Pfaffenberger A Different Conceptualizations of Optimum Development

Journal of Humanistic Psychology
http://jhp.sagepub.com Different Conceptualizations of Optimum Development

Angela Pfaffenberger Journal of Humanistic Psychology 2007; 47; 501 originally published online Aug 23, 2007; DOI: 10.1177/0022167806296858 The online version of this article can be found at: http://jhp.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/47/4/501
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DIFFERENT CONCEPTUALIZATIONS OF OPTIMUM DEVELOPMENT
ANGELA PFAFFENBERGER, PhD, is a theoretical psychologist with an interest in critical theory, personality development, and humanistic psychology. She has previously published in this journal about higher stages of development (JHP, 45 [3]) and about theoretical issues in therapy outcome research (JHP, 46 [3]). The current article won the Jourard Student Paper Award of Division 32 and was presented at the Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association. Angela teaches at the Oregon College of Oriental Medicine, and she maintains a private practice that integrates counseling and acupuncture for the treatment of emotional issues in Salem, Oregon.
Summary
This article discusses different conceptualizations of optimum development in adulthood. The existential perspective of Rollo May is compared to the self-actualization theory of Abraham Maslow and to transpersonal psychology. The paradigms and value assumptions underlying the different theories of personality are explicated, and social constructionism is used as an organizing frame of reference. The principal argument is that in addition to repeating viewpoints in a philosophical debate about values, we need to substantiate our claims with evidence from the existing research and explore how well-designed empirical studies can help us answer lingering questions of what is desirable and possible in regard to optimal development. The author examines the existing research literature in regard to how the disagreements of the above-named schools of thought could be clarified. Suggestions for future directions in humanistic research are presented. Keywords: humanistic; existential; personality theory; selfactualization; adult development
Journal of Humanistic Psychology, Vol. 47 No. 4, October 2007 501-523 DOI: 10.1177/0022167806296858 2007 Sage Publications
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The focus of this article is on theories of optimal adult development. Theoretical orientations guide the conceptualization of research projects and consequently exercise a far-reaching influence over how a field evolves. Contemporary psychology is strongly influenced by a hedonistic perspective (Slife, 2004); consequently psychological health is usually defined as the achievement of happiness and the absence of problems. This approach currently dominates contemporary personality research. I am interested in alternate positions, those based on maturity and eudaemonic, meaning-centered definitions of psychological health. Three approaches are chosen for closer examination: the existential position of Rollo May (1983) and Kirk Schneider (2004), the self-actualization theory of Abraham Maslow (1971), and transpersonal psychology (Wilber, 2000). They represent competing truth claims within the field of humanistic psychology. This article is an attempt to explicate the values and similarities among the three theories in regard to what constitutes health and optimum development in adulthood. These divergent theories have been debated over several decades. My principal argument is that instead of repeating viewpoints in a philosophical debate about values, we need to substantiate truth claims with evidence based on existing research and explore how well-designed empirical studies can help us answer lingering questions of what is desirable and possible in regard to optimal development. To achieve this objective, I present findings from relevant research projects and discuss how future research could contribute to a more differentiated understanding. This may pave the way for well-conceived research efforts that emphasize the contributions of humanistic psychology to the fields of personality theory and lifespan development.
THE EXISTENTIAL POSITION OF ROLLO MAY Since the 1958 publication of Existence, Rollo May has been at the forefront of existential psychology in America. The existential perspective emphasizes understanding persons in their beingness. According to May (1983) the term existence means to emerge, and denotes not a static concept of the person but a process of becoming. May actively rejects the position of traditional psychology, which is focused on dynamisms, such as drives or overt behavior in an isolated manner.
