CHAPTER 1 ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS

- Basic Electricity (Current, Voltage, Resistance) - Ohms Law as Applie to Resisti!e Circuits" - #ower an Energy in Resisti!e Circuits" - $eries Resistors" - #arallel Resistors" - Color Co ing an $tan ar Resistance Values" - %ircho&&s Voltage Law" - %ircho&&s Current Law" - Con uctors an insulators" - Capacitors" - 'n uctors" - Capacitors in (irect current Circuits" - AC Voltage )eneration" - AC #ower in Resisti!e Circuits" - E&&ects o& 'n uctance an Capacitance in AC Circuits" - #ower *actor"

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Chapter 1 Electrical Fundamentals

asic Electricit! ELEC,R'CAL C'RC-',$, no matter how comple., &ollow certain /asic principles" %nowle ge o& these principles is essential to un er stan how an electrical circuit operates an to trou/leshoot e&&ecti!ely" An electrical circuit is an arrangement or con &iguration o& components that &orm a close ioop" ,here are three parameters in all electrical circuits0 current, !oltage, an resistance" Current Current is a measure o& the electron &low in a circuit" ,his may /e compare to the &low o& &lui through a pipe, which is measure in gallons per minute (gpm)" ,he current &low o& electrons in an electrical circuit is measure in amperes (A)" 1hen 2"343 5 +6+7 electrons mo!e past a point in + secon (s), the current &low is sai to /e ' ampere" ,he letter ' is use to represent current" $cienti&ic notation is o&ten use to in icate the amount o& current" ,here&ore" small amounts o& current may /e measure in milliamperes (mA) (6"66+ ampere), an large amounts o& current may /e measure in 8iloamperes (8A) (+666 amperes)" "#lta$e Voltage is the i&&erence in potential (charge) /etween two points" E.presse in another way, !oltage is the amount o& ri!ing &orce or pressure applie to a circuit" ,he !oltage in an
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electrical circuit is compara/le to the pressure in a hy raulic Circuit" ,he pressure in a hy raulic circuits is generally measure in poun s per s9uare inch, while the !oltage in an electrical Circuit is measure in !olts (V)" $mall !oltages may /e measure in milli!olts (mV) (6"66+ !olt), while larger 9uantities are measure in 8ilo!olts (8V: (+666 !olts)" ,he letter E is use to represent !oltage" Resistance ,he resistance o& a circuit is the circuits opposition to the mo!ement o& electrons" ,he &ewer &ree electrons that e.ist in the atomic structure o& a material, the greater the opposition to the &low o& current" Resistance may /e compare to an ori&ice or small pipe that restricts &low in a hy raulic circuit" A resistor restricts or limits the amount o& current &lowing in an electrical circuit" ,he unit o& measurement o& resistance is the ohm" ,he sym/ol use &or resistance is the )ree8 letter omega, "

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%HM&S LA'( P%'ER( AND ENER)* %hm&s La+ as Applied t# a Resisti,e Circuit ,his section presents what is pro/a/ly the most &un amental electric circuit relationship - the relationship /etween !oltage an current in a circuit consisting o& a !oltage source an a resistor" ,he circuit shown in *igure l"A"l illustrates the /asic concept" 'n this case, the !oltage source is a /attery" ,he /attery in *igure l"A"l pro!i es the &orce which causes electrons to &low through the connecte circuit" ,his &orce, terme the Electro<oti!e *orce or E<*, is measure in !olts, an is re&erre to as =!oltage>" E<* is gi!en the sym/ol V or E" 'n this program, the sym/ol V will /e use , so as not to con&use =!oltage> with =energy>"

Simple Electric Circuit C#nsistin$ %- A atter! And Resist#r Fi$ure 1.A.1

A /attery supplying a larger num/er o& !olts e.erts a ' greater &orce on the electrons, causing them to &low at a greater rate through the circuit"

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,he rate at which electrons &low through a circuit is terme ?current>, an is measure in amperes" Current is enote /y the sym/ol, '" One ampere represents the amount o& electrical charge (i"e", electrons) mo!ing past a gi!en point in one secon " 'n this circuit, the connecte loa , perhaps an electric heater, pro!i es resistance to the &low o& current, an is measure in ohms" ,he sym/ol &or resistance is shown in *igure +" + ari is assigne the letter, R@ ohms is a//re!iate /y the )ree8 letter, capital =omega> - " ,he larger the ohmic !alue o& the resistor, the greater the resistance presente to the &low o& current" it is important to note that resistance is a physical property o& materials, li8e har ness or tensile strength, an is,&or our purposes, totally in epen ent o& the !oltage applie to the circuit" A linear relationship e.ists /etween the applie !oltage an the resulting current, with an increase in !oltage pro ucing a proportional increase in current" ,hat is, &or any gi!en !alue o& resistance, ou/ling the !oltage applie will ou/le the current" ,his relationship is 8nown as Ohms Law, an is gi!en /y the &ollowing e.pression0 ' A VBR where V A !oltage, ' A current, an R A resistance

'&, in *igure +"A"l, a 2C!olt /attery an a ; res n are use , the current &lowing in the circuit woul /e ' A VBR A 2B;A 3 amperes" (ou/ling the !oltage to +3 !olts ou/les the current &low to 4 amperes"

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'& we a another ;c3 resistor in series with the e.isting ; resistor, the total circuit resistance increases to 2 1ith the +3 !olt /attery in the circuit, the current &lowing in this new circuit will /e +3B2 A 3 amperes" ,here&ore, ou/ling the resistance, while 8eeping the applie !oltage the same, cuts the current in hal&" A goo way to remem/er the relationship /etween !oltage, current, an resistance is to 8eep in min *igure +"A"3" *or e.ample, the e.pression &or !oltage is o/taine /y co!ering up the V@ similarly, the e.pression &or current is o/taine /y co!ering up the ', an resistance is o/taine /y co!ering the R" P#+er and Ener$! in Resisti,e Circuits 'n a ition to the /asic relationship in icate /y Ohms Law, it is important to 8now the amount o& energy consume /y circuit elements an the rate at which this energy is consume "

%HM&S LA' FI)URE 1A./

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,he sym/ol use to enote energy (i"e", the a/ility o o wor8) is E" ,he /asic unit o& energy is the =Eoule>" ,he rate at which energy is consume in a circuit is power, enote /y the letter # an measure in watts" '& the resistor o& *igure l"A"+ consumes + Eoule o& energy, it is consuming + watt o& power in + secon " 'n e9uation &orm0 E A #t or, e9ui!alently # A EBt where E is energy (Eoules) # is power (watts) t is time (secon s) *rom the relationship /etween power an energy, we can see that, + + Eoule A + watt-secon watt A + EouleBsecon

