Justification for victims?

A revisit of Paul's soteriology in Romans by Dennis Solon

I. Introduction The 500 years celebration of the Reformation is an ample occassion to revisit a central characteristic of the Reformation: the understanding of justification. Luthers legacy on justification cannot be overemphasized, in that the idea of Reformation or Evangelicalism always goes back to him. We can identify two significant motifs in his teaching of justification, which he draws from Paul, especially from the letter to the Romans. One is the understanding that through Jesus Christ God justifies the sinners; the other, which is connected with the first, is that this justification can be received by faith alone. This paper will deal with the first motif and asks whether in Paul, particularly in his letter to the Romans, an idea of justification of the victim can also be traced. To anticipate the result, I argue that justification of the victim is not foreign in Pauls understanding, even if the idea is not stated expressis verbis in his writings.1

II. One-sided look at justification Jrgen Moltmann summarizes a trend in the understanding of Gods justice. He writes: Ever since Paul and Augustine, and ever since the Reformators, in the Churchs doctrine of justification, and in its penitential sacrament, we have been orientated towards the perpetrators in a one-sided way. Must we not also remember, and proclaim, God's life-giving justice for the victims too?2 Here Moltmann seems to raise the issue that the one-sided understanding of justification, i.e., justification that is only applicable to sinners or doers of injustice can be traced back to Paul, and that Augustine and the Reformators inherited it from Paul. As a result, Moltmann suggests that we need to supplement the Apostles
1

I have dealt with the theme in a doctoral dissertation submitted during the Fall of 2013 at Heidelberg University. Most of the arguments in this paper are taken from chapter four of the said dissertation. 2 Jrgen Moltmann. Do You Understand What You Are Reading? New Testament Scholarship and the Hermeneutical Question of Theology. Theology 113 (2010): 8395, 9293.

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theology with the gospels for the victims.3 Let us consider the following observation of Moltmann: Until now we know in churches and in public, how we are supposed to handle the perpetrators [of injustice], but in front of the misery of the victims we are speechless. The perpetrators are named; the victims remain in most cases anonymous. We ask the perpetrators how they have come up to such an atrocious acts; for the victims, we do not look for ways, so that they could get out of shame and disgrace. In our public society we are doer-oriented and victim-forgotten The power of evil is called Sin: We speak of forgiveness of sin through the grace of God by faith alone. That is also correct, but that is half truth because the sinner is the doer of evil. But what is the place for the victims of their sins? In the justification of the sinners we only have our sins in view and ask for forgiveness of guilt. And where are the victims, for which we have been guilty? In the Lutheran as well as in the Catholic doctrine of justification and grace the focus is always on the sin, not on its victim.4 A familiar Biblical scenario can supplement our point here the parable of the Good Samaritan. For our interest we could entitle it the parable of the sinner and the victim. Granting, the robbers repent and ask for Gods forgiveness, we could naturally guess that God grants forgiveness to these sinners who are ready to repent. And what about the place for their victims? It is unthinkable that the victim in this context would seek forgiveness or express repentance. III. Methodological consideration In this exercise we will employ the historical-critical approach but with a contextual perspective.5 In this interpretive approach, the social context of the interpreter plays an important role. This may fall under what Rudolf Bultmann calls preunderstanding (Vorverstndnis) as a requirement for the possibility of understanding.6 The pre-understanding will be checked or reshaped in the course of interaction between a Biblical text and its current interpreter. The social context in
3 4

Moltmann, Do You Understand What You Are Reading?, 93. Jrgen Moltmann. So komm, dass wir das Offene Schauen. Perspektiven der Hoffnung (Stuttgart: Calwer Verl., 2011), 90. 5 For a summary of interpreting the Bible from a(n asian) contextual perspective, see Moonjang Lee, Asian Biblical Interpretation, in Dictionary for Theological Interpretation of the Bible (ed. Kevin Vanhoozer; London; Grand Rapids, Mich.: SPCK; Baker Academic, 2005), 6871, especially 68. See also Anthony C. Thieselton, Hermeneutical Circle, Dictionary for Theological Interpretation of the Bible, 281282. 6 Cf. Rudolf Bultmann. Glauben und Verstehen. Gesammelte Aufstze (8 ed.; Tbingen: Mohr, 1980), 296.

