z

F
td



Figure 7.3.3-1
Basic model of analogous truss system for the development of the formulas for shear
load verification of a beam in reinforced concrete


Figure 7.3.3-1 presents the general truss model that is used for the development of the
formulas for shear load verification of a beam in reinforced concrete. The inclination
angle of the shear reinforcement with the beams axis is called . For inclined bars:
< 90 (typical 45); for vertical links: = 90. The inclination angle of the cracks, and
thus also the inclination angle of the concrete compression strut, is called . The limit
values for the angle are fixed in the standard:

EN 1992-1-1:2004; 6.2.3(2):

1 cotg 2,5 (7.3.3-1)

which corresponds to:

45,0 21,8 (7.3.3-2)

The Belgian ANB takes account of the effect of an eventual axial force or prestressing
force which lead to less inclined cracks; this is illustrated by the principle reasoning by
means of MOHRs circle in figure 7.3.3-2. The ANB defines the limit values for as
follows:

1,0 cotg cotg
max
(7.3.3-3)

with
3
. .
. . . .
2 cotg
1
+ =
ywd sw
w cp
max
f z A
s d b k
(7.3.3-4)

where:
k
1
,
cp
, b
w
, d : defined in paragraph 7.2.5;
7-15
A
sw
= cross-sectional area of one shear reinforcement: one inclined bar or two
vertical legs of one link;
s = spacing of the adjacent shear reinforcement;
z = lever arm between the compression and tensile members of the truss;
ANB accepts z = 0,9.d if
cp
= 0;
f
ywd
= design yield strength of shear reinforcement.

With
cp
non 0, one may even adopt cotg = 3; this assumption corresponds to very
slightly inclined cracks, with an inclination angle of only 18,4.

If
cp
= 0, application of ANB leads to the following limit values:

1 cotg 2 (7.3.3-5)

which corresponds to:

45,0 26,6 (7.3.3-6)


7-16
x
y
+
+

V > 0
I b
S V
.
.
=
A

X
A

Y'
A
= Y
A
= pool
A

1A
x
y
+
+

I b
S V
.
.
=
A'
(druk)
X'
A
pool
A'

1A'
X
A

Y
A

X'
A
Y'
A


Figure 7.3.3-2
Auxiliary reasoning by means of MOHRs circle to show that the presence of
axial compression stresses leads to a less inclined crack angle
7-17

Note:
It is thus observed that the actual standard accepts the choice of rather small
values of the crack inclination angle and thus of the concrete compression
struts in the truss model. The justification for this choice and the discussion of its
consequences is presented further in this chapter.

7.3.4 Design of the truss members
7.3.4.1 Introduction
The truss model in figure 7.3.3-1 contains four components:
the vertical or inclined tension reinforcement which represent the shear
reinforcement (links or stirrups or inclined bars);
the concrete compression struts, with an inclination angle ;
the compression member on top;
the tension member at the bottom (the bottom chord member).
Design for shear means that each of all four members of the truss is designed strong
enough in order to make the beam able resisting the imposed shear load.

7.3.4.2 The shear reinforcement
1. The force in the truss member
The assumed truss model is once again presented in figure 7.3.4-1. The method of
sections (method of RITTER) may be applied to determine the force T in the
inclined truss member; vertical translation equilibrium leads to:

sin
V
T = (7.3.4-1)


V

T

Figure 7.3.4-1
Application of the method of sections (RITTER) to determine the force in the
inclined truss member

7-18
2. The maximum shear load V
Rd,s
that can be resisted by the shear reinforcement
A schematic representation of the truss is shown in figure 7.3.4-2; the figure
shows clearly that each single stirrup or inclined bar that is represented as
inclined truss member (associated with each inclined strut), represents in fact a
series of stirrups or bars distributed along each crack with spacing s.




z
z.cotg z.cotg z.cotg
d
strut
s


Figure 7.3.4-2
Auxiliary figure for the determination of the shear reinforcement


The maximum value of the shear load V
Rd,s
that may be resisted by the inclined
tensile truss member is:

sin ). . . (
, ywd sw s Rd
f A n V = (7.3.4-2)

with:

sw
A the cross-sectional area of 1 stirrup (2 legs!) or of 1 inclined bar;

ywd
f the design yield strength of the shear reinforcement;
n the number of links or bars that is distributed along the distance
z (cotg + cotg ). The number is equal to:

s
z
n
) cotg .(cotg +
=

with s = the spacing of the stirrups or bars;
sin for the vertical projection.

The formula for the maximum shear load that may be resisted by the shear
reinforcement is thus:
7-19

sin ). cotg .(cotg . .
,
+ =
ywd
sw
s Rd
f z
s
A
V (7.3.4-3)

For vertical links with ) 1 sin ; 0 (cotg 90 = = = , the formula is:

cotg . . .
, ywd
sw
s Rd
f z
s
A
V = (7.3.4-4)

Note 1:
With
cp
= 0, z = 0,9.d may be assumed.

Note 2:
The earlier versions of the standard (1995, 1998) proposed to apply the
so called standard method in which the inclination angle of all
compression strut was = 45. With this assumption, the formulas are:
- with inclined shear reinforcement:
sin ). cotg 1 .( . .
,
+ =
ywd
sw
s Rd
f z
s
A
V (7.3.4-5)
- with vertical stirrups:

ywd
sw
s Rd
f z
s
A
V . .
,
= (7.3.4-6)


3. The necessary shear reinforcement to resist the imposed shear load V
Ed

The necessary shear reinforcement per unit length (along the beams axis) can be
deduced from expression (7.3.4-3):
- for inclined shear reinforcement:


sin ). cotg .(cotg . +
=
ywd
Ed sw
f z
V
s
A
(7.3.4-7)

- for vertical stirrups:


cotg . .
ywd
Ed sw
f z
V
s
A
= (7.3.4-8)

Note:
The last formula allows to conclude that the choice of a smaller value of
the angle leads to a smaller cross-sectional area of shear reinforcement
( smaller cotg larger). The adoption of less inclined cracks in the
truss model thus leads to savings in shear reinforcement.
7-20
This conclusion can also be explained in another way: if cracks are less
inclined, the principal tensile stress (which is perpendicular to the crack)
is oriented more vertically; this means that vertical stirrups are used
more efficiently which leads to the reduction of the number of stirrups
needed.

7.3.4.3 The concrete compression struts
1. The force in the truss member
The truss model is shown in figure 7.3.4-3. Vertical translation equilibrium leads
to the identification of the force D in the inclined compression member:

sin
V
D = (7.3.4-9)


V

Figure 7.3.4-3
Application of the method of sections (RITTER) to determine the force in the
inclined concrete compression member


2. The maximum shear load V
Rd,max
that can be resisted by the concrete compression
member
The maximum value of the compression force D that may be resisted by the
inclined concrete strut is equal to the product of the maximum concrete
compression strength with the cross-sectional area of the strut; the last one is
deduced from figure 7.3.4-2: cross-sectional area of the strut =
strut
d b. .

The maximum concrete compression strength to be used for the strut calculation,
is defined in EN 1992-1-1:2004; 6.2.3(3) and is limited to v.f
cd

with f
cd
= f
ck
/ 1,5 (and not f
cd
= 0,85 . f
ck
/ 1,5 !)