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The existential position understands individuals in a dialectic manner and embraces paradox (May, 1958). We can understand others and ourselves in both an objective and a subjective manner. The objective perspective of another person would be explanatory; we intellectually grasp a problem with which the other person is struggling. We treat ourselves as objects when we intellectualize about problems in our lives. The subjective perspective is a direct experience, being present with our emotions. In regard to the other person, we can grasp their being and understand their subjective position through empathy. May (1958) sees the simultaneous occurrence of subjective and objective awareness, the oscillation between the two, as the process of consciousness itself. Existentialism, in short, is the endeavor to understand man by cutting below the cleavage between subject and object which has bedeviled Western thought and science since shortly after the Renaissance (May, 1983, p. 49). Central to Mays (1981) conceptualization of psychological health is the dialectic relationship between freedom and destiny. Destiny is associated with the objective experience of being. May noted that the awareness of ones own death, actually the creation of a word for death, allows us to see our own finitude, our limitations, and the objective aspect of our lives. Freedom is associated more with the subjective aspect of experiencing, and also with the ability to relate to both aspects of this dichotomy. Freedom is expressed through directing our attention, being able to choose and act, and consequently through valuing. Freedom is thus more than a value itself: it underlies the possibility of valuing; it is basic to our capacity to value (May, 1981, p. 6). Our gifts and possibilities are real, but they exist only within the contexts and constraints of our lives, because our capacities, our time, our energies are limited. The awareness of our limitations, the threat of nonbeing, the ever-presentness of death itself heightens the preciousness of our potential, and the need to make choices and to act on them. Nonbeing is thus enhancing our awareness. In this way freedom and destiny facilitate each other, create each other. May (1958) argued that we can accept hostility, aggression, and anxiety in our lives if we accept our limitations and the reality of death itself. Instead of creating an allegiance to only one side of lifethe positive, expansive sideand repressing all negativity, a fuller, more real and conscious life can be created if we acknowledge both sides. According to May (1982) human nature
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is daimonic; this means containing destructive and constructive elements. We can consciously strive to integrate destructive impulses, which results in the expression of creativity. If we deny the existence of aggressive elements in human nature, we run the risk of facilitating their inappropriate expression, leading to violence and evil on an individual and collective scale. The awareness and recognition of the dichotomy between constructive and destructive elements allow for a greater actualization of our potential, for the expression of who we truly are. Meaning in life is created through making conscious choices about how we confront our own finitude and express our potential. Not only do we need to become conscious and make choices, but we also must commit to our values by acting on them. In Mays (1950/1977) view of psychological dynamics, anxiety has a pivotal place. Anxiety is tied to creativity, especially the creative act. Psychological health is closely connected to being able to tolerate the anxiety that arises with the creative act. Anxiety is also associated with freedom and choosing, because any choice inevitably denies many other possibilities and futures. Neurotic anxiety is connected to an inability to decide, to feelings of powerlessness and alienation. Existential anxiety, however, arises from our awareness of the dynamic tension between freedom and destiny. The increasing willingness to embrace the paradox, to tolerate the anxiety, to allow it to be present in our lives is for May (1958) one of the most significant signs of psychological growth and maturity. May distrusted easy answers; psychological health for him was a complex process of struggle and integration. In addition to May, several contemporary psychologists have elaborated the existential position. In a recent contribution, Schneider (2004) delineated how within the field of psychology, different schools of thought have emerged and aligned themselves with the extremist positions of complete freedom and determinism. Biological psychology and the adjacent practice of psychopharmacology are associated with determinism, whereas the New Age approaches of limitless self-fulfillment are associated with unlimited freedom. Schneider suggested that the field of psychology would become more capable of assisting clients if it could adopt an understanding of the person as being suspended in a dynamic tension of realizing dread, veneration, and wonder, termed awe (p. xv). Schneider called for a reorientation in the field of psychology, a reorientation that accepts values and purposes based on the existential orientation.
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Clinical commentaries have delineated how the rather philosophical, abstract ideas of existentialism can be brought to bear fruitfully on the practice of psychology. Schneider, in collaboration with May, presented a detailed discussion of therapeutic approaches and techniques (Schneider & May, 1995). Bugental (1976) offered case histories and gave exquisitely detailed accounts about how existential concerns of being present with the whole person can be expressed in the clinical encounter. Yalom (1980) discussed how four existential dichotomies are significant in our lives: freedom versus destiny, meaning versus meaninglessness, isolation versus connectedness, and death versus existence. According to Yalom, we must accept and consistently relate to each one of these dichotomies to have excellent health in adulthood. Greening (2004) illustrated how these principles can be brought into therapeutic practice and help us understand the struggles of persons in psychotherapy.
