Fundamentals of Photonics Bahaa E. A. Saleh, Malvin Carl Teich Copyright 1991 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

. ISBNs: 0-471-83965-5 (Hardback); 0-471-2-1374-8 (Electronic)

APPENDIX

LINEAR SYSTEMS
This appendix provides a review of the basic characteristics of one- and two-dimensional linear systems.

B.l . One-Dimensional

Linear Systems

Consider a system whose input and output are the functions fi(t) and f&t), respectively. An example is a harmonic oscillator driven by a time-varying force fi(t) that responds by undergoing a displacement f2(t). The system is characterized by a rule that relates the output to the input. In general, the rule may take the form of a differential equation, an integral transform, or a simple mathematical operation such as f&l = logf,(t). Linear Systems A system is said to be linear if it satisfies the principle of superposition, i.e., if its response to the sum of any two inputs is the sum of its responses to each of the inputs separately. The output at time t is, in general, a weighted superposition of the input contributions at different times 7,

f&j

= Irn h(t; T)fl(r) dc --m

(B.l-I)

where h(t; 7) is a weighting function representing the contribution of the input at time T to the output at time t. If the input is an impulse at 7, so that fl(t) = 8(t - T), then (B.l-1) gives f&t) = h(t; 7). Thus h(t; 7) is the impulse-response function of the system (also known as the Greens function). Linear ShiiWnvariant Systems A linear system is said to be time-invariant or shift-invariant if, when its input is shifted in time, its output shifts by an equal time, but otherwise remains the same. The impulse-response function is then a function of the time difference, h(t; T) = h(t - 7). Under these conditions, (B.l-1) becomes

(B.l-2)

Thus the output f2(t) is the convolution of the input f l(t) with the impulse-response 928

LINEAR SYSTEMS

929

h(t)
_n,.

h(t- T)

Figure B.l-1

Response of a linear shift-invariant system to impulses.

function h(t) [see (A.l-4)]. If fi(t) = s(t), then f*(t) = h(t); and if fl(t) = 6(t - r), then f&) = h(t - r), as illustrated in Fig. B.l-1. The Transfer Function In accordance with the convolution theorem discussed in Appendix A, the Fourier transforms F,(V), F&), and X(V), of fl(t), f2(t), and h(t), respectively, are related by

If the input fi(t) is a harmonic function F,(v)exp(j2rvt), the output f2(t) = X(v)F,(v)exp(j2~vt) is also a harmonic function of the same frequency but with a modified complex amplitude F,(v) = F1(v)X(v), as illustrated in Fig. B.l-2. The multiplicative factor X(V) is known as the systems transfer function. The transfer function is the Fourier transform of the impulse-response function. Equation (B.l-3) is the key to the usefulness of Fourier methods in the analysis of linear shift-invariant systems. To determine the output of a system for an arbitrary input, we simply decompose the input into its harmonic components, multiply the complex amplitude of each harmonic function by the transfer function at the appropriate frequency, and superpose the resultant harmonic functions. Examples Ideal system: X(V) = 1 and h(t) = s(t); the output is a replica of the input. Ideal system with delay: X(V) = exp( -j2rvr) and h(t) = 8(t - 7); the output is a replica of the input delayed by time T. System with exponential response: X(v) = r/(1 + j2swr) and h(t) = e-/ for t 2 0, and h(t) = 0, otherwise; this represents the response of a system described by a first-order linear differential equation, e.g., that representing an R-C circuit with time constant r. An impulse at the input results in an exponentially decaying response. Chirped system: X(V) = exp( -jrv2) and h(t) = e-jTi4 exp( j7rt2); the system distorts the input by imparting to it a phase shift proportional to v2. An input

X(v)e

j2mt

Figure 8.1-2

Response of a linear shift-invariant system to a harmonic function.

930

APPENDIX 6

impulse generates an output in the form of a chirped signal, i.e., a harmonic function whose instantaneous frequency (the derivative of the phase) increases linearly with time. This system describes the propagation of optical pulses through media with a frequency-dependent phase velocity (see Sec. 5.6). It also describes changes in the spatial distribution of light waves as they propagate through free space (see Sec. 4.1C). Linear Shit&Invariant Causal Systems The impulse response function h(t) of a linear shift-invariant causal system must vanish for t < 0, since the systems response cannot begin before the application of the input. The function h(t) is therefore not symmetric and its Fourier transform, the transfer function X(Y), must be complex. It can be shown? that if h(t) = 0 for t < 0, then the real and imaginary parts of X(V), denoted X(V) and X(V) respectively, are related by

(8.1-4)

(B.l-5) Hilbert Transform

where the Cauchy principal values of the integrals are to be evaluated, i.e.,

Functions that satisfy (B.l-4) and (B.l-5) are said to form a Hilbert transform pair, X(v) being the Hilbert transform of X(v). If the impulse response function h(t) is also real, its Fourier transform must be symmetric, X(-V) = X*(v). The real part X(v) then has even symmetry, and the imaginary part X(V) has odd symmetry. The integrals in (B.l-4) and (B.l-5) may then be rewritten as integrals over the interval (0, m). The resultant equations are known as the Kramers-Kronig relations

(ELI-6)

x(~)

= ?f???i rr 0 v2 -s2

ds.