Note:
It should be remembered here that EN 1992-1-1:2004; 3.1.6 defines f
cd
as
7-21
f
cd
=
cc
. f
ck
/
c
with
cc
a factor for which the value 1 is recommended.
In Belgium, the National Annex (NBN EN 1992-1-1 ANB) recommends
the use of the value
cc
= 0,85 for verification in ULS for axial loads,
bending and combined axial force with bending; for other loading types
(shear and torsion),
cc
= 1 should be used. This means in practice that
for calculations in accordance with NBN EN 1992-1-1 ANB, the
following design values have to be used for the compressive strength of
concrete:
- for ULS design of the main reinforcement (thus for normal
stresses due to axial loads and bending moments): f
cd
= 0,85 . f
ck
/
1,5
- for ULS design of shear reinforcement (necessary to take up shear
loads and torsion): f
cd
= f
ck
/ 1,5

and with = strength reduction factor, defined by:

( ) 5 , 0
250
1 . 6 , 0 =
ck
f
v (7.3.4-10)
in which f
ck
is expressed in N/mm
2
.

The additional strength reduction factor has to be applied to the concrete design
strength for the calculation of the struts in order to take account of the complex,
two-dimensional stress situation in the struts. Indeed, the struts are intersected by
links or by inclined bars which are loaded in tension; due to the adherence
between steel and concrete, the transverse tensile stresses cause the weakening of
the compressive struts. Formula (7.3.4-10) is the result of experimental tests.

Note:
EN 1992-1-1:2004; 6.2.3(3) stipulates that when the design stress in the
shear reinforcement is less than 80% of f
ywk
, the following values may be
adopted for the reduction factor :
- = 0,6 for f
ck
60 MPa;
- = 0,9 f
ck
/200 > 0,5 for f
ck
> 60 MPa

The maximum compression force D that can be resisted by the strut is thus:
v.f
cd
.b.d
strut
. The vertical projection of this force is designated in EN 1992-1-
1:2004 with the symbol V
Rd,max
; this force has to be compared to the imposed
shear load V
Ed
.
V
Rd,max
may be further expressed as (see figure 7.3.4-2):

sin . . . .
max , strut cd Rd
d b f v V = (7.3.4-11)

with
7-22
) cotg .(cotg
sin

+
=
z
d
strut


and thus, with inclined (angle ) shear reinforcement:

2
2
,
cotg 1
cotg cotg
. . . . ) cot .(cot sin . . . .
+
+
= + = z b f g g z b f v V
cd cd max Rd
(7.3.4-12)

With vertical links ) 1 sin ; 0 (cotg 90 = = = , the formula is:



tg cotg
1
. . . . cotg . . sin . . .
2
,
+
= = z b f z b f v V
cd cd max Rd


or also: s z b f v V
cd max Rd
co . sin . . . .
,
= (7.3.4-13)

Note 1:
If
cp
= 0, z = 0,9.d may be assumed.

Note 2:
The earlier versions of the standard (1995, 1998) proposed to apply the
so called standard method in which the inclination angle of all
compression strut was = 45.
)
2
2
sin ; 1 (cot 45 = = = g
With this assumption, the formulas are:
- with inclined shear reinforcement:
) cotg 1 .(
2
1
. . . .
,
+ = z b f v V
cd max Rd
(7.3.4-14)
- with vertical stirrups:
z b f v V
cd max Rd
. . . .
2
1
,
= (7.3.4-15)


3. Stress control in the concrete compression strut
The stress is deduced from expression (7.3.4-12):

cotg cotg
cotg 1
.
. ) cotg .(cotg sin
1
.
.
2
2
+
+
=
+
=
z b
V
z b
V
Ed Ed
c
(7.3.4-16)

This formula allows to observe that the choice of a smaller value of inclination
angle leads to larger compression stresses in the concrete strut. This result is
obvious when looking at figure 7.3.4-4: a less inclined strut has to transfer a
7-23
larger compression force D in order to generate the same resisting shear force. It
is observed that this does not cause problems in most practical normal cases,
because the stress is in general quite smaller than the acceptable stress v.f
cd
(see
applications). Yet, problems may arise when small inclination angles are chosen.
Expression (7.3.4-16) also shows that the stress in the concrete compression strut
gets smaller with the use of inclined bars ( < 90).



V
ed
V
strut
D
V
ed

V
strut

D


Figure 7.3.4-4
A less inclined strut has to transfer a larger compression force D in order to
generate the same resisting shear force


Note:
EN 1992-1-1:2004; 6.2.3(3) stipulates that when prestressing is applied,
the value of V
Rd,max
may be increased, in order to take account of the
fact that cracks are closed.

7.3.4.4 The upper chord and the bottom chord of the truss model
1. The forces in the truss members
The forces in the upper and bottom chord can be determined by expressing the
equilibrium of the forces applied to the part of the beam shown in figure 7.3.4-5.
At the level of the considered cross-section, a whole series of compression struts
are cut; all these compression forces have a resultant force which is D and which
is applied at half depth; the magnitude of its vertical component D
y
is equal to V.
In the same cross-section, a whole series of tensile reinforcement bars (stirrups or
bars) are cut; the resultant force of all these tensile forces is T, which is applied at
half depth; the magnitude of its vertical component T
y
has to be equal to V.
Consequently, the horizontal components are:

cotg .
cotg .
V T
V D
x
x
=
=


7-24

R
V
z
x
y
N
s

N
c

C
z/2
D
D
x
T
x

T
q
S
z
z/2
D
D
x
=V.cotg
D
x
D
y
D
y
=V

T
T
x

T
y

T
x
=V.cotg
T
y
=V

Figure 7.3.4-5
Auxiliary figure for the determination of the member forces in the upper truss
member and in the bottom chord

The other forces that are applied to the isolated left part of the beam, are:
the imposed uniformly distributed load q;
the support reaction force R;
the force N
c
in the arch of compressed non-cracked concrete;
the tensile force N
s
in the main reinforcement.

Rotation equilibrium written around point S (figure 7.3.4-5) leads to:

2
.
2
. .
2
.
.
2
z
T
z
D z N
x q
x R
x x c
s
s
+ =

The first member of this equation is nothing else than the bending moment M
z
in
the considered cross-section, and thus:
2
). cotg .(cotg .
z
V z N M
c z
+ =

The force in the upper truss member is thus:
7-25

) cotg .(cotg
2
=
V
z
M
N
z
c
(7.3.4-17)

In an analogous way, the rotation equilibrium around point C (figure 7.3.4-5)
leads to:

) cotg .(cotg
2
+ =
V
z
M
N
z
s
(7.3.4-18)

2. Discussion
The result of expression (7.3.4-18) is important because this shows that, in zones
with shear loads, the force to be transmitted by the main reinforcement does not
only depend on the bending moment M
z
; indeed:
z
M
N
z
s
. The main
reinforcement is loaded by an additional tensile force which increases with
decreasing value of (a disadvantage of choosing less inclined cracks and thus
less inclined concrete struts). The consequences of this observation are illustrated
in a visual way for the particular case with the choices: ) 1 (cot 45 = = g and
vertical stirrups with = 90 (cotg = 0); expression (7.3.4-18) is than written:


2
V
z
M
N
z
s
+ = (7.3.4-19)

Expression (7.3.4-19) is represented in a schematic way in figure 7.3.4-6, for a
uniformly distributed load and for a concentrated load.



