The Education and Training role

The Education and Training Role

of Refugee & Migrant Community Organisations

of Refugee Community Organisations

Jennifer Clarke

Summary research report

Jennifer Clarke
December 2013

Acknowledgements

The study on which this report is based was enabled by a studentship of the Economic and Social Research Council, within the context of a wider doctoral research project at the University of Kent. I am grateful to Charles Watters and Mike Calnan for their supervisory support and to Eleni Hatzidimitriadou for her advice on the development of the original research proposal. Africa Educational Trust, and in particular the former director, Michael Brophy, offered sound advice and contributed to the financial costs of the fieldwork, thus enabling the perspectives of a larger number of individual refugees to be included. Sahra Ibrahim and Abigail Chakanyuka provided invaluable support with the administration of the interviews and interpretation. Finally, I am grateful to the Evelyn Oldfield Unit for their interest and support in disseminating this report.

Contents
Acknowledgements........................................................................................................ 1 Contents ......................................................................................................................... 2 List of Figures ................................................................................................................. 3 Executive summary ........................................................................................................ 4 1. Introduction ............................................................................................................... 5 2. Methodology .............................................................................................................. 7 3. Summary of Findings................................................................................................ 11 3.1 The level of RCO involvement in education and training .................................. 11 3.2 The range of the RCOs education and training activities ................................. 12 3.3 The characteristics of the RCOs active in education and training ..................... 14 3.4 The participants and their perspectives on the training ................................... 19 4. Discussion and Conclusions ..................................................................................... 25 4.1 RCOs as education and training providers ......................................................... 25 4.2 The resourcefulness of small RCOs active in education and training ................ 26 4.3 The contribution of RCOs to social cohesion and integration ........................... 27 4.4 Avenues for future research .............................................................................. 27 References ................................................................................................................... 29

List of Figures
Fig. 1: Community identification of the sampled organisations.................................... 8 Fig. 2: Description of the case study activities............................................................. 10 Fig. 3: Range of education and training activities of the sampled organisations ........ 14 Fig. 4: Age of establishment of the sampled organisations......................................... 15 Fig. 5: Range of education and training activities, by age of organisation .................. 16 Fig. 6: Income of sampled organisations (2010) London .......................................... 16 Fig. 7: Income of sampled organisations (2010) Leeds............................................. 17 Fig. 8: Range of education and activities, by income level .......................................... 17 Fig. 9: No. of paid staff of the sampled organisations ................................................. 18 Fig. 10: No. of volunteers of the sampled organisations ............................................. 19 Fig. 11: Country of origin of interviewed training participants ................................... 20 Fig. 12: Age range of interviewed training participants .............................................. 20 Fig. 13: Length of time in the UK of interviewed training participants ....................... 21 Fig. 14: Motivations of interviewed participants for attending training ..................... 22 Fig. 15: Reasons for choosing the specific RCO activity ............................................... 23 Fig. 16: Effects of the education and training in participants lives ............................ 24

Executive summary
Recent surveys have suggested that over half of the UKs RCOs are involved in activities to support refugees education and training. To date there has been very little research into this area of their work. The objectives of this study were therefore to assess the levels of involvement in education and training of RCOs in two contrasting cities of refugee settlement, London and Leeds; to document the range of education and training activities conducted by RCOs; to identify the organisational characteristics of RCOs active in education and training; and to explore the significance of the activities, in particular from the perspectives of individual refugee and migrant users. A significant proportion of RCOs in both cities were found to be active in education and training. They conducted a wide range of education and training activities, which could be grouped into five main categories: schooling support, English language training, transferable skills training, organisation-orientated training, and vocational skills training. The age of establishment of organisations did not appear to affect the nature of their involvement with education and training, and perhaps more surprisingly, the organisations incomes also appeared to have little effect on the range of education and training activities conducted, beyond the fact that none of the very low-income organisations conducted accredited training. The users of the case study education and training activities valued the specific RCO provision for a number of reasons, and perceived that the training had led to a wide range of positive effects in their lives, some of which were far reaching and disproportionate to the frequently rudimentary nature of the training inputs. Although the conclusions which can be drawn from this limited research are tentative, the study adds to other recent evidence indicating that RCOs now have a national presence in the education and training provision for refugees. It also suggests that they have a unique contribution to make, both through increasing the spectrum of available education and training for refugees and by complementing mainstream provision through tailoring training in ways that create specific added value for their users. The study also offers insights into the resourcefulness which enables some very small RCOs to be active in education and training. Finally the study suggests that RCOs involved in education and training have a potentially important contribution to make to both social cohesion and refugees integration.

