5D AE IAE?

=J ?

!

-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

3H IJ ? 6 0 )

KH K E JD? ) 0 )61 9 40605 '

2) -21560 1

ABX =E  /AM AJHE X @E= I =J= IJ AF FA@

- = CAM AJHE @EX KI = A =E = > ? = FH I= =J EI AK CH= J = @D =@ = AK CH= J = FX M IJ F @E= H K A J= @ X H= =E X K AJ = =HG =E J X F H=? 5G =   AMH A AF ID? D @A E X @E= I =J= IJ= F = D =HG =E J F H=? IK F FJ K 3HDIE F E A CHX =J= J K =JE E = B=> J K AFECH= EI = A > ? CE= = IK > I K A @E= I =J= u , v , . . .

5G

=   ,E= I =J=

)HGE X = ANAJXI K A CAM AJHE X @E= I =J= IJ AF FA@ @D =@ > D F K ABX FJ J=E IJD AFEBX AE= A ? AFEF @ K 6 ID A J K AFEF @ K IJ F >H I AJ=E D =HG J K @E= I =J ? J X K A ID A AB=H C ? J K @E= I =J ? 6= CAM AJHE X @E= I =J= X J=E AF ID? AB=H IJX @E= I =J= AB=FJ A = @E= I =J= -X D =HG J K CAM AJHE @E= I =J ? u >H I AJ=E IJ ID A A =E J F H=? J K >H I AJ=E IJ ID A

B J K AFEF @ K IK >


K A A =

= JE X J @EX KI =

-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

A AB 6 D@A E @EX KI = A ID A AB=H C ? J A J IK > K A AA 2H I NJA JE G K A = @E=B HAJE D@A E CAM AJHE @EX KI = IA X A ID A J K AFEF @ K -X u = AB X K A JH  ? J K @E= I =J ? u JD =F IJ=ID AJ=N JM X HM J K AK CH= K J =J ? AB 6 JH J K u IK > AJ=E |u| | u | = |AB | = =F IJ=ID =F J A IJ B -X u @A A =E D@A E @EX KI = J JA D =@E AK A = FX M IJD F = >H I AJ=E J u X AJ=E B H =? J K u 5G =   9? B H = A ? D@A E @E= I =J ? AMH A F E=@ F JA =F JE? AK A A? F K @E HG J=E =F J ID A AB=H C ? J K

5G

=

. H =? @E= I =J ?

@E= I =J= F K G K J @E B H = F=HX D K? B HA ? X J=E F= HX D = IKCCH= E X 5G =  ! 2=H=JDH A JE = D@A E @EX KI = A =E F=HX D FH ? F E @ F JA @EX KI = J K AFEF @ K  J= @ @E= I =J= u, v A =E F=HX D = A JE G K JD @E= @EA K ID =E CHXB K A u // v ,

2=H=

CH=

- = IG = F K =F JA A J=E =F J IIAH= @E=@ GE X AK CH= = J =J= AB, BC, CD =E DA X AJ=E F=H= D CH= AX J I M J K @E=IJ =J ? AC IK F FJAE A J I J K BD )KJ J F=H= D CH= J IK > K A ABCD )KJ ? HEI @E=IJ =J= >H I ? =? AFEJH FAE = AMH I K A J=KJ GH M? JD FAH FJMID F K J= J=E IA @E=B HAJE ? F=HX D A? AK A A? C IE F=H= D CH= 

ABX =E 

/AM AJHE X @E= I =J= IJ AF FA@

5G

=  ! 2=HX

D =

IKCCH=

E X @E= I =J=

= ? =E JE? A BK EI AK A =

A? FAHEFJ IAE? F K J= J IIAH= ID A = >H I

J=E IJD

@E=

5G

=  " 2=H=

CH=

6= I > = ABCD BCDA CDAB DABC ADCB DCBA CBAD =E BADC @D K = J @E F=H= D CH= A @E=CM K? AC =E BD 2= H=JDH IJA JE J ABCD =E J ABDC A =E =E J= @ F=H= D CH= = J= J= A = B =E C = D )F =KJ J HEI F H A = =F @A N K A A? JE? C MIJ ? E@E JDJA? JM F=H= D CHX M CE= AFJ HAEA? @A? / = = J @D ,E= KI =JE ? CEI ? AII= D '$$ = GHDIE F E I K A GMH ? =F @AEND J = K =F J AI =

2H J=ID   -X J= IG =J= ABCD =E CDEF A =E F=H= D CH= = J JA

F=H= D CH= A =E =E J IG = ABF E

"

-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

5G

=  # 2H J=ID  

2=HX

D D AJ=B HX

= ID = JE E@E JDJ= JM CAM AJHE @E= KI XJM IJ AF FA@ A =E JE F H A = J= AJ=B H K A F=HX D = 0 @E=EI DJE E= A =E JE AJ= E A J @EX KI = IA = X ID A AB=H C ? GMH ? = J FAHEIJH O K A , K A J H= J HEI

5G

=  $ 2=HX

D D AJ=B HX AB A B

AMH A J @EX KI = u = AB =E = ID A A J K AFEF @ K 5G =  $ A JE J @EX KI = A B FH FJAE A F=HX D D AJ=B HX J K AB IJ A AX J ID A B A =E J J E IJA ABB A A =E F=H= D CH= 2=H=JDH IJA JE AX J A >H I AJ=E IJ B H = J K AB J JA J F=H= D CH= ABBA A =E A BK EI =E J= @E= I =J= AB =E A B G K J @E B H = -= J @EX KI = CD FH FJAE =F J @EX KI = AB A F=HX D D AJ=B HX A

ABX =E 

/AM AJHE X @E= I =J= IJ AF FA@

JE J= @E= I =J= AB =E CD A =E EI @ = = D@A E X @E= I =J= A =E EI @ = = AJ=N J K?

=E CHXB K A AB CD 

= J=

HH F= @E= I =J=

5G

=%

HH F= =E = J HH F= @E= I =J=

AMH A@ D D@A E X F=HX D = @E= I =J= u = AB v = CD =E AJ= B H K A F=HX D = J CD IJ AD 5G =  %

= -X J ID A D >H I AJ=E IJD D EAK A = =F J A F K FAHE GAE J B JE J= u =E v A =E HH F= JE G K JD @E= B HX A

- = D D@A E J K

@EX KI = =

H AE

= B HX

= FH I= =J EI

FX M IJ B H =

> -X J ID A D @A >H I AJ=E IJD D EAK A = =F J A F K FAHE GAE J B A JE J= u =E v A =E = J HH F= JE G K = J AJD B HX

2HXNAE? A @E= I =J=

5A =KJ =E JE? AF A A? F=H=CHXB K? A @E= I =J= = =? J K F=H= D @K X AM A =E C MIJ ? =F JD =HG=E JM CAM AJHE @E= KI XJM A J @E =@ AF ? F H A = H I K A FHXNAE? CH= K CE= JD I AID @ E IAM @ JDJ= , @AE E= GH IE D FHXND IJ I ID A AB=H C ?

-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

)HGE X = H I K A JE? FHXNAE? CE= @E= I =J= A J @E ID A AB=H C ? FH I J K A AE@ = JE A A = A =HC JAH= = @ A F ? = =F JE XN K A =K J J FAHE HEI AMH A EF = ID A O J K AFEF @ K =E FAHE HE =IJA IA CAM AJHE X @E= I =J= A ID A AB=H C ? J O

5G

=  & ) H EI = @E= KI XJM

-X u = OA =E v = OB A =E @E= I =J= A ID A AB=H C ? J O H K A J X H EI = u + v = A =E J CAM AJHE @EX KI = A =HG IJ O =E F H=? IJ ID A C CE= J F OACB A =E F=H= D CH= 5G =  & -X u = OA =E v = OB A =E IKCCH= E X H K A u + v = A =E J CAM A JHE @EX KI = OC F K C FH I@E H AJ=E =F JE? IG IAE? |AC | = |OB | =E |BC | = |OA|. 2=H=JDH A JE J X H EI = u + u GAE J @E ID A AB=H C ? =E JD @E= =JA K ID A J u = X @EF XIE ? F H A = CA E A I K A =KJ JD E= J K F =F =I K A JH F F K = A =E IK >=J ? A JD FHXND JD? FH I AID? -X u = OA =E a A =E FH=C =JE ? =HE ? a R H K A J CE A a u = A =E J @EX KI = A ID A AB=H C ? O ? |a| | u | =E JD @E= @EA K ID A J u |a| A =E D =F KJD JE J K a 0 B HX J K a u A =E D @E= A =KJ J K u AX a > 0 =E D = J AJD AX a < 0 0= K D FH J=ID IK O AE JE? >=IE ? E@E JDJA? JM FHXNAM F K H I= A

2H J=ID 
C ?J O

AMH =E J K? =HE

A J= CAM AJHE X @E= I =J= u, v, w A ID A ? a, b R 6 JA EIG K J= = K =

AB=H

 u + v = v + u ( u + v)+ w = u + ( v + w)

ABX =E 

/AM AJHE X @E= I =J= IJ AF FA@

! u + OO = u " 1 u = u =E 0 u = OO # (ab) u = a (b u) u = a u + b u $ (a + b) % a ( u + v ) = a u + a v

5G

=  ' 0 FH IAJ=EHEIJE

E@E JDJ=

)F @AEND 0 =F @AEND JM FAHEII J HM E@E J JM A =E =F

=@ I K A JD =F @AEND JD? FH IAJ=EHEIJE ? E@E JDJ=? -X u = OA v = OB =E w = OC J JA D E Z1 =E Z2 A =E J= ID A = F K FH I@E H J=E =F JE? = K A? EI JDJA? 5G =  ' OA + OB = OD OD + OC = OZ 1 OB + OC = OE OA + OE = OZ 2 =E G K A

( u + v)+ w = OZ 1 ,

=E

u + ( v + w ) = OZ 2 .

&

-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

6 ID A Z2 G=H= JDH AJ=E =F JD E@E JDJ= JE J JAJHXF AKH OAZ2 E A =E F=H= D CH= 5K AF ? CE= = @A N K A JE OZ 1 = OZ 2 =H A = @A N K A JE OAZ1 E A =E AF ID? F=H= D CH= @D =@ = @A N K A JE J I J K OZ1 IK F FJAE A J I J K AE ) X ODZ1 C A =E F=H= D CH= =F J HEI J K Z1 XH= J I J K OZ1 IK F FJAE A J I J K CD )H A EF = @A N K A JE J I J K CD IK F FJAE A J I J K AE @D =@ JE ACED A =E F=H= D CH= ) X OCEB =E OBDA A =E F=H= D CH= = =F J HEI JM E =E D = J IJ EG= 5K AF ? =F JD 2H J=ID   ACED A =E AF ID? F=H= D CH= 6 @EX J AJ J =B= HAID?

KI = (1) u E = F EA JD IG ID u + (1) u = OO X AJ=E = K u =E IK > AJ=E u 3HDIE F E A AF ID? J IK > EI JD? v u = v + ( u )

A JE? FHXNAE? JD? FH I AID? A =HE 2E IKC A HE =

=  ! 0 F=HX D D AJ=B HX A =E IK >=J

@E= KI XJM =E J K F =F =IE=I AX AB A B =E AC A C J JA @E= I =J ?

A B + A C AB + AC
=E CE= X A a R,

a A B a AB.

5G

=   2H I AID =E F=HX

D D AJ=B HX

ABX =E 

/AM AJHE X @E= I =J= IJ AF FA@

'

)F @AEND

/E= JD FH I AID 5G =   =H A = @A N K A JE AX ABB A ACC A ABDC =E A B D C A =E F=H= D CH= = J JA ADD A A =E AF ID? F=H= D CH= -B=H K A JD 2H J=ID   FH J= IJ= F=H= D CH= = ABDC =E ACC A CE= = @A N K A JE BDC A A =E F=H= D CH= =J FE IJ= BDC A =E A B D C CE= = @A N K A JE BDD B A =E F=H= D CH= =E J ? IJ= BDD B =E ABB A CE= = @A N K A JE ADD A A =E F=H= D CH= 0 =F @AEND CE= J F =F =IE=I A =E = X CD

/H=

IK @K=I

CH=

= AN=HJDI =

- =E A @E=B H =@ A F E= @E= I =J= F H A = FXH K A J= AB=H I K A =KJ ? JE? FHXNAE? IA = @A@ I @E= KI XJM -X G K A = @EX KI = AB=H J=? J F =F =IE=I A =HE F= H K A KF GHAMJE X @E= I =J= IKCCH= E X A J @ 6 AF A =F J AI = @A G AE JE A =KJ J JH F F= H K A = J= IKCCH= E X @E= I =J=

2H J=ID  " -X u = OA =E v = OB >H I

FH=C =JE ? =HE ? a R J J E ? IJA

J=E IJD

@E= AK A = J JA KFXHGAE

v = a u

v A =E

)F @AEND -IJM a

| C ? JM D JM v =E u : a = ||OB . 6 JA AX u =E OA| HH F= v = a u A AX u =E v A =E = J HH F= v = a u .

-X G K A @ @E= I =J= u =E v IJD @E= AK A = =F JD 2H J=ID  " v = a u =E u + v = (1 + a) u 5K AF ? = J= @E= I =J= F K F= H K A AB=H J=? JE? FHXNAE? JD? FH I AID? =E J K F =F =IE=I A =HE >H I J=E AF ID? IJD @E= AK A = -X G K A @ @E= I =J= u =E v J= F = @A >H I J=E IJD @E= AK A = J JA G K A FAHEII JAHA? @K =J JDJA? 5G =   = @A N K A JE F H A = FXH K A X A @EX KI = J K AFEF @ K AB=H J=? JE? FHXNAE? IJ= u =E v 2H J=ID  # -X J= @E= I =J= u = OA =E v = OB @A >H I AK A = J JA CE= X A @EX KI = w J K AFEF @ K FH=C =JE =HE a, b R J J E E IJA
J=E IJD @E= A =HG IJ O, w = OC KFXHG K

w = a u + b v.



-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

5G

=   /H=

IK @K=I

JM u =E v

5G

=

) X KID J K OC IA CH=

IK @K=I

)F J X H C J K w B H K A F=HX D FH ? JD OB 5G =    )B J= u , v @A A =E IKCCH= E X =KJ J AE JD AK A = OA IJ A 6 @EX KI = OA A =E IKCCH= E AJ u =E =F JD 2H J=ID  " OA = a u CE= XF E a R 2=H E= B H K A =F J C F=HX D FH ? JD OA D F = J AE JD OB IJ B =E OB = b v CE= XF E b R )F JD =J=I AK J JAJHXF AKH OA CB A =E F=H= D CH= =E IK AF ?

)F @AEND

w = OC = OA + OB = a u + b v .

ABX =E 

/AM AJHE X @E= I =J= IJ AF FA@



-X u 1, u 2, . . . , u n A =E @E= I =J= IK @K=I JM u 1 , u 2, . . . , un X A

A =HG IJ O X BH=ID JD? HB ?

K A

CH=

a1 u 1 + a2 u 2 + . . . + an un
F K a1 , a2 , . . . , an A =E FH=C =JE =HE - = @EX KI = A BHX AJ=E M? CH= E ? IK @K=I ? JM u 1, u 2, . . . , u n AX F H A = J =J=I AKXI K A AB=H J=? JE? FHXNAE? JDA FH I AID? =E J K F =F =IE=I A =HE IJ= @E= I =J= u 1 , u 2 , . . . , u n 5JD 2H J=ID  # @A N= A JE X A @EX KI = J K AFEF @ K A BHX AJ=E M? CH= E ? IK @K=I ? @ @ JM D IKCCH= E @E= KI XJM  J= ANAJX K A E= IK =C @E= KI XJM IKG X =? A @E=B HAE = C MH K A AX XF E =F J= @E= I =J= F HA = A BH=IJA M? CH= E ? IK @K=I ? JM KF FM -X IK >= AE =KJ AMH A JE D IK C FAHE GAE A XF E= E= FAHEJJX IJ EGA = )KJ JD E= =F JKF AE = K ? HEI ? A JE J= @E= I =J= u 1 , u 2 , . . . , u n A =HG IJ O A =E CH= E X A N=HJD = AX XF E =F =KJX F HA = A BH=IJA M? CH= E ? IK @K=I ? JM KF FM @D =@ AX KFXHGAE XF E i, 1 i n =E FH=C =JE =HE a1 , . . . , ai1 , ai+1 , . . . , an J J E E IJA

u i = ai u 1 + . . . + ai1 u i1 + ai+1 u i+1 + . . . + an un -X J= @E= I =J= u 1, u 2, . . . , u n @A A =E CH= E X AN=HJD = A JE A =E CH= E X = ANXHJDJ= E 2H JXIAE?  " =E  # @A G K JE X A IK C F K FAHE GAE @ IKCCH= E X @E= I =J= A =E CH= E X AN=HJD D =E X A IK C F K FAHE GAE FAHEII JAH= =F @ @E= I =J= IJ @E AF FA@ A =E CH= E X AN=HJD D 2=H=JDH A JE @ D IKCCH= E X @E= I =J= IJ AF FA@ A =E CH= E X = A NXHJDJ= =E X A X @EX KI = J K AFEF @ K A =HG IJ O F HA = A BH=IJA M? CH= E ? IK @K=I ? JM @ @E= KI XJM - = A C ? @E= KI XJM A =KJ ? JE? E@E JDJA? X AJ=E >XID JM @E= KI XJM J K AFEF @ K A =HG IJ O

)N =? = CA>HE
)N =

JE

@E= I =J ?

X K A = AK A = FX M IJD F = G K A AFE NAE = D D@A E @EX KI = v = OA 0 AFE C J K v = H AE = >A FH I= =J EI FX M IJD AK A =

E F=H=FX M HEI G K D = J= G K A FAHEII JAH= =F = @E= I =J= IJD IK C 5KF DH K AJ HEI CE= JD FAH FJMID A ? @E= I =J ? C J=? JE J @EX KI = u 1 A =E CH= E X AN=HJD AX A =E D@A E =E CH= E X = ANXHJDJ AX @A A =E D@A E


-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

-X u = OB @EX KI = IKCCH= E AJ v X K A = CA>HE FH ID =I JH  J K u M? FH ? J XN = (, v ) J FH=C =JE aR F ? E = F EA JD IG ID a u = v |v|

JE
=HE

2=H=JDH A JE |a| = | u | =E AX u @A A =E D@A E J JA a > 0 AX u A =E HH F A J v A a < 0 AX u A =E = J HH F FH ? J v 6D = CA>HE JE J K @E= I =J ? OB IK > K A (OB ) ,A = GHDIE F E A IKG X J IK > EI ( u ) CE= JD = CA>HE JE J K u = ? =KJ ? IK > EI ? F HA = F=HAH D AKJA XN = (, v ) J JA

=$  =

=? J K Chasles -X A, B, C A =E IKCCH=

E X ID A = FX M IA

(AB ) + (BC ) = (AC ) .

2H >

@E= I =J ? AIMJAHE

CE

AMH A@ D D@A E X @E= I =J= u = OA =E v = OB -IJM B H =? J K v )F J ID A A B H K A X AJ FH ? JD =E IJM A J ID A F K =KJ J AE JD X K A  H C E= FH > J K u IJ v =E IK > K A pr v ( u ) J @EX KI = OA 5G =  !

=  % 0 FH >
F =IE=I A =HE

A =E IK >=J

A JE? FHXNAE? JD? FH I AID? =E J K F

 pr v u + pr v w v ( u + w ) = pr pr v (a u ) = a pr v u u = K AJ  J K A pr v OA pr v ( u + w ) = OC 0 F=HX D ? FH ? JD =F v w = OB =E pr J B J AE JD X AJ FH ? JD =F J C IJ ID A D 6= JH CM = OAA =E BCD A =E I= )H= (OA ) = (BD) = (B C ) )F J = = J K Chasles (OC ) = (OB )+(B C  =E IK AF ? (OC ) = (OB )+(OA ). )H= OC = OA +OB .

)F @AEND 2=H=F F K A IJ 5G =  " )F @AE

J I

HEI E IKCCH=BA ? X K FH > JD = CA>HE JE J K @E= I =J ? OA M? FH ? 1 v ) =E GE J @E J @EX KI = )F J= IK BH= A = A =E IK M? I=B ? F E= XN = (, | v| >=ID GHDIE F EA J=E

ABX =E 

/AM AJHE X @E= I =J= IJ AF FA@

!

5G

=  !

E= FH >

@E= I =J ? IA XN =

5G

=  " 2H >

= H I =J ?

=F @AE

AJ=E = X

C=

u = OA J K u IJ v A JD FH > 5KC H J=? JD FH > pr v OB J K v IJ u > F K A JE =KJ ? A =E A C AE @E=B HAJE ?

pr u v = -X M?

" ANAJXI K A JE? = CA>HE ? JE ? JM @ IG ID IJ O EIG AE D EI JDJ= FH > =@ A JE E = E

-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

F E

= =F AB=H C ?

=  & -X u, v A =E D D@A E X @E= I =J= A | u |(pr u v ) = | v |(pr v u ).