,he power consume in the circuit o& *igure l"A"l is relate to the applie !oltage an resulting current /y the &ollowing e.pression0 # A V' *rom Ohms Law, (V A 'R) e9ui!alent e.pressions &or power can /e eri!e 0 # A '3R # A V3BR -sing the e.ample o& *igure l"A"i, a +3-!olt /attery connecte to a 2 resistance pro uce a current o& 3 amperes" ,he
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a o& power supplie to the resistor is gi!en /y the pro uct o& the !oltage an current@ that is, 3 5 +3 A 34 watts" ,o etermine the total energy supplie to the resistor o!er a perio o& time, the rate at which energy is consume (in other wor s, the power) is multiplie /y the esire time perio " '&, &or e.ample, we wish to etermine the total energy supplie to the 2-ohm resistance o!er a perio o& +3 hours, with energy supplie at the rate o& 34 watts, we simply multiply 34 watts /y +3 hours an get 377 watthours" Al ternati!e+y, we can calculate the amount o& energy in Eoules rather than watthours" $ince one watt is one Eoule per secon 34 watts e9uals 34 Eoules per secon " ,wel!e hours 's 4;,366 secon s (+3GR . 26 <'HBGR . 26 $ECB<'H), an the total amount o& energy consume is 4;,366 . 34 +,6;2,766 Eoules" 't is o/!ious that a Eoule is a much sma+ler o& energy than a watthour" $ince we will /e ealing with power systems on the or er o& hun re s o& thousan s o& !olts an hun re s, i& not thousan s, o& amperes o& current, e!en the watthour /ecomes a comparati!ely small unit o& energy" Conse9uently, we will generally measure pow 8ilowatts or megawatts0 One 8ilowatt (sym/ol0 81) is 9ua+ 06 +666 watts, an one megawatt (sym/ol0 <1) is e9ual to +,666,666 watts, or +666 8ilowatts" ($imilarly, + 8ilo!olt A +666 !olts@ + mega!olt A +,666,666 !olts) " Energy will /e measure in 8ilowatt hours (+666 watt hours) or megawatt hours (+,666,666 watt hours)"

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Summar! #- Imp#rtant P#ints !oltage, current an resistance in a resisti!e circuit are relate /y Ohms Law0 ' A VBR V A 'R R A VB' #ower an energy in a resisti!e circuit can L e.presse as &ollows0 # A V' # A V3BR # A '3BR #ower is the time rate o& consuming energy, while the total amount o& energy use o!er a perio o& time represents the actual wor8 one /y the circuit" E A #t # A #EBt Series Resist#rs 1hen resistors are connecte in series they ha!e one point in common" ,he total resistance is e9ual to the sum o& the in i!i ual resistors" Alge/raically, this can /e written Rtot A R+ I R3 I R; IJ"" I Rn ,he current in a series circuit is the same in each component o& the circuit /ecause the current must &low through

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each resistor in the series to get to the ne.t resistor" ,his &act can /e e.presse as &ollows 'tot A '+ A '3 A '; AJ"" A 'n ,he applie !oltage i!i es across each component in a series circuit in proportion to the resistance o& the component" ,he greater the amount o& resistance, the greater the !oltage rop across that resistor" 't is customary to use the letter E to sym/oliLe a !oltage applie to a circuit an the letter V to represent the !oltage rop in a circuit" 'n a series circuit, E A V+ I V3 I V; IJ"" I Vn ,he !oltage i!i er rule is use to calculate the !oltage across each resistor as &ollows0
V x = RxV Rtot

E0AMPLE 1.1

I = E A R + R A 4 amperes R + 3 RV D(+66) V1 A R A A 36 !olts 3D RV 36(+66) V2 A R A A 76 !olts 3D

+ tot 3 tot

+66

,o chec80 ,he !oltage applie to a circuit is roppe in the circuit, that is, E A V0 E A V+ I V3 A V Parallel Resist#rs 1hen resistors are connecte in parallel, they ha!e two points in common" ,he total resistance o& parallel resistors is
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e9ual to the reciprocal o& the sum o& the reciprocals o& the in i!i ual resistors" Re9 o& a parallel circuit is calle the e9ui!alent resistance, Re9 $tate alge/raically"
Req = + + + + + + + +""""" + R+ R 3 R; Rn

,he current in a /ranch o& a parallel circuit is e9ual to the e9ui!alent resistance o& the circuit i!i e /y the resistance o& that /ranch multiplie /y the total current o& the circuit0 that is"
Ix = Re q Itot Rx

E0AMPLE 1./ +66 !olts is applie to each resistor"

E +66 = = 36 amperes R+ D E +66 I3 = = = D amperes R3 36 I+ =

,he current eli!ere to the circuit /y the !oltage source is the sum o& the /ranch currents, '+ I '3, an e9uals 3D amperes" ,he parallel con&iguration o&&ers less resistance to current &low since each /ranch pro!i es a path &or current &low" ,he parallel circuit may /e sai to o&&er more con uctance" Con uctance is the reciprocal o& resistance an is represente /y the letter )" ,he unit o& con uctance is the mho which has the sym/ol -" *or the parallel circuit o& E.ample +"3, + + = + Req = + + A 4 ohms Gtot + + + R+ R 3 36 D

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Series1Parallel Circuits A seriesCparallel circuit contains some elements that are connecte in se an others that are con ucte in parallel E.ample +"; il+ustrates a series-parallel circuit" E0AMPLE 1.2 Rtot A R+ I R3BR; R+ A +6 ohms
R 3 B R; = + + R 3 R; + = + + + A + 36 36

+6 ohms

1hen resistors o& e9ual !alue are connecte in parallel, the e9ui!alent resistance o& R3BR; may /e &oun /y i!i ing the num/er o& parallel resistors into the !alue o& the resistance" 'n this case" 36 i!i e /y 3 e9uals +6 ohms" O/!iously, this particular metho is more con!enient to use than the reciprocal metho , /ut remem/er that it only applies when the parallel resistors are e9ual in !alue" C#l#r C#din$ and Standard Resistance "alues A wi e !ariety resistors are physically large enough to ha!e their resistance !alue printe on them" Gowe!er, car/on composition 0 are too small &or this metho o& i enti&ication so
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color co ing system is use is use " *our color /an s are printe on one en o& the resistor an are rea &rom the /an closest to the en o& the resistor towar the center" Each color represents a numerical !alue as in icate in ,a/le +"+" ,he &irst an secon /an s represent the &irst an secon igits, respecti!ely" ,he thir /an represents the multiplier, or the num/er o& Leros that &ollow the secon igit" ,he &ourth /an in icates the manu&acturers tolerance" '& there is no &ourth /an the tolerance is M36N o& the rate !alue" ,a/le +"+Color Co ing 6 + 3 ; 4 D 2 Blac8 Brown Re Orange Oellow )reen Blue F 7 K 6"+ 6"6+ DN +6N Violet )ray 1hite )ol $il!er )ol $il!er ,olerance

E0AMPLE 1.3 $uppose the color /an s o& a resistor are yellow, !iolet, re , an gol " ,he resistance !alue is etermine as &ollows0

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,he actual resistance !alue shoul /e /etween 442D an 4K;D ohms" Occasionally a &i&th /an is use to in icate the &ailure rate o& the resistor0 Oellow Orange Re Brown 6"66+N per +666 hours 6"6+N per +666 hours 6"+N +"6N per +666 hours per +666 hours