THE HUMANISTIC PERSONALITY THEORIES OF ABRAHAM MASLOW AND CARL ROGERS Maslow (1954/1970) suggested that psychological health is more than being well adjusted and free from psychopathology. Individuals strive to satisfy their needs for survival, safety, belongingness, and esteem. These needs are arranged in a hierarchical order and decrease in immediacy when persons come to expect that their needs are reliably gratified. A failure to experience need satisfaction fixes attention at the respective level and leads, according to Maslow, to psychopathology. Once the lower needs are satisfied, higher needs for selfactualization may emerge. Maslow (1971) termed these the metaneeds or Being-needs. They include strivings to be creative, to grow, to acquire knowledge, and to develop ones abilities. Maslow noted that metaneeds function in a qualitatively different manner from the lower needs. Instead of striving for gratification and relief from disequilibria, Being-needs are ends in themselves. People come to enjoy the process and the intrinsic rewards of seeking knowledge and growth. These so-called metamotivations offer a sense of meaning and purpose in life. Maslow originally assumed that Being-needs and the associated metamotivations would emerge spontaneously once the lower needs have been met. After many years of observation and qualitative
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research he came to conclude that the gratification of the lower needs is a necessary but insufficient condition for further growth. To progress, people need to consciously embrace the so-called Being-values, such as justice and truth, and become motivated to actively seek growth and knowledge. According to Maslow (1968), self-actualization often requires that a person leave familiar circumstances behind and explore new possibilities in life. This requires courage, commitment, and an ability to take risks. Maslow noted individual differences in regard to peoples strength, will, and determination. Self-actualizers are creative and spontaneous, and they have a continued freshness of appreciation. Maslow observed that self-actualizers have deeper, healthier interpersonal relationships than other adults. They respect the autonomy and individuality of others and express genuine empathy. Self-actualizers have peak experiences, moments of awe, of being profoundly at one with the universe. Maslow devoted a significant amount of attention to this phenomenon and became interested in exploring the transpersonal dimensions of development later in his life. This project remained incomplete because of his premature death in 1970. The personality theories of Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow are often discussed together (see DeCarvalho, 1992, for an example), which may have resulted from the fact that they are seen together as the founders of humanistic psychology. Their terminologies also bear similarities. This overlooks the two theorists important differences in regard to optimal development. Rogers (1951) shared Maslows optimism about positive potential for development, but his emphasis was different. Rogers felt that people could increasingly learn to attune to what is internally, organismically, right for them. Given empathy and support, they could learn to not restrict their sensing of their needs and emotions because of preconceived notions of how they should be. Rogers discussed actualizing tendencies to describe this growing awareness of what is personally right for oneself. He conceptualized a growing individual as becoming increasingly aware of a process of ongoing internal change, coupled with an acceptance of oneself and others. He termed this openness to experience existential living, and referred to people who have achieved this ability as persons of tomorrow. Rogers emphasized that individuals will inevitably experience positive development if they are exposed to supportive environmental conditions. An important difference between the two theories is that Rogers stayed closer to a concept of excellent psychological health. Maslow
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moved beyond that; he saw self-actualization as a distinct stage of advanced psychological development. His theory has been shown to be a good fit with the ideas of the post-Piagetian stage theorists. The post-Piagetians promulgate the idea that personality development progresses in a similar manner as cognitive development. Higher cognitive stages contain the abilities of lower stages, but add something that is qualitatively different. In her theory of ego development, Jane Loevinger (1976) has delineated how people progress in distinct stages from self-interest to social conformity, and then to greater complexity and personal autonomy. She cogently argued that her highest stages, Autonomous and Integrated, are analogous to self-actualization. Empirical research has shown support for this hypothesis (Cook-Greuter, 1999; Helson, Mitchell, & Hart, 1985). Loevingers (1976) semiprojective instrument, the Washington University Sentence Completion Test (SCT), allows for the assessment of advanced development. It translates qualitative data into quantitative stage designations. Based on the completion of rudimentary sentence stems, a person is assigned a developmental stage on a scale from two to nine. The test has facilitated research in the area of advanced personality development and offered a richness of new data about optimal development in adulthood (see Alexander, Heaton, & Chandler, 1994; Cook-Greuter, 1999; M. E. Miller, 1994). Empirical research offers support for the notion that at higher stages of ego development people tend to display the characteristics Maslow described, such as creativity, cognitive flexibility, tolerance of ambiguity, and increased concerns with self-expression and authenticity (M. E. Miller & Cook-Greuter, 1994). As Maslow noted, self-actualization is indeed rare; few people in our culture progress to this stage of development.