F K D = CA>HE F=H=JDH JE = >X AJ=E M? FH ? J XN = JD? FH >

ID A

  ? =E OBB

)F @AEND 2=H=F F K A IJ 5G =  ! )F J=
A JE AX |pr v u | = 0 J JA

E= JH CM = OAA

|pr u| |OA | | u| |OA| v = = = | v| |pr |OB | |OB | u v|

)F AE = @A N K A JE E = CA>HE ? JE ? JM FH > A =E ID A? 0 = CA HH FD A J v ) X pr >HE JE (pr v u A =E v u ) A =E AJE AX D FH > =KJ IK >= AE J= J u =E J v >H I J=E IJ @E D EAF FA@ M? FH ? JD X AJ =F J O IJ B H = J K v  M? IA =KJ JD FAH FJMID J= u =E v >H I J=E AF ID? IJ @E D EAF FA@ M? FH ? JD X AJ =F J O IJ B H = J K HH FD A J u =E D = CA>HE JE (pr u =E IK AF ? pr u v ) A =E u v A =E AF ID? AJE 6 FH=C =JE =HE =E J K v =E J IK >

| v | (pr v u) K A

K A

AIMJAHE

CE

J K u

u v = | v | (pr v u ). = =F J= @E= I =J= u, v A =E D@A E E KHE JAHA? E@E JDJA? J K AIMJAHE CE FH J=ID
-X H

K A u v = 0. K IK O J=E IJD =

K D

2H J=ID  ' -X u, v, w A =E @E= I =J=

=E a R EIG K J= = K =

ID A

AB=H

C ? IJ O

 u v = v u (a u) v = a ( u v) u ( v + w) = u v + u w ! " u u 0 =E | u|= u u

ABX =E 

/AM AJHE X @E= I =J= IJ AF FA@

#

)F @AEND
6  A =E IK FAE= JD?   6 =E ! FH FJ K =F J =  % /E= J " F=H=JDH A JE pr D = CA>HE JE u u = u =E JE AX J u @A A =E D@A E J K u M? FH ? J XN = F K H AE J @E A =E ID A J JH J K )H=

u u = | u | (pru u ) = | u | | u | = | u |2 0.

/M = AJ=N @

@E= KI XJM

0 CM = AJ=N @ D D@A E @E= KI XJM u = OA =E v = OB H AJ=E M? D KHJ CM = AOB = D F = F= H AE JE ? IJ @EXIJD = 0 = JD IK > K A ( u, v)

5G

=  # 2H ID =I

D CM = AJN @

@E= KI XJM

-X G K A FH I= =J IAE J AF FA@ AFE C J=? JD AJE B HX FAHEIJH B ? J JA D CM = F HA = A =E AJE =H DJE 0 FH ID =I D CM = ( u, v) H AJ=E M? D CM = FAHEIJH B ? A JE ? IJ @EXIJD = < F K @E=CHXBAE J @EX KI = u J= IJH BAJ=E IJ AF FA@ CE= = IK F IAE A J v 5G =  # -X ( u , v ) = J JA ( v , u ) = ( u , v ) 0 H C E= FH > =E J AIMJAHE CE A IK @ J=E A J IK D J JD? FH ID =I D? CM =? A JE? = K A? IG IAE?

(pr v u ) = | u | cos ( u , v ) u v = | u || v | cos ( u, v ).

$

-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

5 IJD = = =B HX?
AMH A J AF FA@ E 2 = IJ= AH ID A O =E @ D IKCCH= E X @E= I =J= A ID A AB=H C ? J O u = OA =E v = OB 6= @E= I =J= u =E v FH I@E H K @ XN A? (, u ) =E (, v) E F EJ J=E IJ ID A O 6 @E=JAJ=C A C ? =N M (, u ), (, v ) X AJ=E I IJD = = =B HX? =E = J IK > K A A (O, u , v ) 5G =  $ A JE J ID A O A =E D =HG JM =N M J K IKIJ =J ? = =B HX?

5G =  $ 5K JAJ=C = =B HX?

A? @E= I =J ? =E ID A K IA  D H

E  I IJD =

-X w A =E F E @ F JA @EX KI = A ID A AB=H F H A = A BHXI K A J w M? CH= E IK @K=I w = a u + b v.

C ? IJ O

G K A @A

JE

J K @E=JAJ=C K A C K? (a, b) X J=E IK JAJ=C A? J K @E= I =J ? w M? FH ? J I IJD = = =B HX? (O, u , v ) 6= @E= I =J= a u , b v X J=E IK EIJ IA? J K @E= I =J ? w M? FH ? J I IJD = = =B HX? (O, u , v) /E= X A ID A C J K AFEF @ K X K A IK JAJ=C A? J K ID A K C E =HE

ABX =E 

/AM AJHE X @E= I =J= IJ AF FA@

%

JE? IK JAJ=C A? J K @E= I =J ? OC 6 @EX KI = OC X AJ=E @EX KI = ID?  @E= KI =JE = J = J K ID A K C M? FH ? J I IJD = = =B HX? (O, u, v) * F K A JE D AFE C A ? IKIJ =J ? = =B HX? IJ AF FA@ =? @ @AE JD @K =J JDJ= = = JEIJ EG I K A J= ID A = J K AFEF @ K = BE I = J= A J= @E=JAJ=C = A CD FH=C =JE =HE 2H I@E H AE @D =@ = = JEIJ EG = =F J AF FA@ E 2 IJ I R2 = {(x, y )|x, y R} 5A =KJ JD = JEIJ EG = >=I AJ=E D ) = KJE /AM AJH = D F = GHDIE F EA = CA>HE ? A @ K? IJD A JD J K AFEF @ K =E J KG H K 5JD IK GAE= = FAHE HEIJ A IA H C E= IKIJ =J= = =B HX? @D =@ =KJX IJ= F = E @ XN A? J J=E IA H CM = F H A = = JE =J=IJ I K A J= @E= I =J= u , v A J= = J IJ EG= =@E= = @E= I =J= 1 i = u, |u|
- = I IJD = = =B HX? A H C H = E 5G =  %

1 j = v . |v|
=@E= = @E= I =J= X AJ=E

E K? XN A? =E

5G 6 = H = J=C K E

=  %

I IJD = = =B HX? =

= @A G AE JE E IK JAJ=C A? A ? @E= I =J ? M? FH ? I IJD = = =B HX? IGAJ J=E A J AIMJAHE CE A

=   -IJM (O, i, j) H

= E I IJD = = =B HX? 6 JA E IK JA A? (a, b) A ? @E= I =J ? w = a i + b j @ @ J=E =F J AIMJAHE CE A

&

-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

JK w A J= = J IJ EG= @E= I =J= J K IKIJ a= w i ,

=J ? = =B HX?

b= w j

)F @AEND 5A
7F C

= H = E I IJD = i i = j j = 1 =E i j = 0 K A J= AIMJAHE X CE A = 5G =  & w i = (a i + b j ) i = a i i +b j i = a

=E F=H

E=

w j = b.

5G

=  & 5K JAJ=C

A? M? FH ? H

I IJD = = =B HX?

AMH A H = E I IJD = = =B HX? (O, i , j ) =E @E= I =J= u, v A ID A AB=H C ? IJ O =E IK JAJ=C A? (u1 , u2 ), (v1 , v2 ) = J IJ EG= @D =@ u = u1 i +u2 j =E v = v1 i +v2 j  6 JA J X H EI = u + v GAE IK JAJ=C A? (u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 ) @D =@ u + v = (u1 + v1 ) i + (u2 + v2 ) j ,
=E AX a R J CE A

a u GAE IK JAJ=C

A? (au1 , au2 ) @D =@

a u = au1 i + au2 j .

ABX =E 

/AM AJHE X @E= I =J= IJ AF FA@

'

7F

K A J AIMJAHE

CE

JM @E= KI XJM u =E v

u v = (u1 i + u2 j ) (v1 i + v2 j ) = u1 v1 i i + u1 v2 i j + u2 v1 j i + u2 v2 j j = u1 v1 + u2 v2 .
6

JH J K @E= I =J ? u A =E u u | u| = = (u1 i + u2 j ) (u1 i + u2 j ) = = u1 2 i i + u1 u2 i j + u2 u1 j i + u2 2 j j u1 2 + u2 2 .

- A

AH= @E= I =J=

5JDHE A E IJD =HG JE FH I J K A AE@ = JE A A = GHE J H= FAHE HE IJ = A = H I K A JE? FHXNAE? IA @E= I =J= A = E ID A AB=H C ? J O ) M? IJD FH JD JXND J K ,D JE =? FH > D XJE A D FH I AID = ! F HJ X E= =HC JAH= NAFAHXI= A J FH > D = >X J=? = =E F HJ X E= IJD E =JDC H = BH J= XJE = X C = X K A J H= IJA = F H A = FH I I K A @E= I =J= A @E=B HAJE X ID A = AB=H C ? )? @ A FH J= XF E= BKIE X FH > =J= IJ= F = GHAEX AJ=E = IK I K A @E= I =J= A @E=B HAJE X ID A = AB=H C ?

2=HX@AEC =  

= BKIE

AH D A = JM @E= KI XJM A =E D AJ=J FEID 5G

5G

=  ' 5

AID AJ=J F IAM ? = JE AE K =F J ID A

 ' 6 @EX KI = AB FAHECHXBAE JD AJ=J FEID A

-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

IJ ID A B -X =J FE J = JE A A AJ=J FEI A =F J B IJ C = = A = F H A = A BHXI K A JD IK E AJ=J FEID M? I AID JM AJ=J F IAM AB =E AC @D =@ M? J X H EI = AB + BC = X J= @ @E= I =J= @A G K E ID A AB=H C ?

2=HX@AEC = 

= X

D BKIE

AH D A = JM @E= KI XJM A =E D J=G JDJ=

5G

=   5GAJE

J=G JDJ= J K A M? FH ? J B

6 @EX KI = v A ID A AB=H C ? A F=HEIJX AE JD J=G JDJ= A ? = JE AE K JD IJEC F K >H I AJ=E IJ ID A A -X = X = JE A A JD @E= IJEC >H I AJ=E IJ ID A B =E E A J=E A J=G JDJ= u D IGAJE J=G JDJ= J K A M? FH ? J B BKIE CE X @ @AJ=E =F JD @E=B HX JM J=GKJ JM v u 5G =   2X E GHAEX AJ=E = IK I K A @E= I =J= A @E=B HAJE X ID A = AB=H C ?
= JH JD BKIE @ = D 0 @ = D F1 @HX IA = IJAHA I ID A B 2 E = A =E J IK E =F J =KJ = A BHX AJ=E A XF E JH F =F J

2=HX@AEC =  !

E= F K F=HEIJX AJ=E A @E= I =J= A =E D = IJ ID A A A D @ = D F2 @HX IJ AI = D IK EIJ= D @ = D = = A X H EI = JM @ @E= KI XJM F1 + F2 . I =J= GMH ? = = >X K A = FAJ G K A =KJ H K A AH @EX KI = F K = JE M JM @E= KI XJM F K u A F=HX D D AJ=B HX K = JEIJ EGA IJ u A [ u]

5A =KJ ? JE? FAHEFJ IAE? K A = ANAJXI K A @E= KF OE J = HE> ? ID A IJ F AB=H J=E /E= = =E HCE= E= J A A AH @EX KI = 6 A A IJ EGA IJ AB=H IJ @EX KI = u = AB A =E J I A =E EI @ = = A J u @D =@ F K FH FJ K =F J 2H ? J F=H = IK > K A J A A AH @EX KI = F

ABX =E 

/AM AJHE X @E= I =J= IJ AF FA@

@D =@

[ u ] = { v @E= I = IJ AF FA@

J J E

IJA v u }.

-JIE J A A AH @EX KI = F K = JEIJ EGA IJ u A =E I A J A A AH @EX KI = F K = JEIJ EGA IJ v AX =E AX J u FH FJAE =F J v A F=HX D D AJ=J FEID [ u ] = [ v ] AX =E AX u v .
2H I NJA JE AX @ @E= I =J= A =E EI @ = = A = JH J J JA A =E =E AJ=N J K? EI @ = = =E IK AF ? AX [ u ] = [ v ] =E [ v ] = [ w ] J JA [ u ] = [ w ] FM? = FAHE = A

2HXNAE? A A A

AH= @E= I =J=

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u ] =E [ v ] GHDIE F E A = JEFH I F K? F K J=EHEX K = JAH= @D =@ F K G K E ID A AB=H C ? AMH A J= A A AH= @E= I =J= [ u ] =E [ v ] 5J ID A O G K A OA u =E OB v 2H I J K A J= AB=H IJX @E= I =J= OA + OB = OC H K A J X H EI = JM A A AHM @E= KI XJM [ u ] =E [ v ] = A =E J A A AH @EX KI = F K = JEIJ EGA IJ OC

[ u ] + [ v] =

OC = [ w].
FH=C =JE =HE

H K A J CE A J K A A AH K @E= I =J ? [ u] A J A =E J A A AH @EX KI = a OA a [ u] = a OA = [a u ].

a =

2=H

E= H

K A JD FH >

A A

AHM @E= KI XJM

pr[ OA v ] [ u ] = pr OB

-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

=E J AIMJAHE 5A

CE

[ u ] [ v ] = OA OB .

A? =KJ ? JE? FAHEFJ IAE? FH FAE = A CN K A JE E FHXNAE? A =E = X HE I A? @D =@ JE J A A AH @EX KI = =HE ? F K F= H K A M? =F J AI = @A AN=HJXJ=E =F J K? IKC A HE K? = JEFH I F K? F K AFE N= A OA =E OB )KJ EIG AE =E D AF= AKID >=I AJ=E IJE? E@E JDJA? JD? F=HX D D? AJ=B HX? )? @ A JD FAH FJMID J K = H I =J ? -X AFE N K A = JEFH I F K? A = X ID A AB=H C ? O A =E O B J JA OA O A =E OB O B =E =F J =  ! OA + OB O A + O B )H= J A A AH @EX KI = [ u ] + [ v ] @A AN=HJXJ=E =F JD AFE C J K ID A K AB=H C ? ) X C= =F @AE K A JE E KF EFA? FHXNAE? A =E = X HEI A? AMH A = J= @E= I =J= F K GHDIE F E A M? A A AH= = =B HAJ=E HDJX J = J AJ /E= = =F F E I K A J IK K I K A JD IK D = D =JE FH= JE = F=H= A F K A = IK > K A A u AB A JA J A A AH @EX KI = A JA J

5JD IK GAE= = @E= I =J= A J ? AX > EI =E = = JE? =C A? [ ] =E AB=H IJ

5K JAJ=C

A? A A

AH K @E= I =J ?

AMH A H = E I IJD = =N M (O, i , j ) =E ID A = A, B, C, D A IK JAJ=C A? (a1 , a2 ), (b1 , b2 ), (c1 , c2 ) =E (d1 , d2 ) = J IJ EG= 5G =   -X AB CD J JA =F J= I= JH CM = ABM =E CDN FH FJAE JE b1 a1 = d1 c1
5K FAH= IKC A HE =E

b2 a2 = d2 c2

 

K A JE E =HE v1 = b1 a1 =E v2 = b2 a2 @A AN=HJ J=E =F J = JEFH IMF AB = X G=H= JDH K J A A AH @EX KI = v = AB

IJD = = =B HX? (O, i , j ) A =E E =HE v1 = b 1 a 1

5K JAJ=C

A? J K A A AH K @E= I =J ? v M? FH ? J

=E

v2 = b2 a2 ,

F K (a1 , a2 ) =E (b1 , b2 ) A =E E IK JAJ=C A? JM X HM XF E K = JEFH I F K AB J K v -X v1 = 0 X K A IK JA AIJ @EA K ID? J K v J =HE v2 = v1 0 FH DC A D F=H=J HDID   @A G AE JE @ A A AH= @E= I =J= A =E I= AX =E AX E IK JAJ=C A? J K? A =E = FH ? = IA?

ABX =E 

/AM AJHE X @E= I =J= IJ AF FA@

5G =   = JEFH IMF

E IK JAJ=C

A? J K A A

AH K @E= I =J ? @A AN=HJ

J=E =F J

)F

C ? JHE

ID A M
P1 P = P P2 .

AMH A JH = ID A = P1 , P2 , P FX M IA = AK A = 6= @E= I =J= P1 P =E P P2 A =E IKCCH= E X =E AX P = P2 KFXHGAE =? =HE ? J J E ? IJA

ID A M =E IK > AJ=E (P1 P2 P ) (P1 P ) 2=H=JDH A JE (P1 P2 P ) = =E JE D = =C J K FH I= =J EI JD? (P P2 ) AK A =? @A AFDHAX AE J =F C -X AMH I K A J= P1 , P2 IJ= AHX =E J P = E A J=E FX M IJD AK A = D JE J K =F C K AJ=>X AJ=E FM? IJ 5G =  -X J= ID A = G K IK JAJ=C A? P1 (x1 , y1 ), P2 (x2 , y2 ) =E P (x, y ) J JA

=HE

X AJ=E =F

C ? JM JHE

x x1 = (x2 x)
=F F K FH FJ K EJ F E

=E

y y1 = (y2 y ),

x=

x1 + x2 1+

=E

y=

y1 + y2 . 1+

 !

 J= > 0 J P >H I AJ=E AJ=N JM P1 =E P2 =E E J F E @ @ K JE? IK JAJ=C A? J K ID A K F K GMH AE J @EXIJD = P1 P2 IA @ J =J= A C : 1

"

-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

5G =  P1 P2

0 JE

J K =F

C K =

? J ID A

E A J=E FX M IJD AK A =

-B=H C C K

6 ID A

J
K E

? JM @E= IM JHE
HKB ? G K IK JAJ=C A? (a1 , a2 )

AMH A J JH CM ABC J K F (b1 , b2 ) =E (c1 , c2 ) = J IJ EG=

5G

= !

E @EX AI E JHEC

6 ID A

A (a1 , a2 ) @E=EHA J @EXIJD = BC IA

C 

=E =F JD  ! G K A

ABX =E 

/AM AJHE X @E= I =J= IJ AF FA@

JE? IK JAJ=C 2=H

A? J K

a1 =
E= CE= J B (b1 , b2 )

b1 + c1 2 a 1 + c1 2

a2 =

b2 + c2 . 2

a2 + c2 . 2 6 ID A J ? JM AA =E BB GAE @EX KI = ID? OA + AA =E AF ID? OB + mBB ,D =@ KFXHG K FH=C =JE =HE =E m J J E E IJA b1 = b2 = OA + AA = OB + mBB .
5A IK JAJ=C A? G K A

a1 + a2 +
=E IKC A JH F E E =HE

b1 + c1 a1 + c1 a1 = b1 + m b1 2 2 b2 + c2 a2 + c2 a2 = b2 + m b2 2 2
E K? H K? G K A J I IJD = ANEI IAM F K E =

J=? J K? ,m

b1 c1 + 2 2 b2 c2 a2 + + 2 2 a1 +

a1 c1 m = b1 a1 2 2 a2 c2 m = b2 a2 + b2 2 2 + b1

6= @E= I =J= AA, BB @A A =E F=HX D = =E IK AF ? E IK JA AIJ ? JD? FH JD? AN IMID? @A A =E F =F XIE= JM IK JA AIJ JD? @A JAHD? AN IMID? )H= E 2 ANEI IAE? G K =@E ID JD F = F H A = KF CI K A = 3 ,m= 2 . 3 5K FAH= K A JE ID A J ? JM AK AE AA =E BB A =E J ID A G J F E = F EA (AA G) = (BB G) = 2
AJ @E JH F @A G K A JE J ID A J ? G JM AA =E CC E = F EA

(AA G ) = (CC G ) = 2,
=E IK AF ? G = G 6 ? F H A = KF

C I K A J @EX KI =

ID? =E JE? IK JAJ=C

A? J K G

2 OG = OA + AA 3 2 = OA + (OA OA) 3

-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

1 2 1 OA + ( (OB + OC )) 3 3 2 1 = (OA + OB + OC ) 3 a 1 + b1 + c1 a 2 + b2 + c2 = , 3 3 =

=C IKIJ

=J ? = =B HX?
(O, i , j ) A JE? IK

AMH A @ @E=B HAJE X H = E X IKIJ =J= = =B HX? IJ AF FA@ =E (P, u , v ) 6 >=IE FH > D = IA =KJ JD FAH FJMID A =E = >H

5G

= " )

=C IKIJ

=J ? = =B HX?

JAJ=C A? A ? ID A K M? FH ? J I IJD = (P, u, v ) AX C J=C A? J K M? FH ? J I IJD = (O, i , j ) /E=J = K A 5KG X K A = GHDIE F E I K A = I IJD = = =B HX? FH @ = J K FH > =J ? IJ F = F H A CE= F=HX@AEC = IK AJH A? J K IG =J ?

MH K A JE? IK JA = J X K A =KJ I=H I IJ= @A = A AJ= AKJ A

AMH A = ID A A IJ AF FA@ A IK JAJ=C A? (x, y ) M? FH ? J (O, i , j ) =E (x , y ) M? FH ? J (P, u, v ) )KJ ID = AE JE v u +y OA = x i + y j =E P A = x

2=H=JDH

A JE

P A = OA OP

ABX =E 

/AM AJHE X @E= I =J= IJ AF FA@

=E AX

E IK JAJ=C

A? J K P M? FH ? J (O, i , j ) A =E (p, q ) J JA x u +y v = (x p) i + (y q ) j
 "

)F AE = >H A JD IG ID = X AI= IJ= A A AH= @E= I =J= i , j =E u, v AMH A = JEFH I F K? JM i , j , u , v IJ @E ID A AB=H C ? 5G =  #

5G

= # ) C

=C >XID? E= D FH ID =I D CM = =

-FAE@ =E J= @ IKIJ =J= A =E H A =E ID A JD CM = ( j , v ) =E

(i, u)

u = cos i + sin j v = sin i + cos j

) JE = EIJ J=? IJD  " G K A

x (cos i + sin j ) + y ( sin i + cos j ) = (x p) i + (y q ) j

=E ANEI

J=? J K? IK JA AIJ ? J K i =E J K j G K A x cos y sin = x p x sin + y cos = y q .

 #

-X

I K A J I IJD = M? FH ? x

=E y

G K A  $

x y

= (x p) cos + (y q ) sin = (x p) sin + (y q ) cos .

E ANEI IAE?  # @ @ K JE? IK JAJ=C A? (x, y ) IK =HJ IAE JM x , y p =E q A E ANEI IAE?  $ @ @ K JE? IK JAJ=C A? (x , y ) IK =HJ IAE JM x, y, p =E q 2H I NJA

&

-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

JD = =C IJ= FH ID = J K IK D EJ K F K ANDCA J=E =F J CAC ? JE CE= = FX A F IM =F J I IJD = IJ =HGE IJH B K A J K? XN A? =JX CM = 3HDIE F E J=? J IK > EI JM FE X M =E =HE DJE @E= KI XJM J F = A AJ I K A IJD -EI=CMC IJD /H= E ) CA>H= D  $ CHXBAJ=E

x y

cos sin sin cos

xp yq

ABX =E EC=@E )HE

J ABX =E K A K
=HE

5K F DHM =JE X @E=>XIJA AJE ? =JA K ID? JD? !D?

