INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background
Robot had come to human life for the past almost 90 years ago. Robot once was created with the purpose as a human assistant tool. But nowadays, people create robot for many reasons and purposes. Other than as human assistant tools, people make robots for hobby, entertainment, and personal use. Some people think or sense a robot is just about wires and wheels but several just think over the limit. Math rules physics, and physics rules robots. The laws of physics and math are evident in everyday life. Throughout the history of science and technology, the path to great discoveries has almost started with the observation of simple events. Newtons apple, Einsteins empty room in space, and Shannons word games are clear examples. Making a vehicle that can autonomously drive around, both indoors and out seems, at first, like a simple thing. Build a chassis, add drive wheels, steering wheels, a power source (usually batteries), some control code that includes some navigation and obstacle avoidance routines or some other way to control it, throw some bump sensors on it, and there it go, a robot. Unfortunately, soon after these first attempts, the designer will find the robot getting stuck on what seem to be innocuous objects or bumps, held captive under a chair or fallen tree trunk, incapable of doing anything useful, or with a manipulator that crushes every beer can it tries to pick up. Knowledge of the mechanics of sensors, manipulators, and the concept of mobility will help reduce these problems.

1.2 Objectives
The main aim of this project is to design and develop a tree climbing manual control robot in which control by using radio frequency (RF) signal. With the RF control, the movement of the robot can be much easier and not too limited because it is not attach to a wire. The objectives of this project are as follow: 1. To design and develop a robot that has capability to climb tree and control by a remote control that using RF as the command transmission between the robot and the remot. 2. To modify a RF circuit from a normal control car toy and integrate to the robot mechanical system. 3. Able to receive and send command signal between the robot and the controller by using the RF signal. For future development of this project, this kind of robot can be develop or modify so that it can help human .

1.3 Scope
In this project, the literature research will cover about the wireless communication system such as radio frequency (RF), infra red, and microwave. Each type of the

wireless communication has its own advantages and disadvantages. Furthermore, this project will cover on the types of motors, materials, and mechanical parts such as motor ,flanges screw in making the robot. Other than types of robots, the movement style of robots also will be covered. Therefore, the research will the decided the design and movement style of this tree climbing robot. Moreover, some analysis on different materials for robot structure also will be covered in this project in order to build the robot. In this report of the project which consist 6 chapters, Chapter 1 discuss generally about the background of this project. The objectives of the project also are stated and elaborate in Chapter 1. Furthermore, the scope and the problems statement of the project also discussed. The Gantt chart is provided in this Chapter 1. Chapter 2 in this project report discusses all the literature research and the information obtained. Generally, in Chapter 2 consists discussion about particular aspects such as introduction to robots; history of robot, types of robot, properties of typical robots, and application of robots. Furthermore, wireless remote control system; wireless transmission. Moreover, components of stair climbing manual control robot, such as joypad, dc motor, and other mechanical parts. Structure, which includes aluminium and acrylic also, be discussed in Chapter 2. Last but not least, there is previous research that related to this project done by other provided and discussed in the project. In this methodology, generally explain on how this project will be implement, project planning, and the process flow of the project. With the flow chart provided, particular process flow and methodology which consists robot structure, design, mechanical system, and radio frequency control circuit in the project will be briefly discussed.

1.4 Problem Statement

In order to design a tree climbing robot, one of the aspects that need to concern about is the movement method of the robot. There are many methods that can be attached to a robot so that it be able to move on tree such as robot legs, pin leg. All this depends on the size or diameter of the tree, the cost of the materials, movement style of the robot and the speed movement of the robot. In the other hand, in order to modify a circuit for the controller and for the robot so that the controller be able to send command by RF signal and for the robot to receive command from the RF signal, the method on how to modify the circuit with the transmitter and receiver of RF signal attach to it, will be need to studied. Besides, type RF transmitter and receiver and power supply use in the circuit will put in consideration depends on the circuit system, cost of the equipments, and the robot needs itself. Furthermore, suitable types and quantity of motors to be used for the robot such as power widow motor, servo motor, or stepper motor, will depend on the design of the robot, speed movement of the robot, the power and torque of motors the robot need

and the cost of the motors. In developing and fabricating the robot, it will consider the materials use depend on the size of the robot, the shape or design of the robot, the cost of materials, and the ability to fabricate with the materials in order to developing the robot. Other than aspects mentioned above, there are particular parts and aspects that need to learned and studied in developing the robot such as types of gears to be used, types of wheels to be used, materials to be used for the robot structure, chains, wireless remote control system, and mechanical system of the robot.