V
Q
Q
Q/2
V/2
|V/2|
V/2
N
s
M/z
N
s

q
qL/2
V/2
|V/2|
N
s

V
V/2
M/z
N
s

(a) (b)


Figure 7.3.4-6
7-26
Schematic representation of the increase in tensile force in the main
reinforcement due to the shear load, for two beams (a) and (b), and with the
assumptions = 45 and = 90 (vertical stirrups)


In the case of the concentrated load (figure 7.3.4-6(b)), one notes M
z
=V.x.
Substitution in expression (7.3.4-19) leads to:


z
z x V
N
s
) . .(
2
1
+
= (7.3.4-20)

Expression (7.3.4-20) shows that in order to calculate the force N
s
in the section x,
one may not use the bending moment at the distance x from the support, but
instead of that, has to use the bending moment at the distance
2
z
x + from the
support. The bending moment diagram has thus to be shifted over the
distance z .
2
1
, in unfavourable direction. In the more general case with arbitrary
values of and , the distance over which the bending moment diagram has to be
shifted is ) cotg .(cotg .
2
1
z .

Note:
The additional tensile force in the main reinforcement disappears when
inclined bars with ) 1 (cotg 45 = = are used in combination with the
assumption = 45.


3. Prescriptions EN 1992-1-1:2004
The main reinforcement has to be designed for a supplementary force which is
due to the shear load; the problem is due to the fact that the orientation of the
reinforcement does not coincide with the orientation of the principal tensile stress.
EN 1992-1-1:2004; 6.2.3(7) stipulates that the main reinforcement should be
calculated for an additional tensile force F
td
which is due to the imposed shear
force V
Ed
and which may be determined by means of expression (7.3.4-18):

F
td
= 0,5.V
Ed
.(cotg cotg ) (7.3.4-21)

and with the condition that (see figure 7.3.4-7):

(M
Ed
/z) + F
td
M
Ed,max
/z (7.3.4-22)

in which M
Ed,max
is the maximum moment along the beam.

7-27
In practice, the rule just mentioned above is translated into the much more
practical alternative which is called the shift rule: the bending moment diagram
is shifted over the distance a
l
, which also means that the length of the main
reinforcement bars is increased with a
l
at each end. The shifting has thus
essentially consequences for the curtailment of the longitudinal tension
reinforcement. The prescriptions in EN 1992-1-1:2004; 9.2.1.3 can be
summarized as follows:

for structural members without shear reinforcement, the moment curve may
be shifted over the distance a
l
= d;
for structural members with shear reinforcement, the moment curve may be
shifted over the distance a
l
= z/2.(cotg - cotg ). As already said before,
in the absence of axial compression loads, z may be assumed equal to 0,9.d;
the curtailed bars should be anchored with l
bd
from the point on where the
bars are not useful anymore. The diagram of the resisting tensile forces
should engulf the envelope diagram of the imposed tensile forces, after
application of the shift rule: see figure 7.3.4-7;
the anchorage length of a bent-up bar which contributes to the resistance to
shear, should not be less than 1,3.l
bd
in the tension zone and 0,7.l
bd
in the
compression zone.


Figure 7.3.4-7
Envelope diagram for the calculation of structural members subjected to bending,
with indication of the anchorage lengths to be applied
(figure 9.2 in EN 1992-1-1:2004)

7-28
7.3.4.5 Discussion of the variable strut inclination method
The previous versions of the standard (1995,1998) recommended the so called standard
method, which is characterized by the choice of the inclination angle of all concrete
compression struts equal to 45. This assumption leads to a relatively simple
verification of successive cracks with a constant inclination angle, starting with the first
crack for the largest imposed shear load: see figure 7.3.4-8. However, the variable strut
inclination method was also mentioned in parallel to the standard method. The
adoption of smaller strut inclination angles leads to the following effects:
- less shear reinforcement per unit length along the beam;
- more important loading of the concrete compression struts, with higher stress
levels;
- larger shift length a
l
and thus longer main reinforcement bars.

The 2004 version of EC2 does not mention the standard method anymore. Moreover, it
is observed that the standard accepts rather small values for the inclination angle :
EN 1992-1-1: 2004: 45,0 21,8
ANB:
- met
cp
= 0: 45,0 26,6
- met
cp
0: 45,0 18,4

With the new prescriptions, the standard wants to take account of the observation that in
the case of shear failure of the structural member, the most important crack close to the
support and with the highest imposed shear load, is indeed characterized by a smaller
inclination angle; see figure 7.3.4-9. Adopting = 45 in this zone of the structural
member, leads to over-estimation of the necessary shear reinforcement.

Note:
Low inclination cracks only appear with lack of shear resistance. Figure
7.3.4-10 shows the crack pattern in a beam with sufficient shear
reinforcement; the beam has failed in bending and only nearly vertical
cracks are observed in the zone with shear loads.

Finally, it should be stressed that the design of shear reinforcement by means of a truss
model with variable strut inclination, is in full accordance with the principles of plastic
design which occupies a prominent place in the present version of the standard. Design
on the basis of the assumption of a strut inclination which does not fully coincide with
the real inclination, leads to a slightly different failure mechanism: the beam fails in a
way that is determined by the designer. With the adoption of a too small inclination
angle and thus the provision of less shear reinforcement, the designer asks to the
beam for a rearrangement of tasks with a heavier loading of the struts and of the main
reinforcement. Practically speaking, this rearrangement will be visible by a more
expressive development of cracks, because the design now asks for heavier loading of
the struts. The principles of plastic design are discussed in chapter 11 in these course
notes.

7-29
zone bending + shear zone pure bending
d
zone with calculated shear
reinforcement
zone with technological
shear reinforcement
zone bending + shear zone pure bending
d
zone with calculated shear
reinforcement
zone with technological
shear reinforcement
= 45


Figure 7.3.4-8
Comparison of truss models with the standard model ( = 45) on one hand and
the variable strut inclination method on the other hand



Figure 7.3.4-9
Shear failure of a beam without sufficient shear reinforcement: the most
important crack, associated with the maximum shear load, is characterized by an
inclination angle smaller than 45


7-30



Figure 7.3.4-10
Crack pattern in a beam subjected to a four point bending test; failure is in
bending and not in shear; shear reinforcement has been well designed


7.4 Design for shear
7.4.1 Introduction
This paragraph focuses on the ULS design calculation of shear reinforcement according
to EN 1992-1-1:2004; 6.2 and the complementary Belgian ANB prescriptions.
7.4.2 Definitions
The verification of shear resistance is based on three design values of resisting shear
forces:
V
Rd,c
design shear resistance of the member in a section without shear
reinforcement. V
Rd,c
is calculated by means of expressions (7.2.5-3) and (7.2.5-4)
in these course notes;
V
Rd,s
design value of the shear force which can be sustained by the yielding
shear reinforcement. V
Rd,s
is calculated by means of expressions (7.3.4-3) and
(7.3.4-4) in these course notes;
V
Rd,max
design value of the maximum shear force which can be sustained by the
member, limited by crushing of the compression struts. V
Rd,max
is calculated by
means of expressions (7.3.4-12) and (7.3.4-13) in these course notes.

V
Ed
is the imposed design shear force in the section to be verified, resulting from
external loading on the structural member.