1. Introduction
The number of Refugee Community Organisations (RCOs)1 in the UK has grown rapidly over the past two decades. It has been estimated that there may be 1,000 such organisations in England alone (Refugee Council and Refugee Action 2007:28). Recent research has also suggested that over half are involved in education and training activities (Refugee Council and Refugee Action 2007:28), and that education and training constitutes one of the most important areas of activity for many RCOs across the UK (Fyfe and Findlay 2006). However, to date, there has been little recognition and still less exploration of this education and training role, which includes both the direct provision of education and training and activities that indirectly support education and training, for example liaison with parents, schools or local authorities regarding education and training matters (cf. Refugee Council 2008a)2. Separate strands of research in the UK have focused on various education and training activities which are conducted by RCOs amongst others, including supplementary schools (Issa and Williams 2009, Lytra and Martin 2010), ESOL provision (Phillimore et al. 2007), employment-related training (Tomlinson and Egan 2002) and informal training for migrants (2009). Various aspects of the diverse education and training role of RCOs are touched upon in this research, but it has not been a subject of examination in itself. A small number of recent studies have also focused more specifically on the various ways in which RCOs support school education (Refugee Council 2008, DAngelo et al. 2011), but they do not consider the various other areas of education and training activity conducted by these organisations. The education and training role of RCOs is of significance to ongoing debates regarding refugee and immigrant integration, and there is a need for research that

Following Zetter and Pearl Zetter (2000: 676), these are here defined as: organisations rooted within, and supported by, the ethnic or national refugee/asylum-seeker communities they serve. Essentially, these RCOs are established by the refugees and asylum-seekers themselves or by their pre-established communities.
2

One common type of RCO education and training activity which is excluded explicitly from this study is mother-tongue teaching. Although this has been found to have a beneficial impact on education outcomes (Krashen 2004), it was feared that its inclusion could distract from the central emphasis in this study on the involvement of RCOs in mainstream education and training. Furthermore, this study focuses on the role of RCOs in their country of settlement, and so it does not take into account the education and training activities conducted by some RCOs in the country of origin.

6 furthers our understanding of this role. This study aimed to make a contribution to filling this gap. Objectives of the research included: assessing the levels of involvement in education and training of RCOs in two contrasting cities of refugee settlement, London and Leeds; documenting the range of education and training activities conducted by RCOs; identifying the organisational characteristics of RCOs active in education and training; and exploring the significance of the education and training activities, in particular from the perspectives of individual refugee and migrant users.

The purpose of this summary report is to make key findings of the research accessible to as wide an audience as possible. Further, more detailed and theoretically-framed analyses are also being published separately as academic papers.

2. Methodology
This section briefly presents the methodology for the study. The fieldwork for this study was conducted between February 2011 and September 2012, in two UK locations, London and Leeds - a city in a new dispersal region - in order to enable a comparison of areas with large refugee communities established over varying periods of time (following the approach of Gameledin et al. 2002, Griffiths et al. 2005, Atfield et al. 2007). Leeds was chosen as a city within a region which has received a large proportion of dispersed asylum seekers in the UK: Yorkshire and Humberside received 21% of all dispersed asylum seekers in 2007 (Choksi et al. 2008). The research design was planned taking into account the varied nature of the data required across the different research objectives, and incorporated two separate, though interrelated, phases of data collection. A cross-sectional approach was adopted for phase 1 of the research, which focused on assessing the range of education and training activities conducted by RCOs in the UK, and the characteristics of the organisations that conduct them. A first step in this part of the research was to conduct semi-structured interviews with representatives of four second-tier organisations who collectively had contacts with at least 200 RCOs in London and Leeds. A purposive survey sample of 25 RCOs active in education and training was then selected, including 18 in London and seven in Leeds. In Leeds, because of the relatively small population of RCOs, the sample comprised all identified RCOs active in education which could be contacted and which were willing to participate. It is estimated that the sample comprises at least 75% of the RCOs active in education and training in Leeds and around a quarter of the entire RCO population in the city. In London, the first criterion guiding the selection of RCOs for the sample was to include organisations representing a range of community identifications3. A second criterion was the willingness of organisations to be included in the study. In order to reduce the risk of unintentional biases, a number of approaches were combined in order to obtain this sample. In London, contacts identified in a survey conducted by AET in September 2010 of 13 African community organisations based

For two reasons, however particular emphasis was given to including RCOs serving a range of black African communities. Firstly black African RCOs represent over half of RCOs serving particular ethnic/national groups (Refugee Council and Refugee Action 2007: 72). Secondly, Africa Educational Trust (AET) provided practical and financial support for the inclusion of African RCOs in the research. The limitations of this sample are noted below.