A COMPARISON BETWEEN EXISTENTIAL PSYCHOLOGY AND THE HUMANISTIC THEORIES1 The personality theories of Maslow and May share similarities, but they also have significant differences. Maslow (1968) explicitly acknowledged the contributions of existentialism to humanistic psychology, namely the emphases on the living person, on the evolving potential of the person, and on the phenomenological approach to understanding individuals. Commonalities between the two theories include that May (1958) and Maslow (1954/1970) consider maturity as being associated with
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greater complexity and the ability to tolerate paradox. Both theorists discussed creativity and the commitment to goals as aspects of maturity. Growth is not necessarily seen as being easy; individuals may have to leave comfortable, familiar circumstances behind to embrace a new reality and express their potential. Maslow and May agreed that maturity involves having core values, an inner sense of knowing of what is right for oneself. How this inner knowing evolves and the appreciation of the process of development are usually more important to the mature personality than reaching a specific goal (Maslow 1954/1970; May, 1980). In this way both theorists emphasized the dynamic aspects of maturity; it is a process of becoming, of consistently expressing values. The theories also have significant differences, in regard to (1) human nature and (2) what stimulates growth. Human nature. Maslow (1968), Rogers (1982), and May (1982) agreed that we need to bring awareness to the social environment, because social factors lead to the expression of human traits, either for better or for worse. Maslow (1954/1970) emphasized that everybody has the potential for self-actualization; thus he was strongly focused on aspects of positive potential in human development. Rogers (1982) emphatically stated that in his opinion, all humans will display compassion and cooperation if they are provided with the appropriate environmental supports. This was evidence for him that human nature is good and needs to be nurtured properly. May (1982), on the other hand, was concerned with the existence of negative and positive forces within the individual, and emphasized that the acknowledgement of both tendencies allows for the integration and embracing of dichotomies, which leads to creativity and positive, constructive choices (Greening, 1984). Destructive tendencies need to be acknowledged because the negative potential can become expressed as violence and aggression. In sum, the main difference between the existential position and the humanistic position concerns human nature. Is human nature to be seen as all positive, thriving toward ever better development, or does human nature contain destructive, evil tendencies that need to be acknowledged and worked with? To examine the merit of the respective positions, I will examine the nature of the arguments and the available research-based literature. Mays (1982) argument is premised on the observation that the environment is made up of individuals, and that the existence of
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violence and war proves that evil exists in humans. This view ignores the perspective of systems theory that living systems are not the additive sum of their individual components but a dynamic expression of forces that results from complex interactions of the parts (Goldberg & Goldberg, 2000). Maslow (1971) noted that that our culture is low in regard to synergy, meaning that the interests of the individual and of society as a whole are not well aligned. He pointed to the studies of anthropologists that show that low synergy is often associated with societal unrest and, especially, war. This means that negativity and aggression may not be because of evil tendencies within individuals; they may be structural aspects of societal organization. Maslow never denied that people may behave self-centeredly, given bad circumstances, but that does not negate the fact that they can and will make constructive choices under better circumstances. May and Maslow thus differed in regard to where their attentions rested. May saw a half-empty glass, emphasizing that evil will be expressed if the circumstances allow for it. Rogers and Maslow saw a half-full glass and stressed that constructive, life-affirming choices will be made under the right circumstances. In a review of the available literature on aggression and antisocial behavior, Green (1998) noted that rivaling theories of whether aggression is because of social context or dispositional factors have brought about inconsistent research results. Current research supports the conclusion that biological processes influence aggressive behavior by interacting with conditions in the social environment. Green pointed out that contemporary researchers have moved away from a nature-versus-nurture debate. The research emphasis is on the situatedness of the aggressive behavior: What processes are initiated by exposure to an aversive interpersonal situation such that aggression against the other person is the outcome? (Green, 1998, p. 318). Growth stimulators. The second major difference between the theorists concerns what factors they consider as stimulating growth. May saw the acknowledgement of freedom and of limitations, of nonbeing, as the main aspect that prompts development to higher levels of personal maturity, which is expressed as the embracing of a paradox. Maslow (1954/1970) did not emphasize this point. Maslows focus is on the satisfaction of the lower needs as the prerequisite of further development, as well as on the individuals
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determination and aspiration. Rogers (1982) emphasis is on growth-enhancing relationships that facilitate inner awareness and congruence. Maslow (1968), nevertheless, explicitly acknowledged that difficult circumstances can be growth enhancing. In this way, the differences between Rogers, Maslow, and May may be because of their differing emphases rather than being differences in principle. Two interesting research projects have inquired into the nature of existential concerns, psychological health, and personality development. Debats (1999) combined quantitative and qualitative methods in a research project that inquired into sources of meaning in the lives of young adults. She found that the participants were primarily oriented toward fulfilling their relational needs in addition to being concerned with issues of livelihood and professional identity. Other-directed service was largely absent from their concerns. Debats speculates that this confirms the theories of Maslow and Erik Erikson, (1978) which state that generative concerns emerge in midlife, after more immediate, need-based