6= IJ EGA = J K IK K JM EC=@E

JM

= D =JE

A =E A BHXIAE? JD?

HB ?

a + ib
F K a, b R =E i A =E =I >

C = {a + ib | a, b R} .
A FH B= FH=C =JE JH F =HE F H A = J=KJ I K A J= IJ EGA = J K C A @E=JAJ=C = A CD

a + ib (a, b)
=E IM =KJ A J= ID A = A I IJD = = =B HX? ? AFEF @ K IJ F GAE AFE ACA = H = E

a + ib a i + b j .

-X z = a + ib J JA a = Re z X AJ=E FH=C =JE H ? J K z A b = Im z X AJ=E B= J=IJE H ? J K z 2H I NJA JE Re z =E Im z A =E FH=C =JE =HE 6 KF I {z C | Im z = 0} J J=KJ K A A J K? FH=C =JE ? =HE ? JH J K EC=@E =HE z = a + bi A =E D =H DJE ? FH=C =JE ? =HE ?

|z | =

zz =

a2 + b2 .
A JE? F EA J=E

5J C H J=E FH I AID =E F =F =IE=I ? JIE IJA = IK BM FHXNAE? IJ R J= FAHE HEIJ IJ I {z C | Im z = 0} =E = E = '

! D IG ID i i = 1

-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

FH I AID : (a + bi) + (c + di) = (a + c) + (b + d)i F EC=@E 2=H=JDH =F =IE=I ? a bi ? : (a + bi) (c + di) = (ac bd) + (ad + bc)i X AJ=E ? =HE A JE

IK KC ? J K z = a + bi =E IK >

AJ=E z

z+z = 2a = 2Re z zz = 2ib = 2iIm z zz = a2 + b2 = |z |2

X A D D@A E ? EC=@E |z |2 A =E FH=C =JE ? =HE ? =HE ? GAE = J IJH B 2=H=JDH = 1 =E IK AF ? ? z |z1|2 z A JE =B

zz =

z 1 =
)F A@

1 z |z |2
=

(a + bi)1 =
= CE= JD @E= HAID

a2

a b 2 i. 2 +b a + b2

G K A =E J

z zw = w |w |2
= A CG K A JE? =

a + bi (a + bi)(c di) = c + di c2 + d2
K A? E@E JDJA? JM IK KC EC=@E =HE

z1 + z2 = z 1+z 2 z1 z2 = z 1z 2 (z n ) = ( z )n
5D AE K A JE? = K A? E@E JDJA? J K JH K EC=@E =HE

|z | = |z | = | z | |z1 z2 | = |z1 | |z2 | | |z1 | |z2 | | |z1 + z2 | |z1 | + |z2 |

) =B H= A JD @K =J JDJ= J= JEID? J K IK K JM EC=@E =HE C A J AF FA@ AB @E=I A = H = E I IJD = = =B HX? IM =KJ ? JD? J= JEID? = E X A CE= J EC=@E AF FA@ 5J EC=@E AF FA@ G K A J FH=C =JE XN = J F J=KJ K A A J R =E J B= J=IJE XN = J F IK > K A Ri = =NE F E I K A =KJ JD @K =J JDJ= GHDIE F E J=? =E CAM AJHE ? EA? IJD A JD JM EC=@E =HE 0@D G K A @AE JD E= J K JH K EC=@E =HE J F FH B= ? A =E I A JD =F IJ=ID =F J 0 IJ EC=@E AF FA@ = X D F=H=J HDID A =E JE A CD IK KC EC=@E =HE =F JA J=E =F ID A = IK AJHE X M? FH ? J FH=C =JE XN =

ABX =E

EC=@E

)HE

!

5G

 5D A = J K EC=@E

AFEF @ K

6HECM

AJHE

HB

EC=@E

=HE

AMH A = EC=@E =HE z = 0 IJ AF FA@ =E KF J K A JE D D EAK A = =F J  IM J K z IGD =J AE CM = A JD AJE D EAK A = J K FH=C =JE XN = F K 0 < 2

5G

6HECM

AJHE

HB

EC=@E

=HE

0 CM = IK @ AJ=E A J= x = Re z =E y = Im z

IM JM IG IAM

cos =

x x2 + y2

sin =

y x2 + y2

 

-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

-X z = 0 D =@E JE D F = E = F EA JE? ANEI IAE?  =E >H I AJ=E IJ @EXIJD = 0 < 2 X AJ=E FHMJA HEI = J K EC=@E =HE z =E IK > AJ=E A Arg (z ) X A X D JE F K E = F EA JE? ANEI IAE?  X AJ=E HEI = J K z =E IK > AJ=E arg(z ) - =E B= AH JE @ H I =J= J K z @E=B H K =JX F =F XIE J K 2 -X C MH K A = HEI = J K z =E JD =F IJ=ID r J K z =F J  F H A = FH I@E H I K A J z 6 FH=C =JE H ? J K z A =E x = r cos A J B= J=IJE H ? J K z A =E y = r sin 5K AF ?

z = x + iy = r cos + ir sin = r(cos + i sin ) .

2=H=JDH A JE r =

x 2 + y 2 = |z |
11 6

2=HX@AEC =

 -X =

=E r = 2 J JA 11 11 + i sin 6 6

z = 2 cos = 2 =

3 1 +i 2 2

3i

)KJ D JHECM AJHE HB BH=ID? JM EC=@E =HE =? AFEJH FAE = FAHECHXO K A J F =F =IE=I EC=@E =HE CAM AJHE X AMH A J K? =HE ? z1 = r1 (cos 1 + i sin 1 ) =E z2 = r2 (cos 2 + i sin 2 ) =E KF C K A J CE A

z1 z2 = r1 r2 (cos 1 + i sin 1 ) (cos 2 + i sin 2 ) = r1 r2 [(cos 1 cos 2 sin 1 sin 2 ) + i(cos 1 sin 2 + sin 1 cos 2 )] = r1 r2 (cos(1 + 2 ) + i sin(1 + 2 )) .
* F K A @D =@ JE J X H EI = JM A =E = HEI = J K CE K J K? HEI XJM JM EC=@E =HE

z1 =E z2

arg(z1 z2 ) = arg z1 + arg z2 ,

=E J JH J K CE JHM J K? K JM EC=@E =HE

 A JM

z1 =E z2 A =E J CE

|z1 z2 | = |z1 | |z2 | .

 !

ABX =E

EC=@E

)HE

!!

5G

! /AM AJHE

AH D A = J K F

=F =IE=I

EC=@E

=HE

5J 5G = ! J= ID A = A, B, C, D = JEIJ EG IJ K? EC=@E ? =HE ? z1 , z2 , z1 z2 =E 1 = J IJ EG= )F JE? IG IAE? =E ! IK FAH= K A JE J= JH CM = ODB =E OAC A =E E= F =F =IE=I ? A J z2 IJ EC=@E AF FA@ A =E = E AI = =? AJ=IGD =JEI ? F K =FAE AE X A ID A z1 J K AFEF @ K IA = ID A z3 J J E IJA J JH CM F K IGD =J K J= z1 =E z3 A J  = A =E E A J JH CM F K IGD =J K J=  =E z2 A J  A =KJ JD E= J z1 z2 A =E FH ? J z1 FM? J z2 A =E FH ? J 

z1 z2 : z1 = z2 : 1 .
F K M? = = C = @A A AK A = JM FH=C =JE =HE A H K? @E= KI XJM J K z1 =JX CM = Arg (z2 ) 2=H=JDH A JE J K EC=@E AFEF @ B= J=IJE X@= i M AJHE D = D E@E FAHEIJH B =JX CM A =F ? JD EI JDJ= J K C K JM D  FM? IJD  = X =E JD EI JDJ= JM = J IJ EGM CM E F =F =IE=I ? A J z2 IJH BAE J @EX KI = =E J F =F =IEX AE A J =HE |z 2 | ID?

F =F =IE=I ? A z J J E IJA |z | = 1 K =JX CM = Arg (z ) -E@E JAH= F A =E FAHEIJH B =JX /2 )F =KJ JD JDJ= i2 = 1 D AF= X DOD JD? FAHEIJH = D F = =FAE AE X A ID A IJ =

A =E =F ? IJH B =F =IE=I ? A JD XF OD =F JX CA B ? =JX /2 @ @AE J AJ J K

i2 z = z .
= J IJH B ? IA JHECM AJHE ? EC=@E HB =HE

z = 0 KF

C AJ=E A

= AX

z A =E

!" -IJM z = r (cos +i sin ) =E KF J K A JE 1 HB z = t(cos + i sin ) -G K A

-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

= J IJH B ? GAE JHECM

AJHE

1 = zw = r t (cos( + ) + i( + ))
= EC=@E ? =HE =E =J= C K A X ? 1 GAE JH 1 =E HEI = 0 5K AF ? r t = 1 =E + = 0

1 (cos() + i sin()) r 1 =E A =E = HEI = J K z 1 arg z 1 = -E@E @D =@ |z 1 | = |z | J FHMJA HEI = J K z 1 G K A z 1 = Arg z 1 =

0 JHECM C=@E =HE AJHE

JAH= CE=

2 Arg z 0

AX Arg z = 0 AX Arg z = 0

HB A =E E@E= JAH= GH IE D CE= J KF CEI @K X AM E AMH A J =HE z = r (cos + i sin ) =E JE? @K X AE? J K

z 2 = r r (cos( + ) + i sin( + )) = r2 (cos(2) + i sin(2)) z 3 = r2 r (cos(2 + ) + i sin(2 + )) = r3 (cos(3) + i sin(3))

=E FM? @A G K AA = A AF=CMC IJ n

z n = rn (cos(n) + i sin(n)) .
)KJ J =F J AI = X AJ=E A HD = J K De Moivre -B=H J=? J A HD = 1 IJ z > F K A JE F HA = AFA J= A =E IA =H DJE ? = H=E K? -X n N

z n = rn (cos(n) + i sin(n)) .

A HD =

  A HD = De Moivre /E= X A EC=@E

z n = rn (cos(n) + i sin(n))

=HE

z = 0

=E X A

= H=E n Z AX z = r(cos + i sin ) J JA

)I DID

 -X z >H I AJ=E FX M IJ

=@E=

S 1 J JA

z 1 = z .

5JD IK GAE= = ANAJXI K A

=I =JE ? @K X AE?

ABX =E

EC=@E

)HE

!#

4 A? JD?

X@=?

5J I JM FH=C =JE =HE CE= X A BKIE =HE n =HE ? 1 GAE = =@E n IJ H = AX n A =E FAHEJJ ? A GAE @ n IJ ? H A? 1 =E 1 AX n A =E XHJE ? =@ A JE IJ I JM EC=@E =HE =HE ? GAE = HE> ? n n IJ ? H A? CE= X A BKIE =HE n ) = DJ A JE? IAE? JD? AN IMID?

zn = 1 .
/HXB K A J z IA JHECM AJHE HB

z = r(cos + i sin ) =E G K A

z n = rn (cos(n) + i sin(n)) = 1 ,
IK AF ? rn = 1 cos(n) = 1 =E sin(n) = 0 5K FAH= K A JE X A n IJ H = JD? X@=? CHXBAJ=E IJD HB cos + i sin F K E = F EA JE? IG IAE? cos(n) = 1 =E sin(n) = 0 )F JE? IG IAE? =KJ ? G K A JE n = 2k CE= k Z =E IK AF ? JE k = 2, k Z . n )F AE = @ A F E ? =F =KJ ? JE? JE ? J K H I =J ? @ @ K @E=B HAJE ? 2k EC=@E ? =HE ? -X IK > I K A k = n G K A

k+n = k + 2
=E IK AF ? cos k+n + i sin k+n = cos k + i sin k /E= k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1 JE? JE ? G K A

2 2k 2(n 1) , . . . , k = , . . . , n 1 = n n n E F A? @ @ K A? @E=B HAJE ? EC=@E ? =HE ? 5K FAH= K A JE KFXHG K = HE> ? n n IJA? H A? JD? X@=? IJ AF FA@ E =HE 2k 2k + i sin cos n n CE= k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1 -X J H= H I K A wn = cos 2n + i sin 2n G K A CE= k = 0, . . . , n 1 0 = 0 , 1 =
k = cos wn

EC=@E

2k 2k + i sin . n n 2 >H I J=E =KJ E =HE IJ EC=@E AF FA@ /E= k = 0 G K A J 1  A? E n IJ ? H A? JD? X@=? >H I J=E IJ =@E= S 1 = { z C | |z | = 1 } =E D CM = F K IGD =J AJ=E =F J 0 AJ=N @E=B HAJE HE A =E F =F XIE 2 J=E IJE? HKB ? A ? = E J K n 5K FAH= K A JE E n IJ ? H A? >H I F KC K A n HKB ? = A JM F M >H I AJ=E IJ 1

!$

-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

5G

" 6H JA? =E J J=HJA? H A? JD?

X@=?

4 A? J K a C
-X a = 0 J JA CE= X A n D =@E

n IJ H = J K a A =E 0

zn = 0 z = 0 .
-X a = 0 KF J i sin ) FH=C =JE FH=C =JE n IJ H n JE z0 = a @D =@ z0 -X zk A =E E= X = n IJ H = JD? K A JE a CHXBAJ=E IA JHECM AJHE HB M? a = s(cos + ? =HE ? s A =E AJE ? =E IK > K A s1/n JD AJE =J Ks J K A z0 = s1/n cos + i sin =E F=H=JDH A n n A =E = =F JE? n IJ ? H A? J K a D n IJ H = J K a G K A X@=? =J= C K A IJ =
zk z0 n

= 1 =E IK AF ? =F J AI =

zk z0

A =E

X A EC=@E ? =HE ? a = 0 GAE n @E=B HAJE ? EC=@E ? n IJ ? H A? =E AX a = s(cos + i sin ) A =E = JHECM AJHE HB J K a E n IJ ? H A? A =E 2k 2k zk = s1/n cos + + + i sin n n n n CE= k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1

A HD =

AJE

HB

EC=@E

=HE
= ? =E J K? et (cos + i sin ) =E

AMH A J K? =HE ? t + i =E s + i s e (cos + i sin ) 2=H=JDH A JE

et (cos + i sin ) es (cos + i sin ) = et+s (cos( + ) + sin i( + ))

ABX =E

EC=@E

)HE

!%

=E

et (cos + i sin )
@D =@ JE D = JEIJ GDID

= ent (cos(n) + i sin(n)) ,

t + i et (cos + i sin )
GAE JE? E@E JDJA? JD? A AJE ? IK XHJDID? = =FAE =E = H=E= F =F XIE= IA @K X AE? A >XID =KJ JD F=H=J HDID = H I K A JD EC=@E AE = H I =J= IA CE A =

AJE

IK XHJDID

et+i = et (cos + i sin ) ,

ez = eRe (z) (cos(Im z ) + i sin(Im z )) .

X A D D@A E ? EC=@E ? =HE ? F HA = A BH=IJA IA

AJE

HB

z = elog |z|+i arg z .

0 EC=@E A AJE IK XHJDID GAE JE? E@E JDJA?

= ez ew = ez+w > (ez )n = enz C (ez )1 = ez

@ ez = ez

A |ez | = eRe z =E arg(ez ) = Im z

)I DID
JDID?

-F= D A I=JA JE? F=H=FX M E@E JDJA? JD? EC=@E

?A

AJE

? IK XH

-B=H

C ?
) =FJ C =J= @K X AM JM cos , sin
1 z

2=HX@AEC =

-X z = cos + i sin J JA

= cos i sin =E 2 cos = z +

1 z 1 2i sin = z . z

!&

-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

)F J K? J F K? J K De Moivre z n = cos n + i sin n =E z n = cos n i sin n )H=

1 zn 1 2i sin n = z n n z 2 cos n = z n +
= GHDIE F E I K A JD " CE= = A BHXI K A J cos6 IA F

 "  # =F XIE= JD?

2 cos =

1 z+ z

1 1 1 + 6 + z2 z4 z6 1 1 1 = z 6 + 6 + 6 z 4 + 4 + 15 z 2 + 2 z z z = 2 cos 6 + 12 cos 4 + 30 cos 2 + 20 = z 6 + 6z 4 + 15z 2 + 20 + 15

=E =J= C K A

+ 20

cos6 =
) X C= KF C
5

1 (cos 6 + 6 cos 4 + 15 cos 2 + 10) 32

K A JE
5

(2i) sin = =
=E =F JD # G K A

1 z z z5 1 z5

5 z3

1 z3

+ 10 z

1 z

25 sin5 = 2(sin 5 5 sin 3 + 10 sin )

=E

sin5 =

1 (sin 5 5 sin 3 + 10 sin ). 16

2=HX@AEC =

! ) =FJ C =J= JM cos n, sin n IA @K X AE?

)F JD J=KJ JDJ=

(cos 6 + i sin 6) = (cos + i sin )6 = cos6 + 6i cos5 sin + 15i2 cos4 sin2 +20i3 cos3 sin3 + 15i4 cos2 sin4 +6i5 cos sin 5 + i6 sin6 ,

ABX =E

EC=@E

)HE

!' =E J B= J=IJE H ? G K A

GMH

J=? J FH=C =JE

cos 6 = cos6 15 cos4 sin2 + 15 cos2 sin4 sin6

=E

sin 6 = 6 cos5 sin 20 cos3 sin3 + 6 cos sin5 .

2=HX@AEC =

IK JA AIJ ? E IK JA AIJ ? J K = =FJ C =J ? J K @EM K

n

" E @EM K E

n k

CE= k = 0, 1, . . . , n H

J=E M?

(1 + x) =
k=0

n k x , k

=E F H

A = J K? KF

C I K A =F J

J F

n n! (n k + 1) (n k + 2) (n 1)n = = . k k !(n k )! 1 2k
2H I NJA JE 0! = 1 AMH =E IK AF ?
n n 0

n k

=1

A J= = H I =J=

C =
k=0

n cos k k n(n 1) cos 2 + . . . + cos n 2

= 1 + n cos +
=E
n

S =
k=0

n sin k k n(n 1) sin 2 + . . . + sin n. 2

=E J B= J=IJE H ? = J IJ EG=

= n sin +

2=H=JDH A JE C =E S A =E J FH=C =JE J K = =FJ C =J ? J K (1 + ei )n

n

(1 + e )

i n

=
k=0 n

n ik e k n (cos k + i sin k) k

=
k=0

= C + iS.

" -G K A

-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

1 + ei

= (1 + cos + i sin )n n = 2 cos2 + 2i sin cos 2 2 2 n n = 2 cos cos + i sin 2 2 2 n n n cos . + i sin = 2 cos 2 2 2 2 cos 2 2 cos 2
n

5K FAH=

K A JE

C=
=E

cos
n

n 2 n . 2

S=

sin

2=HX@AEC =

# -NAJX K A J X H EI = JM n IJ
2 n1 Q = 1 + wn + wn + . . . + wn .

HE

JD?

X@=?

2=H=JDH

A JE
n1 wn Q = wn (1 + wn + . . . + wn ) 2 n1 n = wn + wn + . . . + wn + wn

= Q
5K FAH= K A JE (wn 1)Q = 0 =E AB I

wn = 1

G K A

2 n1 1 + wn + wn + . . . + wn = 0.

ABX =E ! /AM AJHE X @E= I =J= IJ G H

7FA K K A JE = CAM AJHE @EX KI = A =E = AK CH= J = FX M IJ F @E= H K A J= @ X H= JD =HG =E J F H=? J K @E= I =J ? 5J ABX 2 =E  A AJ I= A @E= I =J= F K ABXFJ J=E IJD AFEBX AE= J K AFEF @ K E 5J F=H ABX =E = A AJ I K A @E= I =J= IJ G H E 3 -X J IIAH= ID A = J K G H K IGD =J K = F=H= D CH= =KJX >H I IA = AF FA@ 0 2H J=ID   EIG AE AF ID? CE= F=H= D CH= = IJ G H E >=IE ? EA? F K H I= A CE= J= @E= I =J= J K AFEF @ K C ? ? FM? J=E

ID A
JH

AB=H

B H =? F=H= D =
IKCCH= E JDJ=

F=HX D D AJ=B HX EI @K = = @E= KI XJM

H HH F= J=E A J = J HH F= @E= I =J=

@E = HE> ? JH F =E CE= @E= I =J= J K G H K /E= F=HX@AEC = AX AB A =E = @EX KI = =E A = ID A J K G H K E 3 A JE J @EX KI = A B FH FJAE A F=HX D D AJ=B HX J K AB IJ A AX J ID A B A =E J J E IJA J JAJHXF AKH ABB A A =E F=H= D CH= E FHXNAE? JD? FH I AID? @E= KI XJM A J @E ID A AB=H C ? =E J K F = F =IE=I @E= I =J ? A FH=C =JE =HE H J=E CE= @E= I =J= J K G H K =E EIG K E E@E JDJA? JD? 2H J=ID?  /E= JD =F @AEND JD? FH IAJ=EHEIJE ? "

"

-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

E@E JDJ=? 2H J=ID   AX J= ID A = O, A, B, C @A >H I J=E IJ @E AF FA @ J JA J 5G =  ' F=HEIJX AE J F=H= D AF FA@ F K =J=I AKX AJ=E A = ? OA, OB, OC =E AB=H K A JD 2H J=ID   E FHXNAE? A =E IK >=J ? A JD F=HX D D AJ=B HX IA F E=@ F JA ID A J K G H K =  ! /E= JD =F @AEND =H A = AMH I K A JE AX J A @A >H I AJ=E IJ AF FA@ JM A, B, C J JA J 5G =   F=HEIJX AE J F=H= D AF FA@ F K =J=I AKX AJ=E A = ? AB, AC, AA

2H J=ID !  -X J= @E= I =J= u = OA v = OB =E w = OC @A >H I IJ @E AF FA@ J JA CE= X A @EX KI = z JKG H K KFXHG K FH=C =JE =HE a, b, c R J J E E IJA z = a u + b v + c w.