8 in the city were firstly followed up, resulting in three organisations being included in the survey (Africa Educational Trust 2010). Secondly, the research assistants/interpreters had links with two RCOs, which were both also included in the survey. Thirdly, the research was presented a training event in London organised jointly by AET and the Evelyn Oldfield Unit and attended by over 20 RCOs, which resulted in ten usable survey responses. Fourthly, an internet search identified a number of online RCO directories and other references to specific organisations, and following these leads a further three organisations were included. In Leeds, consultations with representatives of three second-tier organisations working closely with RCOs across the region resulted in seven organisations being included in the sample, and an internet search resulted in the inclusion of one further organisation. In total, the sample of 25 RCOs active in education and training in London and Leeds included organisations which respectively identified themselves as Somali, Sudanese, Afghan, Hispanic, Afro-Caribbean, African, refugee and immigrant organisations (see Fig.1).

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Fig. 1: Community identification of the sampled organisations4

Somali

Sudanese

Afghan

Hispanic

Afro/Caribbean

African

Refugee

Immigrant

Somali organisations are somewhat over-represented, though to an extent this reflects the national context in which Somali organisations are far more prolific than any other RCOs, accounting for over a

Phase 2 of the research focused on exploring the significance of RCO training activities, in particular from the perspectives of the individual learners and users. This aspect of the research was considered particularly important given that much of the existing research on RCOs includes organisation staff and representatives as the main or only respondents. Whilst this group is clearly important, the views of other significant stakeholders - in particular the individual refugee users of the organisations - often tend to get overlooked. A multiple case study approach was adopted in this second phase, in order to facilitate the detailed and intensive analysis required (Bryman 2008: 52). The cases were eight individual RCO education and training activities, four in London and four in Leeds. The main criterion used in the selection of these case studies was the inclusion of RCO education and training activities from each of five main categories identified in phase 1 (see section 3.2 below). It was also important to include activities that would enable both male and female respondents to be included. From a practical point of view, organisations also needed to be willing to participate in the study, and the training activities had to be either ongoing or to have ended within the previous 12 months. In total, 71 users of the eight selected RCO education and training activities were interviewed about their reasons for participating in the training and its effects in their lives. Within each case study, the sample of participants that was interviewed was self-selecting, based on their ability and willingness to take part in the study. This had limitations for the validity of the interview sample, because shy or dissatisfied students, and students who had dropped out of the training at an earlier stage, were likely to have been under-represented. Moreover, it should be taken into account that the semi-structured interview method proved very effective for gathering feedback and data relating to positive outcomes in the respondents lives, but did not result in any significant critical feedback being collected, possibly because the respondents were unwilling to be negative about the training activity to stranger. These interviews were also supplemented with interviews with other key stakeholders of each of the activities, including tutors, RCO staff and volunteers, and school representatives. A brief description of each of the case studies and the number of users interviewed is presented in Fig. 2. Following established good practice in terms of research ethics, participants were assured of anonymity and a coded identification system was used in all

quarter of all organisations serving a single ethnic group in the Refugee Council/Refugee Action survey (2007: 27, see also Griffiths 2000).

10 documentation to avoid the possibility of an accidental data breach. Although it restricts the replicability of the research, the identities of all participating organisations are kept anonymous, in order to preserve the anonymity of key respondents and individual refugees who may be identifiable by their connection with an RCOs activities. Given the small RCO population in Leeds, this also requires avoiding reference to any specific community identification of the case study RCOs.
Case Study A Description London-based, in-school mentoring programme for pupils with behavioural and/ or self-confidence problems from a specific African community, run by an RCO in partnership with a state secondary school. London-based supplementary school (or homework club) provided by an RCO in order to support both primary and secondary school pupils of a specific African community with maths and English. Combined accredited ESOL and teaching assistant training course provided for women from a particular African country, run by a London-based RCO. London-based course in leadership and management for young people from a specific African community. One-to-one English language tutoring for immigrant women, combined with a conversation group, offered by a Leeds-based RCO which aimed to facilitate the settlement of refugee and other immigrant women and children Leeds-based combined training course in English language and basic IT skills for refugee women from a specific African country. Home-based homework tuition for immigrant families in Leeds, arranged by an RCO which aimed to facilitate the settlement of refugee and other immigrant women and children. Leeds-based combined course in English language and basic IT skills for refugee men from a specific African country. No. of users interviewed 10

16

12

D E

10 10

Fig. 2: Description of the case study activities

11

3. Summary of Findings
This section is split into four parts. The first section presents an assessment of the current level of involvement in education and training of RCOs in London and Leeds. The second part discusses the range of education and training activities conducted by the surveyed RCOs. In the third section, some of the organisational characteristics of the RCOs involved with education and training are outlined. Finally, the fourth section presents a brief summary of information regarding the individual users and their perspectives on the significance of the education and training activities.