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction to Robots
The field of robotics is very interesting to anyone that curious about how living things or organisms (including people) interact with the real world. Robotics is a very comprehensive, applications-oriented field of study. A complete understanding of robotics involves many different technical areas such as electrical principles, electronic devices, digital principles, electromechanical fundamentals, basic programming techniques, hydraulics, pneumatics, and basic manufacturing process. Generally, robots had been created for certain purposes or agency. A robot has artificial intelligence programmed which running by its own or control by a controller. A robot is not necessarily only in form of physical appearance that is touchable, but also in virtual form. Sometimes software also can be called a robot. Specifically, the definition of a robot that stated by Robot Institute of America as A reprogrammable and multifunctional manipulator, device for the transport of materials, parts, tools or specialised system with varied and programmed movement, with the aim of carrying out varied tasks [1]. But, this definition is far from perfect and needs additional definitions to completely define a robot.

2.1.1 History of Robot

The research about robot actually had started from 12 century consider about the high level of achievement of watchmakers whom made clockwork robots called automaton. These automatons are be able to write separate sentences, draw different pictures, play musical instruments, and perform simple tasks such as perform magic. The automatons are examples of the true robots as they were programmable via a system of interchangeable cams. As the time flows, the coming of industrial age, with its heavy use of machines, had a big culture impact. The sense that the technology was running away by itself was felt during this time and people felt that it is unwise to develop a high functioning mechanical human

with no emotions no humanoid behaviors in it. Therefore, as the idea was there, in the year 1920, a Czechoslovakian name Karel Capek introduced the word robota in the play of R.U.R Rossums Universal Robot; human-like mechanical creature produced by Rossums factory as shown in Figure 2.2. The word robot eventually comes from the Czech word, robota, which means labour [2]. In this case, it means about a very long lasting labour. From the play, it certainly defines the stereotype of a modern age robots. And in early 1930, a programmable humanoid robot named Electro was invented by Westinghouse Electric Corporation . Thus, in 1942, came the Three Laws of Robotics which are designed to protect human from robots. The Three Laws of Robotics are stated as follow; first, a robot may not injure a human being, or, through inaction allow a human being to come to harm, Second, a robot must obey the orders given to it by human beings, except where such orders conflict with the First Law, and Third, a robot must protect its own existence as long such protection does not conflict with the First and Second Laws .

2.1.2 Types of Robots

Basically, there are two types of robots that widely use in human daily life which are industrial robot and mobile robot. Of course, there are major differences between these two types of robot.

2.1.2.1 Industrial Robot

From the word industrial itself tells that industrial robots are robots that widely use for industries that can easily found in many factories. There are commonly seen as robotic arms. Use of these robots is to improve the quality and productivity of the industry productions. Generally, different robot conveys different tasks such as welding, painting, ironing, assembly, pick and place, packaging and palletizing, product inspection, and testing the products, that accomplished with high endurance, speed, and precision. Industrial robot usually consists of a jointed-arm (multi- linked manipulator) and gripper assembly or end effector that is attached to a fixed surface . There are many types of industrial robot such as articulated robot, Cartesian coordinate robot, Delta robot, gantry robot, liquid handling robot, parallel manipulator robot, serial manipulator robot, and SCARA robot .

DESIGN DETAILS OF RF TRANSMITTER AND RECIVER

Design Details of allied circuits:-

RF Transmitter Section RF Receiver Section Relay section Regulated Power Supply of +5vDC, +12vDC and +12vDC.

Design consideration and explanation of RF Transmitter:For remote control of any gadget, one needs RF transmitter and a receiver. Here, HT 12A/HT 12E with encode chip SM5162 and HT12D with decoder chip SM5172 is available. consideration of RF transmitter is as follows: Some design

Frequency Selection Range Modulation Power Supply

According this, pair is considered for current project. Fig. 5.2.1a shows transmitter block diagram and fig. 5.2.1.b shows internal circuit diagram of transmitter.