4irchh#--&s "#lta$e La+ %irchho&&s !oltage law states that =the alge/raic sum o& the potential rises an rops aroun a close loop is Lero" A close loop is any continuous circuit through which current can &low &rom a point in one irection an return to that point &rom another irection" $tate alge/raically, oV A 6" E0AMPLE 1.5 a) *in Rtot $olution0 Rtot A R+ I R3 I R; A +D I D I +6 A ;6 ohms /) *in '"
E +D6 $olution0 ' A Rtot = A D amperes ;6

c) *in V+, V3 an V;" $olution0 V+ A 'R+ A (D) (+D) A FD !olts

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V3 A 'R3 A (D) (D) A 3D !olts V; A 'R; A (D) (+6) A D6 !olts ) Veri&y %irchho&&s !oltage law" oV A E P V+ P V3 P V; A 6 E A V+ I V3 I V; +D6 A FD I 3D I D6 +D6 A +D6 (Chec8s) 4irchh#--&s Current La+ %irchho&&s current law states that =the alge/raic sum o& the currents entering an lea!ing a no e is Lero"> (A no e is a Eunction o& two or more /ranches") $tate another way, the sum o& the currents lea!ing a Eunction must e9ual the sum o& the currents entering a Eunction" E0AMPLE 1.6 *un ';" $olution0 '3 I '; P '+ P '4 A 6 '3 I '; A '+ I '4 '; A '+ I '4 P '3 '; A 7 I D P F '; A 2 amperes C#nduct#rs and Insulat#rs 'n a ition to resistors there are other components that a&&ect the cu in a circuit, &or e.ample, con uctors insu+ators
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Qust as resistors oppose the &low o& current in a circuit, con uct ors pro!i e a nearly resistance-&ree path &or current &low" 'nsulators restrict the &low o& current to the inten e path /y isolating the circuit &rom a Eacent material" ,he a/ility o& metals to con uct electricity, as well as their physical strength, ma8es them goo con uctors" Gowe!er, not all metals con uct the same" *or e.ample, gol an sil!er are among the /est con uctors, /ut their high cost prohi/it their e.tensi!e use" Copper is the most commonly use con uctor /ecause o& its goo con ucti!ity an relati!ely low cost" Aluminum, which is less e.pensi!e than copper, is another metal commonly use as a con uctor" Gowe!er, aluminum oes not con uct as well as copper (it is only a/out 26N as goo )" As the a/ility o& a material to con uct electricity (i"e", con ucti!ity) ecreases, its resistance increases" '& the material oes not con uct current, it is calle an insulator" 'n actual practice, no insulator is per&ect" ,here are i&&erent egrees o& insulating properties, an insulators are 8nown to &ail at certain !oltage le!els" ,he term that is use to rate an insulator is calle the ielectric strength" ,he ielectric strength is the /rea8 own point o& an insulator" $ome common materials use as insulators are mica, ru//er, paper, #yre., glass" an air" A semicon uctor /elongs to the class o& materials /etween the insulators an con uctors" )ermanium, selenium, silicon, an other similar compoun s are semicon uctors" ,hese materials are !ital ingre ients &or the pro uction o& transistors an other soli -state e!ices"

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Capacit#rs7
A capacitor is ma e up o& two or more plates, which are separate /y a ielectric (insulating) material" 1hen !oltage is applie across the capacitor plates, current &lows out o& one plate an into the other through the !oltage source" ' eally, no current &lows through the ielectric separating the capacitor plates" ,he charge on the capacitor is store in the electric &iel set up /etween the oppositely charge plates" '& the applie !oltage is c, the capacitor will charge to the !alue o& the applie !oltage an will retain this charge until the applie !oltage changes" '& the applie !oltage is ac, the capacitor will essentially &ollow the polarity changes o& the applie !oltage, alternately charging an ischarging in opposite irections each hal& cycle@ thus e&&ecti!ely passing alternating current" Capacitance (C) is the measure o& how much electrical charge a capacitor can store" ,he unit o& capacitance is the farad (*), name in honor o& <ichael *ara ay" By e&inition, a capacitor has a capacitance of one farad when it stores one. coulomb of charge with one olt applied across its plates " ,he &ara is a large unit o& measurement@ capacitor !alues are usually state in micro&ara s (p*) which is e9ual to 6"666 66+* an pico&ara s (p*) which is e9ual to 6"666 666 666 66+*" ,he mathematical &ormulas &or calculating the total capacitance o& capacitors in series an parallel are as &ollows0
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C!"series# =

+ +B C+ ++B C 3 ++B C ;"""""

C!"parallel# A C1 $ C2 $ C%$ & *or two capacitors in series the total capacitance is e9ual to0 C+C 3 C!"series# = C+ + C 3 Capacitors i!i e into two general categories@ electrostatic an electrolytic" Electrostatic capacitors are generally small in capacitance, are not polariLe an theoretically can store a charge in e&initely" ,his type o& capacitor is usually i enti&ie /y the 8in o& ielectric material, such as air, paper, mica, ceramic, mylar an polystyrene, an whether they are &i.e or !aria/le in !alue" Varia/le capacitors use air, ceramic, glass, or poly styrene as a ielectric" Electrolytic capacitors, on the other han , use an electrolyte /etween the plates much li8e a /attery, an thus are polariLe " Electrolytic pro!i e much larger !alues o& capacitance@ howe!er they o not retain a charge in e&initely ue to lea8age through the electrolyte" 'n reality, all capacitors ha!e lea8age /ut electro static capacitors might ta8e months to ischarge /ecause o& lea8age" Capacitors are one of the basic components in electronics. !he' are used for signal coupling between stages( as b')pass capacitors( decoupling capacitors( bloc*ing capacitors( tuning capacitors and filter capacitors. !he' are used in electric power applications for power factor compensation and for starting certain t'pes of electric motors. Electrol'tic capacitors are used to filter the dc output oltage of power supplies.

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Capacitance is an un esira/le property in some instances" At high &re9uencies, &or e.ample, stray capacitance /etween lea wires an components pro uces un esira/le coupling /etween unrelate circuits" ,hese e&&ects must /e minimiLe /y care&ul circuit esign an component layout" *inally, it is help&ul to remem/er these important notes a/out the capacitor 0 +" A Capacitor /loc8s the &low o& irect current" 3" A capacitor e&&ecti!ely passes alternating current" ;" ,he capacitance o& a capacitor is etermine /y the spacing /etween the plates, the sur&ace area o& the plates, an the type o& ielectric material, 4" Capacitors in series gi!e re uce capacitors in parallel a irectly" total capacitance,

D" A capacitor temporarily stores energy when charge @ this energy is returne to the circuit when the capacitor ischarges" Induct#rs7 'n uctors use the a/ility o& electrical current to create a magnetic &iel " '& a !oltage is applie to a coil o& wire, the current &lowing in the coil will cause a magnetic &iel to " e!elop" ,he more times the wire is celle an the more current there is in the coil, the strength o& the strength o& the magnetic &iel "

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,he property o& a coil that opposes a change in the current &low is calle in uctance" ,he in uctance o& a coil epen s on &our &actors0 +" ,he num/er o& turns (win ings) in the coil" 'n uctance is proportional to the s9uare o& the num/er o& turns in the coil" 3" ,he iameter o& the coil" ,he larger the iameter o& the coil, the higher the in uctance" ;" ,he permea/ility (a/ility to /ecome magnetiLe ) o& the core material" 4" ,he length o& the coil" ,he shorter the coil, the higher the in uctance" Capacit#rs in Direct current circuits7 C#nsider the char$in$ circuit in -i$. 8 9 1hen the switch is close , charges &rom the source will istri/ute themsel!es on the plates, that is, a current will &low" 'nitially, this current i is large, /ut as more charge is accumulate , an hence more !oltage e!elope across the plates, the ac cumulate charge ten s to oppose the &urther &low o& charge" *inally, when enough charge has /een trans&erre &rom plate to the other, a !oltage + E will ha!e /een e!elope across the plates" ,he plates are then charge to a ma.imum, an since the !oltage across the plates e9uals the source !oltage, the current i must /e Lero" 'n the i eal situation, the trans&er o& charge occurs in Lero time, /ut in the practical situation the charging process re9uires a !ery short /ut &inite time"
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Fi$ure :;// The Char$in$ circuit