3.1 The level of RCO involvement in education and training

As set out in the introduction, recent research indicates that education and training activities now constitute a major area of activity amongst the UKs RCOs (Refugee Council & Refugee Action 2007, Fyfe and Findlay 2006). In order to gain an up-todate picture of the scale of RCO involvement in education and training in the two cities in this study London and Leeds representatives from four second-tier organisations were interviewed, who collectively have contact with at least 120 RCOs in London, 100 in the wider Yorkshire region and 27 in Leeds itself. The first organisation provided second-tier support to RCOs throughout the UK (interview STi), the second supported refugee and migrant organisations in the greater London region (interview STii), the third supported refugee and migrant organisations across Yorkshire (interview STiii) and the fourth supported RCOs in Leeds itself (interview STiv). Additionally, a representative of an NGO specialising in education and training for refugees was interviewed (interview STv). The London-focused respondent estimated that virtually all of the 120 London refugee and migrant organisations with which the organisation had been in contact over the past year were active in conducting some form of education or training activity, though it may only be volunteer-run ESOL. However, fewer organisations only a handful were running courses leading to formally recognised qualifications and skills. Language classes and supplementary schools were strong areas of activity, and other frequent types of training included IT classes and vocational training such as sewing classes (interview STii). In the wider Yorkshire and the Humber region, it was estimated that approximately half of the regions 100 RCOs were involved in education and training activities of some description, with language classes and supplementary schools again being cited as frequent types of activities (interview STiii). In Leeds itself, it was reported that education and training activities were being conducted by approximately onethird of the 25 RCOs with which the respondent was in regular contact. Activities

12 included supplementary schools, English language classes and IT classes (interview STiv). Whilst it is important to bear in mind that different sources may categorise both the organisations and their activities in different ways, these responses indicate that education and training now constitutes an area of activity for a significant proportion of RCOs, not only in London, which has a long history of refugee settlement, but also in Leeds, where large-scale refugee settlement is much more recent. When these findings are considered in conjunction with studies which have refered the involvement of RCOs in education activities across different cities and regions of the UK (Refugee Council and Refugee Action 2007, Fyfe and Findlay 2006, Phillimore et al. 2003, Phillimore et al. 2003a), there is a strong case for arguing that RCOs are now part of the national map of education and training provision for refugees and migrants. In terms of their reach, RCOs are, of course, much smaller than mainstream education and training providers such as schools and FE colleges (see Phillimore et al. 2003, Phillimore et al. 2003a). This is not surprising, given the typically small resource levels of RCOs, a theme explored below (section 3.3). It is indicative that seven out of the eight case study education and training activities in this study involved less than 30 participants. However, the fact that RCOs now contribute to the education and training provision of refugees and migrants across the country is a significant development in itself, given that just two decades ago there were only a handful of RCOs active outside of London (Rutter 1994).

3.2 The range of the RCOs education and training activities

A further aim of the study was to document the range of education and training activities conducted by RCOs. Through the survey of 25 RCOs active in education and training, five main categories of education and training activities emerged. The first category comprised activities to support childrens school education. Such activities were conducted by 10 of the surveyed organisations, seven in London and three in Leeds. These activities included supplementary schools (also known as after school clubs), in which support with maths and English literacy was provided; advising and/or liaising with schools regarding support arrangements for refugee pupils; running in-school mentoring sessions for refugee pupils; offering training to parents on how to support their childrens schooling; and giving annual awards to high-achieving refugee pupils. The second category was English language training, also conducted by 10 of the surveyed organisations, five in London and five in Leeds. This included accredited

13 ESOL courses, non-accredited English classes or conversation groups, and one-to-one English language tutoring. Thirdly, various forms of transferable skills training were conducted by eight of the surveyed organisations, six in London and two in Leeds. These included both accredited leadership courses and non-accredited leadership/confidence skills courses; IT classes and CV skills training classes. The fourth category related to training activities which primarily aimed to support the RCO itself, here termed organisation-orientated training. This was conducted by seven of the surveyed organisations, six in London and one in Leeds, and included advocacy and/or campaigning training relating to the RCOs mission; fundraising training; specialised training for RCO staff or volunteers involved in running services or project activities; and training in project management, again for staff and volunteers. Finally, four of the organisations - three in London and one in Leeds - were involved in vocational training of some description. This included an accredited teaching assistant course, tailoring classes, fashion design classes, and a course in film and music production. These categories and the specific activities within each category are presented in Fig. 3 below. The small, non-representative nature of the London sample in particular (see section 2) means that it would be misguided to attribute much significance to the individual statistics in Fig. 3. Nevertheless, it appears that RCOs in both London and Leeds are active across a similar range of categories of education and training activities, with organisations in both cities reporting engagement across all of the five categories identified. One difference worth noting, however, is that there were no instances of Leedsbased RCOs conducting accredited courses in any category, in contrast to organisations in the London sample, which conducted accredited training in three categories of activity: English language, transferable skills and vocational training. This is likely to be related to the lower income and human-resource levels of the Leeds organisations (see below, Figs. 6, 7 and 9), given that course accreditation even with one of the several voluntary sector accreditation agencies involves a significant investment in both time and money.