BATTERY

DATA INPUT

ENCODER HT12E/ SM5028/ SM5162

RADIO TX

ADDRESS SELECT

Fig. 5.2.1 a Transmitter block Diagram

This unit is powerful transmitters with a range of 30 feet without any problem. If proper antenna is used then the range may be increased up to 30 meters.

Circuit Description: i. Data input:-

These are simple push buttons. When they are open, LOGIC 1 is fed to data pins. If they are closed, LOGIC 0 is send to data pins along with TE (Transmit Enable)

ii.

HT 12E/SM5028/SM5162:It is an encoder IC. D0-D3 data input (pin 10-13) to the

encoder have been connected to the input switches as shown in fig. 5.2.1b. There are 8 inputs to the IC (pin 1 to 8) called the address input. It tells the encoder which address should be send. The decoder IC HT12D has same inputs and addresses on both ICs must match for the data is valid. Each address pin must be connected to GND or 5V. But, in this project, it is connected to 5V. There are two more pins on the encoder. Pin 14 is an input pin called as Transmit Enable (TE). Only when it is connected to GND will the encoder send the transmission. Whenever a button is pressed, LOGICO is send to this pin thus making it active and enabling transmissstion. The final pin 17 is the DATA OUT (DOUT) which sends the serial steam of pulses containing the address and data. This is connected to the radio transmitter module. Transmitter frequency is 315 MHz (selected.)

iii.

Antenna:-

It is the most important part of RF remote controlled devices. There are many antenna configurations available. But in this project Loop Antenna is used. Loop antenna is the cheapest and more compact. This antenna always takes the form of track on a PCB. This antenna consists of feeder capacitor C1 which can connected directly to the transmit pin on the radio module. Theoretical length is 1500cm practical length taken is 15cm.

Working of HT 12E/SM5028/SM5162:Fig. 5.1.2 shows working of Radio transmitter module. Power ON

Stand by Mode

Working of HT 12E/ SM5028/SM5162

TE Pin Enabled?

4 Data Words transmitted No TE Pin Enabled?

Ye No

Radio transmitter module Yes

Fig. Working of Radio Transmitter Module

Specifications of RF Transmitter:-

Following are specifications of RF Transmitter. Frequency: 434 MHz.

Range: 30 feet (with proper antenna-30m) Modulation: ASK Power Supply: 9V to 12V (Battery Operated).

Design Considerations and explanation of RF Receiver:The data transmitted by RF transmitter reaches to receiver module. The receiver module receives the ASK signal and demodulates it to get back the address bits and data bits. Following are the consideration for RF Receiver: The address of transmitter and receiver must be same. The frequency selection for transmitter and receiver must be same. Fig. 5.3.1a shows RF receiver block diagram.

RELAY 0 LATCH/ MOMENTARY MODE SELECT

ANT
VT

RELAY 1

RF in RADIO Rx

DECODER HT12D/ SM5038/ SN5172

MUX 4519

ULN 2003 A

RELAY 2

RELAY 3

ADDRESS SELECT
DC S U P PS DC L U YP 12V P L Y 12V

INVERT/ NORMAL OUTPU MODE SELECT

RELAY 4

IC 7805

Basically, RF receiver is PLL based receiver having range of 30 feet. If proper antenna is selected, the range can be increased up to 30 meters to 50 meters.

Circuit Description:1. HT 12D/SM 5038/SM 5172:Output is simple serial data of 4 data bits and 8 address bits, this is a detector IC. The Din pin receives the address bits and data bit serially from RF module. The D0-D3 DATA PINS (pin 10-13) pf decoder then sends the suitable 4-bit data. There are 8 inputs to IC called address inputs. These tell the decoder which address to acknowledge upon receiving one from a transmitter. The addresses on the both encoder and decoder must match for the data input to be valid.

Each address pin may be connected to ground or 5v. In this project, it is connected to 5v.

2.