J=E A =HG IJ O z = OD

AMH A J AF FA@ J F FAH XAE =F J F H=? D J K z A =E F=HX D FH ? J AF FA@ F K H K J=  D IKCCH= E X @E= I =J= u v )B J= @E= I =J= u, v, w @A >H I J=E IJ @E AF FA@ B H =? J K @D =@ D AK A = OC  J AE J IA = ID A C H K A J FH=C =JE =HE c =F JD IG ID OC = c OC

)F @AEND

=E =E w

A F=H E JH F H K A J= ID A = A =E B FX M IJE? AK A A? OA =E OB = J IJ EG= =E J K? FH=C =JE ? =HE ? a =E b JIE IJA OA = a OA =E OB = b OB

5G

= !  ) X KID @E= I =J ? IA JHAE? IK EIJ IA?

ABX =E !

/AM AJHE X @E= I =J= IJ G H

"! D AF FA@ A = ? OA , OB , OC =E

)F JD =J=I AK IGD =J AJ=E F=H= HKB D 5G = !  5K FAH= K A JE

OD = OA + OB + OC = a u + b v + c w.

0 FH J=ID @A G AE JE AX u, v, w @A >H I J=E IJ @E AF FA@ J JA X A @EX KI = J K G H K F HA = A BH=IJA M? CH= E ? IK @K=I ? JM u, v, w 5K FAH= K A JE X A IK C F K FAHE GAE FAHEII JAH= =F JH = @E= I =J= IJ G H A =E CH= E X AN=HJD D 2=H=JDH A JE JH = @E= I =J= A E ID A AB=H C ? IJ G H J= F = @A FAHE G J=E IA = AF FA@ A =E CH= E X = ANXHJDJ= AMH A @ D D@A E X @E= I =J= IJ G H u = OA =E v = OB 0 J=E H C E= FH > J K u IJ v pr v u =E J AIMJAHE CE A u v H FM? =E CE= @E= I =J= J K AFEF @ K u = OA F K A A =E J ID A IJ F D X AJ ? =F J A J AE pr v JD AK A = OB u v = | v |(pr v u ) A =E M? FH ? J v u ) F K D = CA>HE JE (pr I= =J EI JD? OB F K H AE J @EX KI = v
FH

E E@E JDJA? J K =J ?  & =E JD? 2H J=ID?  ' EIG K =E CE= @E= I =J= J K G H K 6 ? D CM = ( u, v ) AJ=N @ D D@A E @E= KI XJM u = OA =E v = OB H AJ=E M? D KHJ CM = AOB IJ AF FA@ F K H K J= ID A = O, A, B ,A = H I K A FH ID =I D CM = CE= @ @E= I =J= IJ G H = ? CE =KJ =F=EJA J=E = FH I@E H I K A J FH I= =J EI J K AFEF @ K F K FAHE GAE J= @E= I =J= =E J J @A F HA = C AE A = E JH F CE= = J= AF FA@= J K G H K

-NMJAHE
 J= A AJX F H A = AMH A F AKH ? OA

CE

@E= KI XJM IJ G H

A @E= I =J= IJ G H =F JX A @E=B H = X D FHXND JD F = H I K A A CAM AJHE JH F M? AN ? J= @E= I =J= u = OA =E v = OB =E J F=H= D CH= A =E OB OADB 6 A >=@ J K F=H= D CH= K A =E =? AJE ?

""

-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

=HE ? F ? AN=HJXJ=E =F J= JH= JM @E= KI XJM u =E v =E JD CM = AJ=N J K? F H A = H I K A = FHXND D F = IJ A C ? @E= KI XJM u , v = JEIJ EGA J A >=@ |OADB | J K F=H= D CHX K OADB  M? A =E =H AJX A =@ A JE = = =E IJ AF FA@ =KJ D FHXND @A @E= JAE = =F JE? >=IE ? E@E JDJA? F K = = A JD AFE AHEIJE JDJ= M? FH ? JD FH I AID

5G

=!

6 A >=@

F=H=

CHX

K @A A =E AFE AHEIJE

-X OC A =E = JH J @EX KI = =E OG = OB +OC D AFE AHEIJE JDJ= = I =E A JE J X H EI = JM A >=@ JM F=H= D CHX M OADB =E OAEC = J= I A J A >=@ J K F=H= D CHX K OAF G |OADB | + |OAEC | = |OAF G| FHXC = F K A C AE @A EIG AE 5G = !
/E= = H I K A = FHXND A GH IE A? E@E JDJA? FH FAE = X> K A KF OE A J ? =F J A >=@ =E J FH I= =J EI J K AFEF @ K I= IJ G H MH A = AF FA@ F K FAHE GAE J ID A = =B HX? O =E J= D IKCCH= @E= I =J= OA =E OB =? A E X

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

ABX =E !

/AM AJHE X @E= I =J= IJ G H

"#

5G

= ! ! 2H I= =J EI

? AFEF @ K =F

X AJ @EX KI =

2=H=JDH A JE = @EXJ=ND IJ A C ? D IKCCH= E @E= KI XJM (OA, OB ) AF ID? FH I@E H AE = FH I= =J EI IJ AF FA@ JD B HX FAHEIJH B ? J K AFEF @ K D F = AJ=B HAE J @EX KI = OA IA = @EX KI = HH F A J OB AJX =F IJH B =JX KHJ CM = A 0 < < 5G = ! "

FH I= =J EI = J AJ ?

? F K = JEIJ EGA IA

= @EX KI = = J HH F

FH ? J

ON A =E

5G = ! " 2H I@E HEI KI XJM

? FH I= =J EI

K AFEF @ K =F @E=JAJ=C

A C ? @E=

"$ 0 = J AJD @EXJ=ND JM @E= KI XJM I= =J EI

-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

(OB, OA) FH I@E H AE J

= J AJ FH

A =KJ J JH F IJ @E=JAJ=C A C ? @E= KI XJM (OA, OB ) = JEIJ E GA = B HX FX M IJD X AJ D B HX JM @E= KI XJM F K = JEIJ EG IJ FH I= =J EI J K AFEF @ K F K FH I@E H AE J @E=JAJ=C A C ? (OA, OB )
 J= FH I= =J EI ? J K AFEF @ K F K FH I@E H AE J @E=JAJ=C A C ? (OA, OB ) IK F FJAE A J FH I= =J EI F K FH I@E H AE J X AJ IJ AF FA@ @EX KI = ON A JE D @E=JAJ=C D JHEX@= (OA, OB, ON ) =F JA A = @ANE IJH B I IJD = 5G = ! #

5G

= ! # ,ANE IJH B= IKIJ

=J= @E= KI XJM

AMH A J @EX KI = OX J F GAE B H = J B HX =KJ F K FH I@E H AJ=E =F JD @EXJ=ND (OA, OB ) =E JH I A J A >=@ J K F=H= D CHX K A = ? OA, OB H K A J ANMJAHE CE A JM @E= KI XJM OA, OB = A =E J @EX KI = OA OB = OO AX J= OX AX J= OA, OA, OB A =E IKCCH= E X OB @A A =E IKCCH= E X
A E ID A AB=H C ?O

2H J=ID !
=E J =HE

AMH a 6 JA

A J= @E= I =J= x, y, z

x y = y x  (a x) y = a( x y)

ABX =E !

/AM AJHE X @E= I =J= IJ G H

"%

! x ( y + z ) = ( x y ) + ( x z)

)F @AEND 6=  =E =F @AE
K 6 ! = =F @AEG A J=

J=E A HI K A J

= =F J E J CE

HEI A

J K ANMJAHE IJD IA @= #

CE

5 IJD = = =B HX? IJ G H
5J G H E 3 AMH A = ID A O =E JH = @E= I =J= A ID A AB=H C ? J O J= F = @A FAHE G J=E IJ @E AF FA@ u = OA v = OB w = OC 6= @E= I =J= u, v, w FH I@E H K JHA ? XN A? (, u ), (, v ), (, w) E F E J J=E IJ O 0 @E=JAJ=C D JHEX@= =N M (, u ), (, v ), (, w ) X AJ=E I IJD = = =B HX? IJ G H =E = J IK > K A (O, u , v , w ) F E @ F JA @EX KI = IJ G H z A ID A AB=H C ? IJ O CHXBAJ=E M? CH= E ? IK @K=I E =HE ?

z = a u + b v + c w.
JD? @E=JAJ=C D? JHEX@=? (a, b, c) X J=E IK JAJ=C A? J K @E= I =J ? z M? FH ? J I IJD = = =B HX? (O, u , v , w ) 6= @E= I = J= a u , b v , c w X J=E IK EIJ IA? J K z M? FH ? J I IJD = = =B HX? (O, u , v , w ) /E= X A ID A D J K G H K J @EX KI = OD X AJ=E @EX K I = ID?  @E= KI =JE = J = J K D =E E IK JAJ=C A? J K OD A =E E IK JAJ=C A? J K ID A K D = FAHE H I K A JD J= IK JAJ=C M @D @E= I =J= i , j , k JHEX@= ( i , j , k ) =F FH I G =? IA H = E X @ANE IJH B= IKIJ = =@ IKIJ =J= IK JAJ=C M (O, i , j , k ) IJ= F = J= G K JH  A =E X AJ= AJ=N J K? =E D @E=JAJ=C D JA A @ANE IJH B I IJD = @E= KI XJM

5A = H = E I IJD = IK JAJ=C M E IK JAJ=C A? J K @E= I =J ? z @ @ J=E =F J= AIMJAHE X CE A = J K z A J= @E= I =J= J K IKIJ =J ?

z = ( z i ) i + ( z j ) j + ( z k)k ,
=E J AIMJAHE CE A @ @E= KI XJM @ @AJ=E =F J X H EI = JM CE M y = y1 i + y2 j + JM = J IJ EGM IK JAJ=C M -X z = z1 i + z2 j + z3 k =E y3 k J JA z y =z y +z y +z y
1 1 2 2 3 3

=E

| z|=

2 2 2 z1 + z2 + z3 .

"& = KF FH ? = H = A =E H

-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

C I K A JE? IK JAJ=C A? J K ANMJAHE CE K @ @E= KI XJM M? H = E @ANE IJH B I IJD = = =B HX? -X (O, i , j , k ) A =E E =E @ANE IJH B J F=H= D CH= F K FH I@E H K J= i , j C E A A >=@  =E EIG AE D IG ID

i j = k =j i
) X =E 5K AF ? C= G K A

j k = i =k j k i = j =i k .

z y = (z1 i + z2 j + z3 k ) (y1 i + y2 j + y3 k ) = z1 y1 i i + z1 y2 i j + z1 y3 i k +z2 y1 j i + z2 y2 j j + z2 y3 j k +z3 y1 k i + z3 y2 k j + z3 y3 k k = z1 y1 OO + z1 y2 k z1 y3 j z2 y1 k + z2 y2 OO + z2 y3 i +z3 y1 j z3 y2 i + z3 y3 OO ,

=E JA E X G K A

z y = (z2 y3 z3 y2 ) i + (z3 y1 z1 y3 ) j + (z1 y2 z2 y1 ) k .

/E= = KF CI IK > EI ? JM 3 F I JDJA? CE= JE? F E A J IK >

! 

K A JE? IK JAJ=C A? J K ANMJAHE CE K @EAK AE 3 HE KI -X a1 , a2 , a3 b1 , b2 , b3 =E c1 , c2 , c3 A =E ' F A? H J=E FHXNAE? F =F =IE=I =E FH I AID? GHDIE EI

a1 a2 a3 b1 b2 b3 c1 c2 c3

= a1 b2 c3 + b1 c2 a3 + c1 a2 b3 a3 b2 c1 b3 c2 a1 c3 a2 b1 .
CE K IKC H J=? JD !  A JD !

!  G K A

5JD FAH FJMID J K ANMJAHE

z y =

i j k z1 z2 z3 y1 y2 y3

ABX =E !

/AM AJHE X @E= I =J= IJ G H

"'

E J CE

A
F H A = KF CI K AJ =HE

-X x, y, z A =E JH = @E= I =J= z)

x ( y

x ( y z ) = ( x1 i + x2 j + x3 k ) (y2 z3 y3 z2 ) i + (y3 z1 y1 z3 ) j + (y1 z2 y2 z1 ) k = x1 y2 z3 x1 y3 z2 + x2 y3 z1 x2 y1 z3 + x3 y1 z2 x3 y2 z1 = x1 x2 x3 y1 y2 y3 z1 z2 z3 .

)KJ =HE ? A =E J E J CE A JM JHE @E= KI XJM x, y, z /AM A JHE X D =F KJD JE J K E J CE K A =E ID A J C J K F=H= D AF FA@ K A = ? J= @E= I =J= x , y , z 6 E J CE A A =E AJE AX J I IJD = ( x, y, z ) A =E @ANE IJH B =H DJE AX J ( x, y, z ) A =E @ANE IJH B =E A =E  AX J= @E= I =J= A =E IK AF FA@= = @A N K A JE ( x y) z = x ( y z ). ! !
3HDIE F E A JD = JE AJ= AJE JD? H KI=? =E G K A E@E JDJ= J K AIMJAHE CE K =E E@E JDJA?

( x y) z = z ( x y) = z1 z2 z3 x1 x2 x3 y1 y2 y3 x1 x2 x3 y1 y2 y3 z1 z2 z3

= x ( y z ).
/E= J E J CE A GHDIE F E AJ IK > EI

[ x y z]= x ( y z ) = ( x y) z .
* F K A JE

[ x y z] = x ( y z) = x ( z y) = [ z y x ].

#

-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

)F @AEND JD? AFE AHEIJE ? E@E JDJ=? J K ANMJAHE

CE K AMH A J @EX 2 KI = b = x ( y + z ) x y x z = @A N K A JE b = 0 =E IK AF ? JE b = 0 3HDIE F E J=? JD AFE AHEIJE E@E JDJ= J K AIMJAHE CE K =E JD ! ! G K A

b b = b ( x ( y + z ) x y x z) = b x ( y + z ) b x y b x z = ( b x ) ( y + z )( b x) y ( b x) z = ( b x ) (( y + z ) y z) = 0.

)I DID !  ,A NJA JE

[ x y z ] = [ y z x ] = [ z x y ], [ z y x ] = [ y x z ] = [ x z y ].

,E? ANMJAHE

CE

6 CE A x ( y z ) A =E X AJ FH ? J y z =E IK AF ? >H I AJ=E IJ AF FA@ JM y , z = K ? KF CEI ? A BHX AE J x ( y z ) M? CH= E IK @K=I JM y =E z x ( y z) = i j k x2 x3 x1 y2 z3 y3 z2 y3 z1 y1 z3 y1 z2 y2 z1

i (x2 (y1 z2 y2 z1 ) x3 (y3 z1 y1 z3 )) + j (x3 (y2 z3 y3 z2 ) x1 (y1 z2 y2 z1 )) + k (x1 (y3 z1 y1 z3 ) x2 (y2 z3 y3 z2 )) = i (y1 (x1 z1 + x2 z2 + x3 z3 ) z1 (x1 y1 + x2 y2 + x3 y3 )) + j (y2 (x1 z1 + x2 z2 + x3 z3 ) z2 (x1 y1 + x2 y2 + x3 y3 )) + k (y3 (x1 z1 + x2 z2 + x3 z3 ) z3 (x1 y1 + x2 y2 + x3 y3 )) = ( x z ) y ( x y ) z . =

ABX =E !

/AM AJHE X @E= I =J= IJ G H

#

,D =@

x ( y z ) = ( x z ) y ( x y ) z
=E F=H E=

( x y) z = ( x z ) y ( y z ) x.

- A
) HE> ? H K A KI XJM ID A J

AH= @E= I =J= IJ G H

FM? =E IJD FAH FJMID J K AFEF @ K AX u A =E = @EX KI = IJ G H J A A AH @EX KI = [ u ] = A =E J I M JM AB=H IJ @E= IJ G H J= F = FH FJ K A F=HX D D AJ=B HX J K u IA X A KG H K [ u ] = { v @EX KI = IJ G H
J J E

IJA v u }.

0 F=HX D D AJ=B HX A =E IK >=J A JE? FHXNAE? @E= KI XJM IJ G H F K G K A FAHECHXOAE FH I AID @E= KI XJM F =F =IE=I @E= I =J ? A =HE FH > @E= I =J ? IA @EX KI = AIMJAHE CE A @E= KI XJM ANMJAHE CE A @E= KI XJM 5K AF ? F H A = H I K A JE? = J IJ EGA? FHXNAE? AJ=N A AK HM @E= KI XJM /E= F=HX@AEC = AX OC = OA OB H K A J ANMJAHE CE A JM A A AHM @E= KI XJM [OA] =E [OB ]

[OA] [OB ] = [OA OB ] = [OC ] . -X u OA, v OB =E w OC J JA [ u ] [ v ] = [ w].

=C IKIJ
=

=J ? = =B HX? IJ G H
E X IKIJ =J= = =B HX? IJ G H (O, i , j , k ) =E
M A ?

AMH A@ H (P, u , v , w ) =E ID A K M? FH ? J= @

K A = ANAJXI K A JD IG ID AJ=N JM IK JAJ=C @E=B HAJE X IKIJ =J=

)HGE X = ANAJXI K A JD FAH FJMID F K J ID A = =B HX? JM @ IKIJD X JM A =E J @E -G K A EF J= IKIJ =J= (O, i , j , k ) =E (O, u, v, w) 5G = ! $

-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

5G

= ! $ 5KIJ

=J= = =B HX? IJ G H

-X X A =E ID A J K G H K A IK JAJ=C (O, i , j , k ) J @EX KI = ID? J K X A =E

A? (x, y, z ) M? FH ? J I IJD =

OX = x i + y j + z k .
K A = KF (O, u , v, w)

! "

C I K A JE? IK JAJ=C A? (x , y , z ) J K X M? FH ? J I IJD = E F A? @ @ J=E =F JD IG ID

w. v +z u +y OX = x

! #

/E= = FAJ G K A =KJ GHAEX AJ=E = A BHXI K A J= @E= I =J= i , j , k M? CH= E IK @K=I JM u, v, w -IJM i = a1 u + b1 v + c1 w j = a2 u + b2 v + c2 w w v + c3 u + b3 k = a3
6 JA = JE = EIJ J=? JE? ! $ IJD ! " G K A

! $

w) v + c1 u + b1 OX = x(a1 w) v + c2 u + b2 +y (a2 w) v + c3 u + b3 +z (a3 = (xa1 + ya2 + za3 ) u +(xb1 + yb2 + zb3 ) v +(xc1 + yc2 + zc3 ) w

ABX =E !

/AM AJHE X @E= I =J= IJ G H

#!

=E IKC H

J=? A JD ! # G K A

x y z
F H FE X M A = F=H=IJ I K A =KJ

= a1 x + a2 y + a3 z = b1 x + b2 y + b3 z = c1 x + c2 y + c3 z
J =F J AI = GHDIE F E J=? J IK > EI ! %

a1 a2 a3 x x y = b1 b2 b3 y z c1 c2 c3 z

F ? ID = AE JE =HE ? IJD FH JD CH= IJD =HEIJAH F AKHX A =E I ? A J X H EI = JM CE M JM IJ EGA M JD? FH JD? CH= ? J K F = = A J= = J IJ EG= IJ EGA = J K @E= I =J ? IK JAJ=C M =E = X C= CE= JD @A JAHD =E  JD JH JD CH= 6 H= ANAJX K A JD FAH FJMID F K J= ID A = = =B HX? JM @ IKIJD X JM A =E @E=B HAJE X 7F J K A JE J= @ IKIJ =J= A =E (O, i , j , k ) =E (P, u, v, w ) =E JE OP = x0 i + y0 j + z0 k , @D =@ E IK JAJ=C A? J K P M? FH ? J I IJD = (O, i , j , k ) A =E (x0 , y0 , z0 ) 6 JA

P X = OX OP = (x x0 ) i + (y y0 ) j + (z z0 ) k . E IK JAJ=C A? (x , y , z ) J K ID A K X M? FH ? J I IJD = = =B HX? (P, u, v, w) CE= JE? F A? PX = x u +y v +z w,

@ @ J=E =F JE? IG IAE?

x y z

= a1 (x x0 ) + a2 (y y0 ) + a3 (z z0 ) = b1 (x x0 ) + b2 (y y0 ) + b3 (z z0 ) = c1 (x x0 ) + c2 (y y0 ) + c3 (z z0 )
! &

)F AE = ANAJXI K A FM? A BHX K A J= @E= I =J= i , j , k M? CH= E IK @K=I JM u, v, w 5K M? C MH K A JD = J IJH BD IG ID @D =@ J= @E= I =J= u , v , w M? CH= E IK @K=I JM i , j , k
6

IK >

EI

FE X M

= A AJ I K A IJD -EI=CMC IJD /H=

) CA>H=

#"

-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

5G

= ! % 5K D J = @EA

K ID? A

? @E= I =J ?

)? ANAJXI K A FH J= = @EX KI = IJM J u E IK JAJ=C J I IJD = (O, i , j , k ) @ @ J=E =F J AIMJAHE CE A @E= I =J= i , j , k u = ( u i ) i + ( u j ) j + ( u k)k .

A? J K u M? FH ? J K u A J= JH =

) X AB I J= @E= I =J= i =E u A =E =@E= = J AIMJAHE CE A u i A =E =F ? J IK D J JD? CM =? 1 AJ=N J K u =E J K i =E = J IJ EG= CE= J= u j u k =E JE? CM A? 2 , 3 AJ=N J K u =E JM j , k = J IJ EG= u i = cos 1
5KC H

u j = cos 2

u k = cos 3

! '

J=? JD ! ' A JD ! $ > F K A JE

a1 = i u = u i = cos 1
=E = X C= a2 = cos 2 a3 = cos 3 ,D =@ G K A

u = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k .
E IK JAJ=C A? (a1 , a2 , a3 ) X J=E IK D J = K @E= I =J ? u M? FH ? J I IJD = (O, i , j , k ) 2=H E= >H I K A JE

@EA

K ID? J K

=@E=

v = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k

ABX =E !