7-31
7.4.3 The principles of the shear verification procedure
- In the regions of the member where V
Ed
V
Rd,c
no calculated shear reinforcement
is necessary. Yet, when on the basis of the design calculation, no shear
reinforcement is required, minimum (technological) shear reinforcement should
be provided. The minimum shear reinforcement may be omitted in certain special
cases such as:
- slabs where transverse redistribution of loads is possible;
- members of minor importance which do not contribute significantly to the
overall resistance and stability of the structure; example: lintels with span
2 m.

- In regions where V
Ed
> V
Rd,c
sufficient shear reinforcement should be provided in
order that V
Ed
V
Rd.
. V
Rd
is the resisting shear force and is equal to the smallest
of the two values V
Rd,s
and V
Rd,max
.

Important note:
It was already mentioned in figure 7.3.2-2, that there is experimental
evidence for the fact that the shear reinforcement only starts to work
as a member in a truss sytem, for a reduced value of the imposed shear
load. In the previous versions (1995, 1998) of EC2, it was accepted that
the reduction could be taken equal to the shear force V
Rd,c
which is in
fact the shear load resisted without shear reinforcement, by the
following mechanisms:
- the shear resistance of the non-cracked compression concrete arch;
- the granulate interlocking effect along the shear crack;
- the dowel action of the main reinforcement.
It was thus accepted in the previous versions of EC2, in which the
standard method was used for shear verification (struts with constant
inclination angle of 45), to design shear reinforcement for the force
V
Ed
- V
Rd,c
.
This is not the case anymore in the present version (2004) of EC2, in
spite of the experimental evidence shown in figure 7.3.2-2; shear
reinforcement has now to be calculated for the full imposed shear force
V
Ed
. The reason for this is that the present standard does not want to
accumulate too much favourable effects. Indeed, the present EC2
allows adopting small inclination angles in the regions where high shear
loads are applied; this leads already to smaller shear reinforcement
(while causing more severe loading of the concrete struts). EC2 does
not want to accumulate this positive effect on the shear reinforcement
with a second one generated by the reduction with V
Rd,c
of the imposed
shear force V
Ed
.

- The longitudinal tension reinforcement should be able to resist the additional
tensile force caused by shear; in practice, the shift rule is used.

- For members subjected to predominantly uniform distributed loading, the design
shear force need not to be checked at a distance less than d from the face of the
support; see figure 7.4.3-1. This rule takes into account that the loads applied
7-32
close to the support, are directly transmitted to the support without causing
bending and shear of the beam itself. The shear verification thus starts with the
first crack which is initiated at the tensile side of the beam and which develops
upwards with a certain inclination angle. Any shear reinforcement required in the
first verified section, should continue to the support. On top of that, it should
always be verified that the imposed shear force at the support is not larger than
V
Rd,max
.


d
d

Figure 7.4.3-1
In the case of uniformly distributed loads, direct transmission to the support of the loads
applied close to the support may be assumed

Note 1:
For members with inclined chords (upper side and lower side), the value
of V
Rd
should be increased with two additional resisting shear load
components (see figure 7.4.3-2):
V
Rd
= minimum(V
Rd,s
; V
Rd,max
) + V
ccd
+ V
td

with:
- V
ccd
= the design value of the shear component of the force in the
compression area, in the case of an inclined compression chord (upper
side);
- V
td
= the design value of the shear component of the force in the
tensile reinforcement, in the case of an inclined tensile chord (lower
side).

7-33

V
ccd

D
T
V
td

action Resisting
reaction

Figure 7.4.3-2
Additional shear resistance due to the presence of inclined chords in structural
members
(adaption of figure 6.2 in EN 1992-1-1:2004)

Note 2:
When loads are applied to the lower side of a structural member,
sufficient vertical reinforcement, in addition to the shear reinforcement,
is needed in order to transfer the loads to the upper side: see figure 7.4.3-
3.


Figure 7.4.3-3
Additional reinforcement is needed to transfer loads applied to the lower side of
the beam to the upper side

7.4.4 Members not requiring design shear reinforcement: V
Ed
V
Rd,c

Some prescriptions:
- in the regions where V
Ed
V
Rd,c
no calculated shear reinforcement is necessary,
but minimum (technological) shear reinforcement should be provided: see further
in the paragraph on technological prescriptions;
- for the design of the longitudinal reinforcement, the M
Ed
-diagram should be
shifted over a distance a
l
= d in the unfavourable direction;
- for members with concentrated loads applied on the upper side and rather close to
the support, it may be assumed that a part of the load is transferred directly to the
support (without interaction of the beam itself), which gives a reduction of the
imposed shear force V
Ed
. The prescriptions stipulate that when the concentrated
load is applied on the upper side within a distance 0,5d a
v
2d (see figure 7.4.4-
1) from the edge of the support, the contribution of this load to the shear force V
Ed

7-34
may be reduced by multiplying the load by the factor = a
v
/2d. This reduction is
only valid provided that the longitudinal reinforcement is fully anchored at the
support. For a
v
0,5d the value a
v
= 0,5d should be used.

Important remark: the imposed shear force V
Ed
, calculated without reduction by
the factor , should always satisfy the condition:

V
Ed
0,5.b
w
.d..f
cd
(7.4.4-1)

where = the strength reduction factor for concrete cracked in shear:
( ) 5 , 0
250
1 . 6 , 0 =
ck
f
v (7.4.4-2)
in which f
ck
is expressed in N/mm
2
.

This condition corresponds in fact to the verification of a fictive concrete
compression strut right above the support. Expression (7.4.4-1) is deduced from
expression (7.3.4-13) which defines the maximum shear force that can be resisted
from the point of view of strut failure:
s z b f v V
cd max Rd
co . sin . . . .
,
=
By introduction of the lever arm z taken equal to d and = 45, expression (7.4.4-
1) is obtained, which corresponds to a sort of upper limit for V
Ed
. Indeed, taking
into account the following evolution of the term sin.cos:

sin.cos
45 0,5
40 0,49
35 0,47
30 0,43

one finds the condition V
Ed
...sin.cos more severe for V
Ed
in order to take into
account that the strut is more heavily loaded in compression when it is less
inclined.

7-35


Figure 7.4.4-1
It may be assumed that a fraction of the loads applied near supports, is
transmitted directly to the support and does not give a contribution to the
imposed shear force V
Ed
, on the condition that the main reinforcement is
sufficiently anchored (figure 6.4 in EN 1992-1-1:2004)


7.4.5 Structural members requiring design shear reinforcement: V
Ed
> V
Rd,c

In regions where V
Ed
> V
Rd,c
, sufficient shear reinforcement should be provided in order
that V
Ed
V
Rd
. V
Rd
is the resisting shear force and is equal to the minimum of the two
values V
Rd,s
and V
Rd,max
. The formulas for V
Rd,s
and V
Rd,max
are developed on the basis of
an analogous truss model which is once again represented in figure 7.4.5-1.