Latch / Momentary Mode select:This setting gives us the selection of either latch or momentary

mode. In latch mode, data output form decoder is latched and same particular action keeps repeating. In momentary mode, as long as VT pin is active high; the action continuous. When VT pin is active LOW, action stops.

3.

Inverts / Normal Mode Selection:This allows the user to select between normal output and the

inverted output.

4.

Mux 4519:It is Quad common addressable 2:1 Mux. Signals are coming

from the latch/ manentary mode select and from invert/normal output mode. While rest 4 are connected to data output lines of decoder IC. When the latch mode is selected, data at the output pin is latch. When manentary mode is selected, data at the output pin is available as long as the VT pin is high. When VT pin is active LOW, relay will be switched OFF.

In invert mode, the output of Mux is active Low, while normal Mode, it is active HIGH.

ULN 2003 driver IC:Micro controller never drives the relays or load directly. Hence, ULN 2003 relay driver chip is used. It is suited for interfacing low-level logic circuitry and multiple Power loads like relays, solenoids, stepping motors, Multiplexed LEDs and heaters. In this project, if is used to drive the relay of 12V having resistance 400. Therefore, 12v/400 = 30 MA will be required to energized or de-energized relay. This requirement is fulfill by ULN 2003 driver IC. ULN 2003 is having continuous output current up to 500mA. Hence, it is selected to drive the relays. Also, relay is having 7 A contact rating. i.e. 7 A current will be withdrawn by the load. (Motors) we have 5V, 200mA for driving the motors. Hence this relay is preferred. Fig. 5.4 shows partial Schematic of ULN 2003.

Input

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

16 15

Open collector output

ULN 2003

14 13 12 11 10

All devices have features of open collector outputs with integral clamp diodes with seven Darlington pairs.

The RF module, as the name suggests, operates at Radio Frequency. The corresponding frequency range varies between 30 kHz & 300 GHz. In this RF system, the digital data is represented as variations in the amplitude of carrier wave. This kind of modulation is known as Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK).

Transmission through RF is better than IR (infrared) because of many reasons. Firstly, signals through RF can travel through larger distances making it suitable for long range applications. Also, while IR mostly operates in line-of-sight mode, RF signals can travel even when there is an obstruction between transmitter & receiver. Next, RF transmission is more strong and reliable than IR transmission. RF communication uses a specific frequency unlike IR signals which are affected by other IR emitting sources.

This RF module comprises of an RF Transmitter and an RF Receiver. The transmitter/receiver (Tx/Rx) pair operates at a frequency of 434 MHz. An RF transmitter receives serial data and transmits it wirelessly through RF through its antenna connected at pin4. The transmission occurs at the rate of 1Kbps - 10Kbps.The transmitted data is received by an RF receiver operating at the same frequency as that of the transmitter.

The RF module is often used alongwith a pair of encoder/decoder. The encoder is used for encoding parallel data for transmission feed while reception is decoded by a decoder. HT12E-HT12D, HT640HT648, etc. are some commonly used encoder/decoder pair ICs.
Pin Diagram:

Pin Description:

RF Transmitter

Pin No 1 2 3 4

Function Ground (0V) Serial data input pin Supply voltage; 5V Antenna output pin

Name Ground Data Vcc ANT

RF Receiver

Pin No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Function Ground (0V) Serial data output pin Linear output pin; not connected Supply voltage; 5V Supply voltage; 5V Ground (0V) Ground (0V) Antenna input pin

Name Ground Data NC Vcc Vcc Ground Ground ANT

SW1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 SW DIP-8 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 D14 D13 D12 10 11 D11 12 13 16 14 D18 D17 D16 D15 HT12E/DIP18
2

BT1 BATTERY GND Vcc DI/P U14 A0 A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 AD8 AD9 AD10 AD11 OSC1 TE DOUT OSC2 17 15 R41 GND ANT

E1

SW5

SW4

SW3

SW2 <Value>

R48 E2 ANTENNA +5V WZ-R01 1 RV+ 10AV+ 12AV+ 15AV+ U15 ANT SW6 DOUT 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 11 12 13 16 14 DIN A0 A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 D8 D9 D10 D11 OSC1 U17 Z0 Z1 Z2 Z3 10 11 12 13 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I1 ULN2004 O1 I2 O2 I3 O3 I4 O4 I5 O5 I6 O6 I7 O7
COMMON 9 1