the Philippines that is marked by oppression and marginalization of the weak has led me to come to a pre-understanding of Paul, that he, in his writings, probably also had the victims of sin in mind. Here our focus in reading Paul, particularly his justification pronouncements, is the dimension of victims of sin or suffering on account of injustice inflicted upon them. Such a contextual interpretation of Biblical texts can be traced back to Luther himself. He was more of a contextual rather than a systematic theologian.7 His noble goal was to reform the (Roman Catholic) church, but due to the unwillingness of political and church leaders at the time, he proceeded to fulfill his reformatory vision in his immediate social context in Wittenberg and its surrounding region. Among his social reforms were geared for better education, care for the poor, and economic justice in the face of usury.8 Using a contextual approach, we will investigate Pauls letter to the Romans, taking particularly the first three chapters. We will then apply the results of our analysis in discerning the sense of justification in Rom 3:2126.

IV. Background information on Romans with focus on Rom 3:2126 In his preface to Romans, Luther describes the letter as the main piece of the New Testament and the clearest gospel.9 In it he discovered the nugget of truth concerning Gods justice that would change the course of church history forever. Paul wrote this letter when he was about to move westward after a long missionary work around the Mediterranean basin. Presumably he wanted to make Rome as a springboard of his mission in the western region, where he could receive personal and material support.10 Writing to a congregation (cf. Rom 1:7 !"#$% &'() '*#$% +% ,-. /01!2&'() 34'5; to all the ones are in Rom, who are loved by God), which he did not himself establish, it was apparently important for him to lay down his theological understanding to the Christians in Rome in order to make himself and his missionary plans known in advance. As a result, the letter to the Romans came out well structured, not only in its
7

Cf. Eric W. Gritsch. The Cultural Context of Luthers Interpretation. Interpretation 37 (1983): 266276. 8 Gritsch, The Cultural Context of Luthers Interpretation,, 269. 9 Diese Epistel ist das eigentliche Hauptstck des Neuen Testaments und das allerlauterste Evangelium. Cf. Martin Luther, Vorrede zu der Epistel von St. Paulus an Die Rmer, n.p. [cited 26 Oct. 2013]. Online: http://www.reformatorischeschriften.de/Vorrede/roemer.html.. 10 Cf. Udo Schnelle. Einleitung in das Neue Testament (5 ed.; Gttingen: Vanderhoeck & Ruprecht, 2005), 130.

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overall outline, but also in the details of its argumentation.11 Many scholars consider Romans as the last letter of Paul.12 As his last letter, Romans may therefore further be considered as Pauls testament,13 not that he was sure of his death after writing the letter, but that he saw the impending danger that he could face when he travels to Jerusalem to deliver the financial aid to the Christians there.14 For this, in Rom 15 he asks the Roman Christians to struggle with him with his own fears and pray for him. As one written during the final phase of Pauls life, Pauls now long personal experiences as an apostle and missionary in various contexts may be traceable in Romans, including his own fears and concerns, even if they are not directly mentioned in the letter. The most clear example of this is the one mentioned in Rom 15:30f, where Paul implicitly expresses his fear for his life as he beseeches the Christians in Rome to pray for him, or more precisely struggle with him (#6%107%89'1$). But his readers also have their own share of fears of a possible renewed oppression or persecution under the newly instituted emperor Nero after his predecessor, Claudius, died. Under this previous emperor, the early Jewish Christians were expelled from Rome in 49 C.E. We can conclude here that the theme of inflicted suffering, which we will try to trace in Romans, is a common experience of Paul and the Roman Christians. Let us first locate Rom 3:2126 within the literary context of the letter. We can divide the letter into two divisions: Pauls theological discourses (chs. 111) and his ethical exhortations (chs. 1215). We can break down the first division into four parts: chs. 13 the human condition and Gods gracious action through Christ; ch. 4 the example of Abraham; chs. 58 further explanation of Gods salvation in Christ; and chs. 911 concerning the Jews within the whole framework of Gods salvation. After briefly stating his introductory greetings and plans to come to Rome (1:1 15), Paul presents his main theological pronouncement concerning Gods offer of
11

