F

AS SEEN ON TV

ell is an action that tells you what one is thinking - even if that person doesn't know it the selves! ! !

"id you know that the way you stand# how you position your el$ows# ove your feet or hands# says a lot a$out how do inant or su$ issive you feel% Or that when you're trying to hide your feelings# your se&ual attitudes are $etrayed $y your eyes and outh% Even the way you s ile - and the facial uscles you use - shows whether you are genuinely happy or faking it' These are Tells, and they are highly revealing! (n fact# wherever you are and whatever you're doing# your ove ents provide i portant clues a$out your state of ind! (n The Book of Tells )eter *ollett# resident psychologist on *hannel +'s Big Brother series# introduces us to the fascinating concept of Tells, showing how they work# where they co e fro and how to identify and interpret the ! ,hile teaching you to read the otives and actions of other people# this invalua$le resource also helps you to focus on the essages that you unwittingly send# and the i pact that these ight have on those around you! *o prehensive# accessi$le and fun to use# The Book of Tells offers a new# unifying voca$ulary for understanding hu an co unication and a uni-ue opportunity to read others and yourself! '(t i s - u i t e a n e ye - o p en e r t o d i s c o v e r w h a t a d e v i o u s g a e w e h u a n s pla y w i t h ou r u n w i t t i n g essage s o f co unication ' *rit ic ' s * h o i c e Daily Mail

(S.N /-001-23+04-3

www.booksattransworld.co.u k

"r )eter *ollett is a social psychologist! For any years he taught and conducted research studies at the "epart ent of E&peri ental )sychology at O&ford 5niversity! 6e has co-authored two $ooks# including Gestures: Their Origins and Distribution with "es ond 7orris# and is the author of Foreign Bodies: A Guide to European Mannerisms. 6e has appeared in various television docu entaries and is currently resident psychologist on the hugely popular *hannel + series Big Brother. 6e lives with his fa ily in O&ford!

www.booksattransworld.co.u k

Also by Peter Collett Foreign .odies8 A 9uide to European 7anneris s 9estures8 Their Origins and "istri$ution :co-author; "riving )assion8 The )sychology of the *ar :coauthor;

T6E .OO< OF TE==S

6ow to >ead )eople's 7inds fro Their Actions

)ETE> *O==ETT

BANTAM BOOKS
LONDON NEW YORK TORONT O SYDNEY

AUCKLAND

THE BOOK OF TELLS A BANTAM BOOK: 0 ! "#$ % # Originally pu$lished in 9reat .ritain $y "ou$leday# a division of Transworld )u$lishers
)>(NT(N9 6(STO>?

"ou$leday edition pu$lished @//1 .anta edition pu$lished @//+ 3 10A 4 3 / 2B+ @ *opyright C )eter *ollett @//1 (llustrations C 9ino "'Achille )hoto credits8 +48 )ortrait of 6enry V((( $y 6ans 6ol$ein the ?ounger# .elvoir *astleD.ridge an Art =i$raryE 23 8 )AD7artin <eeneE 3+B8 7atthew )olakD*or$isE 3+28 Fohn SturrockDNetworkE 3A18 Ollie Atkins' photo 1@+-10# Special *ollections G Archives# 9eorge 7ason 5niversity =i$rariesE @338 )AD"avid *heskinE @1@-18 )AD)hil No$leE @A/8 The <o$al *ollectionE @408 >eutersD)opperfotoE 1348 )eter *ollettE 1++ top8 C )ictorial )ressE $otto left to right8 A)E 9etty ( agesE Fohn Springer *ollectionD*or$is! The right of )eter *ollett to $e identified as the author of this work has $een asserted in accordance with sections AA and A2 of the *opyright# "esigns and )atents Act 3422! Condition o !ale This $ook is sold su$Hect to the condition that it shall not# $y way of trade or otherwise# $e lent# re-sold# hired out or otherwise circulated in any for of $inding or cover other than that in which it is pu$lished and without a si ilar condition including this condition $eing i posed on the su$se-uent purchaser! Set in 33D3+pt Opti a $y Falcon Oast 9raphic Art =td! .ooks are pu$lished $y Transworld )u$lishers# B3-B1 5&$ridge >oad# =ondon ,0 0SA# a division of The >ando 6ouse 9roup =td# in Australia $y >ando 6ouse Australia :)ty; =td# @/ Alfred Street# 7ilsons )oint# Sydney# NS, @/B3# Australia# in New Iealand $y >ando 6ouse New Iealand =td# 32 )oland >oad# 9lenfield# Auckland 3/# New Iealand and in South Africa $y >ando 6ouse :)ty; =td# Endulini# 0a Fu$ilee >oad# )arktown @341# South Africa! )rinted and $ound in 9reat .ritain $y *o& G ,y an =td# >eading# .erkshire! )apers used $y Transworld )u$lishers are natural# recycla$le products ade fro wood grown in sustaina$le forests! The anufacturing processes confor to the environ ental regulations of the country of origin! .anta