+5V

D19

VT OSC2

17 15

3 Q9 2N3904 1 R47

RGND RGND AGND

TP

<Value>

HT12D

GND

L3 D20 R49 L3LED 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 D20 R49 L3LED D20 R49 L3LED D20 R49 LED

U16 6 7 4 5 2 3 15 1 9 14 X0 Y0 X1 Y1 X2 Y2 X3 Y3 A B 4519

Design of robot We started out by creating a basic design in Sketchup. The robot was to consist of two segments, joined by a spine which could be extended or retracted. Each segment would have four legs with very sharp points as feet. To climb, the legs on the top segment would pinch together and the sharp feet would dig into the bark, securing the robot. Then the spine would be retracted, pulling up the bottom segment. The legs on the bottom segment would then grip the tree, and the top segment would release. Finally, the spine would extend, pushing the top segment upwards, and the process would repeat. The climbing sequence is somewhat similar to the way an inchworm climbs. original design (show in the images above), all four legs in each segment were controlled by one highly geared down motor. I decided to ditch this idea for a few reasons. Firstly, I could not find the type of spur gear needed to mesh the legs together. Also, with all the legs linked together, the robot would have a hard time gripping

uneven surfaces. Finally, I decided that the robot would be much easier to build if the motors drove the legs directly. The other significant change I made from my original design was the way the spine worked. In my model, I used a rack and pinion type gearing system to extend and contract the spine. However, I could not find the necessary parts to build such a system, so I ended up using a threaded rod coupled to a motor to actuate the spine. Image Notes 1. The strange leg shape came from resizing the legs all at once in Sketchup. 2. Front on

Tools and Materials Terminal Strips 22AWG Solid core wire 3X Aluminum heatsinks (I cut in half an old northbridge heatsink) Thermal paste Power 9V Battery (to power the Arduino) Approximately 12V LiPo or Li-ion battery (I modified a laptop battery, so I did not even need to buy a charger) 5V regulator (To regulate power to the motor controller logic circutry) 9V Battery clip Barrel connector (Must fit the Arduino power connector) Other Electronics 4X 7 RPM Gear Motor (These power two legs each) 4X Thin linear trim pots (Rotation sensors for the legs) DPDT Toggle switch (Power switch) SPDT Slide switch (User input) 2X Mini Snap Action Switch (Limit switch) 3 10K resistors (Pull down) Headers Signal Wire (Old IDE cables work really well, and let you organize your wires easily) Heat Shrink Tubing Hardware 12' 3/4" x 1/8" Aluminum Bar (These come in 6' lengths at my local hardware store) 6" x 3" acrylic sheet (Electronics are mounted to this) 6x Standoffs with screws 1' Threaded rod and corresponding 1/2" nut 2X 1' x 3/16" steel rod 1' x 3/16" I.D. Brass Tubing 4X 5mm Aluminum Universal Mounting Hub

Pack of large T Pins 4X 3/32 screws (to mount the motors) An assortment of 4/40 screws and nuts Assorted hex screws and nuts 4X Bic pens (I used the plastic shafts to fix the pots on the legs in place) 4X Locknuts 5 Minute epoxy Sheet metal scraps (For spacing and mounting things. Bits of Meccano work well) Stick on Velcro (For holding on the batteries) Hard Drive reading head bearing 3/4" Plastic angle Electrical Tape Zip Ties Tools Electric Drill / Drill press (As well as a lot of bits) Hacksaw Soldering Iron Pliers Allen wrench Assorted screwdrivers Wire Strippers C Clamp (These can be used to make nice 90 degree bends in the aluminum) Ruler Files Nonessential Bench PSU Multimeter Breadboard