7-36
Figure 7.4.5-1
Truss model used for the calculation of the shear reinforcement in structural members
(figure 6.5 in EN 1992-1-1:2004)

7.4.5.1 When vertical shear reinforcement is used

cotg . . .
, ywd
sw
s Rd
f z
s
A
V = (7.4.5-1)

tg cotg
1
. . . .
,
+
=
cd w max Rd
f z b V (7.4.5-2)

with the additional condition that defines the maximum effective cross-sectional area of
shear reinforcement for = 45 ( cotg = 1 ):

s b f f A
w cd ywd max sw
. . . .
2
1
.
,
(7.4.5-3)

7.4.5.2 When inclined shear reinforcement is used

sin ). cotg .(cotg . .
,
+ =
ywd
sw
s Rd
f z
s
A
V (7.4.5-4)

2 ,
cotg 1
cotg cotg
. . . .
+
+
=
cd w max Rd
f z b V (7.4.5-5)

with the additional condition that defines the maximum effective cross-sectional area of
shear reinforcement for = 45 ( cotg = 1 ):

sin
1
. . . . .
2
1
.
,
s b f f A
w cd ywd max sw
(7.4.5-6)

7.4.5.3 Additional prescriptions
Just as in the case where shear reinforcement is not necessary, the rule for direct
transmission to the support of a fraction of the loads that are applied near supports, can
be applied here too. The prescriptions stipulate that when the load is applied on the
upper side within a distance 0,5d a
v
2d (see figure 7.4.4-1) from the edge of the
support, the contribution of the load to the imposed shear force V
Ed
may be reduced by
multiplying the load by the factor = a
v
/2d. This reduction may only be applied if the
main reinforcement is fully anchored above the support. For a
v
0,5d, the value
a
v
= 0,5d may be adopted.
7-37
Important: the imposed shear force V
Ed
, calculated in this way (thus with application of
the reduction factor ), should satisfy the condition:

V
Ed
A
sw
. f
ywd
. sin

where A
sw
. f
ywd
= the resistance of the shear reinforcement crossing the inclined shear
crack between the loaded areas (see figure 7.4.5-2); only the shear reinforcement within
the central 0,75.a
v
should be taken into account.

Note:
The reduction with the factor may only be applied
- for the calculation of shear reinforcement and not for the strut verification;
- provided that the longitudinal reinforcement is fully anchored at the
support.




Figure 7.4.5-2
Auxiliary figure for the calculation of shear reinforcement with direct strut action close
to the support (figure 6.6 in EN 1992-1-1:2004)

7.5 Overview of the shear reinforcement calculation for a beam with
uniformly distributed load and concentrated load
7.5.1 The first value of V
Ed
to be considered: in principle
In principle, the largest value of V
Ed
should be considered for the first shear design
calculation. To remember, design of shear reinforcement is performed in ULS; the
design values of the loads have thus to be considered (use of partial safety factors). See
example in figure 7.5.1-1.

7-38

V
Qd

Q
.Q

g
.g
V
gd
A B
(V
g
+V
Q
)
d

(V
g+Q
)
dA


Figure 7.5.1-1
In principle, the largest value of V
Ed
should be considered for the first shear design
calculation; that is the value at the support

7.5.2 Reduction of V
Ed
to take account of direct load transfer to the supports
7.5.2.1 Uniformly distributed load
The shear calculation is performed by considering successive shear cracks, starting with
the first crack in the region with the largest value of the imposed shear force. The crack
is initiated on the tensile side (at the bottom of the beam in figure 7.5.1-1) at the edge of
the support; the crack is assumed to be vertical in the concrete cover, but starting from
the main reinforcement, develops upwards with an inclination angle. In reality, the
crack gets stuck in the concrete compression arch, but in the simplified truss model, the
crack is extended up to the upper side of the beam with a constant inclination angle.

When the first crack is considered with the inclination angle , the assumption is
adopted that the uniformly distributed load to the left of the upper end of the crack is
transferred directly to the support: see figure 7.5.2-1. The first value of V
Ed
to be
calculated is thus the imposed shear force in the cross-section at the distance d.cotg (d
when = 45) from the edge of the support (cross-section C in figure 7.5.2-1). The
value of (V
Ed
)
C
is equal to the maximum shear force in support A (due to g and Q)
reduced with the portion of shear load due to g over the distance a + d.cotg:

) cot . .( . ) ( ) ( g d a g V V
g dA Q g C Ed
+ =
+

with
a: see determination of the design span for different support conditions in paragraph
2.5.2.2.

7-39

Q
.Q

g
.g
A
B
d
d a
Q
C
(V
Ed
)
C
= (V
g+Q
)
dA
-
g
.g.(a+d)
45
d
d.cotg a
Q
C'
(V
Ed
)
C'
= (V
g+Q
)
dA
-
g
.g.(a+d.cotg)



Figure 7.5.2-1
First shear verification in the cross-section with the largest imposed shear force V
Ed
,
taking account of the reduction due to the direct transfer of g to the support

Note:
The adoption of smaller values of (than 45) leads to smaller values of V
Ed

(see figure 7.5.2-1). But with this assumption, it is very important to verify the
concrete compression strut above the support with the formula:

V
Ed

(with reduction of g only)
b
w
. z . . f
cd
. sin

. cos

If this condition is OK, then further comparison of V
Ed
with V
Rd,c
can be
performed.

7.5.2.2 Concentrated loads close to supports
For concentrated loads which are applied at the distance a
v
from the edge of the support,
with 0,5.d a
v
2.d, a reduction may be adopted of the imposed shear force. The
contribution of the concentrated force to the shear force V
Ed
may be reduced by
multiplying the concentrated force with the reduction factor = a
v
/2d ( 1). This rule is
independent from the choice of the inclination angle .
Figure 7.5.2-2 shows the example of the concentrated force Q applied within the
distance a
v
= 2.d from the edge of the support. The imposed shear load (V
Q
)
dA
in cross-
7-40
section A may be reduced to .(V
Q
)
dA
; this means that the difference (V
Q
)
dA
- .(V
Q
)
dA
is
directly transferred to the support. The shear force (V
Ed
)
C
to be considered in cross-
section C, at the distance d.cotg from the edge of the support is thus:

[ ]
dA Q dA Q g dA Q g C Sd
V V g d a g V V ) ( ) ( ) cot . .( . ) ( ) ( + =
+

Q
.Q
A
B
d
2d
Q
C
V
Sd
45
a
v
(V
Q
)
dA

Q
.Q
d
V
Sd

C'


Figure 7.5.2-2
Reduction of the imposed shear force due to direct transfer of a portion of the
concentrated force to the support

Important note:
The reduction by means of the factor is not allowed for the verification of the
concrete compression struts. The reduction is only considered for:
- the comparison between V
Ed
and V
Rd,c
;
- the calculation of the shear reinforcement.
It is thus recommended to calculate two distinct values of V
Ed
for further use:
- V
Edg
in cross-section C (with only the reduction of the contribution of g);
- V
Edg+Q
in cross-section C (inclusive the reduction of g and Q).

7.5.3 The verifications to be performed for the first crack
The following verifications have to be performed.
7-41

7.5.3.1 V
Rd,c

Calculation of the resisting shear force V
Rd,c
. The crack that has to be considered with
(V
Ed
)
C
in cross-section C, starts from the tensile side at the edge of the support and
develops with an inclination angle up to the cross-section C. This crack is determining
for the area of reinforcement A
sl
that has to be considered for the calculation of V
Rd,c
.
This value of V
Rd,c
which is calculated in order to be compared with (V
Ed
)
C
in cross-
section C, has to take account of the main reinforcement that contributes to the shear
resistance by means of the dowel action in the crack. Again, only that reinforcement can
be considered that is sufficiently anchored with l
bd
beyond the section where the dowel
action takes place; this is thus A
sl
which continues over the length d+l
bd
such as pointed
out in figure 7.2.5-1(a) and in the definition of A
sl
in expression (7.2.5-1).