For "ill# $atie and Clementine

Contents
3 % 1 + 0 B A 2 9 3/ 33 3@ 31 Acknowledge ents Tells "o inant Tells Su$ issive Tells *onversation Tells )olitical Tells 9reeting Tells >oyal Tells An&iety Tells Sexual Tells =ying Tells Foreign Tells S oking Tells Tell-Tales Notes (nde&

9 11 36 71 104 127 163 196 219 244 284 307 328 347 357 381

Acknowledge ents
( would like to thank y wife Fill# and y daughters <atie and *le entine# for their patience and loving support# without which this $ook would not have $een possi$le! Thanks are also due to y agent *aradoc <ing# for his advice and encourage- ent# to 7artha =ishawa and =inda Shaughnessy at A! )! ,att# to .renda <i $er# 7arianne Vel ans and Sheila =ee at "ou$leday# and to .eth 6u phries# for all the help and support they have given e! (n addition ( would like to e&press y gratitude to y $rother Tony and his wife Fulia for their encourage ent over the years# as well as to the following friends and colleagues for their valua$le help and suggestions8 SuJie Addinell# 7a& Atkinson# >ad .a$ic# 9eoffrey .eattie# Steven .ee$e# 9iovanni *arni$ella# Al$erta *ontarello# Tina *ook# )aul Ek an# Nor a Fesh$ach# Sey our Fesh$ach# 7ark Frank# Adrian Furnha # Ti 9arda # "oris 9ins$urg# 9erry 9ins$urg# Fergus 9leeson# )eter 6enderson# Ti 6o er# .rett <ahr# *hristine <uehn# 7ansur =allHee# >oger =a $# )eter 7arsh# 7arie O'Shaughnessy# Sophie >atcliffe# 7onica >ector# >achel >eeves# .ryan >ichards# "unHa Sagov# Sandra Scott# .arry Shrier# *aroline Si onds# Frank Si onds# 7ary Sissons Foshi# *harles S ith# 7ichael Fohn Spencer# Oliver

Spiecker# 7artine Stewart# 7ichael Stewart# )addy Su erfield# 9a$y Twivy# )aul Twivy and )eter van .reda! Finally ( would like to record y special thanks to )eter du )reeJ# 7ichael Argyle and "es ond 7orris# who taught e so uch of what ( know and encouraged y interest in hu an $ehaviour!

3! Tells
=et's i agine that you're talking to an old friend a$out your schooldays together! ?ou casually ask hi if he isses his days at school! 'Oh no#' he replies# '( don't have any regrets! (' glad that's all over!' As he's talking# he $riefly wipes the skin under his right eye with his inde& finger! There's no reason why you should notice this tiny gesture# and if you did you'd pro$a$ly think that he was Hust re oving a $it of dust fro his face! .ut he isn't! The gesture is in fact a tell# and it casts an entirely different light on your friend's true feelings! Although he says that he doesn't iss his days at school# part of his $rain knows otherwise# and it instructs his finger to wipe away an i aginary tear! So# while the conscious part of his $rain is saying# '( have no regrets'# another part is producing a tell which says# ',ell actually# ( do have regrets'' 7o entarily your friend ight recogniJe his co plicated feelings# $ut it's highly unlikely that he realiJes what his unruly finger is doing# or what it reveals a$out his true feelings! The friend who wipes away an i aginary tear produces an autonomous tell & in other words# a tell