issues have been addressed. Debats also found that lack of meaning interacts with psychopathology, leaving the question about the directionality of this effect unanswered. Based on her research findings, she cogently argued that the perception of purposes and goals does not impart vitality and meaning, but that the level of commitment and active engagement with the perceived goals are the crucial factors. This study can be seen as confirming both Maslows and Mays theories of psychological maturation. In addition to illustrating the importance of need satisfaction, which is a cornerstone of Maslows theory of self-actualization, it confirms Mays assumption that commitment, as the result of an active valuing process, imparts meaning and interacts with psychological health. In a different research study, King (2001) investigated the influence of challenging and limiting life events on personality development as measured by Loevingers (1976) SCT. She found that the occurrence of difficulty in itself is not associated with growth. The author enrolled research participants who had lived through significant difficulties in life, such as having a child with Downs syndrome, and women who experienced divorce after 20 years of marriage. She coded stories that the participants told of difficult events. She particularly noted signs of assimilation and accommodation, terms from Piagets (1977) theory about how cognitive stage change happens. According to Block (1982), who
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adjusted this aspect of Piagets theory to personality development, assimilation means fitting an event into an existing structure. If assimilation fails, because of the severity of the event or the constraints of the existing structures, the individual will use accommodation, which is a reworking of the internal frame of reference. As expected, King (2001) found that assimilation was not associated with gains in personality growth, as measured by the SCT. Accommodation and gains in maturity resulted when individuals not only experienced events as difficult, but also saw them as challenging to their worldview. The author suggested that this active engagement with difficulties resulted in the emergence of new personality structures that lead to higher ego stages. King proposed that people are motivated by a desire to experience positive states of well-being, which prompts them to cognitively restructure a negative event into one that creates meaning in their lives and contributes to their growth. This research allows for the conclusion that cognitive abilities and personality structures interact with life circumstances, and that the nature of this interaction is relevant to whether growth occurs. This project lends strong support to Mays (1958) theory of existential therapy, which is intended to teach clients to constructively work with their limitations and to create freedom so that they can choose values, meanings, and commitments.
TRANSPERSONAL PSYCHOLOGY Transpersonal psychology is concerned with the entire range of human functioning, especially processes related to spiritual practices, altered states of consciousness, and peak experiences. Ken Wilber (2000) has emerged as the most prominent theorist in the field. He proposed a model of advanced development that includes transpersonal stages and defines what constitutes transpersonal development (Wilber, 1986). This model, like Loevingers (1976) theory of ego development, is based on a Piagetian model of invariant, qualitative stages that are arranged hierarchically. According to Wilbers theory, all development falls into three consecutive tiers: the prepersonal, the personal, and the transpersonal; each of those contains three stages. His final stage in the personal realm is called Vision-logic, and he likens it to Maslows
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self-actualization, to existential awareness, and to Loevingers Autonomous and Integrated stages. Wilber emphasized advanced cognitive abilities here, such as dialectic thinking and postformal thought. This stage is followed by the first of his transpersonal stages, called Psychic. Individuals become conscious of how the mind works. They start to take an interest in how their perceptions of the self and the world are influenced by cognitive patterns and by the incessant stream of thoughts. The shift in consciousness that takes place at the Psychic stage is comparable in nature to the qualitative change that, according to Loevinger (1976), occurred at earlier levels of ego development. Individuals at the Psychic stage start to notice that they have an ego, just as they understood earlier that they have a social role. Stage progression occurs when individuals can go beyond the constraining sense of being a social role or an ego. They need to become able to shift their attention from being inside the social role or the ego to a perspective that is larger and more panoramic. The shift in consciousness that is necessary to see the ego is significantly harder to accomplish than earlier ones, because there are few cultural supports available; and individuals are often without assistance, because this level of development is so rare. Further stages of development are usually only achievable through meditation, and most of the descriptions we have available rely on Eastern sources such as Buddhist and Hindu scriptures. Wilber (1986) calls the next stage Subtle and associates it with meditative stabilization, experiences of bliss and samadhi, and an experiential understanding of the collective archetypes. The following stage is termed Causal and is associated with the experience of effortlessness in meditative absorption, of enlightenment and detachment. Wilbers final stage, Unitive, constitutes moving beyond all experiences of dichotomy, of being inseparable from cosmic consciousness. The important contribution of transpersonal psychology to theories of optimal functioning in adulthood lies in the conceptualization of development beyond the ego structures that Western psychology ordinarily assumes to be the personality. In this way it is a new paradigm; it has expanded our awareness of how personality can be understood and defined. Social constructionism (Gergen, 1985) arrives at a similar conclusion coming from a different direction. According to this school of thought, whatever we consider the person in Western psychology is but a cultural construct rather than an observation of actual processes. This viewpoint has
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been further elaborated by Cushman (1990, 1991), who argued that our construction of childhood development is nothing but a value-laden cultural interpretation of what occurs in early childhood, rather than being an objective observation of events.