14 Number of organisations active Category of activity & specific activity London organisations Leeds organisations

N(18) % N (7) % Schooling support 7 39 3 43 Supplementary schools 5 2 Advising/liaising with schools 3 0 In school pupil mentoring 1 0 Parents training 1 0 Achievement awards 1 0 Home tutoring 0 1 English language training 5 28 5 71 ESOL classes (accredited) 4 0 English classes (non-accredited) 1 5 One-to-one tutoring 0 1 Transferable skills training 6 33 2 29 Leadership skills (accredited) 1 0 Leadership skills (non-accredited) 3 0 IT training 1 2 CV skills training 1 0 Organisation-orientated training 6 33 1 14 Advocacy/campaigning training 3 1 Fundraising training 2 0 Specialised staff/volunteer training 2 0 Project management training 1 0 Vocational training 3 18 1 14 Teaching assistant training (accredited) 1 0 Tailoring classes 1 0 Fashion design classes 1 0 Music/film production training 0 1 Fig. 3: Range of education and training activities of the sampled organisations5

3.3 The characteristics of the RCOs active in education and training

A further objective of the research was to identify the characteristics of the RCOs that conduct education and training activities, and to explore any correspondences between their organisational characteristics and the nature of their involvement in education and training. Age of organisations

NB the number of references to specific activities is greater than the total number of organisations in each city, as organisations may conduct more than one activity within each category and be active in more than one category. Percentages (%) refer to the percentage of the total number organisations in each city active in each category of activity.

15 The age of establishment of the organisations and any correspondence between the age and the nature of their involvement with education and training was one issue explored. The age of the sampled organisations is presented below in Fig. 4.

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0-5 yrs 6-10 yrs 11-15 yrs 16-20 yrs 20+ yrs No. of London orgs No. of Leeds orgs.

Fig. 4: Age of establishment of the sampled organisations It is interesting to note that the absence of Leeds RCOs established for longer than 15 years appears to reflect the fact that the region only began to be a major centre for refugee settlement following the introduction of the asylum seeker dispersal policy in 2001. It is also worth noting that the fact that many organisations in both cities are relatively new corresponds with the findings of the Refugee Council & Refugee Action survey, in which 51% of RCOs were less than six years old and 80% were established after 1991 (2007: 26). This pattern reflects the fact that major increases in the number of asylum seekers coming to the UK occurred during the 1990s, but it also portrays the short lifecycle of many organisations. In order to explore the relationship between the age of organisations and the nature of their involvement in education and training, the range of activities of the newer organisations (those established five years or less) was compared to that of the older organisations (those established longer than five years) as presented in Fig. 5.

16 Number of organisations in each age category Newer organisations Older organisations (5 yrs old) (>5 yrs old) N(12) % N (13) % 4 33 6 46 7 4 5 3 58 33 42 25 3 3 3 1 23 23 23 8

Type of activity Schooling support English language training Organisation-oriented training Transferable skills training Vocational training

Fig. 5: Range of education and training activities, by age of organisation Amongst the organisations surveyed, there appears to be little correspondence between the age of the organisations and the type of education and training activity conducted: the newer organisations in the study conducted a range of education and training activities similar to the older organisations, with both newer and older organisations being engaged across all the categories of education and training activity. This corresponds to the findings of the Refugee Council and Refugee Action survey, which found little variation in service delivery when assessed by the length of time the organisations have been established (2007:29). Income levels The income levels of the sampled RCOs and the relationship between their income and the nature of their involvement in education and training was also explored. The organisations in the sample had a range of annual income levels, as shown in Figs. 6 and 7.

less than <10k 10 - 50k 50-100k > 100K Unknown

Fig. 6: Income of sampled organisations (2010) London

17

< 10K 10 - 50 k 50 - 100k > 100K Unknown

Fig. 7: Income of sampled organisations (2010) Leeds The fact that none of the Leeds organisations had an annual income greater than 100,000 is broadly in line with the Refugee Council & Refugee Action survey, which found that 95% of RCOs in the highest income bracket were concentrated in London (2007: 23), and with the findings of Choksi et al. that nearly half of RCOs in the region have an annual income of less than 5,000 (2008). It is notable that the organisations in the lowest income bracket conducted a range of education and training activities comparable to higher income organisations as shown in Fig. 8. Number of organisations in each income category <10k 10-50K 50-100K >100K Unknown Category of activity N (8) % N(4) % N(3) % 33 67 0 67 0 N(4) % 2 1 2 0 0 50 25 50 0 0 N (6) 1 2 2 0 1