that has no
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purpose other than to reveal his true feelings! .ecause autonomous tells aren't intentional# they are hardly ever noticed $y the people who produce the or the people who witness the ! That's not necessarily the case with atta'hed tells# which are connected to so e other activity! For e&a ple# when two people are introduced to each other# the fact that they shake hands ay $e less infor - ative than how they actually do so! 6ow tightly they grip each other's hand# how they position their pal # how uch enthusias they show# how uch control they try to e&ert# the actual words they use to greet each other - these are atta'hed tells. ,ithin the greeting ritual they reveal what each person is really like# and what they're trying to achieve with the other person! ,hether a tell is an action or the way that an action is perfor ed usually depends on how co on the action is! *onsider two societies - one where en regularly greet each other with a kiss on the cheek# and another where they hardly ever do so! ,hen two en kiss each other in the first society they are si ply doing what all the other en do! The fact that they kiss each other is therefore not very infor ative - it doesn't tell us anything a$out their relationship! 6owever# ho( they kiss each other does tell us a$out their relationship! The situation in the second society tends to $e reversed! 6ere# when two en greet each other with a kiss on the cheek they are doing so e- thing unusual! Now it's the kiss itself# rather than the way it's perfor ed# that tells us what kind of relationship the two en have!

#&

TE))!

'oker Tells
The word tell co es fro the ga e of poker# where it's used to refer to the signals that players unintentionally produce when they're trying to conceal what kinds of cards they're holding or the strategy they're e ploying! There are two essential skills in poker - one is the capacity to hide one's feelings# so that the other players have no idea whether you're holding a $ad hand or a royal flush! This is the a$ility to keep a 'poker face' - to re ain co - pletely enig atic! The other essential skill is the a$ility to read people's $ehaviour - to work out what kind of cards they're holding# si ply $y o$serving their actions and listening to what they say! ,hile you# as a poker player# are looking for tell-tale signs in another player's $ehaviour# he's $usy doing everything he can to islead you! The reverse is also true - while the other players are trying to figure out what you're up to# you're doing everything in your power to ensure that you don't give the anything to go on# or if you do that it sends the off in the wrong direction! One of the ways that poker players can i prove their ga e is $y learning to recogniJe the links $etween their opponents' actions# the cards that they're holding# and the oves they ake! They can start to pay attention to little things# like the way so eone holds his cards or the way he looks at the # the way he akes a call# what he does with his hands# how he fiddles with his glasses - the list of potential tells is endless! 7ike *aro has ade a life- long study of poker tells and the ways that players give the selves away $y sighing# hu ing# tapping their fingers# playing for ti e#

checking their cards and trying to

31

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lay false trails! Several fil s# like *ouse o Games and +ounders# have included scenes where the plot turns on so eone discovering a poker tell. (n +ounders# for e&a ple# there's a showdown ga e of poker $etween 7ike# the hero :played $y 7att "a on;# and Teddy <9.# a >ussian o$ster :played $y Fohn 7alkovich; who likes to $reak open Oreo cookies and eat the while he's play- ing poker! 7ike eventually wins the ga e $y working out the >ussian's tell& when he splits the cookie $eside his ear he's got a good hand# $ut when he splits it in front of his face it eans that he's $luffing' )oker players have lots to think a$out! Apart fro decid- ing what to do ne&t# they're constantly trying to under ine other players' atte pts to understand the # while doing everything possi$le to see past the defences erected $y the other players! (t all see s very confusing# $ut in fact it's no ore co plicated than the things that we all do every ti e we relate to other people! (n our daily encounters we're constantly trying to proHect an i age of ourselves# and so are other people# and while they're trying to work out what we are thinking# we're doing the sa e to the ! Our chances of success# like those of the poker player# will always depend on how sensitive we are to other people# and whether we can recogniJe and understand their tells.