(B.l-7) Kramers - Kronig Relations

In summary, the Hilbert-transform relations, or the Kramers-Kronig relations, relate the real and imaginary parts of the transfer function of a linear shift-invariant
See, e.g., L. E. Franks, .SignaZTheory, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1969.

LINEAR SYSTEMS

931

causal system, so that if one part is known at all frequencies, the other part may be determined. Example: The Harmonic Oscillator The linear system described by the differential equation

(B.I-8)

describes a harmonic oscillator with displacement f2( t) under an applied force fl(t), where w. is the resonance angular frequency and (T is a coefficient representing damping effects. The transfer function X(v) of this system may be obtained by substituting fl(t) = exp(j2rrvt) and f2(t) = X(v)exp( j2rvt) in (B.l-8), which yields 1 1 = ~2~)~ vg - v2 f jv Au
(B.l-9)

x(v)

where v. = oo/27r is the resonance frequency, and Av = a/27r. The real and imaginary parts of X(v) are therefore X(v) 1 = ~ (2d2 = -1 (2d2 v; - v2
(8.1-10)

(~0 - v)

+ (v Av)~ vAv
(B.l-11)

X(v)

(vi - v)~ + (v Av)~

Since the system is causal, X(v) and X(v) satisfy the Kramers-Kronig relations. When v. Z+ Au, X(v) and X(v) are narrow functions centered about vo. For v = vo, (vg - v2) = 2vo(vo - v) so that (B.l-10) and (B.l-11) may be approximated by 1
x(v) = (2~)~
v vo

Av/4vo (v. - v)~ + (Av/~)~

(8.1-12)

X(v)

= 273c(v).

(8.1-13)

The transfer function of the harmonic-oscillator system is used in Chaps. 5 and 13 to describe dielectric and atomic systems. Equation (B.l-12) has a Lorentzian form.

6.2.

Two-Dimensional

Linear Systems

A two-dimensional system relates two two-dimensional functions fl<x, y) and f2(x, y), called the input and output functions. These functions may, for example, represent optical fields at two parallel planes, with (x, y) representing position variables; the system comprises the free space and optical components that lie between the two planes. The concepts of linearity and shift invariance defined in the one-dimensional case are easily generalized to the two-dimensional case. The output f2(x, y) of a linear

932

APPENDIX B

f&Y)

f*bY)

Figure B.2-1

Response of a two-dimensionallinear shift-invariant systemto two impulses.

system is related to its input fr(x, y) by a superposition integral

fk

Y>

= j-7 h(x, y; x, y)f@,

--m

y) h&,

(B.2-1)

where h(x, y; x, y) is a weighting function that represents the effect of the input at the point (x, y) on the output at the point (x, y). The function h(x, y; x, y) is the impulse-response function of the system (also known as the point-spread function). The system is said to be shift-invariant (or isoplanatic) if shifting its input in some direction shifts the output by the same distance and in the same direction without otherwise altering it (see Fig. B.2-1). The impulse response function is then a function of position differences h(x, y; x, y) = h(x - x, y - y). Equation (B.2-1) then becomes the two-dimensional convolution of h(x, y) with fr(x, y):

f2(x, y) = j-- h(x -6

--M

Y - ~)f,(x,

Y> ,dy. --1

(B.2-2)

Applying the two-dimensional convolution theorem discussed in Sec. A.3 of Appendix A, we obtain

M% vy) = NV,, J++r,

vy),

(8.2-3)

where F2bx, vy), X( vx, vJ, and F,( vX, vY) are the Fourier transforms of f2(x, y ), h(x, y), and fr(x, y), respectively. A harmonic input of complex amplitude FI(vx, vY) therefore produces a harmonic output of the same spatial frequency but with complex amplitude F2(vx, v,,) = x(v,, vY) F,(v,, v,), as illustrated in Fig. B.2-2. The multiplicative factor X(v,, vY) is

e-j

2n(w

+ v,Y)

WV,

I ~y)e-j2dvr+vyY)

Figure

8.2-2

Response of a two-dimensional linear shift-invariant system to harmonic

functions.

LINEAR SYSTEMS

933

the systems transfer function. The transfer function is the Fourier transform of the impulse-response function. Either of these functions characterizes the system completely and enables us to determine the output corresponding to an arbitrary input. In summary, a two-dimensional linear shift-invariant system is characterized by its impulse-response function h(x, y) or its transfer function X(V,, vv). For example, a system with h(x, y) = circ(x/p,, y/p,) smears each point of the input into a patch in the form of a circle of radius ps. It has a transfer function X(vX, v.J = p,J,(27~p,v,)/v,, where vP = (vz + vZ)~/~, which has the shape illustrated in Fig. A.3-2. The system severely attenuates spatial frequencies higher than 0.61/p, lines/mm.

READING LIST
See the reading list in Appendix A.