/AM AJHE X @E= I =J= IJ G H

##

=E

w = c1 i + c2 j + c3 k AMH AJ H = E I IJD = = =B HX? (O, i , j , k ) = @A JAH H = E I IJD = = =B HX? (P, u, v, w ) J= @E= I =J= J K K @ @ J=E M? FH ? J I IJD = (O, i , j , k ) =F JD IG ID

) = AB= =E
=E F

K A

u = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k v = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k w = c1 i + c2 j + c3 k ,
JE? F A? F H A = A BHXI K A F=H=IJ=JE X IJ = K F = =

i j u v w a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2

k a3 b3 c3

F ? X AJ=E F = =? AJX>=ID? =F J I IJD = (O, i , j , k ) IJ I IJD = (P, u, v, w ) 7F J K A AF ID? JE E IK JAJ=C A? J K ID A K P M? FH ? J I IJD = (O, i , j , k ) A =E (x0 , y0 , z0 ) -X J ID A X GAE IK JAJ=C A? (x, y, z ) M? FH ? J I IJD = (O, i , j , k ) J JA E IK JAJ=C A? (x , y , z ) J K X M? FH ? J I IJD = (P, u, v, w ) @ @ J=E =F JE? IG IAE? x y z = a1 (x x0 ) + a2 (y y0 ) + a3 (z z0 ) = b1 (x x0 ) + b2 (y y0 ) + b3 (z z0 ) = c1 (x x0 ) + c2 (y y0 ) + c3 (z z0 )

ABX =E " /AM AJHE 6 F E

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

) = KJE ? ANEI IAE?

AMH A J AF FA@ A @A@ I IJD = = =B HX? JIE IJA X A ID A J K AFEF @ K = JEIJ EGA IA = @E=JAJ=C A C ? (x, y ) = IK XHJDID f : R2 R FH I@E H AE = I IJ AF FA@ A J = K JH F AMH A = J= ID A = P (x, y ) J K AFEF @ K E IK JAJ=C A? JM F M E = F E JD AN IMID f (x, y ) = 0 @D =@ J= ID A = J K AFEF @ K A IK JAJ=C A? IJ I {(x, y ) 2 R : f (x, y ) = 0} )KJ J KF I J K AFEF @ K X AJ=E CAM AJHE ? J F ? JD? AN IMID? f (x, y ) = 0 5KG X J=KJ K A J KF I J K AFEF @ K A 2 J I JM IK JAJ=C M =E = =BAH =IJA IJ {(x, y ) R : f (x, y ) = 0} M? J CAM AJHE J F JD? f (x, y ) = 0

2=HX@AEC = "  AMH

A JD IK XHJDID f (x, y ) = ax + by + c CAM AJHE ? J F ? JD? AN IMID? ax + by + c = 0 A =E J I JM ID A M J K AFEF @ K A #$

ABX =E "

/AM AJHE

6 F E

#%

IK JAJ=C = AK A = c/b

A? IJ  {(x, y ) : ax + by + c = 0} / MH K A JE =KJ J I A =E =E X EIJ= D AK A = A ID = a/b D F = J AE J y XN = IJ

2=HX@AEC = "

AMH A JD IK XHJDID f (x, y ) = x2 + y 2 r2 F K r > 0 CAM AJHE ? J F ? JD? AN IMID? f (x, y ) = 0 =F JA A J=E =F J= ID A = CE= J= F = x2 + y 2 = r2 @D =@ J= ID A = F K =F G K IJ= AH =F IJ=ID r =F J ID A (0, 0) )KJ J I A =E ? A JH O =E = J = r

K A = FAHECHXO K A J A JH J ID A C A IK JAJ=C A? (a, b) =E = J = ! -X J ID A P A IK JAJ=C A? (x, y ) >H I AJ=E IA =KJ J D =F IJ=ID =F J P IJ C A =E ! CP = 3 =E ? ? F HA = IK AF ? (x a)2 + (y b)2 = 3 5K FAH= K A JE @A@ 2 2 FAHECH=BA =F JD IK XHJDID f (x, y ) = (x a) + (y b) 3 -FAE@ D F I JDJ= (x a)2 + (y b)2 @A C AJ=E =H DJE CE= F EAI@ F JA JE ? JM x =E y J @E = HE> ? I ID A M E = F EA JD AN IMID (x a)2 + (y b)2 = 9 5K AF ? = =F IJAHD FAHECH=B J K K @ @AJ=E =F JD IK XHJDID g (x, y ) = (x a)2 + (y b)2 9

2=HX@AEC = " !

2=HX@AEC = " " 0 AN IMID (x a)2 + (y b)2 = 0 E = F EA J=E

ID A

=F J

P A IK JAJ=C

A? (a, b)

2=HX@AEC = " # -X f (x, y ) =E g (x, y ) A =E @

IK =HJ IAE? IJ R2 J CE A J K? f (x, y )g (x, y ) D@A AJ=E = HE> ? J= D@A AJ=E J K XGEIJ = =F JE? f =E g -JIE CAM AJHE ? J F ? JD? AN IMID? f (x, y )g (x, y ) = 0 A =E D MID JM CAM AJHE J FM JM ANEI IAM f (x, y ) = 0 =E g (x, y ) = 0 /E= F=HX@AEC = D 2 AN IMID y x2 = 0 EI @K = A A (y + x)(y x) = 0 =E CAM AJHE ? J F ? JD? A =E D MID @ AK AE IK =HJ IAE? IJ R2 J X H EI = JM JAJH=C M J K? f (x, y )2 + g (x, y )2 D@A AJ=E = HE> ? J= D@A J=E =E E @ IK =HJ IAE? f =E g -JIE CAM AJHE ? J F ? JD? AN IMID? f (x, y )2 + g (x, y )2 = 0 A =E D J JM CAM AJHE J FM JM ANEI IAM f (x, y ) = 0 =E g (x, y ) = 0 @D =@ CAM AJHE ? J F ? J K IKIJ =J ? ANEI IAM

2=HX@AEC = " $ -X f (x, y ) =E g(x, y ) A =E @

f (x, y ) = 0 g (x, y ) = 0

) X

C=

AMH

AJ G H

A @A@

I IJD = = =B HX?

JIE

IJA X A ID

#&

-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

A P J K G H K = JEIJ EGA IA = @E=JAJ=C D JHEX@= (x, y, z ) = IK XHJDID 3 f : R R FH I@E H AE J I JM ID A M P (x, y, z ) J K G H K E IK JAJ=C A? JM F M E = F E JD AN IMID f (x, y, z ) = 0

2=HX@AEC = " % 0 AFEBX AE= IB= H=? A

CAM AJHE ? J F ? JD? AN IMID?

JH C (a, b, c) =E = J = r A =E

(x a)2 + (y b)2 + (z c)2 = r2

2=HX@AEC = " & 0 IK XHJDID g (x, y, z ) = ax + by + c F=HX JD B=E

A E E JDJ= A JD IK XHJDID f (x, y ) J K 2=H=@A C =J ? "  @A FAHECHXBAE = AK A = = X = AF FA@ CAM AJHE ? J F ? JD? AN IMID? ax + by + c = 0 IJ G H =F JA A J=E =F J= ID A = P (x, y, z ) A IK JAJ=C A? F K E = F E JD AN IMID 0 IK JAJ=C D z F= H AE F E=@ F JA JE IJ R =B D AJ=> DJ z @A AFDHAX AE JD JE JD? IK XHJDID? f (x, y, z ) CAM AJHE ? J F ? A =E J AF FA@ F K A =E F=HX D A J z XN = =E J AE J (x, y ) AF FA@ IJD AK A = A AN IMID ax + by + c = 0 CAM AJHE ? J F ? J K IKIJ =J ? ANEI IAM

2=HX@AEC = " '

x2 + y 2 + z 2 = r ax + by + cz = d
A =E D J A I E=? IB= H=? =E A ? AFEF @ K @D =@ =? ? = ID A J

2=HX@AEC = " 

CAM AJHE ? J F ? JD? AN IMID? y 2 + z 2 = 4 IJ G H @D =@ J I JM ID A M A IK JAJ=C A? IJ {(x, y, z ) R3 : y 2 + z 2 = 4} A =E =? E @H ? IJ G H A XN = J x XN = F ? J AE J (y, z ) AF FA@ IJ A JH O =E = J = 2 K =I = IJ AF FA@

)I DID "  2AHECHXOJA CAM AJHE X J= =

= {(x, y ) R2 : 2x 3y + > {(x, y ) R2 : y = 1} C {(x, y ) R2 : (y 1)(2x y ) = 0} @ {(x, y ) R2 : x2 + y 2 2x 2y 2 = 0} A {(x, y ) R2 : x2 + y 2 = 2xy }

2 = 0}

ABX =E "

/AM AJHE

6 F E

#'

)I DID "

2AHECHXOJA CAM AJHE X J= =

K =I

= IJ G H

= {(x, y, z ) R3 : x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2x 2y 2 = 0} > {(x, y, z ) R3 : x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2x 2y + 2 = 0} C {(x, y, z ) R3 : 2x 3y = 0} @ {(x, y, z ) R3 : y = 1} A {(x, y, z ) R3 : (y 1)(x2 + z 2 1) = 0}

2=H= AJHE

FAHECH=B

5A =KJ JD FAH FJMID FAHECHXB K A = KF I J K AFEF @ K J K G H K M? JD AE = =? =FAE EID? =F JD AK A = IJ AF FA@ J G H  = F D =F J AF FA@ IJ G H AFEBX AE= -X f : R R2 A =E = =FAE EID f (t) = (x(t), y (t)) J JA = ? D F=HX A JH ? t F= H AE @E=B HAJE ? JE ? IA XF E @EXIJD = IJ R J ID A P (x(t), y (t)) @E=CHXBAE = = F D IJ AF FA@ 2=H E= AX f : R R3 A =E = =FAE EID f (t) = (x(t), y (t), z (t)) = ? D F=HX AJH ? t F= H AE @E=B HAJE ? JE ? J ID A A IK JAJ=C A? (x(t), y (t), z (t)) @E=CHXBAE = = F D IJ G H -X f : R2 R3 A =E = =FAE EID f (s, t) = (x(s, t), y (s, t), z (s, t)) J JA = ? E F=HX AJH E (s, t) F= H K JE ? IA XF E KF I IJ R2 J ID A P (x(s, t), y (s, t), z (s, t)) E A J=E FX M IA = AFEBX AE= IJ G H

2=HX@AEC = "  0 AK A = IJ AF FA@ F K FAH XAE =F J= ID A = A(1, 2) =E

B (1, 3) GAE F=H= AJHE
FAHECH=B f (t) = (1 + 2t, 3 t) ? A JH (a, b) =E = J = r GAE F=H= AJHE FAHE

2=HX@AEC = " 
CH=B CE= 0 < 2

f () = (a + r cos , b + r sin ) .

2=HX@AEC = " ! 6 X M D EIB= HE JD? IB= H=? A

FAHECHXBAJ=E IA F=H= AJHE HB =F JD =FAE EID g (s, t) = (s, t, 1 s2 t2 )

JH IJ O =E = J = 1

$ CE= s =E t J J E= IJA s2 + t2 1

-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

-X C MH K A JD F=H= AJHE FAHECH=B A ? IK K F H A = >H A JE? = = KJE ? ANEI IAE? A =F= EB JM F=H= JHM AMH A JD AK A = IJ AF FA@ A F=H= AJHE ? IK =HJ IAE? x(t) = 1 t =E y (t) = 2 3t J=? M? y 2 FH ? t G K A t = 1 x =E t = 3 -NEI K A JE? @ A BHXIAE? CE= JD F=HX AJH t =E G K A 1 1 x = (y 2) 3 =F F K F= H K A JD AN IMID JD? AK A =? 3x + y 5 = 0

0 AN IMID |z w1| = |z w2|,

AMH A @ J CAM AJHE AN IMID

> 0.

@A@ = ID A = w1 =E w2 J K EC=@E AFEF @ K = ANAJXI K A J F JM ID A M z J K EC=@E AFEF @ K J= F = E = F E JD

|z w1 | = |z w2 |,
-X = 1 D AN IMID F= H AE JD HB

> 0.

" 

|z w1 | = |z w2 |
=E J= ID A = z F K JD E = F E >H I J=E IJD AI X AJ J K @E=IJ =J ? w1 w2 -X = 1 ANAJX K A FH J= J= ID A = z J= F = E = F E JD AN IMID =E >H I J=E FX M IJD AK A = D F = IK @ AE J= w1 w2 7FXHG K @ J J E= ID A = = ID A p F K @E=EHA AIMJAHE X J @EXIJD = w1 w2 IA =F C =E = @A JAH p F K @E=EHA ANMJAHE X J @EXIJD = w1 w2 IA =F C A J IK > EI J K =F C K ABX =E  IA !

(w1 , w2 , p) =
=E G K A

p w1 , w2 p

(w1 , w2 , p) = = (w1 , w2 , p) .
)F J ABX =E   ! J= ID A = p =E p A =E J=

p=
2=H=JDH IK AJHE

w1 + w2 1+

p =

w1 w2 1

A JE AX = ID A z E = F EA JD IG ID |z w1 | = |z w2 | J JA J J K z M? FH ? JD AK A = F K @E HGAJ=E =F J= w1 , w2 AF ID? E = F EA

ABX =E "

/AM AJHE

6 F E

$

5G

="

CAM AJHE

? J F ? JD? AN IMID? |z w1 | = 2|z w2 |

JD IG ID )KJ D F=H=J HDID =? @DCA = ANAJXI K A JD KF AID JE J I JM ID A M F K E = F E JD AN IMID "  >H I AJ=E IA = A @EX AJH J= ID A = p =E p -X = D A AE =KJ J JH J K K = A =E

c = = =
=E D = J = J K = A =E

p+p 2 (w1 + w2 )(1 ) + (w1 w2 )(1 + ) 2(1 2 ) w1 2 w2 1 2

" 

r = = =
0 AN IMID J K

|p p | 2 |(w1 w2 )(1 ) (w1 w2 )(1 + )| 2|1 2 | || |w1 w2 | |1 2 |

JH c =E = J = r A =E " !

K A

(z c)( zc ) = r2
=E = JE = EIJ J=? =F JE? " "! G K A

z (1 2 ) w1 + 2 w2

1 w 2 ) z (1 2 ) w 1 + 2 w 2 = 2 (w1 w2 )(w

$ D F = =F F EA J=E IJD HB

-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

zz zw 1 z w1 + w1 w 1 = 2 (z z zw 2 z w2 + w2 w 2 )
@D =@

|z w 1 |2 = 2 |z w 2 |2 .
5K FAH= K A JE J I JM ID A M JM ID A = G K IJ= AH C = 1 A =E =? F M ? E =F IJXIAE? =F @ J=

ABX =E # -F FA@ =E AK A = IJ G H
J ABX =E K A K JM = D =JE

5K F DHM =JE X @E=>XIJA AJE ? =JA K ID? JD? =?

- = AF FA@ = H AJ=E =F ! ID A =

P (x1 , y1 , z1 ) Q(x2 , y2 , z2 ) R(x3 , y3 , z3 ) . -X X (x, y, z ) A =E JKG ID A J K AFEF @ K J JA J P X A =E CH= E I ? JM P Q, P R ,D =@ KFXHG K =HE s =E t J J E E IJA P X = sP Q + tP R
FH I@E H AE = ID A AFEF @ K A =E J K AFEF @ K )H= D F=H= AJHE

? I @K=

HB JD? AN IMID? J K

(x x1 , y y1 , z z1 ) = s(x2 x1 , y2 y1 , z2 z1 ) + t(x3 x1 , y3 y1 , z3 z1 )
@D =@

(x, y, z ) = (1 s t)(x1 , y1 , z1 ) + s(x2 , y2 , z2 ) + t(x3 , y3 , z3 ) .

/E= = >H A JD = = KJE AN IMID J K AFEF @ K I AFJ =IJA M? AN ? 6= @E= I =J= P Q =E P R >H I J=E IJ AF FA@ XH= J ANMJAHE CE A P Q P R A =E X AJ IJ AF FA@ =E IK AF ? J E J CE A D@A AJ=E

PQ PR PX = 0.
) JE = EIJ J=? JE? IK JAJ=C A? G K A

x2 x1 y2 y1 z2 z1 x3 x1 y2 y1 z3 z1 x x1 y y1 z z1
$!

=0

$" J K A

-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

A = (y2 y1 )(z3 z1 ) (z2 z1 )(y3 y1 ) B = (z2 z1 )(x3 x1 ) (x2 x1 )(z3 z1 ) C = (x2 x1 )(y3 y1 ) (y2 y1 )(x3 x1 )
=E G K A JD AN IMID

Ax + By + Cz (Ax1 + By1 + Cz1 ) = 0

-X C MH K A = ID A J K AFEF @ K P (x1 , y1 , z1 ) =E = @EX KI = X AJ IJ AF FA@ n A IK JAJ=C A? (k, , m) J JA AX X (x, y, z ) A =E JKG ID A J K AFEF @ K J @EX KI = P X A =E X AJ IJ n =E IK AF ?

PX n = 0,

(x x1 , y y1 , z z1 ) (k, , m) = 0 ,
@D =@

kx + y + mz (kx1 + y1 + mz1 ) = 0 .
* F K A JE =E IJE? @ FAHEFJ IAE? D = = KJE AN IMID A =E JD? HB ?

Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 .
)KJ A =E D CA E IMID J JA CE= X A X AN IMID AFEF @ K 2HXC =JE AX (x1 , y1 , z1 ) E = F EA JD AN

Ax1 + By1 + Cz1 + D = 0 ,

ID A

(x, y, z ) F K JD E = F EA G K A

A(x x1 ) + B (y y1 ) + C (z z1 ) = 0 ,
@D =@ J @EX KI = (x x1 , y y1 , z z1 ) A =E X AJ IJ (A, B, C ) =E IK AF ? J (x, y, z ) >H I AJ=E IJ AF FA@ F K FAH XAE =F J (x1 , y1 , z1 ) =E A =E X AJ IJ @EX KI = (A, B, C ) -X B = C = 0 =E A = 0 J JA D AN IMID C AJ=E

x=

D A

=E F=HEIJX AE = AF FA@ F=HX D FH ? J AF FA@ O y z -X A = 0, BC = 0 J JA D AN IMID C AJ=E

By + Cz + D = 0

ABX =E #

-F FA@

=E AK A = IJ G H

$# D IJ XN = Ox =E J AE J AF FA@

=E F=HEIJX AE J AF FA@ F K A =E F=HX O y z IJD AK A = By + Cz + D = 0 -X D = 0 J JA D AN IMID

Ax + By + Cz = 0
F=HEIJX AE AF FA@ F K FAH XAE =F J O , 0, 0) -X ABCD = 0 J JA J AF FA@ J AE J K? XN A? IA JH = ID A = ( D A D D (0, B , 0) (0, 0, C ) ) J IJH B= J AF FA@ F K J AE J K? x, y, z XN A? IJ= , , = J IJ EG= A = 0 GAE AN IMID z x y + + = 1.

2=H= AJHE
= AK A = = H AJ=E =F IJD @EA K ID JD? AK A =?

HB AK A =? IJ G H
= ID A P (x1 , x2 , x3 ) =E = @EX KI = a = (u, v, w) =E GAE F=H= AJHE F=HXIJ=ID
# 

(x, y, z ) = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) + s(u, v, w)

0 = = KJE AK A = M? J

HB FH FJAE M? = I IJD = @ ANEI IAM =E F=HEIJX AE JD @ AFEF @M )F= A B J=? J s =F JE? #  G K A AX uvw = 0

x x1 y y1 z z1 = = u v w
F K @ @AE J I IJD = ANEI IAM

vx uy (vx1 uy1 ) = 0 wy vz (wy1 vz1 ) = 0 .

-X w = 0 =E uv = 0 D =F= EB J K s @ @AE J I IJD = ANEI IAM

# 

vx uy (vx1 uy1 ) = 0 z = z1 .
/A E JAH= AMH A@ ANEI IAE?

# !

A 1 x + B1 y + C 1 z + D 1 = 0 , A 2 x + B2 y + C 2 z + D 2 = 0 .
-X

B1 C1 D1 A1 = = = A2 B2 C2 D2

$$ E @ ANEI IAE? E = FJ K -X F E

-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

J=E = HE> ? =F J= @E= ID A = @D =@ J= AF FA@= IK F

A1 B1 C1 D1 = = = A2 B2 C2 D2 J JA J= @ AF FA@= A =E F=HX D = A =E =E J= @ X AJ= IJ @EX KI = (A1 , B1 , C1 ) = k (A2 , B2 , C2 ) -X B1 A1 C1 A1 = = , A2 B2 A2 C2 J JA J= @ AF FA@= @A A =E F=HX D = =E J J=E IA = AK A = 6 @EX KI = @EA K ID? JD? AK A =? A =E X AJ IJ= (A1 , B1 , C1 ) =E (A2 , B2 , C2 ) XH= A =E IKCCH= E A J @EX KI = u = (A1 , B1 , C1 ) (A2 , B2 , C2 )
=E D F=H= AJHE F=HXIJ=ID JD? AK A =? A =E

(x, y, z ) = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) + t(A1 , B1 , C1 ) (A2 , B2 , C2 )

F K (x0 , y0 , z0 ) A =E = ID A JD? AK A =? =E E = F EA JE? ANEI IAE?

A1 x0 + B1 y0 + C1 z0 = D1 A2 x0 + B2 y0 + C2 z0 = D2 .
/E= F=HX@AEC = AX A1 B2 B1 A2 = 0 J J=? z0 = 0 =E J=? JE? ANEI IAE?