(e)*n*n+ Tells
Everyday tells are highly infor ative! The way you stand when you're talking to so eone - how you ove your feet# hands# eyes and eye$rows - says a lot a$out your co it ent to the conversation and your

underlying
3+

TE))!

attitude to the other person! (t also affects how long you get to talk and how often you get interrupted! 6ow you position your ar s and legs when you're seated also pro- vides a wealth of infor ation a$out your ood and intentions# showing whether you feel do inant or su$ issive# preoccupied or $ored# involved or detached! The way you s ile - the facial uscles you use and how rapidly you enlist the shows whether you're genuinely happy# faking it# lying or telling the truth# feeling an&ious# isera$le# superior or unsure of yourself! Speech dis- fluencies are also highly infor ative! The way you hesitate when you're speaking# how you 'u ' and 'er'# provides i portant clues to your ood! ,hile the words you choose# the phrases you select# and the way you construct your utterances ay convey an 'official essage' to other people# your linguistic choices also contain 'disguised essages' which reveal your true intentions! A tell needs to satisfy four conditions8
K (t has to $e so e kind of activity - a feature of so eone's appearance# a ove ent of their $ody# or so ething they say! .roadly speaking# tells fall into two categories 'attri$utes'# like height or weight# and 'actions'# like folding one's ar s# s iling or using certain giveaway words and phrases! The action needs to reveal so ething a$out the person that's not directly o$serva$le - it has to tell us a$out their $ackground# their thoughts# their ood or their intentions! (t follows that not every action is a tell - it's only those actions that convey infor ation a$out so eone that are tells. Of course there are so e actions that we don't

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recogniJe as tells $ecause we haven't yet discovered what they reveal a$out people! These are undis'o,ered tells. ,hen we do learn how they are linked to people's internal states# they too will $e added to the list of tells. K The action has to $e noticed! One factor that decides whether an action gets noticed is its siJe! =arge# e&pansive ove ents of the $ody# for e&a ple# are ore likely to attract attention# especially when they're visi$le for a long ti e! S all# fleeting ove ents# on the other hand# often get ignored# either $ecause they're not in view for long enough or $ecause they're o$scured $y other actions! Although large actions are ore visi$le# it doesn't ean that we auto atically notice the or that we understand their significance! As Sherlock 6ol es re arked to "r ,atson# we ay see $ut we don't always o$serve! K The significance of the action needs to $e recogniJed! (t's not enough for us to notice that so eone has adopted a certain posture or used an unusual e&pression! ,e also need to recogniJe what that posture or that e&pression tells us a$out that person! ,hen we look at the evolution of tells we find that there's a tendency for so e tells to get $igger# and a tendency for others to get s aller! (n areas like do inance and courtship# where there's a lot of co petition $etween individuals# there's a natural tendency for the anato ical features that signal strength and reproductive fitness to get $igger# and for the displays associated wit h those features to $eco e $older and ore eye-catching! This can

#,

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so eti es $e taken to e&tre es! (n the ani al world# for e&a ple# there are ma'ro&tells# like the ale fiddler cra$'s enor ous red claw# which is even $igger than his $ody# and which he waves around whenever he wants to inti idate other ales or i press the fe ales! (n our society there are en who pu p iron and take $ody- enhancing drugs so that they look ore uscular# and wo en who su$ it to the surgeon's knife in order to enhance their $u or increase the siJe of their $reasts! Over-siJed claws# large $iceps and assive $reasts are all weapons in the escalating war of do inance and attraction they are designed to attract attention# to get the essage across# to outclass the co petition and ulti ately to ena$le the individual to gain access to li ited resources like food# shelter or se&ual partners!

M*cro-tells
There are two situations where signals get s aller! One is where there's a deli$erate atte pt to ensure secrecy# and the other is where there's unintended disclosure of what's going on in so eone's head! .y their very nature# secret signals are targeted at selected individuals - in order to re ain secret it's essential that only certain people get the essage and that everyone else doesn't! Very often this is achieved $y using a iniature signal and $y attaching it to an everyday action that doesn't attract attention! =overs so eti es co unicate in code# using special words or tiny signs when they're with other people - in this way they can e&change loving signals without anyone else knowing! (n a si ilar fashion# e $ers of secret societies