,he charging transient o& *ig" F-33 /egins when the switch is close , at a time calle t A s" i& the switch is close , the !oltage e9uation is EA
R

C C

iRI

(F-33)

At the instant the switch is close , the capacitor, which is consi ere initially un charge , has Lero !oltage ( C A 6) so that E9" F-33 /ecomes E A iR $, Or i A '6 A E-R (F-3;)

,he initial charging current + is thus limite /y the resistance o& the circuit an is etermine /y the simple application o& Ohms law" On the other han , a&ter su&&icient time the capacitor is &ully charge an no current &lows" ,hen, &rom E9" F-33, E +,$
C

Capacitor charging current an !oltage are shown in &ig" ( an /"

)a

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(ischarging is the proc o& remo!ing charge &rom a pre!iously charge capacitor with a su/se9uent ecay in capacitor !oltage" Consi er *ig" F-3F" '& the switch is initially place in position +, the capacitor will charge towar the supply !oltage E an a&ter $t can /e consi ere &ully charge " '& the switch is then place in position 3, the capacitor is irectly across the resistor so that the charge lea8s through the resistor"

Fi$ure :;/: A char$e;dischar$e circuit

Capacitor ischarging !oltage an current are shown in *ig"( )a, an /"

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Time C#nstants 7 !ime constants can he thought o& as the /uil ing /loc8s o& in ustrial an commercial electronics" Very rarely will you encounter an electrical or electronic circuit that oes not in!ol!e time constants. Electric motor speed controls( light dimmers( radio transmitters and recei ers( practicall' e er' circuit in a tele ision set( burglar alarms( fire and smo*e detectors( traffic light sequencers and the latest electronic automoti e ignition s'stems could not function without time constants. '& you are to un erstan electronic circuits, you must &irst un erstan the rather simple relationship /etween !oltage an current in in uctors an capacitors" '& you re uce the properties o& capacitors an in uctors to /asic terms, you can say that a capacitor O##O$E$ a change in !oltage while an in uctor opposes a change in current" A resistor, o& course, o&&ers the same opposition to !oltage an
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current whether they are changing or not" ,hese three properties, use singly or in com/ination, are the /asis o& operation &or all electronic circuits, &rom the simplest to the most comple." ,he time constant o& a circuit is the amount o& time it ta8es &or current in an in ucti!e circuit or !oltage in a capaciti!e circuit to reach appro.imately 2;N o& ma.imum !alue" ,he time uration (one time constant) is etermine /y the resistance, in uctance an capacitance in the circuit" 'n a resisti!e-in ucti!e (RL) circuit, the uration o& One time constant is calculate using the &ormula ! + .-R where ! is the time in secon s, L is the in uctance in henrys an R is the resistance in ohms" 'n the resisti!e-capaciti!e (RC) circuit, the uration o& one time constant is calculate using the &ormula , RC where , is the time in secon s, R is the resistance in ohms an C is the capacitance in &ara s"

(34)

A.C. "%LTA)E )ENERATI%N

'n $egment A, a /attery was use as the !oltage source ri!ing the current through the resistance" ,he !oltage is generate internally /y a chemical reaction which occurs within the /attery cells" ,he energy o& the chemical reaction is then con!erte to electrical energy" But a chemical reaction is only one way o& pro ucing !oltage" $e!eral other techni9ues e.ist &or the pro uction o& !oltage, such as &riction, pressure, heat an light" ,he most common metho &or the pro uction o& electricity, (an the metho we will /e most intereste in) is through motion o& a con uctor within a magnetic &iel , an , e9ui!alently, through motion o& a magnetic &iel in the !icinity o& a con uctor" E.periments con ucte in the +736s /y G" C" Oerste showe that electric current &lowing through a wire generates a magnetic &iel aroun the wire" Later e.periments showe that the opposite e&&ect is also true@ that is, a magnetic &iel can generate a !oltage in the wire" 'n a close circuit, this will pro uce electric current" Consi er the e.perimental setup shown in *igure l"B"l" ,he permanent magnet is shape so that the magnetic &iel is concentrate /etween the two poles o& the magnet" ,he =lines o& &orce> (i"e", the =&lu.>) are shown lea!ing the north pole an entering the south pole" ,he two en s o& the coil are connecte to a !oltmeter, an the coil is allowe to rotate in a countercloc8wise irection, within the magnetic &iel " 't can /e shown that a !oltage is pro uce as the coil is rotate " *urthermore, i& a resistance is place /etween the two en s o&
(3D)

the coil, an an ammeter inserte in the circuit, a current will &low through the resistance" ,his is 8nown as *ara ays Law@ an is state /elow0 1hen a con uctor passes through (=cuts>) a magnetic &iel , a !oltage will /e in uce on the con uctor, an an electric current will &low through the con uctor i& a close path &or current con uction e.ists"

C#il R#tatin$ in Ma$netic Filed Fi$ure 1. .1

Actually, it oesnt matter whether the coil mo!es in the magnetic &iel , or the &iel mo!es =through> the coil" All that is re9uire &or !oltage generation, is that the coil must pass through that is, =cut> the magnetic lines o& &orce"

(32)

As coil is rotate , !oltage

the the

"#lta$e Induced in R#tatin$ c#il #Fi$ure 1. ./

pro uce across the +ea o& the coil will not remain constant" ,he resulting wa!e shape is shown in *igure +"B"3" At the position where the coil is mo!ing parallel to the lines o& &orce, (as shown /y the position o& the coil in *igure l""B"l), no lines o& &orce are c ari the !oltage in uce in the coil is Lero" 1hen the coil has rotate K66, it is mo!ing perpen icular to the lines o& &lu., the ma.imum num/er o& &lu. lines per secon are /eing cut, an the !oltage in uce in the coil will /e ma.imum" O/!iously, as the coil continues to rotate an once again mo!es perpen icular with the lines o& &orce, the !oltage in uce will also /e a ma.imum /ut, since the coil is now =upsi e own> with respect to the &irst time it was mo!ing perpen icular to the &lu. lines, the !oltage will /e in the opposite irection" ,hat is, the =polarity> o& the !oltage will /e re!erse " ,he horiLontal a.is o& *igure l"B"3 in icates the num/er o& egrees o& coil rotation, starting at Lero egrees when the co is mo!ing parallel to the &lu. lines" ;26 egrees correspon s to one
(3F)

&ull rotation (calle a =cycle>) o& the coil" At +76R, the !oltage changes polarity an /egins its =negati!e hal& cycle>" ,he !oltage wa!e&orm shown in *ig" l"B"3 represents what is 8nown as an alternating !oltage" 't pro uces an alternating current (ac) in any circuit connecte to it" Hote that the wa!e&orm is not particularly well-shape " One o& the principal as8s o& esigning an electrical generator is to pro uce a com/ination o& magnetic &iel an coil con&igurations that pro uces a smoother !oltage wa!e&orm, as shown in *igure l"B";" ,his type o& wa!e &orm is calle a sine wa!e, or a =sinusoi >"