See Hans Conzelmann and Andreas Lindemann. Arbeitsbuch zum Neuen Testament (14 ed.; Tbingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2004), 277. 12 See for instance Philipp Vielhauer. Geschichte der Urchristlichen Literatur. Einleitung in das Neue Testament, die Apokryphen und die Apostolischen Vter (Berlin; New York: De Gruyter, 1975), 175; Gerd Theien. Das Neue Testament (3 ed.; Mnchen: C.H. Beck, 2006), 39. 13 See Gnther Bornkamm. Der Rmerbrief Als Testament Des Paulus. In Paulus Stuttgart u.a.: W. Kohlhammer, 1972), 103111. 14 The validity of Romans as testament of Paul is not dependent on whether Philippians or Philemon came out before or after it. Cf. Gerd Theien. Die Entstehung des Neuen Testaments als literaturgeschichtliches Problem (2 ed.; Universittsverlag Winter, 2011), 23.

salvation to all through faith (1:1617). Pauls message of Gods salvation comes as an antidote to the problem of universal sin Jewish and Gentiles alike (1:183,20). At the end of his statement in 3:2126 he describes such a salvific act of God through the following words: God presented Jesus Christ as an atonement (:;1#&<=$'%) by his blood (through faith) to confirm his [Gods] justice, because in his divine patience he had passed over the former sins, towards confirming his justice at present, so that he might be just and [the] justifier of whom who benefits from [the] faithfulness of Jesus Christ (vv. 2526). The text in Rom 3:2126 contains a good number of expressions of Paul that deserve proper attention. For the interest in space we will limit our scope within two of Pauls expressions: the one concerning human sin and the other concerning Gods justice.

V. Sin in Rom 13 As mentioned above, Rom 1:183:20 presents the problem of universal sin. In the face of God everybody has been deemed guilty, even including the Jews who were entrusted with the law. Clear expressions of this are found in Rom 3:912, citing Ps 14:13: For we have already charged that all, both Jews and Greeks, are under the power of sin, as it is written: There is no one who is righteous, not even one; there is no one who has understanding, there is no one who seeks God. All have turned aside, together they have become worthless; there is no one who shows kindness, there is not even one (NRSV; cf. 3:23). Paul states that there exists an external domain (>1=&81; Sin) that enslaves humankind to sin (>1=&?%7). While the passive aspect of sin (that is, induced by some external force) is being presented, the text in no way implies absence of human volition or responsibility. The active aspect of sin is clearly expressed by the verbal syntagma in 3:23 !?%&4) 0@= A1=&'% (for all have sinned).15 In Rom 3:9f we can observe some images of suffering that is caused by others sins, even if these are not explizitly stated in the text. Let us take for instance the expression of sin in v. 10, there is no just person (B8C1$')), not even one. The word B8C1$') derives from the root B8C2 and is understood along with its cognates (for

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instance, B$C1$'#D%2 justice) as a relational terminology, which identifies commensurateness or suitability between two parties or entities.16 In other words, it describes a kind of character of a person toward other individuals. We can say, for instance, a just person is one who deals with other individuals in a fair manner. If Paul declares that nobody is just, Paul is presumably referring to the idea that human beings are unjust, that is, they have dealt with others unfairly, in a way that has caused them pain, suffering, or injury. The remaining expressions of sin in Romans 3 (vv. 1118), which, based on its citation from lament Psalms, express complaints against wickedness, tell us more on its pain/suffering aspect: Nobody is mindful of God, not even seeking God diligently (v. 11); nobody does good ('EC F#&$% !'$G% H=2#&I&2&1), not even one (v. 12). The word H=2#&I&2) means primarily uprightness in ones relations with others.17 As implied here, no one practices kindness or generosity (to others), implying furthermore that those who are in need have been deprived of help. Verses 1318 describes evil deeds that victimize other individuals. For example, the act of lying or treachery (B';$I7) deprives others of truth and may jeopardize others lives. This verbal sin is followed by the sinful appetite to kill (v. 15: swift are their feet to pour blood). Destruction is their lifestyle; they do not know the way of peace; they do not fear God (cf. 3:1618). We can conclude that the description of sin in Rom 3:9ff includes not only sinful acts of humankind but also implicitly the suffering or pain that they cause on others. If everyone did evil, then everybody may have suffered due to unrighteousness done by other persons. Citing Psalms, Paul may have the complaints of the victims of foreign sins in mind. Sin therefore has its other side: the suffering that it has inflicted on others.