3A

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often identify the selves to each other $y the way they shake hands - for e&a ple# $y scratching the pal or positioning the fingers so that the other person gets the essage $ut no$ody else can see what's happening! "etection is avoided $y deli$erately keeping the signal s all! As a further safeguard# it's hidden inside an activity that's unlikely to arouse suspicion! 7iniature signals are also co on when people are trying to hide what they're thinking! ,hen people are lying# for e&a ple# or feeling an&ious# the giveaway signs that e&pose their true feelings are often e&tre ely s all and short-lived! 5nlike the signs e&changed $y lovers or e $ers of secret societies# these mi'ro&tells are entirely unintentional! )sychologists have identified a special group of mi'ro&tells called ' icro o entary e&pressions'# @ which are confined to the face! They are very $rief and usually appear for no ore than one-eighth of a second! ,hen people are descri$ing a painful e&perience while putting on a $rave face# it's not unco on for the to reveal their disco fort $y $riefly altering their facial e&pression! One o ent they're s iling# giving the i pression that the e&perience didn't $other the at allE the ne&t o ent their face is transfor ed into the $riefest of gri aces! Then# $efore anyone notices anything# the s ile is $ack# and all evidence of disco fort is erased fro their face! The distinguishing feature of facial mi'ro&tells is their $revity - it's as though so eone has opened the curtains# allowing passers-$y to look into their ho e# and then i ediately closed the again! The action is so rapid that people don't notice the curtains opening# let alone what's in the house! That's e&actly how it is with mi'ro&tells.

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,hen we're concealing our thoughts# or a particularly strong i age enters our ind# it so eti es shows on our face or in our ove ents! As soon as the wayward thought has anaged to sneak on to our face# the processes that control our de eanour spring into action# re ove it and reinstate the desired e&pression! (n the eanti e# however# the evidence is there for anyone to see - they Hust need to spot the mi'ro&tell and $e a$le to interpret it correctly! (n principle# mi'ro&tells can appear anywhere on the $ody# $ut $ecause of the fine-grained nature of the facial uscles# they're ost likely to appear on the face! ,hen a mi'ro&tell does appear on our face# it shows that we're in a state of conflict - usually $etween a positive e otional state that we want other people to see# and a negative e otional state that we're trying to conceal! ,hen the negative e otional state o entarily gains the upper hand# our facial control $reaks down and the mi'ro& tell appears! 7ost of the ti e we're co pletely unaware of the conflict that's taking place in us# and the fact that we're revealing our inner thoughts to the outside world! .ut even when we are conscious of our conflicting e otions# we still don't realiJe that our facial mi'ro&tells are giving us away! Facial mi'ro&tells usually e&pose the e otions that people would rather conceal - like fear# surprise# sadness and disgust! There are ti es# however# when people are trying to sustain a serious e&pression and a mi'ro&tell in the shape of a s ile $reaks through! So eti es mi'ro& tells appear on one side of the faceE at other ti es they can $e seen on $oth sides! .ecause they are so rapid# ost mi'ro&tells don't get noticed! ,hen people are pri ed to

34

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look out for mi'ro&tells# they're ore likely to recogniJe the # although so e people are uch $etter than others! Those who are good at spotting mi'ro&tells are generally ore interested in other people# and they are $etter at identifying liars! 6owever# every$ody can $e trained to $e ore sensitive to mi'ro&tells.

Stealth Tells
So e tells are shy# giving the i pression that they would rather not $e noticed - they operate $y stealth# pretending to $e so ething other than what they really are! The eye& (ipe tell# for e&a ple# tries to pass itself off as an innocent atte pt to re ove a flake of skin or a speck of dust fro under the eye# $ut it's actually an unacknowledged sign that the person is feeling sad! There are lots of other stealth tells. ,hen people are lying# for e&a ple# they fre-uently feel an unconscious urge to stop the selves saying so ething that ight give the away! They often respond to this i pulse $y touch- ing their lips or $y positioning a finger so that it stands guard over their outh! These are unconscious gestures of self-restraint# and they would $e -uite easy to spot were it not for the fact that they anage to disguise the selves as other kinds of actions! *onse-uently# when we see people touching their lips we auto atically think that they're Hust wiping the clean# and when we see people placing a finger $eside their outh we si ply assu e that they're $eing thoughtful or attentive! ,e don't recogniJe these actions as tells of self-restraint $ecause the tells have succeeded in passing the selves off as so ething else!

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(t's the sa e when people pat each other on the $ack! (f you watch people hugging you'll notice that one or $oth parties will so eti es pat the other on the $ack! To us as o$servers# to the person who's $eing patted# and even to the person who's doing the patting# this appears to $e a gesture of affection! .ut it's not - it's actually a signal to release' Although people don't realiJe it# they always respond to $eing patted on the $ack $y $ringing the hug to a close! Although the person who's $een patted on the $ack has silently $een instructed to let go# there isn't any feeling of reHection! That's $ecause the release signal operates $y stealth# pretending to $e a gesture of affection while it's actually giving a co and!