MASLOWS THEORY OF SELF-ACTUALIZATION AND TRANSPERSONAL PSYCHOLOGY Maslows (1954/1970) and Wilbers (1986) models of development share many similarities; both accept stage theory as an underlying frame of reference. This agreement has increased the acceptance of those models within humanistic psychology, but several aspects of the theories are not sufficiently supported by existing research and should therefore be considered preliminary. First, both theorists propose that ordinary mental health is a prerequisite for higher development (Maslow, 1954/1970; Wilber, 1986). Empirically, however, we know very little about what motivates people to explore transpersonal interests. Engler (1986) presented convincing arguments that the motivation to explore the transpersonal realm is not necessarily based on psychological health and maturity. Based on his clinical observations, he noted that people with narcissistic or borderline conformations are frequently drawn to transpersonal practices out of a desire to feel special and to overcome their inner sense of emptiness. Nevertheless, they may experience genuine transpersonal states of consciousness. As Cortright (1997) pointed out, the transpersonal literature is full of accounts that transpersonal interests can emerge at any developmental stage, often unexpectedly for the individual. Many such individuals do not show signs of exceptional psychological health. They may be struggling with substance abuse or have prejudiced, sexist attitudes that bespeak cultural embeddedness, which, according to Maslow, is transcended in self-actualization. Second, the stage model accepts an implicit assumption of a unidirectional movement up a developmental ladder. Helson et al. (1985) noted that a significant number of the women who attained advanced stages of ego development, such as self-actualization, showed a consistent interest in spiritual practice, and that these women considered this an important aspect of their adult lives. The women may have attained the advanced stage of ego development exactly because of their spiritual practice, instead of engaging in
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spiritual practice because of their advanced ego stage, which would be Wilbers (1989) line of argumentation. Alexander, Rainforth, and Gelderloos (1991) research showed that meditation promotes ego development, as defined by Loevinger (1976), regardless of the initial ego stage. This suggests that transpersonal experience may lead to a restructuring within the domain of personality. Consequently, self-actualization does not seem to be a requirement for benefiting from transpersonal practices. Instead personal maturity and transpersonal experiences seem to have a bidirectional relationship. Wilbers (2000) conceptualization of growth relies to a significant degree on cognitive structures. He sees evolving cognitive structures, such as increased complexity and systems thinking, as the leading edge of development, a position previously advanced by Kohlberg (1969). However, Skoe and von der Lippe (2002) cogently argue that cognitive complexity and socio-emotional development, as reflected in ego stage, are separate strands of development. Wilbers (1986) argument that they form a continuous line of development certainly makes for a plausible-sounding theory, but it is not supported by cross-cultural observations or contemporary research. Nothing in the research-based literature suggests that individuals need postformal cognitive development and dialectical reasoning to progress in their transpersonal development. Meditation appears to be a method of gaining understanding and insight that is not mediated through ordinary cognitive structures. The Eastern literature leaves no doubt that many people of high spiritual attainment, such as the historical Buddha, were illiterate (Kanai, 1995). It is an imposition of Western cultural values to assume that only those who are well educated can have access to spiritual development. Transpersonal psychology appears to be a cultural narrative with its own values and assumptions about what a person is and what is desirable and possible in development. Wilbers attempt to cross the paradigmatic boundaries of Western psychology and Eastern mysticism has not been entirely successful. In sum, we can say that the relationships among advanced psychological development, as conceptualized by Maslow (1971) and Loevinger (1976), the underlying cognitive structures, and transpersonal development are more complex and dynamic than has so far been explicated in psychological research. This forms an exiting area of research for future study. The research questions that readily emerge from the above discussion are as follows: (1) Do individuals need mental health to progress to higher stages of
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development? (2) Do people need to achieve self-actualization before they can progress to transpersonal stages of development? (3) What is the relationship between cognitive complexity and development in the realm of personal and spiritual development? The most promising approach to this exploration would certainly be a longitudinal project that follows individuals developmental paths over several decades. We could assess cognitive development, personality as measured by ego stage, and spiritual maturity longitudinally and compare how the different development strands interact. In light of the fact that such projects are hard to carry out, it would be interesting to explore if an available archival data set, like the one Block (1993) assembled over a 30year time frame, offers information that could be analyzed from this perspective.
