Comparison with measurements Data on full-scale measurements are scarce.

Some field observations were recorded from eight ships at various berths in three Icelandic harbours. 4 Unfortunately, comparative computer simulations of ship motions and mooring forces were not performed. The Maritime Research Institute Netherlands (MARIN), however, carried out an extensive validation study 42 for a large tanker moored to an offshore jetty that also included model test measurements in their wave and current basin (60 m long, 40 m wide, 1 m deep). The random wave signal generated in the model basin was used as input for their computer simulations, allowing a direct comparison of measured and computed records of ship motions and mooring loads. An example of their results is reproduced in Fig. 9. 44 The results generally confirm the validity of their simulation computer model. Computed time histories of ship motions and mooring forces can generally be Fourier-analysed to obtain energy spectra of system response and statistical measures such as mean and RMS values, significant amplitudes, and maxima or minima. Validation studies at MARIN 44 also presented response spectra. Computed and measured spectra of surge motion of the moored ship, tension in one of the mooring lines, and load of one of the fenders are reproduced in Fig. 9. Their close agreement validates the simulation model. From a practical standpoint, response spectra are generally more useful than response time functions. The spectra in Fig. 9, for example, show that horizontal motions and mooring loads occur mainly at low frequencies in the neighbourhood of the natural frequencies of the moored ship, whereas responses at wave frequencies are comparatively small. 7 CONCLUDING REMARKS Adhering to the guidance of good mooring practice should generally endure safe mooring of ships. There are situations, however, where such guidance may be inadequate. This is generally the case when it is difficult to stipulate with sufficient accuracy external loads acting on the moored vessel, for example, when mooring large ships at exposed terminals subject to the occurrence of relatively severe seastates or when, in a harbour, a large ship passes a berthed vessel at close range. In such situations it may be helpful to resort to computer predictions, possibly in combination with scale model tests for validation. Although the understanding of the behaviour of moored ships, the ability to analyse the ship's motions, and the prediction of mooring loads has improved considerably in recent years, there are still uncertainties that have to be dealt with because even the most advanced analysis methods are simplified models of reality. These models are valuable tools to make certain that most relevant aspects are accounted for in the analytical computation, but continued comparison with full-scale observations and measurements should be endorsed. REFERENCES 1. Germanischer Lloyd, Rules for the Classification and Construction of Seagoing Steel Ships. Hamburg, Germany, 1981. 2. OCIMF, Guidelines and Recommendations for the Safe Mooring of Large Ships at Piers and Sea Islands. Witherby & Co. Ltd, London, UK, 1978. 3. OCIMF, Mooring Equipment Guidelines (Task force Report, Final Draft). June, 1990. 4. OCIMF, Prediction of Wind and Current Loads on VLCCs, Witherby & Co. Ltd., London, UK, 1977. 5. Wagner, B., Wind forces on surface ships. Trans. Schiffbautechnische Gesellsc haft, 61 (1967) (in German). 6. Blendermann, W., The Wind Forces on Ships (Report Nr. 467). Institut f~ir Schiffbau, University of Hamburg, Germany, 1986 (in German).