.enu*ne Tells
Genuine tells show what's really happening in people's heads! They often reveal things a$out people that they don't want others to know# and in so e cases are actively trying to conceal fro others! 6owever# there are so e actions that pretend to $e tells# $ut which aren't! These are not real tells & they're alse tells. There are several differ- ences $etween genuine tells and alse tells. First of all# unintentional tells tend to $e genuine! .lushing# sweating and pupil dilation# for e&a ple# operate outside conscious control! This eans that there's no opportunity for $luffing - people cannot fake $lushing or ake the selves sweat or ake their pupils dilate to order! *onse-uently# when so eone's face reddens we can $e sure that they're feeling self-conscious# and when we see so eone sweating we can $e certain that they're either hot or

$othered# or $oth!
@3

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Si ilarly# when we see so eone's pupils e&panding# we can reasona$ly assu e it's $ecause there's less light around or that the person is e otionally aroused! Although $lushing# sweating and pupil dilation are all outside conscious control# there are nevertheless differences $etween the ! For e&a ple# when we're $lushing we're fully aware that other people can see our e $arrass- ent and there's nothing we can do a$out it! Also# the people who witness our e $arrass ent are fully aware that they're drawing inferences on the $asis of our $lush- ing! 6owever# the situation is very different with pupil dilation! ,hen our pupils dilate# we are totally unaware of the infor ation that we're providing a$out our e otional state! ,hat's e-ually interesting is that people who see us# and who recogniJe our heightened state of arousal# don't know how they ca e to that conclusion - they know there's so ething attractive a$out our face# $ut they can't 1 identify what it is! (n other words# when our pupils dilate we produce a genuine tell# $ut we don't know that we're doing it! At the sa e ti e# other people react to the tell# $ut they don't know why! Genuine tells often appear when people are $eing deceptive - when they're trying to pass the selves off as ore do inant or confident than they really are# when they're lying# when they're trying to conceal their an&iety or cover up their real intentions! ( postors# professional con en# e&pert liars and psychopaths often anage to produce convincing perfor ances# with a ini u of revealing tells. 7ost people# however# feel awkward when they're $eing deceptive# and that's when they're $etrayed $y their tells. The pressure of trying to sustain a convinc- ing perfor ance is too uch for the - their perfor ance

@@

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starts to fracture and very soon the tells are seeping out through the cracks! )aul Ek an and his colleagues at the 5niversity of *alifornia in San Francisco have shown that people differ widely in their a$ility to produce convincing lies# and that those who find it easy to lie + produce fewer cues to deception or 'leakage'! There are so e e&perts who $elieve that there is no such thing as a consu ate liar# and that# regardless of their a$ility# people always leave tell-tale traces of their deception! Freud# for e&a ple# $elieved that people ulti ately cannot conceal their internal states fro others - in the end there is always so e outward sign of what they're thinking! As he put it# '6e that has eyes to see or ears to hear ay convince hi self that no ortal can keep a secret! (f his lips are silent# he chatters with 0 his fingertipsE $etrayal ooJes out of every pore!'

False Tells
A alse tell appears to reveal so ething a$out so eone# $ut doesn't! This ay occur for at least two reasons firstly $ecause the tell is unrelia$le# and secondly $ecause the person is faking the tell- in other words# deli$erately trying to get other people to draw the wrong conclusion a$out their thoughts or feelings! These are 'ounter eit tells. Tells are unrelia$le when they fail to give us an accurate read- ing of so eone's internal state! Sweating pal s# for e&a ple# are a good indicator of a person's an&iety! .ut they're not co pletely relia$le $ecause 0 per cent of the population has hyperhidrosis# a genetic condition that produces chronic sweating# and which has nothing to do with B an&iety!