VI. Gods Justice both for sinners and victims? In connection with the task of determining whether there exists in Paul an idea of justification for victims of sin, our concentration in examing the concept of Gods
15 16

Cf. the causative phrase in Rom 5:12 +JKL !?%&4) A1=&'%. See Ada Neschke, Art. Gerechtigkeit/recht, Der Neue Pauly. Enzyklopdie der Antike 4:951953; Pierre Chantraine. Dictionnaire Etymologique De La Langue Grecque. Histoire Des Mots. 4 vols. (Paris: Klincksieck, 19681980), 1:283. 17 Frederick Danker. A Greek-english Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature (3d ed.; Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), H=2#&I&2), 1090.

justice is on its social dimension. Our basic argument here is that Paul sees Gods justice as Gods just dealing with humankind. It reflects Gods own character as well as Gods behavior towards humanity. Given that the term justice (B$C1$#D%2) and its cognates occur more that 100 times in Pauls letter, we can primarily suppose that the term stands at the center of Pauls theology, where the core expression for Gods justice is also found. 18 But what does Paul mean with this expression? Under it two expressions can be subsumed. First is distributive justice (iustitia distributiva).19 Clearest example is found in Rom 3:5, But if our injustice (/B$C81) serves to confirm the justice of God (34'5 B$C1$'#D%2), what should we say? That God is unjust to inflict wrath on us (NRSV)? This verse expresses Gods just dealing with humankind by punishing evildoers. The other is called the saving justice of God (iustitia salutifera). Already in his thesis statement (Rom 1:16) Paul expresses Gods offer of salvation to all believers (#7&2=81 !1%&M &N !$#&4D'%&$), which is founded (through the 0?= statement in 1:17) on the justice of God.20 This idea of Gods justice as healing justice through faith is Luthers great discovery. Pauls understanding of Gods justice (B$C1$#D%2 34'5) relates to the basic jewish understanding of the concept as found in the Old Testament. The Lxx renders Hebrew expressions for Gods righteousness (OPQR STSU) with B$C1$'#D%2 C6=8'6 or with the Genitiv article B$C1$'#D%2 &'5 C6=8'6 (e.g., Deut 33:21; Judg 5:11; 1 Sam 12:7; Mic 6:5). The expression denotes Gods penalizing and healing justice. Penalty is directed to those who inflict suffering on others; healing is for those who suffer injustice (see e.g., Exod 23:7; Mic 6:5; Ps 5:10; 9:18; 35:7,11; 142:3,67).21 In a forensic context, justice of God is understood not only as just reprobation of the sinner, but also as protection of the helpless and victims. Grieb summarizes it this way: God as righteous judge acts in accordance with the law to vindicate the poor and the helpless and to punish the wicked evildoer or oppressor.22
18

See K. L. Onesti and M.T. Brauch. Art. Righteousness of God. In Dictionary of Paul and His Letters (ed. Gerald Hawthorne; Downers Grove, Il.: InterVarsity Press, 1993), 827837. 19 See Gerd Theien. Erleben und Verhalten der ersten Christen: Eine Psychologie des Urchristentums (Gtersloh: Gtersloher Verlagshaus, 2007), 315f. 20 Recently Gordon Mark Zerbe. Believers as Loyalists: The Anatomy of Pauls Language of Pistis. In Citizenship: Paul on Peace and Politics (ed. idem.; Winnipeg, Manitoba: CMU Press, 2012), 3859, makes a strong case for translating !$#&4D%&4) with loyalists within Pauls political context. The occurrence of the participial form in Rom 1:17 can be understood based on that sense. 21 For a summary discussion on this theme see Hermann Spieckermann, Art. Gerechtigkeit Gottes Ii. Altes Testament, RGG III:718720. 22 A. Grieb. The Story of Romans: a Narrative Defense of Gods Righteousness (1 ed.; Louisville Ky.: Westminster John Knox Press, 2002), 23.