PCB DESIGN
Designing of PCB : I) After selection of electronic circuit, make a block diagram of various circuits to know various inter-connections required, which will help in reducing the number of wires. II) The designer should have the complete idea of the circuit regarding the function and signal flows through. III) Keep each and very component you need, while starting the designing. IV) Use of templates is essential if you are new designer, if the design is manual i.e. hand made and not with software such as Orcas, Auto CAD, Pads, Ideas, Circuit maker, etc. V) Standard PCB size should be decided in the beginning only. VI) Preferably, layout ands artwork should be in 1:2 scales. VII) Sequential stage after PCB size is decided. VIII) Component placement. IX) Track routing i.e. layout. X) Artwork making with ink or ready made tapes and pads. XI) While routing the tracks, carrying AC mains voltage, consider the safety rules ands regulations. XII) In analog and digital systems together, care should be taken that analog and digital ground will not mix each other affecting the stability ands fluctuations in the display. XIII) In power system i.e. high current, the track width and the track spacing should be as maximum as possible. XIV) While placing the components on the PCB preferably the load on PCB, should be evenly distributed to avoid the problems at completion stage during wave-soldering i.e. warping of PCB etc. XV) To avoid weakening of the pup tool, the perforation length should be kept minimum i.e.<40 mm.

XVI) For the manually shouldered components vent i.e. cut pads should be provided to avoid the blocking of the holes during shouldering COMPOMENT PLACEMENT :

I)

Preferably, place the component in X-Y direction subjected to mechanical construction. II) All components should be flat mounted i.e. flat placed to avoid of leads and for easy requirements. However in case of space limitation the components such as resistors, diodes, etc. may be mounted vertically which doesnt affect the performance. III) In case separate analog and digital ground. IV) Orientation of multi-lead components(e.g. switches, Ics) should be connected in between the analog and digital ground . V) Sufficient clearance is provided around component so that inversion or replacement ands repair is easy. VI) The design should such that minimum jumpers are allowed. VII) It is preferable that, components like present, coils, and trim pots, etc. which alignment of calibration are placed in such that, they are accessible after the assembly of the PCB on cabinet also. VIII) If the components are not flush mounted, provide the sleeve for leads. PCB DESIGNING AND FABRICATION

Introduction to Printed Circuit Boards;-

The PCB is a work of art.

Printed circuit consists of

conductive circuit applied to one or both the sides of an insulating base, depending on that it is called either single sided or double sided PCB. The performance of an electronic circuit depends upon the layout and design of the PCB. They are used to route the electrical current and signals through copper tracks which are finally bounded to an insulating base. The Printed Circuit Board usually serves three functions:It provides mechanical support for the components mounted on it. It provides necessary electrical interconnections. It acts as a heat sink i.e. it provides a conduction path leading to the removal of most of the heat generated in the circuit. Conductor materials available are silver, brass, Aluminum and copper. Copper is widely used and hence is a preferable choice. The thickness of conducting material depends upon the current carrying capacity of the circuit.

Cu Clad:The base of laminate is either paper or glass fiber cloth. Cu foil, which is produced by the method of electroplating, is paced on laminate and

both are kept under hydraulic pressure for proper adhesive pressure. These Cu clads are very easily available in the market.

Types of Laminates:National Electrical Manufactures Association (NEMA) has various grades of laminates that are obtained by different resins and filters.

Phenol:Phenol and Formaldehyde produce phenolic paper base laminates;

it has Phenolic resins with proper filter. This is brown in color & opaque. Disadvantage is poor moisture resistance.

Epoxy Laminates:Epoxy paper is also paper based but impregnated with

epoxy, yellowish white and translucent. Epoxy glass is the base material has high mechanical strength and good electrical properties usually green in color & semi transparent. There are a variety of laminates available.

Steps of PCB Fabrication:PCB fabrication has the following steps;

 Layout of the Circuit Artwork Designing Printing Etching Drilling Mounting of components & soldering Finishing & Testing.

Layout:The layout of a PCB has to incorporate all the information on the board before one can go onto all the work preparation. Detailed circuit diagram, the design concept and the philosophy behind the equipment are very important are very important for the layout. Layout Scale:Depending on the accuracy required artwork should be produced at 1:1 or 2:1 or even 4:1 scale. The layout is best prepared on the same scale as the artwork to prevent the entire problem, which might be caused by redrawing of the layout to the artwork scale.