7.5.3.2 V
Ed
V
Rd,c

Is V
Ed

(with reduction of g and Q)
V
Rd,c
, then:
- the technological shear reinforcement is sufficient (see further);
- the strut above the support should be verified by means of expression (7.4.4-1):

V
Ed

(with only reduction of g)
0,5.b
w
.d..f
cd


This expression takes account of = 90, as the technological reinforcement is
composed of stirrups.

7.5.3.3 V
Ed
> V
Rd,c

First, the strut-condition has to be verified. At this stage, if necessary, one can still make
a new choice of the inclination angle :
- with stirrups

tg cotg
1
. . . .
) of reduction (
+

cd w g only Ed
f z b V (7.5.3-1)

- with bent-up bars

2 ) of reduction (
cotg 1
cotg cotg
. . . .
+
+

cd w g only Ed
f z b V (7.5.3-2)

Next, the necessary shear reinforcement per unit length can be determined by means of
the following formulas:

- with stirrups

cotg . .
) and of reduction with (
ywd
Q g Ed
sw
f z
V
s
A
(7.5.3-3)

- with bent-up bars
7-42

sin ). cotg .(cotg .
) and of reduction with (
+

ywd
Q g Ed
sw
f z
V
s
A
(7.5.3-3)

Once A
sw
/s calculated, one has to verify if this reinforcement is at least equal to the
minimum reinforcement ration (see further in detailing of reinforcement). The
practical translation of A
sw
/s into a suitable diameter and spacing, can be realized by
means of table 7.5.3-1.

Table 7.5.3-1
Values of A
sw
and
s
A
sw
for stirrups with two vertical legs
(mm) 6 8 10 12 14 16
A
sw
(mm
2
) 56,5 100 157 226 308 402
s (mm)
s
A
sw
(mm
2
/mm)
50 1,131 2,011 3,141 4,524 6,158 8,042
60 0,942 1,676 2,618 3,770 5,131 6,702
70 0,808 1,436 2,244 3,231 4,398 5,745
80 0,707 1,257 1,963 2,827 3,848 5,027
90 0,628 1,117 1,745 2,513 3,421 4,468
100 0,565 1,005 1,571 2,262 3,079 4,021
120 0,471 0,838 1,309 1,885 2,566 3,351
140 0,404 0,718 1,122 1,616 2,199 2,872
150 0,377 0,670 1,047 1,508 2,053 2,681
160 0,353 0,628 0,982 1,414 1,924 2,513
180 0,314 0,559 0,873 1,257 1,710 2,234
200 0,283 0,503 0,785 1,131 1,539 2,011
250 0,226 0,402 0,628 0,905 1,232 1,608
300 0,188 0,335 0,524 0,754 1,026 1,340


Note:
The additional condition related to the use of the -factor for concentrated loads
should not be forgotten: the imposed shear force V
Ed
, calculated with application
of the -factor, should always respect the following condition:

V
Ed
A
sw
. f
ywd
. sin (7.5.3-5)

where A
sw
. f
ywd
= the force that is generated by the shear reinforcement in this
area (at the support); only the reinforcement in the central part 0,75.a
v
should be
taken into account (see figure 7.4.5-2).

7-43
7.5.4 Verification of further cracks
After the control of the first crack, the second crack has to be verified: as long as
V
Ed
> V
Rd,c
(and a calculated shear reinforcement is necessary), a next crack has to be
verified. In other words: if it is found in the considered cross-section that the calculated
shear reinforcement is larger than the minimum reinforcement, a next crack has to be
verified.

Figure 7.5.4-1 presents the example of an end support, with indication of the cross-
sections C
1
, C
2
, C
3
... that have to be verified successively. The cracks start in the tensile
region at the bottom side of the beam; this determines the areas of the main
reinforcement A
sl
to be considered in the calculation of V
Rd,c
; see figure 7.2.5-1(a) and
the definition of A
sl
in expression (7.2.5-1): A
sl1
, A
sl2,
A
sl3
are the areas of main
reinforcement that continue over the distance d+l
bd
to the left beyond the cross-sections
that are considered.


C
1
V
Ed1
d
V
Ed2
V
Ed3
C
2
C
3
d d d
A
sl1
A
sl2
A
sl3


Figure 7.5.4-1
The cross-sections to be considered successively in shear verification, in a beam close to
an end support


Figure 7.5.4-2 presents the example of an intermediate support in a continuous beam.
The first crack is easy to identify on the basis of the cone with direct load transfer to the
support. The first cross-section to be calculated is C
1
with (V
Ed
)
C1
. The crack that
corresponds to this (V
Ed
)
C1
starts in the tensile region, at the upper side in C
2
; this is the
place where the dowel action of the main reinforcement is activated. In accordance with
figure 7.2.5-1(b) and the definition of A
sl
in expression (7.2.5-1), the main
reinforcement A
sl1
should continue over the distance d+l
bd
beyond C
2
, in order to assure
for 100% the dowel resistance in C
2
.

7-44

C
1
V
Ed1
V
Ed2
V
Ed3
C
2
C
3

A
sl1
A
sl2
A
sl3



Figure 7.5.4-2
The cross-sections to be considered successively in shear verification, in a beam close to
an intermediate support

7.6 Detailing of shear reinforcement
Reference: EN 1992-1-1:2004; 9.2.2
7.6.1 Shape and nature of shear reinforcement
- The shear reinforcement should form an angle between 45 and 90 to the
longitudinal axis of the structural element.
- The shear reinforcement may consist of a combination of:
links enclosing the longitudinal tension reinforcement and the concrete
compression zone: see figure 7.6.1-1;
bent-up bars;
cages, ladders, etc. which are cast in without enclosing the longitudinal
reinforcement but are properly anchored in the compression and tension
zones.



Figure 7.6.1-1
Examples of shear reinforcement (figure 9.5 in EN 1992-1-1:2004)

- Links should be effectively anchored. Stirrups should form a closed rectangle; a
lap joint on the vertical leg is permitted provided that the link is not required to
resist torsion (see chapter on torsion).
- At least 50 % of the necessary shear reinforcement should be in the form of links.
7-45

7.6.2 Minimum shear reinforcement
The geometric ratio of shear reinforcement is defined as:

sin . .
w
sw
w
b s
A
= (7.6.2-1)
where:

w
: geometric ratio of shear reinforcement, with
w

w,min
;
sw
A : area of shear reinforcement within length s;
s : spacing of the shear reinforcement measured along the longitudinal axis of
the structural member;
w
b : width (or breadth) of the web of the structural member;
: angle between the shear reinforcement and the longitudinal axis.

The value of
w,min
is identified by the following expression:


ywk
ck
w
f
f . 08 , 0
min ,
= (7.6.2-2)

with f
ck
and f
ywk
in MPa.

w,min
depends of the steel grade of the shear reinforcement and of the concrete class.
Table 7.6.2-1 presents the values for
w,min
for different combinations.