EXISTENTIAL PSYCHOLOGY AND TRANSPERSONAL PSYCHOLOGY The existential and transpersonal psychologies are separate theories that differ in important aspects, most prominently about end stages of development. Transpersonal psychology posits that the ego should be seen as a form, an idea, that the individual identifies with, and the end stage of development in this paradigm is conceptualized as a complete resolution of the individual self-sense within either the godhead or the void (Walsh, 2000). As a means of achieving this stage, transpersonal developmentalists advocate the use of methods such as meditation that impart insights that are usually not achievable with any other means. Existential psychology is more closely focused on optimum development within what is conventionally defined as the personality. The highest stage of development is seen as the maturity to recognize the dynamic tension that exists between freedom and destiny, to make conscious choices in the face of finitude, what Schneider (2004) calls the fluid center of life (p. 11). Existential psychologists acknowledge the benefits of peak experiences, such as awe and the I-thou encounter, but they do not see these as a means of moving beyond a bounded self in a progressive manner. Existential and transpersonal psychologists have had an intense, multifaceted relationship that has spanned many decades. In his 1958 publication Existence (p. 18), May specifically noted the similarities between existentialism and Eastern thought, such as the
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shared emphasis on ontology and beingness, as well as the attempt to overcome the duality of subject and object. According to May, existentialists and oriental philosophers view the subjugation of nature as the reason that humans have become estranged from themselves. He argued that the interest in Eastern mysticism arises for the same reason that the existential psychology movement has emerged, namely the conflicting, dichotomous relationship of humans and nature, and the consequent loss of meaning. Once the transpersonal psychology movement came into its own in the 1970s and 80s, such rapprochement and sharing of ideas were quickly lost in what became an antagonistic, acrimonious dialogue. May and his colleague Schneider took front seats opposite Wilber. May (1989) started with a full-blown assault on Wilber, whom many transpersonal and humanistic psychologists considered to be the leading thinker in the field (Fischer, 1997; Vaughan & Walsh, 1994). May challenged the absolutist truth claims of the transpersonalists, the decadence of the emerging spiritual groups, and the Pollyannaish attitudes in regard to how we can all achieve perfection through transpersonal practices. In Mays view, transpersonal psychology is a nave allegiance to the expansive side of human nature and a denial of the daimonic, dichotomous aspects of existence. He expressed adamantly that this denial would eventually exert a price in terms of our cultural development, because the dark side of human nature cannot be denied or repressed; it needs to be acknowledged and integrated. May was concerned with the overemphasis within the field of psychology on that which is individual experience at the expense of considerations of how communal change can be affected. Schneider (1987, 1989) criticized Wilbers (1986) model of personality and development on the grounds that a complete transcendence of the self is neither possible nor desirable, and that such transcendence may hide an inability to confront existential issues of finitude. He also argued that there is no ultimate truth that is uncovered by higher development as Wilber postulated. In his rebuttal Wilber (1989a, 1989b) argued that transpersonal psychology has its own epistemology and ways of knowing. He defended his model of a qualitative value hierarchy and reiterated his view that transpersonal realization is a higher, more advanced stage of development. Wilbers response was highly technical, overly detailed, and hard to follow. He showed a thinly veiled sarcasm toward existentialism, portraying it as an inferior form of thought that cannot go beyond its own limitations. Other
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theorists (Koltko, 1989; Vaughan & Walsh, 1994) jumped into the debate to say, yes, Wilber is arrogant and confusing, but nevertheless right. In a more recent exchange between Walsh (2001) and Schneider (2001), the former carefully delineates the commonalities between existential and transpersonal psychologists, such as the rejection of superficiality and conformity, and an emphasis on living an examined life. Both authors acknowledged that the existential and transpersonal psychologies are rather separate fields of study at this time. Theorists and practitioners within one of the fields are usually not well educated in the other discipline, which has led to mutual misunderstandings and an inability to properly appreciate the other perspective from within its own context. It might be possible to clarify the divergent perspectives of existential versus transpersonal psychology through empirical research. Principal issues concern developmental goals and the validity of stage theory. Transpersonalists tend to treat the qualitative stage hierarchy as real and objective, similar to grades in a school (Wilber, 2000). They argue that tenth grade is inevitably more sophisticated than second grade; therefore progression in an objective manner is taking place. This ascertainment is true, but it is made true by a societal context that creates specific learning objectives and designs a curriculum to achieve those goals. Without agreement on the goals, the stages or grades, the school itself would have no meaning. Consequently, we can see that stage theory is a means of organizing information after we have defined what is to be valued in development. At this time, transpersonal and existential psychologists have no such agreement about values and, without it, neither researchable questions nor methods can be arrived at. Consequently, the principal disagreements between the two groups about endpoints in development cannot be explored through systematic inquiry, although both groups do carry out projects within their own frames of reference that they see as confirmatory (see Walsh, 2001, for an example). Social constructionism (Gergen, 1985) can serve as a useful framework, or metanarrative, that allows us to see the subjectivity of values and perspectives that exist within different reality constructions. Constructionism has its own implicit values, such as the value of respecting subjectivity and the context-dependent nature of all viewpoints. The existential and transpersonal psychologies are thus seen as narratives that rely on differing views of what is to be valued in human development. Interestingly enough, Wilber