Schooling support 3 38 3 75 1 English language training 4 50 1 25 2 Organisation-oriented training 2 25 1 25 0 Transferable skills training 4 50 2 50 2 Vocational training 1 13 2 50 0 Fig. 8: Range of education and activities, by income level

The fact that the organisations in the lowest income bracket were active across a similar range of education and training activities as their higher-income counterparts, being involved in all the categories of activity, is surprising, given the inevitable challenges posed by limited financial resources. This indicates that those organisations which have been able to run education and training activities on small

18 budgets have developed strategies for addressing such difficulties, a theme which is discussed further below (4.2). Human Resources The sampled organisations were asked about the number of paid staff they employed. The responses are presented in Fig. 9.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 <1 1 2 3 4 No. of London orgs No. of Leeds orgs

Fig. 9: No. of paid staff of the sampled organisations In both London and Leeds, the most common response was that no paid staff were employed. This is in line with the findings of the Refugee Council & Refugee Action survey, in which 50% of the organisations surveyed employed no full-time paid staff (2007: 25). All of the organisations employing one or more full-time paid staff were London-based, reflecting the patterns of income range noted above (Figs. 6,7) and in line with the findings of Choksi et al., who found only three out of 73 RCOs in the wider South Yorkshire region with a paid member of staff (2008). Organisations with no paid staff were active across all the types of education and training, although none conducted formally accredited courses, likely to be related to the demands of formal accreditation, mentioned above. The organisations ability to run a range of education and training activities with few or no paid staff appears to be at least in part related to their reliance on volunteers. All organisations surveyed reported using volunteers, as presented in Fig. 10.

19
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1--5 6--10 11--15 >15 No of London orgs No of Leeds orgs

Fig. 10: No. of volunteers of the sampled organisations As became apparent through interviews with organisation representatives, it was not unusual for volunteers to work full-time and at a management level.

3.4 The participants and their perspectives on the training

In order to explore the significance of the RCO training activities for their users, a total of 71 participants of the eight case study RCO education and training activities described above (Fig. 2) were interviewed, along with a range of other key stakeholders, including tutors, RCO staff and school representatives. Demographic characteristics of the participants The interviewed education and training participants comprised were 39 females and 32 males, reflecting the fact that three of the case study activities were for women only, whereas only one case study activity was for men only. Their countries of origin6 are presented in Fig. 11. The most frequently reported country of origin was Somalia7, followed by Sudan, Pakistan and Eritrea.

In the case of some of the school pupils who were born in the UK, this represents their parents country of origin. 7 See footnote 4, above.

20
60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Eritrea Pakistan Somalia Sudan

Fig. 11: Country of origin of interviewed training participants The learners interviewed presented a range of ages, as shown in Fig. 12. The higher numbers of respondents in the younger age categories reflects the fact that two of the case study initiatives were for school pupils, while a third was aimed specifically at young people aged 16-28.
30 25 20 15 10 5 0 10-19 yrs 20-29yrs 30-39 yrs 40-49 yrs 50-59 ys >60 yrs

Fig. 12: Age range of interviewed training participants The case study initiatives served a range of ages overall, but with a very limited participation of those aged over 50, an issue touched on in the following section (4.1) Adult respondents only were asked about the length of time they had been in the UK. The range of responses is displayed in Fig. 13.

21
18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 <12 months 1-5 yrs 6-10 yrs 11-15 yrs 16-20 yrs >20 yrs

Fig. 13: Length of time in the UK of interviewed training participants Overall, the case study activities served people who had been in the UK for varying lengths of time, with the modal length of time in the country being between one and five years. In fact, there is a notable gender component to the learners length of time in the UK. The average length of stay of the 22 adult women learners who attended the entry-level English language training provided in case studies C, E and F was almost nine years. By contrast, the mean length of UK residence for the eight male learners in the comparable English language training provided in case study H was only 12 months. This discrepancy appeared to relate to various barriers to education experienced by many of the women, including childcare responsibilities, a lack of confidence, and a concern amongst some Muslim women about attending mixed sex classes. This theme is explored in more fully in a separate paper (Clarke under review). Motivations for participating in training Learners were asked about their motivation for attending the education and training sessions. The range of responses is summarised in Fig. 148.