Procedure:-

The first rule is to replace each and every PCB layout as viewed from the component side. This rule must be strictly followed to avoid

confusion, which otherwise be caused. Another important rule is not to start the designing of a layout unless an absolutely clear circuit diagram is available. Among the components, the larger icons are placed first and the space in between is filled with smaller ones. Components requiring input/output connecting cone near the connector. All components are placed in such a manner that desoldering of components is not necessary if they have to be replaced.

Layout Sketch:The end product of the layout designing is the pencil sketched component and conductor drawing which is called layout sketch. It contains all information for the preparation of the network.

Components Holes:In a given PCB, most of the holes required are one particular diameter. Holes of a different are shown with a code in the actual layout sketch.

Conductor Holes:A code can be used for conductor with special width. Minimum spacing should also be provided. A) Holes Standard holes 1.1mm 1.5mm 3.2mm B) Conductor Widths Standard Width 1.1mm 2mm 4mm

Artwork: The generation of PCB artwork should be considered as the first step of PCB manufacturing process. The importance of a perfect artwork should not be underestimated. Problems like inaccurate registration, broken annular rings or too critical spacing are often due to bad artwork. And even with the most sophisticated PCB production facilities, PCB can be made better than the quality of artwork used.

Basic Approaches:-

For ink drawing on white cardboard paper, good quality Indian ink and ink-pen set are minimum requirements. Drawing practice, drawing procedure is very at least by 0.1-0.2, and solders pad locations. And conductors can easily be displaced by 0.3-0.5mm. Screen Printing:The process of screen printing is well known to he printing industry because of its inherent capabilities of printing a wide range of link on almost any kind of surface including glass, metal, plastic fabrics, wooer etc, found their way in to an extremely broad field of applications. Screen printing offers the advantages of wide control on the ink deposition, thickness though the selection of suitable mass density and composition in the production of PCBs. printing of It is successfully employed in

Etch resists Plate resists Solder stop lacquers Notation printing.

In its basic form, the screen printing process is very simple. A screen fabric with uniform meshes and opening is stretched and fixed on a solid frame of metal or wood. In the actual printing step, ink is forced by move squeeze through the open meshes on to the surface of the material to be printed. The ink deposition, in a magnified cross section, shows the shape of a trapezoid. Pattern Transfer on to Screen:There are two different methods in use, and each method has its own advantages and disadvantages. With the direct method, the screen is prepared, by coating a photographic emulsion directly on to the screen fabric and exposing it in the pattern area. The indirect method makes use of separate screen process film, supported on a baking sheet. The film on the backing sheet that is there after pressed on to the screen fabric and sticks there. Finally, the backing sheet is peeled off, opening all those meshes, which are not covered by film pattern. The direct method provides very durable screen stencils with a higher dimensional accuracy but the finest details are not produced. The indirect method is more suitable for smaller series and where the finest details to be reproduced.

The indirect method is faster but dimensionally less accurate and the screen stencils are less durable, more sensitive to mechanical damages and interruption in printing. Etching:In all subtractive PCB process, etching is one of the most important steps. The final copper pattern is formed by selective removal of the unwanted copper, which is not protected by an etching unit.

Solutions, which are used in etching process, are known as enchants.

Ferric chloride Cupric chloride Hromic Acid Alkaline Ammonia

Of these Ferric Chloride is widely used because it has short etching time and it can be stored for a long time. Etching of PCBs as required in modern electronic equipment production, is usually done in spray type etching machines.

Tank or Bubble Etching, in which the boards kept in a tank were lowered and fully immersed in to the agitated, has almost disappeared. Component Mounting:Careful mounting of components on PCB increases the reliability of assembly:Leads must be cleaned before they are inserted in the PCB holes. Asymmetric lead bending must be avoided. The ENT lead must fit in to holes properly so that they can be soldered. When the space is to be saved then vertical mounting is preferred. The vertical lead must have an insulating sleeve. insulated. For mounting of PCBs, DIP packages special jigs must be used of easy insertion. While mounting transistors each lead must have insulating sleeve. All the flat radial components such as resistors, diodes and inductors are mounted and soldered. Then IC bases are soldered. The vertical components such as transistors, gang condenser and FET are mounted & soldered. Soldering:The next process after the component mounting is soldering; solder pint is achieved by heating the solder and base metal about the melting point of the solders is used. Where jumper wire crosses over the conductors, they must be