A1 x0 + B1 y0 = D1 A2 x0 + B2 y0 = D2
G K A

x0 =

(D1 B2 B1 D2 ) , A1 B2 B1 A2

y0 =

(A1 D2 D1 A2 ) . A1 B2 B1 A2

)F IJ=ID ID A K =F AF FA@
AMH A = AF FA@ A AN IMID Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 =E X AJ @EX KI = n = (A, B, C ) -X X0 A =E = ID A J K AFEF @ K =E X1 ID A J K G H K D FH ID =I D =F IJ=ID J K X1 =F J AF FA@ A =E D = CA>HE JE JD? FH > ? J K @E= I =J ? X0 X1 IJ n

X0 X1 n X X ) = d = (pr n 0 1 |n|

ABX =E #

-F FA@

=E AK A = IJ G H

$%

(x1 x0 )A + (y1 y0 )B + (z1 z0 )C A2 + B 2 + C 2 Ax1 + By1 + Cz1 (Ax0 + By0 + Cz0 ) = A2 + B 2 + C 2 =

= X Ax0 + By0 + Cz0 = D XH=

d=

Ax1 + By1 + Cz1 + D A2 + B 2 + C 2

# " =JAK

0 =F IJ=ID d A =E AJE AX J X1 >H I AJ=E IJ D GMH FH ? J F AJ=E J @EX KI = n = (A, B, C ) =E =H DJE IJD = J AJD FAH FJMID

)I DID #  *HA JA JE? ANEI IAE? JM AFEF @M F K @EG J

AJ=N @ AFEF @M

JE? @ A@HA? CM A?

)F IJ=ID ID A K =F AK A =
-IJM AK A = A F=H= AJHE AN IMID OX = OX0 + t a @D =@ (x, y, z ) = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) + t(a, b, c) =E ID A X1 A OX1 = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) 6 JA J @EX KI = X0 X1 a A =E X AJ IJ AF FA@ F K FAHE GAE JD AK A = =E J ID A X1 =E J @EX KI = e = (X0 X1 a) a
A =E F=HX D FH ? =KJ J AF FA@ =E X AJ IJD AK A = 5K FAH= K A JE D =F IJ=ID J K X1 =F JD AK A = A =E J JH JD? FH > ? J K X0 X1 FX M IJ e

e X0 X1 d = |pr X X | = e 0 1 | e| |(X0 X1 a) a X0 X1 | . = |(X0 X1 a) a|

) H X K A JD ID JM FHXNAM IJ =HE DJ A CE= J A JE a A =E X AJ IJ X0 X1 a =E G K A F=H= =IJ F=H=JD

|(X0 X1 a ) ( a X0 X1 )| d = |X0 X1 a | | a| |X0 X1 a| = . |a|

$&

-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

)I
AMH

>=JA? AK A A?
A@ AK A A? 1 , 2 A F=H= AJHE ? ANEI IAE?

OX = OX1 + t a1 OX = OX2 + s a2
-X E AK A A? >H I IK AF FA@= =E J=E IJ @E AF FA@

tR sR

J JA J= @E= I =J= X1 X2 , a1 =E a2 A =E

[X1 X2 , a1 , a2 ] = 0 .

5JD = J AJD FAH FJMID E AK A A? X J=E G K =@E E X AJ 6 @EX KI = @EA a1 =E J a2 =E F H A = AMH I K A

=I

K ID? u JD? A =E X AJ IJ

>=JA? )I >=JA? AK A A?

u = a1 a1 .
0 A XGEIJD =F IJ=ID JM @ IJ u AK AE A =E J JH JD? FH >

? J K X1 X2 FX M

d = |pr a1 a2 X1 X2 | |X1 X2 a1 a2 | = | a1 a2 | |[X1 X2 , a1 , a2 ]| = . | a1 a2 |

/E= = FH I@E H I K A J= ID A = J ? T1 =E T2 JD? E ? = 2 AHC= =IJA M? AN ? 6 ID A T1 = AE IJD 1 XH= J K A JE? 1 =E

OT1 = OX1 + t a1
=E F=H E= CE= J T2 =E JD 2

# #

OT2 = OX2 + s a2 . -F ID? T1 T2 A =E F=HX

D

# $

FH ? J a1 a2

=E XH= # %

T1 T2 = a1 a2 .
)B

T1 T2 = OT2 OT1 =F JE? # # # $ =E # % G K A OX2 OX1 + s a2 t a1 = a1 a2 ,

ABX =E #

-F FA@

=E AK A = IJ G H

$'

J F A =E = I IJD = ! ANEI IAM  = CE= X A IK JAJ=C D A ! =C IJ K? (s, t, ) J F F H A = I K A CE= = FH I@E H I K A J= t, s =E A IK AGA = J= T1 , T2

2=HX@AEC = #  , @ J=E AK A A? 1 =E 2 J J EA? IJA D 1 FAH X =F J ID A

A(2, 1, 0) =E A =E F=HX D D FH ? J @EX KI = u = (1, 3, 1) =E D 2 FAH X =F J ID A B (0, 1, 3) =E A =E F=HX D D FH ? J @EX KI = v = (2, 1, 1) 7F C K A J E J CE A [AB, u, v]= 2 2 3 1 3 1 2 1 1 = 29 .

5K FAH= 0 E

K A JE E AK A A? A =E =I >=JA? X AJ ? GAE JD @EA K ID J K @E= I =J ?

u v = (1, 3, 1) (2, 1, 1) = (4, 3, 5) , J F GAE JH | u v|=5 2 5K AF ? D =F IJ=ID AJ=N JM @ AK AE A =E |[AB, u, v ]| | 29| 29 2 d= = = . | u v| 10 5 2

/E= = >H A J= ID A = J ? JM @ AK AE A JD E X AJ A J I IJD = OB OA + s v t u = ( u v ), @D =@ GHDIE F E

(2, 2, 3) + s (2, 1, 1) t (1, 3, 1) = (4, 3, 5) , 2s t 4 s 3t + 3 s + t + 5

J F

= 2 = 2 = 3 ,

K A CE= = FH I@E H I K A J= s =E t

t=
)H= J= ID A = J ? A JD E

1 25

s=

7 . 50

X AJ A =E

T1 = (2, 1, 0) + T2 = (0, 1, 3)

7 (2, 1, 1) 50

1 (1, 3, 1) 25

% =E D =F IJ=ID AJ=N JM @ AK AE A =E

-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

1 29 2 |T1 T2 | = |116, 87, 145| = . 50 10

ABX =E $ = F A? AF FA@ K >= IJ

= D =JE

5K F DHM =JE X @E=>XIJA AJE ? =JA K ID? JD? =?

J ABX =E ! JM K A K

M E ?J
?

? A =E CAM AJE ? J F ? JM ID A M J K AFEF @ K F K =F G K IJ= AH =F IJ=ID r > 0 =F = ID A C J JH J K K 0 @E= KI =JE AN IMID F K E = F EA J CA E ID A X J K K A =E

|CX | = r
-X X> K A J C M? ID A = =B HX? D AN IMID J K K A =E $ 

x2 + y 2 = r 2

-X J JH GAE IK JAJ=C A? C : (x0 , y0 ) M? FH ? J I IJD = = =B HX? (O, i , j ) D AN IMID J K K A =E

(x x0 )2 + (y y0 )2 = r2
6= ID A = J K K G K F=H= AJHE BH=ID

(x, y ) = (x0 , y0 ) + r(cos , sin ) 0 < 2.

%

% = A = = JE F=H= AJHE BH=ID

-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

A HDJ ? IK =HJ IAE? A =E D =

K D

(x, y ) = (x0 , y0 ) + r

1 t2 2t , 2 1 + t 1 + t2
K A J ? =F J ID A

D F = CE= t (, ) @ @AE = J= ID A = J K r, y0 ) )KJ J ID A A =E J HE = ? t

(x0

)I DID $  -F= D A I=JA JE J= ID A = )I DID $

ID A K

1 t2 2t , 2 1 + t 1 + t2

>H I

J=E IA

,A NJA JE D F=HX AJH ? t IGAJ AJ=E A JD F=HX AJH J K @E K IM JD? sin t= . 1 + cos

5JD IK GAE= = FAHE HEIJ A IJD FAH FJMID F K J ID A = =B HX? A =E J JH J K K E ANEI IAE? CE= JD CA E FAH FJMID @ @ J=E M? =I IAE? AMH A = J =? r =E = AK A = F K FAH XAE =F J ID A X1 : (x1 , y1 ) 6 JA = ID A X : (x, y ) JD? AK A =? A F=H= AJHE F=HXIJ=ID

(x, y ) = (x1 , y1 ) + t(a, b)

>H I AJ=E IJ AX

(x1 + ta)2 + (y1 + tb)2 = r2 ,

@D =@ AX
2 2 2 2 2 x2 1 + y1 + 2t(ax1 + by1 ) + t (a + b ) r = 0 .

$ 

E JE ? J K t F K E = F E J AE J AMH A JD @E= H KI=

JD $

= JEIJ EG

IJ= ID A = IJ= F = D AK A =

2 2 = (ax1 + by1 )2 (a2 + b2 )(x2 1 + y1 r ) .

$ !

-X < 0 J JA @A KFXHG K FH=C =JE ? H A? JD? $ =E D AK A = @A J AE J -X > 0 J JA D AK A = J AE J IA @ @E=B HAJE X ID A = 6 ? AX = 0 J JA D $ GAE @EF H = =E D AK A = GAE =@E E ID A AJ @D =@ A =E AB=FJ DJ K K 2 )HGE X KF J K A JE J ID A X1 = AE IJ 6 JA AB I x2 1 + y1 r2 = 0 D IK D CE= = A =E D AB=FJ DJ K K IJ ID A X1 C AJ=E

ax1 + by1 = 0 ,

ABX =E $

= F

A?

K >=

IJ AF FA@

%!

@D =@ D @EA K ID JD? FH FAE = A =E X AJD IJD = J = J K K IJ X1 F H A = KF I K A (a, b) = (y1 , x1 ) F JA D AB=FJ D GAE F=H= AJHE BH=ID

(x, y ) = (x1 ty1 , y1 + tx1 )

=F F K F= H K A JD AN IMID JD? AB=FJ A JH O =E = J = r D? IJ ID A

X1 : (x1 , y1 ) IJ
$ "

x1 x + y 1 y = r 2

-IJM J H= JE J ID A X1 @A = AE IJ -X J X1 >H I AJ=E IJ 2 2 2 AIMJAHE J K K x1 + y1 r < 0 =E D @E= H KI= $ ! @A F HA = D@A EIJA CE= F EAI@ F JA FH=C =JE ? JE ? JM a, b 5K AF ? @A KFXHGAE AB=FJ D
2 2 -X J X1 >H I AJ=E IJ ANMJAHE J K K x2 1 + y1 r > 0 =E JE ? JM a, b F K D@A K JD @E= H KI= $ ! 7F J K A JE X0 A =E J ID A AF=B ? =? AB=FJ D? F K FAH XAE =F J X1 6 JA =F AB=FJ D IJ X0 GAE AN IMID x0 x + y0 y = r2 D F = E = F EA J=E =F X1 ,D =@ J X0 E = F EA JD x0 x1 + y0 y1 = r2

KFXHG K : ( x0 , y 0 ) JD $ " D J ID A

5K FAH= K A JE J= ID A = AF=B ? A J =F J ID A X1 ANMJAHE J K K E =

F E

JM AB=FJ M F K FAH X A JD AN IMID $ #

xx1 + yy1 = r2 .

2 2 A JD KF AID x2 E X ID A = A J 1 + y1 r > 0 D AK A = $ # GAE @ $  J= X0 =E X0 5K AF ? KFXHG K = HE> ? @ AB=FJ A A? FH ? J =F = ID A ANMJAHE J K K /E= = >H A JE? ANEI IAE? J K? >H I K A FH J= J= X0 , X0 =E AB=H K A JD $ "

/E= F E=@ F JA ID A X1 J K AFEF @ K @E=B HAJE H AJ=E D AK A = A AN IMID

=F J

JH J K

K $ $

x1 x + y1 y = r2 ,

D F = X AJ=E F E AK A = J K X1 M? FH ? J $  -X X1 A =E ID A J K K D F E AK A = A =E D AB=FJ D J K K IJ X1 -X X1 A =E ID A IJ ANMJAHE J K K D F E AK A = A =E D AK A = F K FAH XAE =F J= ID A = AF=B ? JM AB=FJ M FH ? J F K FAH =F J X1 -X J ? X1 A =E ID A IJ AIMJAHE J K K =@ A JE D F E AK A = A =E J F ? JM ID A M JM F M D F E AK A = FAH XAE =F J X1 2HXC =JE F H A = AMH I K A JD $ $ M? JD AN IMID JD? F E ? AK A =? J K ID A K (x, y ) =E J JA =KJ E = F EA J=E =F J ID A X1 : (x1 , y1 ) ) J IJH B= F E=@ F JA AK A = J K AFEF @ K @A FAH XAE =F J JH J K K A =E F E AK A = A ? ID A K X1 IJ AF FA@ J F X AJ=E F ?

%" JD? AK A =? ) D GAE AN IMID

-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

Ax + By + C = 0
J JA F ? JD? A =E J ID A A IK JAJ=C A?

(x1 , y1 ) =

Ar2 Br2 , C C

)I DID $ ! *HA JA JD AN IMID JD? AB=FJ

A ? ID A K =E JE? IK JAJ=C >H I AJ=E IJ C : (x0 , y0 ) A? J K F K

D? IJ JD? F E ? AK A =? =? AK A =? J= J JH J K K

-

AEOD

- AEOD A =E CAM AJHE ? J F ? JM ID A M J K AFEF @ K F K G K IJ= AH X H EI = =F IJXIAM =F @ IJ= AHX ID A = -X F1 , F2 A =E J= IJ= AHX ID A = KF J K A JE J ID A = =B HX? A =E J I F1 F2 J K @E=IJ =J ? F1 F2 =E i = 6 JA J= ID A = F1 , F2 G K IK JAJ=C A? |F1 F2 | (C, 0) =E (C, 0) M? FH ? J (O, i , j ) -X J X H EI = JM =F IJXIAM J K ID A K X JD? AEOD? =F J= F1 , F2 A =E 2a A a > c G K A

|F1 X | + |F2 X | = 2a ,
@D =@ (x + c)2 + y 2 + (x c)2 + y 2 = 2a =F F K G K A (x c)2 + y 2 = c a2 c2 2 a x =E JA E X x + y 2 = a2 c2 a a2 -B I a > c a2 c2 > 0 =E AX I K A b2 = a2 c2 G K A JD AN IMID

x2 y 2 + 2 = 1. a2 b
9? HE= ? FAHEFJ IAE? > F K A JE AX c = 0 J JA a2 = b2 =E G K A A AX a = c J JA D AEOD A BK AJ=E IJ AK CH= J = F1 F2 c C ?e= X AJ=E A A JH JDJ= JD? AEOD? a E AK A A? a2 a2 1 : x = =E 2 : x = c c X J=E @EAK AJ IA? JD? AEOD? =

C ? JM =F IJXIAM A ? ID A K JD? A A OD? =F = AIJ = =E JD = J IJ EGD @EAK AJ I= A =E IJ= AH ? =E I ? A JD A A JH JDJ=

A HD = $ 

ABX =E $

= F

A?

K >=

IJ AF FA@

%#

)F @AEND ) X A =E ID A JD?
AIJ A? F1 , F2 G K A
2 r1 = (x + c)2 + y 2

A OD? =E r1 , r2 E =F IJXIAE? J K X =F JE?

2 r2 = (x c)2 + y 2 .

2cx cx 2 2 )H= r1 r2 = 4cx X = r1 + r2 = 2a XH= r1 r2 = ,D =@ r1 = a + =E a a cx r2 = a a 0 =F IJ=ID J K X =F JE? @EAK AJ IA? A =E d1 = d(X, F1 ) =

=F F K >H I K A JE

a2 +x c

=E d2 = d(X, F2 ) =

a2 x, c

a2 + cx c c r1 = = =e 2 d1 a a + cx a
=E = X C= CE=

r2 d2

) X1 : (x1 , y1 ) =E X2 : (x2 , y2 ) A =E @ ID A = J K AFEF @ K =E X : (x, y ) A =E ID A JD? AK A =? X1 X2 J JA E IK JAJ=C A? J K X @ @ J=E =F

x=
F K t = (X1 X2 X ) A =E 6 (x, y ) = AE IJD =F

x1 + tx2 1+t
? C ?

y=

y1 + ty2 , 1+t

(X1 X ) (XX2 ) AEOD AX J t E = F EA JD AN IMID

(x1 + tx2 )2 (y1 + ty2 )2 + 2 = 1, a2 (1 + t)2 b (1 + t)2

=B

t = 1
2 2 2 2 + 2ty1 y2 + t2 y2 y1 x2 1 + 2tx1 x2 + t x1 + = 1 + 2 t + t2 , a2 b2

D F = @ @AE
2 x2 y2 x1 x2 y1 y2 2 + 1 t2 + 2 + 2 1 t+ 2 2 a b a2 b
2 2 -X I K A L = a2 + b2 1 M = $ % GAE =@E H = = HE> ? J=

2 x2 y1 1 + 1 a2 b2 x2 1 a2 y2

=0

$ %

x2

y2

x1 x2 a2

y2 + y1 1 =E N = b2

1 + b2 1 D AN IMID

M 2 LN = 0 .

%$

-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

5K AF ? =KJ A =E E = =E = =C = = IK D CE= = A =E D AK A = X1 X2 AB=FJ IJD AEOD -E@E JAH= J= X1 >H I AJ=E IJD AEOD D IK D C AJ=E

M =0
=E IK AF ? D AN IMID JD? AB=FJ A D? JD? AEOD? IJ ID A X1 A =E x1 x y 1 y + 2 = 1. a2 b x2 y2 1 -X J X1 @A >H I AJ=E FX M IJD AEOD =E 2 + > 1 D AN IMID a b 2 2 x1 x y 1 y y1 x2 x2 y 2 1 + 2 1 + 2 1 + 2 1 =0 a2 b a2 b a2 b AK A A? F K J J=E IJ X1 =E A =E AB=FJ D JD? A A? IJD AEOD 0 X AJD IJD AB=FJ E= F1 X1 F2 AEOD? IJ ID A

F=HEIJX AE JD C

A HD = $

X1 @EG J

)F @AEND )I DID

AMH IJA J X AJ @EX KI = n IJD AB=FJ D JD? AE OD? IJ ID A Q1 7F C IJA J= IK D J = cos (X1 F1 , n ) =E cos (X1 F2 , n ) =E @A NJA JE A =E I=

A HD = $ ! 6 CE
AEOD? A =E IJ= AH

JM =F IJXIAM JM AIJE

=F

= AB=FJ

D JD?

)F @AEND )I DID 7F

y1 y = 1 CE= (x1 , y1 ) IJD b2

C IJA JE? =F IJXIAE? JM F1 , F2 =F JD AK A = AEOD =E @A NJA JE J CE A J K? A =E I

x1 x + a2 Ab

2=H= AJHE
= F=H= AJHE

F=HXIJ=ID
F=HXIJ=ID JD? AEOD?

AEOD?

x2 y 2 + 2 = 1 A =E D a2 b (x, y ) = (a cos , b sin ) .

/E= = J= ID A = JD? AEOD? A J ? =F J (a, 0) G K A AF ID? JD F=H= AJHE F=HXIJ=ID A HDJ ? IK =HJ IAE?

(x, y ) =

a(1 t2 ) 2bt , 1 + t2 1 + t2

)I DID $ " -F= D A I=JA JE J= ID A = F K @ @ K

J=E FX M IJD

E @ F=H= AJH IAE? >H I AEOD *HA JA JD IG ID AJ=N JM F=H= JHM t =E

ABX =E $

= F

A?

K >=

IJ AF FA@

%%

7FAH>
7FAH> A =E CAM AJHE ? J F ? JM ID A M J K AFEF @ K A JD E@E JDJ= JE D =F KJD JE JD? @E=B HX? JM =F IJXIAM =F @ IJ= AHX ID A = A =E IJ= AH -X F1 , F2 A =E J= IJ= AHX ID A = I J K @E=IJ =J ? F1 F2 =E i = J=C KF J K A JE J ID A = =B HX? A =E J F1 F2 6 JA J= ID A = F1 , F2 G K IK JA |F1 F2 | A? (c, 0) =E (c, 0) = J IJ EG= ) X A =E = ID A JD? KFAH> ? =E

|F1 X | |F2 X | = 2a
J JA c > a )F J HEI JD? KFAH> ? G K A

(x + c)2 + y 2
=F F K F= H =E JA E X K A

(x c)2 + y 2 = 2a cx a a

(x c)2 + y 2 =

a2 c2 2 x + y 2 = a2 c2 . 2 a
F H A = I K A b2 = c2 a2 =E = =J= N K A IJD AN IMID $ & ?E = F E JD IG ID |x| > a $ ' E KFAH> ?

-B I

c>a

x2 y 2 2 = 1. a2 b
)B

x2 y2 1 = >0 a2 b2 0 AN IMID

= J= ID A = JD? KFAH>

F=HEIJX AE AF ID? = KFAH> $ & =E $ ' X J=E IK KCA ? c C ?e= X AJ=E A A a

y 2 x2 2 =1 b2 a A AIJ A? J= ID A = (0, c) =E (0, c)

JH JDJ= JD? KFAH>

a2 c
=E ?

E AK A A?

1 : x =
X J=E

2 : x =

a2 c

@EAK AJ

IA? JD? KFAH>

C ? JM =F IJXIAM A ? ID A K JD? KFAH> ? =F = AIJ = =E JD = J IJ EGD @EAK AJ I= A =E IJ= AH ? =E I ? FH ? JD A A JH JDJ= JD? KFAH> ?