7-46
Table 7.6.2-1
Values of
w,min
for different concrete-steel combinations
Steel grade of shear reinforcement
Concrete class
S220
(f
ywk
= 220 MPa)
S400
(f
ywk
= 400 MPa)
S500
(f
ywk
= 500 MPa)
S600
(f
ywk
= 600 MPa)
C12/15 (f
ck
= 12 MPa) 1,26E-03 6,93E-04 5,54E-04 4,62E-04
C16/20 (f
ck
= 16 MPa) 1,45E-03 8,00E-04 6,40E-04 5,33E-04
C20/25 (f
ck
= 20 MPa) 1,63E-03 8,94E-04 7,16E-04 5,96E-04
C25/30 (f
ck
= 25 MPa) 1,82E-03 1,00E-03 8,00E-04 6,67E-04
C30/37 (f
ck
= 30 MPa) 1,99E-03 1,10E-03 8,76E-04 7,30E-04
C35/45 (f
ck
= 35 MPa) 2,15E-03 1,18E-03 9,47E-04 7,89E-04
C40/50 (f
ck
= 40 MPa) 2,30E-03 1,26E-03 1,01E-03 8,43E-04
C45/55 (f
ck
= 45 MPa) 2,44E-03 1,34E-03 1,07E-03 8,94E-04
C50/60 (f
ck
= 50 MPa) 2,57E-03 1,41E-03 1,13E-03 9,43E-04
C55/67 (f
ck
= 55 MPa) 2,70E-03 1,48E-03 1,19E-03 9,89E-04
C60/75 (f
ck
= 60 MPa) 2,82E-03 1,55E-03 1,24E-03 1,03E-03
C70/85 (f
ck
= 70 MPa) 3,04E-03 1,67E-03 1,34E-03 1,12E-03
C80/95 (f
ck
= 80 MPa) 3,25E-03 1,79E-03 1,43E-03 1,19E-03
C90/105 (f
ck
= 90 MPa) 3,45E-03 1,90E-03 1,52E-03 1,26E-03

7.6.3 Spacing
7.6.3.1 In the longitudinal direction
The recommended value for the maximum longitudinal spacing s
l,max
between adjacent
stirrups, is determined by the formula:

s
l,max
= 0,75.d.(1 + cotg ) (7.6.3-1)

The recommended value for the maximum longitudinal spacing s
b,max
between adjacent
bent-up bars, is determined by the formula:

s
b,max
= 0,60.d.(1 + cotg ) (7.6.3-2)

Table 7.6.3-1 presents some values for bent-up bars with = 45 and vertical stirrups (
= 90).

Note:
The longitudinal spacing between stirrups may be quite large. The earlier
editions of EC2 were more severe at this point, with a maximum value of 300
mm. In practice, it is observed that the spacing criterion of 30 mm is still
adopted in workshops, because of practical considerations in the realization of
the reinforcement cages.

7-47
Table 7.6.3-1
Values of recommended maximum longitudinal spacing s
l,max
between adjacent bent-up
bars (with = 45) and vertical stirrups ( = 90)

Bent-up bars with = 45
( cotg = 1 )
Stirrups with
= 90
( cotg = 1 )
s
b,max
= 0,6.d.(1+cotg ) s
l,max
= 0,75.d.(1+cotg )
d
(mm)
s
b,max
= 1,2.d
(mm)
s
l,max
= 0,75.d
(mm)
400 480 300
600 720 450
800 960 600
1000 1200 750


7.6.3.2 In the transverse direction
The transverse spacing of the legs in a series of shear links should not exceed s
t,max
,
determined by the formula:

s
t,max
= 0,75.d 600 mm (7.6.3-3)


7.7 Shear between web and flanges of T-sections
7.7.1 Analysis of the compression flange
7.7.1.1 Identification of the problem and the truss analogy
Figure 7.7.1-1 shows a T-beam subjected to simple bending. The NA is situated in
principle in the upper part of the cross-section; the assumption may be adopted that the
flange corresponds to the compression part of the cross-section. The force N' in the
compression zone (distributed over the whole width of the flange) changes over the
distance x with the value:

z
M
N

= '

The indication N'
f
( f < flange) corresponds to the compression force in 1 part of the
flange left or right of the web (abstraction is made of an eventually compressed small
part of the web); N'
f
is thus a fraction of N' as expressed by the formula:

7-48

f
w f
f
b
b b
N N
2
'. '

= (7.7.1-1)

The force N'
f
in 1 part of the flange left or right from the web, changes over the distance
x with the value:


f
w f
x f
b
b b
z
M
N
2
. ) ' (

(7.7.1-2)



N'
x
N'+N'
h
f

b
w
b
f

R
A
N'
N'
M/z
N' N'+N'
N' N'+N'
I
I
I
I
h
f

b
w

b
f
b
f
-b
w

2
b
f
-b
w

2


Figure 7.7.1-1
T-beam loaded in simple bending

One of the two hatched pieces of flange in figure 7.7.1-1 is now isolated: see detail in
figure 7.7.1-2. The difference in compression force (N'
f
)
x
has to be equilibrated by the
shear force distributed over the contact surface I-I with area: h
f
.x.


7-49
x
I I
I I
(N'
f
)
x
(N'
f
)
x
.h
f
.x =(N'
f
)
x


Figure 7.7.1-2
Detail: equilibrium of a part of the flange, left or right of the web

The equilibrium equation leads to the expression for the mean shear stress in the
contact surface I-I, in the uncracked elastic phase:


f
w f
f f
x f
b
b b
x
M
h z x h
N
2
. .
.
1
.
) (
'

(7.7.1-3)

And as
x
M
V

= , one can thus also write:

f
w f
f
b
b b
h z
V
2
.
.

= (7.7.1-4)

If this shear stress is too large, causing the principal tensile stress to reach the tensile
strength of the concrete, cracks will appear with an inclination angle with respect to the
longitudinal axis. Shear reinforcement is necessary in that case, in order to allow the
build-up of the longitudinal forces in the flange. The design of this shear reinforcement
can again be done by means of an analogous truss system in which shear is resisted by
the combined action of struts and tensile rods. Figure 7.7.1-3 shows the decomposition
of the shear force into two forces: a compression force which has to be resisted by the
concrete struts and a tensile force perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the beam.


7-50
x

f
(N'
f
)
x
(N'
f
)
x

f
F
wapening
F
schoor


Figure 7.7.1-3
Decomposition of the shear force at the level of the contact surface flange-web, into two
forces: a compression force to be resisted by concrete struts and a tensile force
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the beam, which has to be resisted by steel
reinforcement

7.7.1.2 Transverse reinforcement
It is assumed that the orientation of the compression diagonals in the flange is
characterized by the inclination angle
f
. As:


x
f
f
N
ent reinforcem transverse in force tensile

=
) (

tg
'
(7.7.1-5)

one finds that the transverse reinforcement should be able to transfer a force (indicated
by F
reinforcement
in figure 7.7.1-3) equal to:


cotg
) (
'
x f
ent reinforcem
N
F

=

It is assumed that the transverse reinforcement is composed of rods with sectional area
A
sf
and spacing s
f
; this means that the ratio A
sf
/s
f
represents the transverse reinforcement
per unit length. The necessary reinforcement is thus:

cotg
) ' (
. .
x f
yd
f
sf
N
f x
s
A

=
This leads to the transverse reinforcement in the flange per unit length of the beam
f
sf
s
A
:

cotg . .
) (
'
yd
x
f
f
sf
f x
N
s
A

(7.7.1-7)
7-51

or, when expression (7.7.1-2) is used:


f
w f
yd
x
f
sf
b
b b
f x z
M
s
A
2
.
cotg .
1
.
.
) (

(7.7.1-8)
or


f
w f
yd f
sf
b
b b
f z
V
s
A
2
.
cotg .
1
.