Sine 'a,e #- ,#lta$e Fi$ure 1. .2

,he rotation o& the coil through ;26R can also /e thought o& in terms o& the passage o& time"

(37)

'& the coil completes one cycle (i"e", one &ull rotation) in one secon , we say that !oltage is pro uce at a &re9uency (&) o one cycle per secon " '& the coil completes two cycles in one secon , the &re9uency is two cycles per secon " ,he p (,) is the time it ta8es to complete one cycle, an is the in!erse o& &re9uency" ,hat is0 , A +B& '& &re9uency is 3 cycles per secon , the perio , , is +B3 secon " ,hat is, one &ull cycle is complete in +B3 secon " <ost power systems generate electricity at D6 or 26 cycles per secon " ,he cycle, per secon is calle the GertL (a//re!iate GL, an name a&ter the +Kth century scientist Geinrich GertL)" A 26 GL wa!e showing /oth an angular an time scale is presente in *igure l"B"4" 'n the -"$", 26 G !o+tage is almost uni!ersally use , with some 3D GL !oltage generation use in limite applications, such as electric railroa s" Outsi e the -"$", either D6 or 26 GL is use , epen ing on the country" ,he perio o& a 26 GL !oltage wa!e is gi!en /y (+B26) secon s to complete one cycle" ,his is "6+22F secon s (+2"2F) millisecon s"

(3K)

6< H= Sine +a,e #- ,#lta$e sh#+in$ an$ular and time scale Fi$ure 1. .3

(;6)

Summar! #- Imp#rtant P#ints

Voltage can /e generate /y se!eral i&&erent techni9ues, the most common metho (use in utility systems) is /ase upon *ara ays Law0 A !oltage will /e in uce in a con uctor i& there is relati!e motion /etween the con uctor an a magnetic &iel " ,he !oltage in uce in the con uctor will /e alternately positi!e an negati!e, lea ing to the concept o& an alternating !oltage (or current) source, as oppose to the constant !oltage ( c) pro uce /y a /attery" ,he num/er o& complete rotations o& the coil in one secon is the &re9uency, (sym/ol0 &) measure in GertL" One GertL is one cycle per secon " ,he perio (sym/ol0 ,) o& an ac !oltage or current is the time it ta8es to complete one &ull re!olution" ,he perio , measure in secon s or millisecon s (one thousan th o& a secon ) is the in!erse o& &re9uency" (, A +B&)" ,he perio o& a 26 GL sine wa!e is +2"2F ms (, A +B26 $ec)"

(;+)

A.C. P%'ER IN RESISTI"E CIRCUITS

'n pre!ious iscussion it was shown that a !oltage is in uce in a rotating coil when place in a stationary magnetic &iel " 'n power system generators, howe!er, the situation is re!erse @ is the rotation o& a magnetic &iel that in uces a !oltage on the stationary con uctors" (Remem/er, it oesnt matter whether the coil rotates an the &iel remains stationary, or the &iel rotates an the coil remains stationary") ,he techni9ue &or pro ucing !oltage in power system generators uses a rotating =electromagnet> as a source o& magnetic lines o& &lu." n electromagnet, unli8e a permanent magnet, sets up a magnetic &iel temporarily, as current is passe through wires surroun ing the core o& the electromagnet" 'n generators use on utility systems, copper /ars are im/e e in the =rotor> (i"e", rotating part) o& the machine to &orm an electromagnet" As current is passe through the copper /ars, a magnetic &iel is pro uce " ,he rotor an energiLe coils are calle the =&iel >" ,he coils are calle the =&iel win ing>" ,he rotor coils are energiLe /y a c power source, calle the =e.citer>, couple irectly to the rotor" 1hen c current (i"e", =&iel current>) &lows in the rotor coils, a north an south pole are pro uce on the rotor" Voltage is then in uce in the coil on the stator o& the generator@ this stator completely surroun s the rotor, an is =stationary>, as the name suggests" ,he stator is the part o& a generator that supplies current an !oltage to the power system"

(;3)

1hen an alternating !oltage source is connecte to a resistor, the current that &lows through the resistor also alternates" ,he current will /e =in phase> with the !oltage" ,his means that the current will /e in its positi!e an negati!e hal& cycles simultaneously with the !oltage" ,his is shown in *igure l"C"l" ,he sym/olic representation o& a resistor is shown in the circuit iagram an is assigne the letter R" By Ohms Law, the pea8 current is gi!en /y pea8 !oltage i!i e /y the resistance o& the circuit" Actually, the !alue o& 0 t any instant in time is o/taine /y i!i ing the !oltage at hat instant /y R" ,here&ore, Ohms Law (' A VBR) applies to ac s well as c circuits"

(;;)

AC 6<H= "#lta$e and Current in a Resisti,e Circuit Fi$ure 1.C.1

(;4)

' gro!es con!enient to characteriLe these sinusoi s /y the =e&&ecti!e> !alues o& !oltage an current, as oppose to the pea8 !alues" ,he concept o& =e&&ecti!e> or =rms> !alue pro!i es this charact ,he rms !alue o& a !oltage or current wa!e&orm is that !alue o& !oltage or current that =e&&ects> the same amount o& wor8 as a c !oltage or current o& the same magnitu e" ,he term =rms> stan s &or =root mean s9uare> an can /e applie to any perio ic wa!e&orm" 't is calculate /y ta8ing the s9uare o& the instantaneous !alues o& the wa!e&orm, calculating their a!erage i"e", =mean>), then ta8ing the s9uare root o& this mean@ hence the name, root mean s9uare *or any sine wa!e, the rms !alue wor8s" out to /e the pea8 !alue i!i e /y the s9uare root o& 3" ,his is the same as multiplying the pea8 !alue /y the &actor0 6"F6F" ,he e9uations &or rms !oltage an current are shown /elow0
Vrms =Vpea* =6"F6FVpea* 3 Irms = Ipea* = 6"F6F Ipea* 3

*or e.ample, suppose the ac !oltage applie in *igure l"C"l is +66 !olts, pea8" ,hen the rms !oltage is F6"F !olts" ,his means that , &or any gi!en perio o& time, the +66 !olt pea8 sine wa!e applie to the resistor oes the same amount o& wor8 as a c !oltage o& F6"F !olts applie to the same resistor" 't shoul /e note that the &actor 6"F6F applies only to o/taining the rms !alue o& a sinusoi al wa!e&orm, an not to wa!e&orms o& any other shape" 'n the analysis o& power systems, almost all !oltage an current 9uantities are gi!en as rms !alues rather than pea8

(;D)

!alues" <ost common types o& measuring e9uipment are cali/rate to rea rms 9uantities" ,he power that is a/sor/e /y the resistor in *igure l"C"l is o/taine /y multiplying the !oltage times the current at each instant in time" Gence, the ac e.pression &or power is the same as the c e.pression (# V'), e.cept that we must multiply all o& the instantaneous !alues o& !oltage an current" *igure l"C"3 shows the !oltage, current, an power wa!e&orms at each point in time" 1hen the !oltage is positi!e, the is also positi!e, an the pro uct o& !oltage an current power) is positi!e" 1hen the !oltage is negati!e, the current is also negati!e, an the pro uct o& !oltage an current is positi!e (recall0 a negati!e times a negati!e num/er gi!es a positi!e num/er) " Hote that the power wa!e completes two &ull cycles in the time it ta8es the !oltage or current wa!e to complete on &ull cycle" ,hus, the &re9uency o& the power wa!e&orm is ou/le that o& the !oltage an current"