It should be noted that throughout the following tables the total responses do not correspond exactly to the number of respondents, because not all respondents answered all of the questions and because in some cases they gave multiple answers, in which case responses are counted in all the relevant categories.

22
16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Fig. 14: Motivations of interviewed participants for attending training Although the non-representative nature of the sample means that it is not possible to generalise on the basis of the statistics presented, Fig. 14 offers an insight into the wide range of motivations of refugees for participating in education and training. The most frequent responses included: the wish to find employment; a sense of duty to learn to speak English; the aim of facilitating every days tasks such as being able to shop or visit the doctor independently; and the wish to be able to help family or friends, for example to be able to assist children with homework. Reasons for choosing the specific RCO Respondents were also asked about their reasons for choosing the particular RCO education and training activity, given that alternative provision may have been available. The relevant responses are summarised in Fig. 15.

23
16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Fig. 15: Reasons for choosing the specific RCO activity Again, it is not possible to draw general inferences on the basis of the nonrepresentative sample. However, it is interesting to note that most of the participants interviewed had chosen to attend the specific education and training activity due to the particular characteristics of the respective RCOs, including their provision of pastoral support (for example advice with benefits and assistance with interpretation/translation); the ability of staff and volunteers to speak the participants native language; and a sense of familiarity offered by the community setting. Factors which were mentioned as important by some of the women learners in particular were that the RCO was friendly, the provision of women only training and/ or small classes, and the availability of crche facilities. This supports the findings of Pattar (2009) regarding the barriers that refugee and immigrant women often face in accessing education and training; these issues are explored in more detail elsewhere (Clarke under review). For other learners, it was the content of the training itself which had influenced their decision to choose the specific education and training activity. This is related to the fact that some of the RCOs were able to offer unique and/ or specifically targeted education and training activities which were not offered by other local providers. The effects of the training in participants lives A number of questions were designed to explore any perceived effects the training in the participants lives. A summary of the main categories of response is given below in Fig. 16.

24
35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Fig. 16: Effects of the education and training in participants lives Again bearing in mind the limitations of the non-representative sample, it is interesting to note the wide range of effects reported by the participants, including practical outcomes (e.g. the facilitation of everyday tasks, finding a job or placement, making new contacts) but also psychological effects (e.g. gaining confidence, independence and feeling happier). It is also notable that the same activity had very different effects for different participants, and, conversely, a similar effect could result from different types of training activities. It is also notable that three quarters of the participants mentioned effects in their lives that can be seen as corresponding to a positive influence on one or more of the various domains of immigrant integration as conceptualised, for example, by Zetter et al (2004) and Ager and Strang (2008). For example, making social contacts both within and beyond the community corresponds to social integration; being able to speak better English corresponds to social integration, and finding a job or placement, improving school performance and accessing further studies all correspond to functional integration outcomes.

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4. Discussion and Conclusions

This section outlines some of the implications of the findings of the study for the education and training provision of refugees, and for the ways in which the nature and role of RCOs are understood more generally.

4.1 RCOs as education and training providers

This study adds to the evidence from other recent studies (Refugee Council and Refugee Action 2007, Fyfe and Findlay 2006) indicating that a significant proportion of RCOs across the UK are involved in education and training activities. The typically small scale of RCO activities (cf. Refugee Council and Refugee Action 2007) means that RCOs are likely to contribute only a small proportion of the overall education and training provision for refugees in the UK (see also Phillimore et al. 2003, 2003a). Nevertheless, the fact that RCOs now have a national presence in the education and training provision for refugees is significant in itself. This was unimaginable only two decades ago, when only a handful of RCOs could be identified outside London (Rutter 1994). Although small in scale, the RCO education and training activities explored within this study made a distinct contribution to the education and training of their users in at least two respects. Firstly, the range of activities offered increased the spectrum of available education and training for refugees. Some activities were simply not available through other education providers. Secondly, other activities, including schooling support and English language training, complemented mainstream education and training provision, often by being tailored in ways that created specific added value for the users. In some instances this added value was gender specific: the fact that some women users referred to the importance of friendly staff and small class sizes, women-only provision and the availability of crche facilities points the barriers that some refugee women face in accessing mainstream education and training provision (cf. Patter 2009, see also Clarke under review). Both male and female users frequently also valued the connection they shared with RCO staff and volunteers, who were usually first or second generation refugees themselves. The feeling of familiarity offered by the community setting, and the frequent ability of staff to speak users native languages are qualities which would be difficult for a mainstream education and training provider to replicate. It should be noted, though, that there is a risk of RCO staff relying solely on their personal experiences and contacts for insights into the needs of the community, which are heterogeneous and may change rapidly. It was notable that none of the

26 RCO staff mentioned strategies for assessing needs, and procedures for gathering and storing participant feedback often also appeared problematic. The fact that there were very few participants aged over 50 across all of the case study activities may be indicative of a failure of the organisations to reach out to this age group, a concern also noted by Atfield et al. (2007). The suggestion of one training participant that the course could be improved by advertising it more is pertinent in this context. One organisation offered a good example of how RCOs could reach beyond their immediate network, by advertising their activities in local cultural centres, and conducting door-to-door recruitment across the neighbourhood.