A HD = $ "

%&

-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

)F @AEND )I DID

x1 + tx2 y1 + ty2 , 1+t 1+t JD? AK A =? F K FAH XAE =F J= ID A = X1 : (x1 , y1 ) =E X2 : (x2 , y2 ) >H I AJ=E IJD KFAH> AX J t E = F EA JD AN IMID X : (x, y ) = (x1 + tx2 )2 (y1 + ty2 )2 2 = 1, a2 (1 + t)2 b (1 + t2 )
2 x2 y2 x1 x2 y1 y2 2 1 t2 + 2 2 1 t+ 2 2 a b a2 b 2 x2 y1 1 1 a2 b2 x2 1 a2

6 ID A

= 0. 1 D AN IMID

-X GAE

2 I K A L = a2 =@E H = J=

x2

2 y2 b2

1 M =

x1 x2 a2

y1 y2 b2

1 =E N =

2 y1 b2

M 2 LN = 0
)KJ A =E E = =E = =C = = IK KFAH>  J= X1 >H I AJ=E IJD KFAH> D CE= = A =E D AK A = X1 X2 AB=FJ D IK D C AJ=E D IJD

M =0
=E D AN IMID JD? AB=FJ D? JD? KFAH> ? IJ ID A X1 A =E x1 x y 1 y 2 = 1. a2 b 2 x2 y1 1 -X J X1 @A >H I AJ=E FX M IJD KFAH> =E 2 2 < 1 D AN IMID a b 2 2 x2 y 2 x1 x y1 y x2 y1 1 1 1 2 1 =0 a2 b2 a2 b2 a2 b

b F=HEIJX AE @ AK A A? F K J J=E IJ X1 -X y1 = a x1 J JA E @ AK A A? A =E AB=FJ A A? IJD KFAH> b ? AMH A = ID A E AK A A? y = x A =E =I FJMJA? JD? KFAH> a b b P : x, bx FX M IJD AK A = y = a x =E J ID A Q : x, a x2 a2 J F a >H I AJ=E FX M IJD KFAH> 0 =F IJ=ID AJ=N J K ID A K IJD KFAH> =E J K = J IJ EG K ID A K FX M IJD AK A = A =E b(x x2 a2 ) ab |P Q | = = . a x + x2 a 2 b b -JIE J= ID A = x, bx x2 a2 =E x, a x2 a2 =E x, bx F DIEX K J= x, a a a b = J IJ EG= = ? x A J= ID A = x, bx =E x, bx F DIEX K J= x, a x2 a2 a a b =E x, a x2 a2 = J IJ EG= = ? x

ABX =E $

= F

A?

K >=

IJ AF FA@

%'

2=H= AJHE
5KC H

F=HXIJ=ID KFAH>
?

x2 y 2 = 1 A JD KFAH> E JHECM A a2 b2 JHE J=KJ JDJ= cosh2 t sinh2 t = 1 > F K A JE = F=H= AJHE F=HXIJ=ID JD? KFAH> ? A =E D (x, y ) = (a cosh s, b sinh s) , s R
J=? JD AN IMID JD? KFAH> @ANE X@ F Kx>0 =E

CE= J

(x, y ) = (a cosh s, b sinh s) ,

sR

CE= J =HEIJAH X@ F Kx<0 1 s (e + -X = JE =J=IJ I K A t = es =E GHDIE F E I K A JE? J=KJ JDJA? cosh s = 2 1 s s s e ) =E sinh s = 2 (e e ) G K A = F=H= AJHE F=HXIJ=ID JD? KFAH> ? A HDJ ? IK =HJ IAE?

(x, y ) =

a 2

t+

1 t

b 2

1 t

t R {0}.

2=H=>
2=H=> A =E CAM AJHE ? J F ? JM ID A M J K AFEF @ K F K =F G K ID =F IJ=ID =F = IJ= AH ID A =E = IJ= AH AK A = -X F A =E J IJ= AH ID A =E D AK A = AMH A M? ID A = =B HX? J OF I J K X AJ K @E=IJ =J ? =F J F IJD =E J K A i = |OF | ,0 =E D AK A = AN IMID x = p 6 JA J ID A F GAE IK JAJ=C A? p 2 2 -X X A =E = ID A JD? F=H=> ? J JA G K A

x
=F F K F= H

p 2

+ y2 = x +
?

p 2

K A JD AN IMID JD? F=H=>

y 2 = 2px

$ 

0 F=H=> A =E IK AJHE M? FH ? JD AK A = y = 0 = X @A GAE JH IK AJH =? 0 AK A = F K FAH XAE =F J= ID A = X1 : (x1 , y1 ) =E X2 : (x2 , y2 ) J AE JD x1 + tx2 y1 + ty2 F=H=> IJ= ID A = , CE= J= F = D F=HX AJH ? t E = F EA 1+t 1+t JD AN IMID x1 + tx2 (y1 + ty2 )2 = 2 p , (1 + t)2 1+t

&

-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

2 2 (y2 2px2 )t2 + 2(y1 y2 p(x1 + x2 ))t + y1 2px1 = 0 .

J K A
2 L = y2 2px2 ,

M = y1 y2 p(x1 + x2 ) ,

2 N = y1 2px1 .

0 AN IMID GAE

=@E

H = J=

M 2 LN = 0
)KJ A =E E = =E = =C = = IK D CE= = A =E D AK A = X1 X2 AB=FJ F=H=> ?  J= J X1 >H I AJ=E IJD F=H=> D IK D C AJ=E

$  D JD?

M =0
=E D AN IMID JD? AB=FJ D? JD? F=H=> ? IJ ID A

X1 A =E

y1 y = p(x1 + x) <, .
2  J= y1 > 2px1 D IK

D $  C AJ=E

2 (y1 y p(x1 + x))2 (y1 2px1 )(y 2 2px) = 0

=E F=HEIJX AE @

AK A A? AB=FJ

A A? IJD F=H=>

=E JA

A A? IJ X1

= ID A X0 JD? F=H=> ? @EG J A JD CM = F K IGD =J AJ=E =F JD AIJE= = J = X0 F =E JD AK A = F K FAH XAE =F J X0 =E A =E F=HX D D FH ? J XN = F=H=> ?

A HD = $ # 0 X AJD IA

)F @AEND )I DID *HA JA = @EX KI = u X AJ IJD AB=FJ

? IJ ID A X0 =E KF E @ CM A? A =E IA?

D JD? F=H=> C IJA J= cos ( n , X0 F ) =E cos ( n , i ) ,A NJA JE

2=H= AJHE
-X

F=HXIJ=ID F=H=>
(x, y ) = 2p(t2 , t) .

?
F=HXIJ=ID

I K A x = 2pt2 J JA D F=H=>

$  GAE JD F=H= AJHE

ABX =E $

= F

A?

K >=

IJ AF FA@

&

/A E

AN IMID

K >=
K >= $  

= ANAJXI K A JD CA E

AN IMID

f (x, y ) = Ax2 + 2Bxy + Cy 2 + 2Dx + 2Ey + F = 0

F K J K XGEIJ = =F J= A, B, C @A A =E D@ AEOD KFAH> F=H=> I IJD = AK AE IJ AF FA@ ,E= H K A FAHEFJ IAE? = D = F D GAE JH IK AJH =? J F KFAH> JA A A? AK A A? = ID A  F=HX D A? AK A A? > D = F D @A GAE JH IK AJH =? F=H=>

=@ A JE =KJ F=HEIJX AE = ID A J A I

F HA = A =E =@E  AEOD = KFXHG K XFAEH= J J E= ID A =

-X D = F D GAE JH IK AJH =? J = >X K A M? ID A = =B HX? -X (x, y ) A =E ID A @E=B HAJE =F J (0, 0) J F = AE IJD = F D J JA J ID A (x, y ) AF ID? = AE IJD = F D =E G K A

Ax2 + 2Bxy + Cy 2 + 2Dx + 2Ey + F = = A(x)2 + 2B (x)(y ) + C (y )2 + 2D(x) + 2E (y ) + F .

5K AF ?

4Dx + 4Ey = 0 .
-X =KJ EIG AE CE= JH = ID A = (x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ), (x3 , y3 ) F K @A >H I J=E IA = AK A = G K A JHAE? = ANXHJDJA? ANEI IAE? CE= J= D =E E =E D D ID A =E

D = E = 0.

$ !

)H= AX X> K A J JH IK AJH =? M? =HG JM =N M D@A J=E E H E  K >= -X D = F D GAE XN = IK AJH =? =E J X> K A M? J y XN = IK JAJ=C M J JA AX J (x, y ) = AE IJD = F D J @E EIG AE CE= J (x, y )

Ax2 + 2Bxy + Cy 2 + 2Dx + 2Ey + F = = A(x)2 + 2B (x)y + Cy 2 + 2D(x) + 2Ey + F

=E IK AF ?

4Bxy + 4Dx = 0 ,

& =F F K IK FAH= K A JE

-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

B = D = 0.
)H= AX X> K A E J ? H ? K >= = XN = IK AJH =? M? XN = IK JAJ=C M D@A

$ " AJ=E

7F J K A JE = X K A J I IJD = IK JAJ=C M IJA = GAE M? =HG J ID A P (x0 , y0 ) =E XN A? F K = IGD =J K CM = A J K? =HGE ? -X (x, y ) A =E E IK JAJ=C A? A ? ID A K M? FH ? J =HGE I IJD = =E (x , y ) E IK JAJ=C A? J K @E K ID A K M? FH ? J I IJD = G K A =F J ABX =E   $ x = x0 + x cos y sin $ # y = y0 + x sin + y cos . ) JE = EIJ I IJD = J=? IJD f (x, y ) >H I K A JD AN IMID JD? = F D? M? FH ? J

f (x , y ) = A x 2 + 2B x y + C y 2 + 2D x + 2E y + F = 0 ,
F K J= A , B , . . . , F A =E IK =HJ IAE? JM A, B, . . . , F, x0 , y0 , F H A = @A N K A JE XF E E IK @K=I JM IK JA AIJ =JX JD = =C IK JAJ=C M 5KC A HE = @A AJ=>X

$ $

J=E

J1 = A + C = A + C J2 = A C B 2 = AC B 2
=E

$ % $ &

J3 =

A B D

B C E

D F F

A B D B C E D E F

$ '

E F I JDJA? J1 , J2 , J3 X J=E = JE = H K J A @ ? JD? = F D? FAHEFJ IAE? J2 = 0 =E J2 = 0

MJA? JD? = F
5JD IK GAE=

A = ANAJXI K A GMHEIJX JE? =E

D? =E = @

)I DID $ # 7F

C IJA J= A AF= D A IJA JE A + C = A + C

=E C = JE = EIJ

J=? JE? $ # IJD $ 

0 FAH FJMID J2 = 0
= $ $ 0 = F D GAE
=@E JH IK AJH =? AX =E AX J2 = 0

ABX =E $

= F

A?

K >=

IJ AF FA@

&!

)F @AEND )F JD = JE =JXIJ=ID JM $ # IJD $  >H I K A

D E = (Ax0 + By0 + D) cos + (Bx0 + Cy0 + E ) sin = (Ax0 + By0 + D) sin + (Bx0 + Cy0 + E ) cos
D = J=E

-X F H A = AFE N K A J= x0 , y0 JIE IJA D = E = 0 J JA D = F GAE JH IK AJH =? J ID A (x0 , y0 ) )B sin =E cos @A D@A J=KJ GH = CE= = EIG AE D = E = 0 FH FAE = G K A

Ax0 + By0 + D = 0 Bx0 + Cy0 + E = 0

)KJ J I IJD = GAE A =E =@E ID AX J2 = AC B 2 = 0 =E J JA D ID

x0 =

DC BE AC B 2

y0 =

AE DB . AC B 2

$ 

7F J K A JE AJ=B H K A J ID A = =B HX? IJ (x0 , y0 ) =E D AN IMID JD? = F D? F= H AE JD HB

IJA D = E = 0

A x 2 + 2B x y + C y 2 + F = 0
-X KF I K A JE E XN A? IK JAJ=C M J K K IKIJ =J ? IK F FJ K A J K? XN A? IK AJH =? JD? = F D? J JA = G K A AF ID? B = 0 K A EF = FH I@E H I K A JD CM = CE= JD F = D@A AJ=E J B ) = =F JD = JE =JXIJ=ID JM $ # IJD $  G K A

B = A sin cos + B (cos2 sin2 ) + C sin cos

=E J= B = 0 F= H K A

B (cos2 sin2 ) = (A C ) sin cos

2B cos 2 = (A C ) sin 2
=E = AX A = C =E B = 0 > AX A = C G K A G K A cos 2 = 0 @D =@ =
4

tan 2 =

2B AC

$ 

&" F H A = KF I K A JE D CM = IJH B ? JM =N < 4 IK AF ? < 2 2 2 5A =KJ J @EXIJD = D $  = H AE JD CM = B JD? CM =? A =E J @E A J FH ID J K A2 6 C 2B A J D J sin GAE J FH ID J K AC /E= = FH I@E H I K A J= cos , sin GHDIE F E

-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

M >H I AJ=E IJ @EXIJD = 2=H=JDH IK D J A JE J FH ID cos A =E AJE

A JE? J=KJ JDJA? $ 

cos2 2 =
=E

1 , 1 + tan2 2 1 cos 2 . 2

) JE = EIJ

1 + cos 2 , sin = 2 J=? JD $  IJD $ G K A cos = cos 2 = |A C |

$ !

(A C )2 + 4B 2
=J ? = =B HX? D AN IMID JD? = F D? F= H AE $ "

JD JD

F = = JE = EIJ A IJE? $ ! AJX =F =KJ JD = =C IKIJ HB

Ax2 +C y2 +F = 0
) X J2 = AC B 2 = A C B 2 = A C =E XH= A C = 0 -X F = 0 D $ " CHXBAJ=E IJD HB

A 2 C 2 x y =1 F F
F JA = X C= A

F J K A a2 = F , b2 = C =E CHXB K A x, y = J CE= x , y A J= FH ID = JM A , C =E F G K A = =F JE? HB ?

AF , C F <0

x2 y 2 + 2 =1 a2 b x2 y 2 + 2 = 1 a2 b x2 y 2 2 =1 a2 b

AEOD B= J=IJE KFAH> F KJ F KJ

? AX a2 = b2 AEOD J AE J AE J A I

AF , C F >0

A F < 0, C F > 0

x XN = y XN =

A F > 0, C F < 0

x2 y 2 2 = 1 KFAH> a2 b

-X F = 0 D $ " C AJ=E
A x2 + C y 2 = 0

ABX =E $

= F

A?

K >=

IJ AF FA@

&#

=F

F K G K A

y=
F K GAE = =F JE? HB ?

A x C
M AK AE A C ? AK AE = ID A AN IMID

AC <0

y = x

A C ? JA B= J=IJE

A C > 0 y = ix

6 A @ ? JD? = F D? F H A = J = H I K A =E =F JD =HGE F F AX A BHXI K A J= A , C IK =HJ IAE JM J1 , J2 , J3 -G K A F F F2 F2 F2 = = = . A C AC AC B 2 J2 =E J3 = A C F = J2 F )H= AX J3 IJE AX J1 J3 -X J3 = 0 -X J3 = 0 -X J3 = 0

=0 >0 =E J2 =E J2 =E J2

=E J2 > 0 G K A

AEOD FH=C =JE

AX J1 J3 < 0 =E B= J=

< 0 G K A KFAH> > 0 G K A B= J=IJE A C ? AK AE < 0 G K A A C ? AK AE

A JD AN IMID

2=HX@AEC = $  AMH

f (x, y ) = x2 4xy + y 2 + 10x 8y + 7 = 0

-G K A

A = 1, B = 2, C = 1, D = 5, E = 4, F = 7
=E

J1 = A + C = 2 J2 = AC B 2 = 3 A B D B C E D E F 1 2 5 2 1 4 5 4 7

J3 =
2=H=JDH

= 18.

A JE J2 = 0 XH= G K A

JH IK

AJH =? (x0 , y0 )

x0 =

DC BE = 1 AC B 2

y0 =

AE DB =2 AC B 2

&$ =E A C = 0 XH= D CM = IJH B ? A =E = ) JE = EIJ J=?

4

-F FA@

=E 3 H ?
2 2

=E IK AF ? cos = sin =

2 2 2 x = 1 + x y = (x y 2) 2 2 2
=E

2 2 2 y =2+ x + y = (x + y + 2 2) 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 (x y 2) 4 (x y 2) (x + y + 2 2)+ 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 + (x + y + 2 2) + 10 (x y 2) 8 (x + y + 2 2) + 7 = 0 , 2 2 2
J=? JE? FHXNAE? >H I K A

G K A

=E X

x 2 + 3y 2 6 = 0 ,
=F F K F= H K A JD = E HB KFAH> ?F KJ AE J

y XN =

x2 y2 = 1 . 6 2
-X =? A @E=B HAE =F ? D = E HB =E GE D IKC A HE D = =C J K IKIJ =J ? = =B HX? F K JD @ @AE F H A = GHDIE F E I K A JE? IG IAE?

J1 = A + C ,
=F JE? F A? IK FAH=

J2 = A C
K

K A JE E A , C A =E H A? J K JHEM

t2 J1 t + J2
5J F=HX@AEC = D AN IMID C AJ=E

t2 2t 3 = 0
@D =@

(t + 1)(t 3) = 0
=E G K A A = 1, C = 3

A = 3, C = 1

ABX =E $

= F

A?

K >=

IJ AF FA@

&%

0 FAH FJMID J2 = 0
5JD FAH FJMID F K J2 = 0 D = F D A = =F= A O K A J K? H K? FH J K =JX D D CM = = =F= A O K A J E J 2 = A C = 0 = =F J= A , C D@A @A GAE JH IK AJH =? =E @A F H >= F H A M? A IJH B =JX J H xy 6 JA G K A B = 0 =E =B AJ=E

-X C = 0 D AN IMID C AJ=E
A x 2 + 2 D x + 2E y + F = 0 .
$ #

-X E = 0 IK F DH
x + D A

J=? J JAJHXCM
2

IJD $ # G K A JD AN IMID

=
A

2E A

y +

F D2 2E 2A E D , A

$ $ XN = JD AK A =

D F = F=HEIJX AE F=H=>

HKB J ID A

D 2 A F 2A E

=E F=HX AJH X K A = @A JAHD = =C IKIJ =J ? = =B HX? x= IJA J ID A = =B HX? = A =E D HKB JD? F=H=> ?

D A

E A

x =x +
J K A p = E A

D , A

y =y

D2AF . 2A E
=E G K A $ %

=E CHXB K A x, y = J CE= x , y

x2 = 2py
2=H=JDH A JE AFAE@ B = C = 0

G K A J3 = A E 2 =E J1 = A 5K AF ?

p2 =

J3 E2 . 2 = A J1 3

-X E = 0 J JA D $ # C AJ=E
x= D D2AF A

=E F=HEIJX AE = A C ? AK AE E F A? A =E FH=C =JE ? =E F=H= A? A 2 2 X D A F > 0 IK F FJ K AX D A F = 0 =E A =E B= J=IJE ? AX D2AF <0

-X A = 0 F=H

E= D AN IMID C AJ=E

C y 2 + 2 D x + 2E y + F = 0 .

$ &

&&

-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

-X D = 0 D AN IMID C AJ=E
E y + C
D F = F=HEIJX AE F=H=> A
2

2D = C

F E2 x + 2D 2C D
E 2 C F 2C D

HKB IJ ID A

, E C

XN = JD AK A =

y = E =E F=HX AJH p = D A F=HX D D AJ=B HX J K IKIJ =J ? = =B HX? C C IJD HKB JD? F=H=> ? D AN IMID F= H AE JD HB y 2 = 2px .
2=H=JDH
J3 A JE G K A p2 = D = J 3 . C 2 1 D = 0 G K A JD AN IMID E E 2 C F y= C
2

-X

D F = F=HEIJX AE = A C ? AK AE E F A? A =E FH=C =JE ? =E F=HX D A? AX E 2 C F > 0 IK F FJ K AX E 2 C F = 0 =E A =E B= J=IJE ? AX E2C F <0 6= IK FAHXI =J= JD? F=H=FX M = X KID? F=H KIEX J=E IK FJE X IJ = K F = =

J2 < 0 J3 = 0 KFAH>

J2 = 0 J3 = 0 F=H=>

J2 > 0 J1 J3 < 0 AEOD J1 J3 > 0 B= J=IJE AEOD J3 = 0 B= J=IJE ? AK A A?

J3 = 0 FH=C =JE ? JA A A? AK A A?

J3 = 0 F=HX D A? AK A A?

ABX =E % )
2

= IKIJ
E ? IK JAJ=C

=J= IK JAJ=C
A?

5J AF FA@ AMH A = ID A O =E = D EXN = OA F K IK M? J IGA@EX K A HE JE= - = ID A X J K AFEF @ K FH I@E H AJ=E =F JD =F IJ=ID r =F J O =E JD FH ID =I D CM = = (OA, OX ) 6 A C ? (r, ) A =E E F E ? IK JAJ=C A? J K ID A K X 0 IK JA J=C D @A A =E =@E X = HEI D (r, + 2k ) A =E F E ? IK JAJ=C A? J K @E K ID A K CE= X A k Z 0 IG ID AJ=N F E =E =HJAIE= IK JAJ=C M @ @AJ=E =F JE? = K A? ANEI IAE?

x = r cos y = r cos
=E = J IJH B=

x2 + y 2 y = arctan , x r =
F K D IKC A HE D JE JD? = H AJ=E =F J= FH ID = JM x =E y =E JD AFE C =? HE=? JE ? CE= F=HX@AEC = IJ @EXIJD = (, ] 2=HX@AEC = %  6 ID A A =HJAIE= ? IK JAJ=C A? ( 3, 1) GAE F E ? IK JAJ=C A? 1 = arctan = . r = 3+1=2 , 6 3 6= ID A = A =HJAIE= ? IK JAJ=C A? ( 3, 1), ( 3, 1) =E ( 3, 1) G K , 2, 56 =E 2, = J IJ EG= F E ? IK JAJ=C A? 2, 56 6 &'

'

-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

2=HX@AEC = %
IK JAJ=C A? A =E

0 AN IMID J K

K A

JH O

=E = J = a IA F

E ?

r = a.