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Our main argument here is that in connection with Old Testament background of Gods justice, Pauls justice of God applies in similar way not to sinners but also to victims of foreign sins. We can sense this by looking at the semantic field of justice (B$C1$'#D%2, B8C1$o), C&;.) in Rom 13, which enunciates the sense of Gods justice both for sinners and victims. In Rom 1:17b, which is almost a direct quotation from Hab 2:4b, the adjective B8C1$o) is used in a context injustice, both in Habbakuk as well as in Romans.23 Gleaned from the context of Hab 2:4 the righteous (B8C1$')) in Rom 1:17 corresponds to one who does what is right, perhaps on the basis of the Tora (cf. Rom 2:13). By pronouncing Gods judgment against injustice in Rom 1:18f (introduced by the causative clause /!'C1;D!&4&1$ 0@= V=0W 34'5), Paul addresses the problem of suffering as a result of injustice, although only implicitly. The wrath of God (V=0W 34'5) is directed at human sin, in Rom 1:18 characterized as ungodliness (/#XY4$1) and injustice (/B$C81), which has victimized the innocent (I am inclined to understanding the B8C1$') in Rom 1:17 as also referring to an innocent individual). The catalogue of vices in Rom 1:29, which is introduced by the overarching negative relational terminology /B$C81 (injustice), depicts the other side of sin as causing pain/suffering on others, even if this is not explicitly mentioned in the text. Terms such as murder (J3I%')), deceit (BI;')), gossip (Z$36=$#&<)), slanderer (C1&1;?;')), and disobedient to parents (0'%45#$% /!4$34()) denote not only the sin but also the suffering that they inflict on others. People suffer due to such injustice, just as what is depicted in the lament Psalms (e.g., Ps 5:10f; 9:17f; 35:126; 71:14; 142:37).

VII. The sense of justification in Rom 3:2126 If our theory above finds validity of how Pauls use of Gods justice terminology is to be interpreted, we can then apply its sense in discerning the meaning of Rom 3:21 26. Paul declares that Gods justice, that is, justice for sinners and their victims, has been manifested through the faithfulness of Jesus Christ (!8#&47) [2#'5 \=$#&'5)24
23

For a discussion on the social context of Habakkuk cf. Ralph Smith. Micah-Malachi (WBC 32; Waco: Word books, 1984), 99f. 24 The interpretation of this phrase is still debated among scholars. Here I take the subjective reading faith(fulness) of Jesus Christ. Cf. Karl Barth. Der Rmerbrief (2d ed.; Zollikon-Zrich: Evangelisher Verlag a. g., 1954), 6672 (Gottes Treue in Jesus Christus); Zerbe, Believers as

for believers/loyalists (vv. 2122). Then he makes a general declaration that all have sinned and suffer lack (]#&4=X7)25 of Gods glory (v. 23). The idea of universality of sin is not supposed to be detached from the understanding that sin could cause pain on others, as what we have seen in some Old Testament texts above and in some expressions of Paul in Rom 1:183:20. In some respects, human sin has victimized innocents and has caused suffering on others. The dimension of suffering is therefore contained in the general conceptuality (German: Begrifflichkeit) of sin. If all have sinned, then all may have suffered because of the sins of others. Paul goes on in declaring that human beings as sinners are being justified (B$C1$'D4%'$; lit., made innocent [B8C1$')]). Following our understanding of a double-dimension of Gods justice, we can thus interpret Pauls statement here, where the justified ones include both the sinner and the victim: the guilty is being proclaimed innocent, while the innocent is being vindicated. The means of which is described in v. 25: God presented Jesus Christ as atonement (:;1#&<=$'%). Again, based on the double-dimension of Gods justice, the idea of :;1#&<=$'% here can be applied to both sinner and victim. Thus, Jesus death could have meant for Paul death for both the guilty and the victim. This act served as proof of Gods justice at the present time, that he be just and continue in justifying the one who benefits from the faithfulness of Jesus.

VIII. Conclusion
In this short essay, we have attempted to examine Romans 13 as a sample text to see whether already in Pauls writings the idea of justification for victims of sin or injustice done by others is discernable. After examining Pauls direct expressions and allusions of sin in Rom 1:183:20, we have noted that sin has two dimensions 1) the sin committed and 2) the pain or suffering inflicted by that sin on others. We can refer to this doubledimension as the active and passive aspects of sin. Some Old Testament texts that deliver the sense of Gods justice as denoting punishment to evildoers and vindication to victims of injustice provide a background of Pauls expressions of Gods justice. In Rom 13,

Loyalists,, 50. 25 Cf. Walter Bauer. Griechisch-deutsches Wrterbuch zu den Schriften des Neuen Testaments und der Frhchristlichen Literatur (6 ed.; Edited by Kurt Aland and Barbara Aland. Berlin/New York: W. de Gruyter, 1988), 1692: Mangel leiden.