(;2)

"#lta$e( Current and P#+er in a Resisti,e Circuit Fi$ure 1.C./

,he a!erage, or =e&&ecti!e> power o!er one cycle is gi!en /y hal& the pea8 !alue o& power" As shown on the !i eotape power is simply the pro uct o& the rms !oltage an rms current" ,hat is0
/a
erage

3Vrms 3 Irms =Vpea* Ipea** = =VrmsIrms 3 3

Hote0 ( 3 3 = 4 = 3)

(;F)

Summar! #- Imp#rtant P#ints

#ower system generators pro uce !oltage /y means o& a rotating magnetic &iel , set up /y passing c current through win ings on the rotor" Voltage is then in uce /y the rotating magnetic &iel in the stator win ings &or supply to the system" 1hen an ac !oltage ?is applie to a purely resisti!e circuit, the ac current that results is =in phase> with the !oltage@ that is, it reaches its ma.imum, minimum, an Lero !alues at the same time as the !oltage wa!e" An alternating !oltage or current wa!e can /e characteriLe /y an rms or e&&ecti!e !alue, which has the same e&&ect as a c !oltage or current o& the same magnitu e" *or sinusoi s, the rms !alue is e9ual to the pea8 !alue i!i e /y 3 " ,he e&&ecti!e !alue o& power o!er one cycle is Vrms 5 'rms " ,his is a+so e9ual to0 S (Vpea8 5 'pea8)" All o& the e.pressions eri!e in $egment A &or Ohms Law, power, an energy are applica/le to ac as well as c systems"

(;7)

EFFECTS %F INDUCTANCE AND CAPACITANCE IN AC CIRCUITS

't was shown in $egment C that, in a purely resisti!e circuit, the !oltage an current wa!e&orms are =in phase>@ that is, /oth wa!e&orms are their positi!e an negati!e hal&Ccycles the same time" Gowe!er, there are other circuit elements that cause the current to /e isplace or =out o& phase> with the applie !oltage" ,his segment iscusses the e&&ects o& these elements - namely in uctance an capacitance

Inductance
'n uctance is the property o& an electric circuit that opposes any change in current" 1hen a purely in ucti!e circuit is energiLe /y an ac !oltage source, the current will reach its pea8 !alue K66 a&ter the !oltage has reache its pea8, as shown /y the wa!e&orms o& *igure l"("l" ,he sym/olic representation o& an in uctor is shown in the circuit iagram ari is assigne the letter =L> &or in uctance, or TL &or in ucti!e reactance" ($ee page ;7") 'n a circuit consisting o& pure in uctance, the cur rent is sai to =lag> the !oltage /y K6R"

(;K)

AC "#lta$e and Current in an inducti,e circuit Fi$ure 1.D.1

(46)

Another way to e.press this phase relationship is to say that the !oltage =lea s> the current /y K66 in a purely in ucti!e circuit" A con!enient way o& picturing phase relationships /etween sinusoi s (i"e", !oltages an currents) is through the concept o& !ector" A !ector is really Eust an arrow, ha!ing two attri/utes0 +) ,he length o& the !ector is proportional to the magnitu e (rms !alue) o& the 9uantity /eing represente " 3) ,he irection o& the !ector in icates the phase angle relationship /etween the 9uantity /eing represente an some re&erence 9uantity" ,he =!ector> iagram is also shown in *igure l"("l, where the source !oltage is consi ere the re&erence 9uantity an is, there&ore, rawn at an angle o& Lero egrees" its length is opc" ional to the rms !alue o& applie !oltage (i"e" 6"F6F 5 V pea8)" ,he current lags the !oltage /y K66, so is rawn at an angle o& -K6R (or I3F6R) with respect to the !oltage" Hote that, & this were a
U

Actually, a more correct term is =phasor>, since the phasor repre sents a time !arying 9uantity, an the !ector oes not" Gowe!er, in the ac stea y state, where we assume all sinusoi s ha!e the same &re9uency, we can uni9uely represent a phasor 9uantity with an arrow oriente in a twoC imensional space (i"e", a to represent ac sinusoi al

!ector) " 'n &act, the term !ector was coimr use

!oltages an currents until the term =phasor> was coine to a!oi am/iguity with 9uantities in other &iel s o& stu y such as ra iation an antenna theory" Another term sometimes use is =sinor>" ,hrough cut this program we will use /oth the terms =!ector> an =phasor>"

(4+)

resisti!e circuit, the current woul /e =in phase> with the !oltage, so the current !ector woul /e rawn =on top o&> the !oltage !ector, at an angle o& 6R" ,he length o& the current !ector is proportional to the rms !alue o& current" ,his is o/taine /y i!i ing rms !oltage /y the in ucti!e reactance TL, i"e" 'rms A VrmsBTL ,his e9uation is simply another e.pression o& Ohms Law, /ut &or a circuit consisting o& pure in uctance" 'n a resisti!e circuit, the =TL> woul /e replace /y the sym/ol =R>, were R is the resistance o& the circuit" Qust as R represents the opposition to current &low in a resisti!e circuit, TL represents the opposition to current &low in an in ucti!e circuit" ,he term =in ucti!e reactance> e.planation" 'n ucti!e reactance epen the circuit (i"e", a physical property &re9uency o& the applie !oltage0 ,he reactance, TL, is shown /elow0 warrants some more s on the in uctance o& o& materials) an the e9uation &or in ucti!e

TL A 3&L (TL gi!en in ohms -) where0 A ;"+4+DK ( is actually a repeating, ecimal, /ut this is close enough &or our purposes" &A &re9uency o& the applie !oltage, measure in GertL, an LA the in uctance o& the circuit"
(43)

'n uctance is measure in henries, a//re!iate as =G>" ,he 9uantity (3&) is calle the angular &re9uency an is sym/oliLe /y the term ui (small omega) " ,his term shoul not /e con&use with =capital omega> (), use to enote =ohms>" 't can /e seen that, &or a c !oltage source, the &re9uency is Lero, hence" the in ucti!e reactance, TL, is Lero" ,his means that in uctor acts as a short circuit (Lero in ucti!e reactance) &or c !oltage application" As the source &re9uency increases, the in ucti!e reactance will increase in proportion to he &re9uency" 1e can summariLe our iscussion on in uctance thus &ar as &ollows0 +) 'n a purely in ucti!e circuit, the current =lags> the !oltage /y K6 egrees" 3) ,he relationship /etween !oltages an current in an in ucti!e circuit is gi!en /y Ohms Law, ' A VBT L, where TL is terme the in ucti!e reactance an is measure in ohms" TL increases with the &re9uency o& the applie !oltage" TL can /e consi ere constant i& the &re9uency o& the applie !oltage is constant" *igure l"("3 shows the power in an in ucti!e circuit" ,he power cur!e was o/taine in the same manner as &or a resisti!e circuit@ i"e", /y multiplying !oltage an current at each instant o& time" 1hene!er either the !oltage or current is Lero, the power eli!ere to the in uctor is Lero" 1hene!er the !olt age ari current wa!e&orms are /oth positi!e, their pro uct will also /e positi!e" ,he same is true i& /oth the !oltage an cur rent are negati!e" (uring these perio s o& positi!e power, the in uctor is
(4;)

a/sor/ing energy &rom the connecte !oltage source" Gowe!er, when either the !oltage or current is negati!e an the other is positi!e, the power a/sor/e is negati!e, 'n icating that the in uctor is supplying power to the !oltage source" Recall that this is not the case with a purely resisti!e circuit, where power is always positi!e"