2=HX@AEC = % ! 0

E = J K )HGE @D A =E D = F D F K F=HXCAJ=E =F = ID A F K E A J=E A IJ= AH J=G JDJ= u IA = XN = F ? J=KJ GH = FAHE IJH BAJ=E A IJ= AH CM E= J=G JDJ= -X =HGE X J ID A >H I AJ=E IJ O AJX =F GH t E F E ? IK JAJ=C A? J K ID A K = A =E

r = ut =E = t
A =F= EB J K t F= H JAJ=C A? K A JD AN IMID JD? E =? J K )HGE @D IA F E ? IK

r=

u .

5B=EHE ? IK JAJ=C
AMH A = IB= H= A IB= H=? A =E

A?
= =B HX? O =E = J = 0 AN IMID JD?

JH IJ ID A

x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 2
-X X : (x, y, z ) A =E = ID A JD? IB= H=? AF FA@ Oxy @D =@ J ID A X : (x, y, 0) A J x XN = =E A JD OX AMH A JD FH > X J K X IJ =E JE? CM A? F K IGD =J AE D OX

= =

(Ox, OX ) (OX , OX ) ,

2 2

0 X AJ=E CAMCH=BE F XJ ? J K X =E D X AJ=E CAMCH=BE ?J K X 0 @E=JAJ=C D JHEX@= (, , ) = H AE F HM? J ID A X =E A =E E IB=E HE ? IK JAJ=C A? J K ID A K 0 IG ID JM =HJAIE= IK JAJ=C M A JE? IB=EHE ? IK JAJ=C A? @ @AJ=E =F JE? ANEI IAE?

x2 + y 2 + z 2

ABX =E %

)

= IKIJ

=J= IK JAJ=C

'

= arctan = arcsin
=E = J IJH B=

y , x

< z , 2 2

x2 + y 2 + z 2

x = |OX | cos = cos cos y = |OX | sin = cos sin z = (X X ) = sin

2=HX@AEC = % " 0 AN IMID =? IB= H=? A

IK JAJ=C A? A =E

JH O =E = J = a IA IB=EHE ?

=a

2=HX@AEC = % # 0 AN IMID
= 0
CE= 0 = 0 F=HEIJX AE J AF FA@ (x, y ) A CE= 0 = 0 F=HEIJX AE = A XN = IK AJH =? J z XN = =E CM = 2 0 AX 0 > 0 =E 2 + 0 AX 0 < 0 6 I IJD = ANEI IAM =a , = 0 F=HEIJX AE A J =a = J CAMCH=BE F=HX D F XJ K? 0 FX M IJD IB= H= A

2=HX@AEC = % $ 0 AN IMID
= 0
F=HEIJX AE = D EAF FA@ AI H IJ

z XN = A = 0
AID >HE

J I IJD =

=a ,
F=HEIJX AE = J =a =D E E J CAMCH=BE

K? 0 FX M IJD IB= H= A

2=HX@AEC = % % 0 AN IMID
sin = 3
F=HEIJX AE J AF FA@ z = 3

2=HX@AEC = % & 0 AN IMID

cos = 3

' F=HEIJX AE J JD E @H A XN = J XN = JM z =E = J = !

-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

FM? B= AJ=E =F

cos =

x2 + y 2 .

K E @HE ? IK JAJ=C
AMH A = X J K X IJ AJ=E I IJD = IK JAJ=C A?

A?

ID A X A =HJAIE= ? IK JAJ=C A? (x, y, z ) =E JD FH > AF FA@ (x, y ) A IK JAJ=C A? (x, y, 0) 5J AF FA@ (x, y ) H F E IK JAJ=C M M? FH ? J F J ID A X GAE F E ? (, )

r=
0 @E=JAJ=C

x2 + y 2

(Ox, OX ) X
=E A =E E

@HE ? IK

D JHEX@= (r, , z ) = H AE F JAJ=C A? J K ID A K IK JAJ=C M

HM? J ID A

K E

0 IG ID JM K E @HE =F JE? EI JDJA?

A JE? =HJAIE= ? IK JAJ=C

A? @ @AJ=E

x2 + y 2 y = arctan , x z = z r =
=E = J IJH B=

<

x = |OX | cos = r cos y = |OX | sin = r sin z = z

2=HX@AEC = % ' 0 AN IMID A ? K @H K A XN = J

K E @HE ? IK JAJ=C A? A =E

z XN = =E = J = a IA

r = a.

2=HX@AEC = %  0 AN IMID
z=c

ABX =E %

)

= IKIJ

=J= IK JAJ=C

'! A?

IA K E @HE ? IK JAJ=C A? F=HEIJX AE  FM? =E IA =HJAIE= ? IK JAJ=C = AF FA@ F=HX D A J (x, y ) AF FA@ IA =F IJ=ID |c| =F =KJ

2=HX@AEC = %  0 AN IMID
= 0
F=HEIJX AE = D EAF FA@ AI H J

z XN = A = 0 z XN =

J I IJD = ANEI IAM

= a,
F=HEIJX AE = AK A = F=HX D D AJ

2=HX@AEC = %  0 AN IMID
= az , a=0

F=HEIJX AE = A E AE@ AFEBX AE= JD AFEBX AE= F K @E=CHXBAE = AK A = X AJD IJ z XN = F K E A J=E A IJ= AH J=G JDJ= =J= ? J K z XN = =E J=KJ GH = FAHEIJH BAJ=E A IJ= AH CM E= J=G JDJ= C HM =F J z XN =

ABX =E & -FEBX AEA? IJ G H

-FEBX AEA? IJ G H F H = FAHECH=B AF ? JH F K? 0 A JD J K? =F JA A = JE A A JD? @E=B HAJE ? CAM AJH =? = @ A HEI = F=H=@A C =J=

-FEBX AEA? A FAHEIJH B ?

= AFEBX AE= = A J=E AFEBX AE= A FAHEIJH B ? AX F HA = F=H=G A =F JD FAHEIJH B =? = F D? C HM =F = XN = =JX JD FAHEIJH B X A ID A JD? = F D? @E=CHXBAE = A JH IJ XN = F ? >H I AJ=E IA AF FA@ X AJ IJ XN = 0 = F D X AJ=E CA JAEH= JD? AFEBX AE=?

2=HX@AEC = &  -X D CA JAEH= A =E = AK A = F=HX D D FH ? J XN = D AFEBX AE= A =E  H ? K E ? E @H ? -X AMH I K A M? XN = J z

XN = J JA D AFEBX AE= =F JA A J=E =F J= ID A = (x, y, z ) J K G H K F K E = JD AN IMID F E

x2 + y 2 = a 2 .
2=H=JDH A JE D =F KI = J K z IJD AN IMID ID = AE JE =KJ D IK JAJ=C F HA = FXHAE F E=@ F JA JE IJ R D

2=HX@AEC = & -X D CA JAEH= A =E AK A = D F = J AE J XN = D AFEBX AE= A =E  H ? K E ? ? -X AMH I K A M? XN = J z XN = =E M?

CA JAEH= JD AK A = z = x y = 0 J JA D AFEBX AE= =F JA A J=E =F J= ID A = J K G H KF KE = F E JD AN IMID

x2 + y 2 =

z2 . 2

'"

ABX =E &

-FEBX AEA? IJ G H

'#

XFM? FE CA E X AX >H I AJ=E IJ (x, z ) AF FA@

XN =? FAHEIJH B ? A =E A AN IMID

z XN =? =E D CA JAEH=

f (x, z ) = 0 ,

y = 0,

x 0,

J JA D AFEBX AE= A FAHEIJH B ? =F JA A J=E =F J= ID A = (x, y, z ) R3 F K E = F E JD AN IMID &  f ( x2 + y 2 , z ) = 0 . 2HXC =JE AX J HEIJH B >H I F = =F G K =F (x, y, z0 ) J J EA? ID A (x0 , 0, z0 ) >H I AJ=E FX M IJD CA JAEH= J JA =F JD FA J=E FX M IJD AFEBX AE= = J= ID A = IJ AF FA@ z = z0 J= IJ=ID x0 =F J z XN = @D =@ = J= ID A = A IK JAJ=C A? 2 2 IJA x + y = x0

2=HX@AEC = & ! -

AEO AE@ ? A FAHEIJH B ?  IB=EH AE@ ? = A J=E

AEOD

D AFEBX AE= F K F=HXCAJ=E =F JD

x2 y 2 + 2 = 1, z = 0 a2 b J= FAHEIJH=BA C HM =F = =F J K? XN A? JD? 5G = &  -X D FAHEIJH B A =E C HM =F J x XN = D AFEBX AE= I BM = A JD &  GAE AN IMID x2 y 2 + z 2 + =1 a2 b2

5G

=& -

AEO AE@ ? A FAHEIJH B ?

2=HX@AEC = & " 5FA H=  J H ? = A J=E D AFEBX AE= F K F=HXCAJ=E =F JD

FAHEIJH B A ? K C HM =F = XN = F K @A J AMH A M? XN = J z XN = =E M? CA JAEH= J AE J 5G =& 

(x a)2 + z 2 = r2 ,

y = 0,

a > r > 0.

'$ 6 JA D AN IMID JD? IFA H=? A =E

-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

x2 + y 2 a

+ z 2 = r2

5G

=&

5FA H=

2=HX@AEC = & # 0 AFEBX AE= A AN IMID

x2 + y 2 2pz = 0
A =E AFEBX AE= A FAHEIJH B ? CE=J GAE AN IMID JD? HB ? f ( x2 + y 2 , z ) = 0 5K FAH= K A JE F HA = FH OAE A FAHEIJH B JD? = F D? x2 = 2pz y = 0 C HM =F J z XN = )KJ D AFEBX AE= = A J=E F=H=> AE@ ? A FAHEIJH B ? 5G = & !

AEO AE@ ?

5JD IK GAE= = A AJ I K A HEI A? CA E JAHA? AFEBX AEA? E F A? FAHECHX B J=E =F AN IMID @A JAH K >= M? FH ? x y =E z 5A X A FAH FJMID = AMH I K A J I IJD = = =B HX? F K A AJ= A AJ=E JE? IK AJH A? JD? AFEBX AE=? IJA = X> K A JD =F IJAHD HB JD? AN IMID? - AEO AE@ ? = A J=E D AFEBX AE= D F = IA =JX D H C E I IJD = = =B HX? GAE AN IMID

x2 y 2 z 2 + 2 + 2 = 1, a, b, c > 0 . a2 b c x2 y 2 z 2 -X f (x, y, z ) = 2 + 2 + 1 F=H=JDH A JE a b c f (x, y, z ) = f (x, y, z ) = f (x, y, z ) = f (x, y, z )

ABX =E &

-FEBX AEA? IJ G H

'%

5G

= & ! 2=H=>

AE@ ? A FAHEIJH B ?

=E AF M? J A AEO AE@ ? A =E IK AJHE M? FH ? J= AF FA@= (y, z ) (x, z ) =E (x, y ) 5K AF ? A =E AF ID? IK AJHE M? FH ? J K? JHA ? XN A? IK JAJ=C M =E M? FH ? J ID A = =B HX? 5G = & "

5G

=&" -

AEO AE@ ?

6 A AEO AE@ ? FAHE GAJ=E IA = H C E F=H= D AF FA@ A F AKH ? 2a, 2b, 2c =E J AE J K? XN A? IJ= ID A = A : (a, 0, 0) A : (a, 0, 0) B : (0, b, 0) B : (0, b, 0) C : (0, 0, c) C (0, 0, c) 6 A AEO AE@ ? J AE J (x, y ) AF FA@ IJD AEOD

x2 y 2 + = 1, a b

z = 0.

'& - = AF FA@ F=HX D FH ? J (x, y ) AF FA@ J AE J A AEO AE@ ? IJ I

-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

A AN IMID z = k CE= c k c

x2 y 2 k2 + 2 = 1 2, z = k a2 b c
J F A =E = ID A J= |k | = c A J= |k | < c A =E = AEOD A D EXN A?

k2 , c2

k2 . c2

2=H E= EIG K CE= JE? J ? J K A AEO AE@ ? A AF FA@= F=HX D = FH ? J= AF FA@= (x, z ) =E (y, z ) /A E JAH= F H A = @A N K A JE X A AF FA@ AB I J AE J A AEO AE@ ? J J AE IA = ID A IA = AEOD 6 A AEO AE@ ? A FAHEIJH B ? A =E D AE@E FAH FJMID A AEO AE@ ? J= @ =F JE? IJ= AH ? a, b, c A =E IA?

GM
GM

KFAH>
GAE AN IMID

AE@ ?
H C

KFAH>

AE@ ? = A J=E D AFEBX AE= D F = IA =JX D

x2 y 2 z 2 + 2 2 = 1, a2 b c

E I IJD = = =B HX?

a, b, c > 0 .

6 GM KFAH> AE@ ? A =E IK AJHE M? FH ? J= AF FA@= (x, y ) (x, z ) =E (y, z ) = ? =E M? FH ? J K? XN A? x, y, z =E J ID A = =B HX? 5G = & # 6 AF FA@ (x, y ) J AE JD AFEBX AE= IJD AEOD

x2 y 2 + 2 = 1, a2 b
6 AF FA@ (x, z ) J

z = 0.

AE JD AFEBX AE= IJD KFAH>

x2 z 2 + 2 = 1, a2 c
A J AF FA@ (y, z ) IJD KFAH>

y = 0,

y2 z2 + 2 = 1, b2 c
/A E JAH= X A AF FA@

x = 0.
AE JD AFEBX AE= IA = AEOD

A AN IMID z = k J

k2 x2 y 2 + = 1 , a2 b2 c2

z = k.

ABX =E &

-FEBX AEA? IJ G H

''

5G

=&#

GM

KFAH>

AE@ ?

X A AF FA@ A AN IMID x = m J D F = GAE ANEI IAE?

AE JD AFEBX AE= IA

= KFAH>

AX |m| = a

y2 z2 m2 = 1 , b2 c2 a2
 J= |m| = a 1
m2 a2

x = m.

= 0 =E D AN IMID C AJ=E y z = , x = m, b c

D F = F=HEIJX AE @ AK A A? F K J J=E IJ (m, 0, 0) 5JD AE@E FAH FJMID F K a = b G K A J GM KFAH> B ?

AE@ ? A FAHEIJH

, GM
, GM

KFAH>
KFAH>

AE@ ?
H C E

AE@ ? = A J=E D AFEBX AE= D F = IA =JX D

GAE AN IMID

I IJD = = =B HX?

x2 y 2 z 2 2 + 2 = 1, a2 b c

a, b, c > 0 .

6 @ GM KFAH> AE@ ? A =E IK AJHE M? FH ? J= AF FA@= (x, y ) (x, z ) =E (y, z ) = ? =E M? FH ? J K? XN A? x, y, z =E J ID A = =B HX? 5G = & $



-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

5G

= & $ , GM

KFAH>

AE@ ?

6 AF FA@ (x, y ) @A J AE JD AFEBX AE= - = AF FA@ A AN IMID z = k J JD AFEBX AE= IA = AEOD AX |k | > c =E IA = ID A AX |k | = c 6= AF FA@= (x, z ) =E (y, z ) AFEBX AE= IA = KFAH> 5JD AE@E = ? =E AF FA@= F=HX D = FH ? =KJX J

AE

K JD

FAH FJMID F K a = b G K A J @ GM

KFAH>

AE@ ? A FAHEIJH B ?

AEFJE
AEFJE

F=H=>
GAE AN IMID

AE@ ?
H C

F=H=>

AE@ ? = A J=E D AFEBX AE= D F = IA =JX D

x2 y 2 + 2 = 2cz , a2 b

E I IJD = = =B HX?

a, b > 0 , c = 0 .
M? FH ? J= AF FA@= (x, z ) =E (y, z ) X A A AE JD

6 A AEFJE F=H=> = ? =E M? FH ? J

AE@ ? A =E IK AJHE z XN = 5G = & %

6 (x, y ) AF FA@ IK = JXAE JD AFEBX AE= IJ ID A = =B HX? F FA@ F=HX D FH ? J (x, y ) AF FA@ A AN IMID z = k CE= k > 0 J AFEBX AE= IA = AEOD A ANEI IAE?

x2 y 2 + 2 = 2ck , a2 b
-X k < 0 J AF FA@ z = k @A J

z = k.

AE JD AFEBX AE=

ABX =E &

-FEBX AEA? IJ G H



5G

=&% -

AEFJE

F=H=>

AE@ ?

-F FA@= F=HX D = FH ? J (x, z ) J (y, z ) AF FA@ J K JD AFEBX AE= IA = F=H=> /E= F=HX@AEC = J AF FA@ (x, z ) J AE JD AFEBX AE= IJD F=H=>

x2 = 2a2 cz ,
A J AF FA@ y = m J

y = 0,

AE JD AFEBX AE= IJD F=H=>

x2 m2 = 2 cz , a2 b2

y = m.

7FAH>
7FAH>
C

E
F=H=>

F=H=>
GAE AN IMID

AE@ ?
H

AE@ ? = A J=E D AFEBX AE= D F = IA =JX D

x2 y 2 2 = 2cz , a2 b

E I IJD = = =B HX?

a, b > 0 , c = 0 .

0 AFEBX AE= A =E IK AJHE M? FH ? J= AF FA@= (x, z ) =E (y, z ) = ? =E M? FH ? J z XN = =E IK = JXAE J K? XN A? IJ ID A = =B HX? 5G = & & 6 AF FA@ (x, y ) J ANEI IAE? AE JD AFEBX AE= =JX ? @ JA M AK AE A

x2 y 2 2 = 0, a2 b

z = 0,



-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

5G

= & & 7FAH>

F=H=>

AE@ ?

A X A AF FA@ F=HX D FH ? J (x, y ) AF FA@ A AN IMID z = k IK = JXAE J KFAH> E F=H=> AE@ ? IA = KFAH> A ANEI IAE?

x2 y 2 2 = 2ck , a2 b

z = k.

-F FA@= F=HX D = FH ? J (x, z ) J (y, z ) AF FA@ J K JD AFEBX AE= IA = F=H=> /E= F=HX@AEC = J AF FA@ x = m J AE JD AFEBX AE= IJD F=H=> A ANEI IAE?

y2 m2 = 2 cz + , b2 a2

x = m.

) A? AFEBX AEA?

K >=
A?

- J ? =F J= F JA A @D AFEB= AE K >= F K FAHECHXO= A KFXHG K A BK EI FAHEFJ IAE? F K G K A = M E K E @HE AFEBX AE= AF FA@= AK A = J A I 2=H= XJM @ @ K A G=H= JDHEIJE X F=H=@A C =J= =KJ JM FAHEFJ IAM

ABX =E &

-FEBX AEA? IJ G H

!

A AEFJE F=H=> KFAH> A AEFJE @ @ J F=HX = AF FA@ = AK A = = ID A J A I E E

? ? ? ?

? E @H ? E @H ? ?

x2 y 2 z 2 + 2 2 =0 a2 b c y 2 = 2cz, c = 0 y2 z2 2 =1 b2 c y2 z2 + 2 =1 b2 c x2 y 2 2 =0 a2 b x2 y 2 z 2 + 2 2 =0 a2 b c z2 = 0 x2 y 2 + 2 =0 a2 b
x2 a2

A = AF FA@= D = AF FA@=

y2 b2

z2 c2

=0

x2 y 2 z 2 + 2 + 2 = 1 a2 b c
A JD AFEBX AE= F K F=HEIJX AE D AN IMID

2=HX@AEC = & $ /E= = >H

IK F DH K A J= JAJHXCM =

x2 y 2 z 2 + 4x 8y + 2z 17 = 0
=E G K A

(x + 2)2 4 (y + 4)2 + 16 (z 1)2 + 1 17 = 0 (x + 2)2 (y + 4)2 (z 1)2 = 4 .

-X AJ=B H K A J ID A = =B HX? IJ (2, 4, 1) AN IMID C AJ=E

x2 y2 z2 = 1. 4 4 4 5K FAH= K A JE D AN IMID F=HEIJX AE = @ GM KFAH> AE@ ? A FAHEIJH B ? A JH IJ ID A (2, 4, 1) =E HE XN = F=HX D FH ? J x XN = 0 AFEBX AE= J AE J HE XN = IJ= ID A = (0, 4, 1) =E (4, 4, 1)

"

-F FA@

=E 3 H ?

)I DID &  /E= JE? =

=

K A? ANEI IAE? F = F=HEIJX K

XIJA JD AFEBX AE= JD

> >HA JA JE? ANEI IAE? JM J C >HA JA JE? ANEI IAE? JM J z=4

JD? AFEBX AE=? A J= AF FA@= (x, y ), (x, z ), (y, z ) JD? AFEBX AE=? A J= AF FA@= x = 4 y = 4 =E

i 9x2 + 4z 2 = 36y ii 4y 2 + 4z 2 x2 = 0 iii 9x2 y 2 = 4z iv 2y 2 + 4z 2 = x2 v x2 + vi

y2 4

z2 9

=1

x2 y 2 z 2 + =1 9 16 4

x2 y 2 vii + z2 = 1 4 9 viii x2 y 2 =0 4 9
. HAJA JE? = K A? ANEI IAE? IA = =E XIJA JE? AFEBX AEA? F K F=HEIJX E K HB IK F DH J=?

)I DID &

J= JAJHXCM =

= x2 + y 2 + z 2 6x + 4y 8 = 0 > 2x2 + y 2 4z 2 + 4z 6y 2 = 0 C y 2 x2 4z 2 = 2x + 8z @ x2 4y 2 + 2x z + 8y 3 = 0 A x2 + z 2 + 2 x + 3 y + 2z 3 = 0 2

x2 + z 2 4x y 5 = 0 x2 z 2 y 2 4x + 4z 1 = 0