4.2 The resourcefulness of small RCOs active in education and training

The study also offered insights into the ability of low-income organisations in both cities to develop strategies to overcome the significant challenges of limited funding in order to conduct a range of education activities despite very limited budgets. Firstly, the organisations in the lowest income bracket relied almost entirely on volunteer staff and tutors. The inability to pay volunteers and staff, did however frequently entail personal sacrifices and the support of other family members. Secondly, many organisations reported that access to some form of insfrastructure support had helped them to cope with limited resources, for example by offering access to free advice, including on funding matters, access to shared office or activity space, and links to potential volunteers. This assistance included both mainstream and refugee-specific support, and took a number of forms including membership of collective bodies, support from dedicated infrastructure organisations and help from larger RCOs. Thirdly, some low-income organisations coped by charging for the services provided. One organisation charged for its supplementary school, another for its tailoring course, and a third linked families with fee-charging tutors, in the absence of sufficient volunteer tutors. Despite demonstrating great resourcefulness, many organisations nevertheless felt that their education and training work was being restricted by a lack of funding. When asked if there were any issues or concerns that they would like to raise, nine out of the 18 of the London-based organisations and six out of the seven Leedsbased organisations mentioned insufficient funding. It is indicative that two out of the three case study education and training activities studied in phase 2 of the research had ended due to a lack of funding (case studies C and F); the organisations wanted to continue the activity but did not have the means to do so. One respondent explicitly linked the difficult funding situation to government budget cuts that had been introduced in 2010; these cuts continued after the bulk of the fieldwork was conducted, with further likely consequences for RCO funding.

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4.3 The contribution of RCOs to social cohesion and integration

Finally, the study can make a contribution to the ongoing debates regarding the potential of RCOs to contribute to social cohesion and the integration of refugees. It was notable that participants of both single-group (i.e targeted at the specific refugee community) and mixed-group (i.e. open to people from different communities) English language training reported that it had helped them to make contacts with people outside their community. This highlights the fact it should not be presumed that that single-group activities are not able to promote contacts between different groups (contra Commission on Integration and Cohesion 2007) RCOs have frequently been seen as effective in facilitating refugees initial settlement, but less effective in promoting their longer-term integration (Griffiths et al. 2005, Gameledin et al. 2002), largely due to their typically limited resources. However the responses of RCO users interviewed in this study indicated that the even the very low-budget, rudimentary and informal training offered by a significant proportion of RCOs in the UK can in some instances lead to profound long-term effects in refugees lives, including finding employment, performing better at school, accessing higher education, or gaining the confidence to make links with the wider community, sometimes after over 20 years of living in isolation (see also Clarke forthcoming). Significantly, the effects perceived by the learners themselves were both more diverse and further reaching than those mentioned by RCO staff and tutors. This highlights the fact that value of services to their users often have no relation to the cost of the inputs, and highlights the importance of seeking users perspectives in order to understand the significance of a service or activity (see also Clarke under review).

4.4 Avenues for future research

The limitations of this small-scale study are acknowledged. The inferences that can be drawn are tentative, and, as with much research, as many questions are raised as are answered. There is much scope for further research to be conducted in this area. This study did not enable an exploration of how specific contextual issues may affect the education and training role of RCOs from different refugee communities. There is also a need for longitudinal research with baseline data, which would enable important indicators such as the employment rates of RCO training participants to be compared over time. Finally, this study did not gain insights into the reasons why refugees may not participate in RCO education and training activities; this would also be an avenue for future research. However, given the lack of existing research in this area it is hoped that even the limited findings presented will make a useful contribution to our understanding of the education and training role of RCOs. It is also hoped that the study will prompt a greater recognition of this diverse role. It became obvious during the course of this

28 study that the education and training role of RCOs has received little acknowledgement to date even by those working closely with these organisations. It is indicative that the initial response of one second-tier organisation representative interviewed in this study to the question of what proportion of RCOs were involved in education and training, was very few. Yet, when these organisations had been listed, they amounted to a third of the RCOs with which the second-tier organisation worked, prompting the respondent to state:
You know, this is something we havent really thought much about. Perhaps it is an area we should be looking more into...

It is therefore hoped that this study has made a contribution to addressing this lack of attention, and that it will prompt further exploration of this work.

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References
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