"#lta$e( Current( and P#+er in An Inducti,e Circuit Fi$ure 1.D/

(44)

*urthermore, *igure L"("3 shows that the a!erage power consume o!er one cycle is Lero, since as much power is a/sor/e uring one 9uarter cycle as is pro uce uring the ne.t 9uarter cycle" 'n the case o& an in uctor, the magnetic &iel set up aroun the in uctor acts as an energy storage e!ice, with the sa amount o& energy release uring one 9uarter cycle as was store uring the pre!ious 9uarter cycle" ,he power in a purely in ucti!e circuit there&ore oscillates /etween the generator an the magnetic &iel e!ery 9uarter cycle, meaning that no acti!e power is consume /y the in uctor" $ince the pro uct o& !oltage an current in an in uctor cannot /e terme acti!e power, we gi!e it the name reacti!e power, or !oltamperes reacti!e" ,his is a//re!iate as !ar" Vars in a purely in ucti!e circuit are o/taine /y multiplying rtns !oltage times rms current" 'n ucti!e !ars are rawn at an angle o& IK66 with respect to acti!e power (watts)" By con!ention, watts are assigne phase angle o& Lero egrees, an are consi ere the re&erence !ector on a !ector iagram in!ol!ing power" (Hote that there are no watts pro uce in the circuit o& *igure +"6"3" ,hey are rawn on the !ector iagram only &or re&erence)" 'n ucti!e !ars are consi ere positi!e !ars, since the generator must supply them" ,hey are gi!en a positi!e sign an rawn as an arrow oriente in the IK6 egree position" ,o summariLe the main points concerning power in a purely in ucti!e circuit0

(4D)

+) ,he a!erage power consume in an in uctor o!er one cycle is Lero" 3) ,he power oscillates /etween the in uctor an the source, an is gi!en the name reacti!e power, or !oltamperes reacti!e, to istinguish it &rom watts, or acti!e power" Reacti!e power is a//re!iate !ars" ;) Reacti!e power can /e illustrate /y means o& a !ector iagram" '& the acti!e power !ector is at an angle o& Lero egrees, reacti!e power in an in ucti!e circuit can /e rawn at an angle o& IK6 egrees" Vars in an in ucti!e circuit are gi!en a positi!e sign"

(42)

Capacitance
*igure +"("; shows a purely capaciti!e circuit" ,he capacitor is shown sym/olically in the circuit iagram, an is assigne the letter C (&or capacitance) , or T C (&or capaciti!e reactance)" Capacitance is the property o& an electric circuit that opposes any change in !oltage ,here&ore, i& an ac !oltage is applie to a purely capaciti!e circuit, the resulting current will reach its pea8 !alue K66 ahea o& the !oltage, as shown /y the wa!e&orms o& *igure l"(";" ,he current =lea s> the !oltage /y K6R, as in icate in the !ector iagram" ,he amount o& current &lowing in a capaciti!e circuit is once again gi!en /y Ohms Law0 'AVBTC where TC is terme the capaciti!e reactance Capaciti!e reactance represents the opposition to current &low in a capaciti!e circuit" Capacitance, li8e resistance an in uctance, is a physical property o& materials" ,he capaciti!e reactance TC, is a &unction o& the capacitance o& the circuit element, an the &re9uency o& the applie !oltage" 't is gi!en /y the &ollowing e9uation0 TAlB(3&C) (TC e.presse in ) where0 A ;"+4+DK

(4F)

"#lta$e( Current( and P#+er In A Capaciti,e Circuit Fi$ure 1.D.3

(47)

$ince no acti!e power (watts) is consume , the pro uct o& r !oltage an rms current is calle again, !oltamperes reacti!e, or !ars" Gowe!er, the !ars pro uce /y a capaciti!e circuit are always gi!en a negati!e sign, in icating that capacitors are consi ere a source o& !ars" 'llustrate on the !ector iagram, o& *igure l"("4, capaciti!e !ars are always rawn at an angle o& minus K6 egrees with respect to the acti!e power" Again, acti!e power is shown here only &or re&erence" '& /oth capacitance an in uctance e.ist in a circuit, some or all o& the !ars re9uire /y the in uctor may actually /e supplie /y the capacitor (i"e", the capaciti!e !ars =compensate> &or the in ucti!e !ars re9uire ) ,his will /e illustrate in the ne.t segment" Capaciti,e circuits can >e summari=ed as -#ll#+s7 +) 'n a purely capaciti!e circuit, the current &lowing through the capacitor always =lea s> the applie !oltage /y K6 egrees" 3) ,he relationship /etween current an !oltage in a capaciti!e circuit is gi!en /y Ohms Law, ' A VBTC, where TC is terme the capaciti!e reactance, an is measure in ohms" TC is in!ersely proportional to the &re9uency o& the applie !oltage" ;) Ho acti!e power is consume /y capaciti!e circuits" Li8e in ucti!e circuits, the pro uct o& !oltage an current is terme !ars /ut is gi!en a negati!e sign (opposite to in ucti!e !ars), in icating that capacitors act as =sources> o& !ars" (By the same to8en, in uctors act as =sin8s> o& !ars)"

(4K)

P%'ER FACT%R
'n pre!ious iscussion the e&&ects o& resistance, in uctance an capacitance were iscusse in i!i ually" But a p electric circuit e.hi/its mc than one o& these properties an perhaps all three at the same time, with one /eing pre ominant" ,his segment presents an e.ample o& a circuit containing all three properties - resistance, in uctance an capacitance - an emonstrates how their e&&ects are com/ine " 'n so oing, the concept o& =power &actor> is intro uce " *igure l"E"l shows a !oltage source connecte to a pure resistance" ,he !oltage source has a &re9uency o& 26 GL, an !oltage o& +66 !olts rms" ,he resistance has a !alue o& 3"D ohms" ,he current through the resistor is gi!en /y Ohms Law, ' A VBR, an is e9ual to 46 amperes rms" ,his current, calle ' R, is in phase with the !oltage, as shown on the !ector iagram" ,he source !oltage is ta8en to /e the re&erence !ector"

(D6)

"#lta$e Current and P#+er;Resistance %nl! Fi$ure 1.E.1

(D+)