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(2000) and Schneider (2004) share a certain disdain for constructionism. They base their views on the argument that constructionism is devoid of values and presents a form of relativism. Wilber tends to rely on reasoning advanced by the German philosopher and critical theorist Jrgen Habermas (1988), who suggested that values are intrinsic to human nature and what is good can be explicated through dialogue. This position is a rejection of constructionism in its entirety. Wilber insisted that absolute truth and an absolute, knowable reality exist. Schneider agreed that values are desirable and should guide psychological theory, but he did not agree with Wilber about what those values are and how they are arrived at. Neither author has contributed to a debate of how they ground the values that they are advancing and that ultimately represent the foundation of the paradigms. In short, both theories affirm certain values but they do not want to acknowledge the subjectivity of values as it is taught in social constructionism (Gergen, 1985). Constructionism sees truth as a social product negotiated between people; different groups of people socially construct different truths. Consequently, instead of placing emphasis on using empirical research to clarify which is right, we could investigate how different values and beliefs lead to differential experiences in the lived experience of people. Possible research projects might delineate how an existential versus a transpersonal focus in the lives of individuals leads to outcomes that may have differential rewards in the life course. We could enroll some research participants who were chosen by existential psychologists and others who were chosen by transpersonalists as embodying desirable aspects of development within their respective schools of thought. Researchers from both traditions would be involved in the design, which would emphasize a qualitative, interpretive approach. We could collect a life narrative from every participant (Josselson, Lieblich, & McAdams, 2003). Researchers from both orientations could code the stories and offer interpretations. This would probably be best designed as an openended kind of inquiry where the outcome, that is, the reporting of the findings, might be less significant than the process of research and the enrichment of the mutual dialogue. CONCLUSION Optimum development in adulthood can be seen from many different perspectives. What is considered desirable depends on
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the viewpoint taken. The three approaches discussed above share an emphasis on the individuals intrapsychic development. They were chosen because they are comparable based on this similarity, not because other approaches of personality development are deemed less worthy of our attention. Alternative positions may emphasize the persons social or relational capacities. An example of the former would be McAdams and de St. Austins (1999) elaboration of Eriksons (1978) theory of generativity, which is focused on how well adults can accept their responsibilities of caring for others and society as a whole. Examples of the latter would be the relational, feminist psychologies (J. B. Miller, 1986; Spencer, 2000) that stress the individuals ability to connect, empathize, and grow in a relationship. For optimum adulthood, a person needs to grow in many different areas. The interrelatedness of the different streams of development remains a field in need of further elaboration. Empirical research remains sparse within the three areas discussed in the main part of this article. This appears to be due to the marginalized position of humanistic psychology as a whole, the lack of research funding, and the fact that few graduate schools offer support for relevant research projects. The most significant amount of research has accumulated in regard to self-actualization theory because Loevingers (1976) development of the SCT has allowed for the operationalization and assessment of higher stages of development. Most of those projects were carried out by researchers who have no allegiance to humanistic personality theory. The projects usually emphasized a variable-centered as opposed to a person-centered view within a quantitative research design. Consequently important aspects have been neglected, such as the fact that Loevingers test is a method that does not grasp the whole person; instead it relies on the interpretation of verbal material. Labouvie-Vief and Diehl (1998) and Schultz and Selman (1998) have convincingly argued that the SCT is predominantly an assessment of cognitive complexity and that important dimensions of personality are not sufficiently described through this method. If we want to respect the humanistic worldviews of the above-presented theories, it would advisable to flesh out the quantitative data with qualitative methods, such as life stories (McAdams, 1993, 1996) or interview materials (Hewlett, 2004), to gain a better understanding of advanced development. Humanistic researchers of optimal development will need to rely on their creativity and the courage to try new ways of exploration if they want to advance the field.
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NOTE
1. I do not intend to imply that existential personality theory is not humanistic.
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DIFFERENT CONCEPTUALIZATIONS OF OPTIMUM DEVELOPMENT

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