The necessary heat depends upon: The nature and type of joints Melting temperature of solder Flux Soldering techniques are of so many types but we are using iron soldering Iron Soldering:Soldering iron consists of an insulating handle connected through a metal shaft, of a bit accurately makes contact with the component parts of the joint and solder and heats them up. The electrical heating element is located in the hollow shank or handles to heat the bit. Functions of the Bit:It stores heat and convey it from the heat source to the work. It may be required to stored surplus solder form the joint. It may be required to store molten solder and flux to the work. The surface must be lined or wetted. His encourages flow of solder in to the joint. When the surface of the work becomes wetted by the solder, a continuous film of liquid metal between the bit and the work provides a path of high thermal conductivity through which heat can flow in to the work piece. Solder bit made up of copper, this metal has good wetting properly, heat capability, and thermal conductivity. Tin-lead solder affects

copper during soldering operation. Production of copper bit can be made with thick iron coating followed by Ni/Tin plating. The life of the bit is increased by a factor of 10 to 15. Solder irons are specified in terms of wattage. Depending on heat input intended for working and types of work (Continuous or individual) the choice of the solder iron can be made. Procedure of Soldering:The points to be joined must be cleaned first and fluxed. The hard solder iron and solder wire is applied to the work. The melted solder becomes bright and fluid. The iron must be removed after sufficient time and joint is allowed to cool. At the end, finishing is done.

TESTING AND TROUBLESHOOTING

Before soldering in components:

Check that component agree with the parts list (value and power of resistors, value and voltage rating of capacitor, etc.) if in any doubt double check the polarized components (diodes, capacitor, rectifiers etc) If there is a significant time elapse between circuit, take the trouble to read the article; the information is often given in a very condensed from. Try to get most important point out of the description of the

operation of the circuit, even if you dont understand exactly what is supposed to happen. If there is any doubt that some component may not be exact equivalent, check that they are compatible. Only use good quality IC sockets. Check the continuity of the tracks on the PCB (and through plated holes with double sided boards) with a resistance meter or continuity tester. Make sure that all drilling, filling and other heavy work is done before mounting any components. If possible keep any heat sinks well isolated from other components. Make a wiring diagram if the layout involves lots of wires spread out in all directions. Check that the connectors used are compatible and that they are mounted the right way round. Do not reuse wire unless it is of good quality. Cut off the ends and strip it a new.

After mounting the component:

Inspect all soldered joints by eye or using a magnifying glass and check them with a continuity tester. Make sure there are no dry joints and no tracks are short circuited by poor soldering. Ensure that the positions of all the component agree with the mounting diagram Check that any links needed are present and that they are in the right positions to give the desired configuration. Check all ICs in their sockets (see that there are no pins bent under any ICs, no near ICs are interchanged etc.) Check all the polarized components (diodes, capacitor etc) are fitted correctly. Check the wiring (watch for off cuts of components leads) at the same time ensure that there are no short-circuits between potentiometer,

switches, etc. and there immediate surrounding (other components or the case). Do the same with mounting hardware such as spacers, nuts and bolts etc. Ensure that the supply transformer is located as closely as possible to the circuits (this could have a significant improvement in the case of critical signal level). Check that the connections to the earth are there and that they are of good contact. Make sure the circuit is working correctly before spending any time putting it into a case. And if it breaks down:

Recheck everything suggested so far. Re-read the article carefully and carefully anything about which you are doubtful. Check the supply voltage or voltages carefully and make sure that they reach the appropriate components especially pins of the ICs (test the pins of ICs and not the soldered joints). Check currents (generally they are stated on the circuit diagram or in the text). Dont be too quick to suspect the ICs of overheating. If possible check the operation of the circuit in the separate stages as a general rule follow the course of the signal. While checking voltages, currents, frequencies or testing the circuits with an oscilloscope work systematically and take notes. And dont forget to switch the power on and check the fuses.