,he power a/sor/e /y the resistor is0 +66 !olts 5 46 amperes A 4666 watts" ,his is also shown in *igure +"E"l, rawn at an angle o& Lero egrees" $uppose a 3"D ohm in uctor is connecte to the circuit, as shown in *igure +"E"3" Hotice that the !oltage across the in uctor is the same as that across the resistor-namely, +66 ring" ,he resistor an in uctor are sai to /e connecte =in parallel>" By Ohms Law, the current &lowing through the inc uctor, 'L is +66 !oltsB3"D ohms A 46 amperes" Gowe!er, the current in an in uctor lags the source !oltage /y K6 egrees" ,he acti!e power issipate in the in uctor is Lero, /ut the !ars in the in ucti!e circuit are0 !olts 5 46 amperes A 4666 !ars *igure l"E"3 shows the graphical representation o& the source !oltage, the current in the resistor an the in uctor, an acti!e an reacti!e power &or this com/ine circuit" As a &inal step, a capacitor with a capaciti!e reactance o& +6 is connecte across the source !oltage in para++e with the resistor an in uctor, as shown in *igure +"E";" Once again, the &ull source !oltage o& +66 !olts is applie across the capacitor" ,he current &lowing through the capacitor, 'C, is gi!en /y +66 !oltsB+6 A +6 amperes, at an angle o& IK6R with respect to the source !oltage" Li8e an in uctor, no acti!e power is consume /y a capacitor" Rather, the reacti!e power (!ars) are calculate /y0 +66 !olts 5 +6 amperes +666 !ars" ,he three currents, ' R, 'L, an 'C are shown graphically in *igure l"E";, as are acti!e power (watts) , in ucti!e !ars, an capaciti!e !ars"
(D3)

"#ta$e( Current and P#+er Resistance and Inductance in Parallel Fi$ure 1.E./

(D;)

"#lta$e( Current and P#+er Resistance( Inductance( and Capacitance in Parallel Fi$ure 1.E.2

(D4)

$ince capaciti!e !ars are negati!e, they are supplie to the circuit" ,his re uces the !ars re9uire /y the in uctor@ that is, the 4666 !ars nee e /y the in uctor can /e partially met /y the +666 !ars generate /y the capacitor" ,he capacitor is sai to =compensate> &or the !ar re9uirement o& the in uctor" ,he total !ar re9uirement &or the circuit is thus 4666 !ars - +666 !ars A ;666 !ars" ,his is shown graphically in *igure +"E"4(a), where the reacti!e power !ectors &or in uctance an capacitance (*igure l"E";) are simply a e !ectorially to gi!e net in ucti!e !ars e9ual to ;666 !ars" Gowe!er, recall that only !ectors in the same irection or in the opposite irection (+76R apart) can /e a e ) or su/tracte ) irectly" ,o a !ectors o& watts an !ars (which are K6 apart) we must resort to a /asic theorem o& geometry (the #ythagorean ,heorem), which states that the s9uare o& the hypotenuse o& a right triangle is e9ual to the sum o& the s9uares he two remaining si es o& the triangle" 'n *igure +"E"4(/), the reacti!e power !ector has /een re rawn /y mo!ing it &rom the tail o& the acti!e power !ector to the tip o& the acti!e power !ector" (Recall0 ,wo !ectors, K6 apart, can /e a e graphically /y rawing them tip to tail, then completing the triangle)" ,he sum o& the two power !ectors is then, the hypotenuse o& the right triangle, la/ele on the iagram, =!oltamperes>, an a//re!iate =VA>"

(DD)

P#+er Tria$le P#+er 1.E.3

(D2)

,he VA (!oltamperes) 's actually the total circuit !oltage times the total circuit current" ,his =total> or com/ine current, is shown in the circuit iagram o& *igure l"E",4 as ='> an is the !ector sum o& the three currents, 'R" 'L, an 'C (see *igure +"E";)" By the #ythagorean theorem, VA can /e calculate /y ta8ing the s9uare root o& the sum o& the s9uares o& watts an !ars that is0
V0 = (4666watts ) 3 +(;666 !ar s) 3 =D666V0

,he total current, ', can /e calculate /y ta8ing !oltamperes i!i e /y !oltage (D666 VAB+66 !olts) " ,hus total current supplie to the circuit is D6 amperes" ,his ' is out o& phase with the source !oltage /y the angle mar8e V in *igure +"E"4" $ince the circuit is in ucti!e in nature (i"e", in ucti!e !ars ominate), this current will lag the !oltage /y the angle V" ,his e.ample illustrates that the pro uct o& !oltage an current in a circuit containing not only resistance /ut also capacitance an Bor in uctance is not e9ual tothe acti!e power consume /y the circuit" ,his can /e seen &rom "the power triangle o& *igure l"E"4(/), where the acti!e power consume is shown /y the !ector la/ele 4666 watts an the !oltamperes are shown /y the hypotenuse o& the right triangle" *or this reason, !oltamperes are typically, re&erre to as =apparent> power, since only part o& it represents acti!e power" ,he ratio o& acti!e power to apparent power is 8nown as the power &actor (#"*") o& the circuit" *rom trigonometry, recall that, &or angle V in *igure l"E"4, the ratio o& the a Eacent si e (watts)
(DF)

to the hypotenuse (VA) e&ines the cosine o& the angle V, hence, power &actor can also /e etermine /y0 0890CE6! 20!!3 Cos = = = /12ER/0C!1R 45/1!E673E V0 'n this e.ample, the power &actor is calculate to /e0 #"*" A 4666 wattsBD666 !oltamperes A 6"7" $ince the total current, ', lags the source !oltage (i"e", this is an in ucti!e circuit)@ the circuit o& *igure l"E"4 has what is terme a 6"7 lagging power &actor" '& the !alues o& capacitance an in uctance were such that negati!e !ars ominate (i"e", capaciti!e circuit), the total current woul lea the !oltage, an the circuit woul operate with what is terme a lea ing power &actor" ,he angle V can /e calculate /y &in ing that angle who cosine is 6"7" *rom trigonometric ta/les or a calculator, this turns out to /e ;F egrees" A power &actor o& 6"7 means that 76"percent o& the apparent power is acti!e power (watts) " 'n a circuit whose power &actor is +"6 (unity power &actor) , +66 percent o& the apparent power is acti!e power" ,his situation is characteristic o& purely resisti!e circuits, an also o& circuits where the !ars a/sor/e /y in uctors is e.actly matche /y the !ars generate /y capacitors" A circuit ha!ing a power &actor o& 6"6 has no resistance elements to a/sor/ acti!e power@ thus none o& the apparent power is acti!e power the circuit consists only o& in ucti!e an Bor capaciti!e elements" A power &actor can /e speci&ie at e!ery point in a power system@ i"e", we can consi er the power &actor at a generator, the power &actor at the point o& loa , or anywhere else in the system"
(D7)

'n practice, it is esira/le to 8eep the power &actor as to unity as possi/le, since the acti!e power (watts) eli!ere to a loa actually oes the wor8 in operating electrical e9uipment" Vars, howe!er, are a/solutely essential to the operation o& the power system" Vars pro uce the ac magnetic &iel s in in ucti!e components o& the system, such as trans&ormers, transmission lines, in uction motors, an so on" ,hese e!ices re9uire /oth acti!e power (to o the use&ul wor8) , an reacti!e power (to set up the magnetic &iel s which allow use&ul wor8 to /e one) Reacti!e power re9uire /y in ucti!e loa s must /e supplie /y the power system generators, unless enough !ar compensation is present (capacitors, synchronous con ensers, static compensators)" -n&ortunately, this has the e&&ect o& limiting the amount o& megawatts that can /e supplie /y the generator" A simple e.ample will illustrate this point"

(DK)