(7.7.1-9)

7.7.1.3 The concrete struts
It is also necessary to verify if the concrete struts are able to withstand the imposed
compression force (indicated by F
strut
in figure 7.7.1-3). This means that the
compression stress in the strut should be limited to .f
cd
.

From figure 7.7.1-3, it appears that:


f
x f
strut
N
F
cos
) ' (

= (7.7.1-10)
zodat
strut f
f
x f
strut
strut
b h
N
F
.
cos
) ' (
section strut

= =

with b
strut
= x.sin
f
(see figure 7.7.1-4).
The condition thus becomes:


cd
f f f
x f
strut
f
x h
N
.
sin . . . cos
) ' (

(7.7.1-11)

As (N'
f
)
x
= .h
f
.x , expression (7.7.1-11) also allows to develop a condition for :
cd
f f f
f
f
x h
x h
.
sin . cos . .
. .

or

f f cd
f sin . cos . . (7.7.1-12)

7-52
x
b
schoor
= x.sin
f

f

Figure 7.7.1-4
Auxiliary figure for the determination of the width of the compression strut

7.7.1.4 Alternative formulation of the shear problem between web and flanges by means
of the strut and tie method
The following reasoning is based on the philosophy of the strut and tie method, which is
discussed in a separate chapter in these course notes (see further); this method presents a
further generalization of the truss system analogy that was already introduced for the
shear verification of beams loaded in bending.

The analysis of the analogous truss system model, presented in figure 7.7.1.5, reveals
that the upwards inclined compression diagonal in the web makes equilibrium with the
tensile force in the vertical member and the compression force in the flange. In order to
install equilibrium in the flange, the force has to be spread out over the whole width of
the flange (effective width!). A new analogous truss model appears in the flange: the
force spreads out via two compression diagonals ab and ab', which on their turn have to
make equilibrium with the compression forces N'
f
in the flange. This equilibrium needs
the tensile member bb'. The further development of this model leads to the same
formulas as developed before.
a

N'
f
N'
f
b
b'
a
b b'
(a) (b)

7-53
Figure 7.7.1-5
Transfer of forces in the flange of a T-beam; (a) truss model for beam with
compression flange; (b) top vue of the beam (WALRAVEN, 1995)

7.7.2 The tension flange
The developments presented for the compression flange are also applicable to the
tension flange; see figure 7.7.2-1.


(A
sl
)
II
A
sl

h
f2
x
II
II


Figure 7.7.2-1
The shear problem in the tension flange


In analogy with expression (7.7.1-4), the shear stress in the contact section II-II in figure
7.7.2-1, is defined by:

=
sl
II sl
f
A
A
h z
V ) (
.
.
2
(7.7.2-1)
with

sl
A = the total area of longitudinal reinforcement in the whole tension
flange;

II sl
A ) ( = the area of the longitudinal reinforcement in the isolated part of the
tension flange.

In analogy with expression (7.7.1-9), the necessary transverse reinforcement per unit
length of the beam, is determined by:

7-54

=
sl
II sl
s f
sf
A
A
f z
V
s
A
) (
.
cotg .
1
.

(7.7.2-2)

Figure 7.7.2-2 presents a model of force transfer in the tension flange and web
(philosophy of the strut and tie method).


side view
Projection of
bottom flange
A
sl
A
st



Figure 7.7.2-2
Model of force transfer from web to tension flange, based on the philosophy of the strut
and tie method (WALRAVEN, 1995)

7.7.3 Prescriptions concerning the passage from the web to the flanges in T-beams
7.7.3.1 Principles
Reference: EN 1992-1-1:2004; 6.2.4

The shear strength of the flange may be calculated by considering the flange as a system
of compressive struts combined with ties in the form of tensile reinforcement. The
notations in figure 7.7.3-1 have to be applied:
F
d
= the variation of the normal force in one part of the flange, over the length x
(notation (N
f
)
x
was used in the text before);
h
f
= the heigth (or thickness) of the flange at the contact surface between web and
flange;
v
Ed
= the longitudinal shear stress (notation was used in the text before) at the contact
surface between web and flange. Consequently: v
Ed
= F
d
/ (h
f
. x);
A
sf
= the cross-sectional area of one transverse reinforcement bar;
s
f
= the spacing between the transverse reinforcement bars.

Note:
7-55
The bar which is indicated with the letter B in figure (7.7.3-1) corresponds to
longitudinal reinforcement bars which are eventually present (for example to
take up occasional fixing moments 25% of the moment in the span).




Figure 7.7.3-1
Notations used in the standard for the analysis of the force transfer between web
and flange via compression struts and transverse reinforcement (figure 6.7 in EN
1992-1-1:2004)


For the length x to be used, the standard presents the following recommendations:
- x the half of the distance between the cross-sections with bending
moments M = 0 and M
max
. Example: see figure 7.7.3-2;
- where point loads are applied, the length x the distance between the point
loads.



M
M
max
M=0 M=0
x x x x

7-56

Figure 7.7.3-2
Indication of the length x to be used for the calculation of the transverse
reinforcement to assure the force transfer web-flange: in the particular case of a
simply supported beam with uniformly distributed load, there are at least four
regions to be considered

The value for the inclination angle
f
which determines the orientation of the struts,
should be in accordance with the following conditions:
- for compression flanges
1 cotg
f
2 or 45
f
26,5
- for tension flanges
1 cotg
f
1,25 or 45
f
38,6

7.7.3.2 The transverse reinforcement
The transverse reinforcement per unit length A
sf
/s
f
is determined by means of the
following expression (see also figure 7.7.3-3):

resisting tensile force tensile force due to the shear force

and thus:

f
f Ed
yd
f
sf
x h v
f x
s
A
cotg
. .
. .

|
|
.
|

\
|


or finally:

f yd
f Ed
f
sf
f
h v
s
A
cotg .
.
(7.7.3-1)

7.7.3.3 The verification of the compression struts
The verification of the compression struts is performed in accordance with figure 7.7.3-
3, which leads to the following formula:

strut f
f
d
strut
strut
b h
F
F
.
cos
strut section

= =

) sin . .( . cos
. .
f f f
f E
strut
x h
x h v

=

7-57
As:
cd strut
f .

one finds:

f f cd E
f v sin . cos . . (7.3.3-2)



x
F
d
F
d
+F
d
= F
d
+v
E
.h
f
.x

f
F
d
=v
E
.h
f
.x
b
strut
=x.sin
f

Compression force
to be resisted by
the strut
f
d
F
cos

=
Tensile force to
be resisted by
transverse
reinforcement
= F
d
.tg


Figure 7.7.3-3
Auxiliary figure for the development of the formulas for the calculation of the
transverse reinforcement to assure the force transfer web-flange and for the
verification of the compression struts


7.7.3.4 Combined actions
In the case of combined
- shear between the flange and the web, and
- transverse bending (bending in the horizontal plane),
two possible solutions are available:
- the area of steel should be greater than the one given by expression (7.7.3-1);
- half of the area of steel given by expression (7.7.3-1) in combination with the
reinforcement needed to resist transverse bending.

7.7.3.5 Remark
Extra transverse reinforcement (in addition to the normal one for bending) is not
necessary when the following conditions are met:
- v
Ed
0,4.f
ctd
according to EN 1992-1-1:2004; 6.2.4(6)
- v
Ed
0,5.f
ctd
according to NBN EN 1992-1-1 ANB:2009; 6.2.4(6)