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such a double-dimension of Gods justice is also traceable, even if it is not contained as a direct statement. Here, we have only approached the theory that Paul may have had the victims of foreign sins in view, and that after a long story of a one-sided interpretation of justification, one could begin to consider that in Pauls thought victims of sins are also justified through the faithfulness of Jesus Christ.

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References Barth, Karl. Der Rmerbrief. 2d ed. Zollikon-Zrich: Evangelisher Verlag, 1954. Bauer, Walter. Griechisch-deutsches Wrterbuch zu den Schriften des Neuen Testaments und der Frhchristlichen Literatur. 6h ed. Edited by Kurt Aland, and Barbara Aland. Berlin/New York: W. de Gruyter, 1988. Betz, Hans Dieter et al., eds. Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart. Handwrterbuch fr Theologie und Religionswissenschaft. 8 Bnde. Tbingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1998. (RGG4) Bornkamm, Gnther. Der Rmerbrief Als Testament Des Paulus. Pages 103111 in idem. Paulus. Stuttgart u.a.: W. Kohlhammer, 1972. Bultmann, Rudolf. Glauben und Verstehen. Gesammelte Aufstze. 8h ed. Tbingen: Mohr, 1980. Cancik, Hubert, and Helmuth Schneider, eds. Der neue Pauly. Enzyklopdie der Antike. 15 Bnde. Stuttgart und Weimar: J.B. Metzler, 1996. (DNP) Chantraine, Pierre. Dictionnaire Etymologique De La Langue Grecque. Histoire Des Mots. 4 Vols. Paris: Klincksieck, 19681980. Conzelmann, Hans, and Andreas Lindemann. Arbeitsbuch Zum Neuen Testament. 14h ed. Tbingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2004. Danker, Frederick. A Greek-english Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature. 3d ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000. (BDAG) Grieb, A. The Story of Romans: a Narrative Defense of Gods Righteousness. 1t ed. Louisville Ky.: Westminster John Knox Press, 2002. Gritsch, Eric W. The Cultural Context of Luthers Interpretation. Interpretation 37 (1983): 266276. Hawthorne, Gerald, ed. Dictionary of Paul and his Letters. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 1993. (DPL) Lee, Moonjang. Asian Biblical Interpretation. Pages 6871 in Dictionary for Theological Interpretation of the Bible. Edited by Kevin Vanhoozer. London; Grand Rapids, Mich.: SPCK; Baker Academic, 2005. Luther, Martin. Vorrede Zu der Epistel Von St. Paulus an Die Rmer. No pages. Cited 26 Oct. 2013. Online: http://www.reformatorischeschriften.de/Vorrede/roemer.html. Moltmann, Jrgen. Do You Understand What You Are Reading? New Testament Scholarship and the Hermeneutical Question of Theology. Theology 113 (2010): 8395. Moltmann, Jrgen. So komm, dass wir das Offene Schauen. Perspektiven der Hoffnung. Stuttgart: Calwer Verl., 2011. Schnelle, Udo. Einleitung in das Neue Testament. 5 ed. Gttingen: Vanderhoeck &
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Ruprecht, 2005. Smith, Ralph. Micah-Malachi. Word Bible Commentary 32. Waco: Word books, 1984. Theien, Gerd. Das Neue Testament. 3 ed. Mnchen: C.H. Beck, 2006. ________. Erleben und Verhalten der Ersten Christen: Eine Psychologie Des Urchristentums. Gtersloh: Gtersloher Verlagshaus, 2007. ________. Die Entstehung Des Neuen Testaments Als Literaturgeschichtliches Problem. 2d ed. Universittsverlag Winter, 2011. Vanhoozer, Kevin J., ed. Dictionary for Theological Interpretation of the Bible. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 2005. (DTIB) Vielhauer, Philipp. Geschichte der Urchristlichen Literatur. Einleitung in das Neue Testament, die Apokryphen und die Apostolischen Vter. Berlin; New York: De Gruyter, 1975. Zerbe, Gordon Mark. Believers as Loyalists: The Anatomy of Pauls Language of Pistis. Pages 3859 in idem. Citizenship: Paul on Peace and Politics. Winnipeg, Manitoba: CMU Press, 2012.

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