@1

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Counter eit tells are everywhere! Every ti e a an puts on a Hacket with padded shoulders or a wo an wears high-heel shoes# they are deli$erately providing is- leading infor ation a$out how $road or tall they are# and doing so in full knowledge of the i pression they're trying to create! (n other situations they ay $e less aware of what they're trying to achieve! ,hen the an# for e&a ple# puffs out his chest or the wo an walks on tiptoes# he see s $roader and she appears taller# even though neither is fully aware why they are $ehaving in this way# if in fact they have noticed anything different a$out their own $ehaviour! (n the ani al world vocal pitch serves as a genuine signal of siJe! The depth of the toad's croak# for e&a ple# provides a very accurate prediction of how large the toad is! This ena$les individual toads to pu$liciJe how $ig they are# and to assess how $ig their co petitors are# and it's very difficult for toads to fake! A ong hu ans there isn't a straightforward relationship $etween pitch and $ody siJe in adults# although everyone assu es that large people have deep voices! ,hat's ore# people find it relatively easy to lower their voice# and to give the i pression that they're $igger than they really are! For hu ans# therefore# pitch isn't a genuine tell of siJe! A 'ounter eit tell occurs when so eone si ulates a tell without having the attri$ute or the state of ind that nor ally goes with that tell. Take the case of crying# which of course is a tell of sadness and distress! ,hen we're feel- ing this way we can either give in to the i pulse to cry or else we can try to hold $ack the tears! One way we can do this is $y $iting our lower lip! This sends two essages! Firstly it shows that our feelings are so strong that they

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need to $e $rought under control# and secondly it shows that we're capa$le of reining in our e otions! The act of $iting one's lower lip serves# not so uch as a tell# $ut rather as a tell&suppressing tell - in other words# a tell whose purpose is to ask other tells. As any actor will tell you# it's uch easier to $ite one's lower lip than it is to produce a false display of crying! ,hen people want to pretend that they're in the grip of strong e otions it's uch easier to produce a false version of a tell&suppressing tell than a false version of the tell itself! "uring his presidential ca paign# .ill *linton ade a ha$it of $iting his lower lip! 6e'd tell his audience that 'people are hurting all over the country'# and 'you can see the pain in their faces'# and then he'd $ite his lip to show that he really eant it! Of course this could have $een a genuine e&pression of *linton's feelings# $ut it's uch ore likely that his lip-$iting was a 'ounter eit tell# si ply $ecause it happened on ore than one occasion# $ecause he always anaged to control his e otions# and $ecause he stood to increase his popularity $y giving the i pression that he could $e overwhel ed $y feelings of co passion!

S*+nature Tells
Tells co e in several varieties! So e tells are widespread# even universal! Others are restricted to groups of people# and so e even appear to $e uni-ue to specific individuals! First there are 'ommon tells. These include $lushing# shrugging and the genuine s ile - wherever you go# $lushing re ains a sign of e $arrass ent# shrugging a

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sign of helplessness# and the genuine s ile a sign of happiness! Ne&t there are lo'al tells. These are shaped $y history and culture# and they are therefore confined to certain co unities or groups of people! )o'al tells include different ways of standing# sitting# sleeping and eating! Then we have signature tells or trademar. tells. These aren't necessarily uni-ue# $ut $ecause of their powerful association with certain individuals they appear to $e uni-ue to the # Hust like a signature or a trade ark! Several i portant historical figures have $een identified with trademar. tells. For e&a ple# the >o an writer )lutarch tells us that Fulius *aesar had a ha$it of scratch- ing his head with his inde& finger rather A than with all the fingers of his hand! This eant that he didn't have to distur$ his carefully arranged coiffure any ore than necessary# and it showed hi up as a vain an! Adolf 6itler had a ha$it of standing with his hands clasped in front of his genitals! This is a defensive posture and it's co only used $y people who feel socially or se&ually insecure! (n 6itler's case it pro pted the Hoke at the ti e that he was 'hiding the last une ployed e $er of the Third >eich'! ,henever we think of Napoleon .onaparte we i agine hi with his right hand tucked into his waistcoat! (n fact if you want to pretend that you're Napoleon# all you need to do is to slip your hand into an i aginary waistcoat and everyone will recogniJe you i ediately! (n spite of the universality of this i age# there's very little evidence to show that this was Napoleon's favourite posture! Luite the contrary! (t's said that his trademar. tell was his ha$it of walking with his hands clasped $ehind his $ack# a practice that ade hi instantly recogniJa$le to his

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troops# even at a great distance! The idea that Napoleon tucked his hand into his waistcoat co es fro a fa ous painting $y Fac-ues-=ouis "avid# where Napoleon appears in his study in the Tuileries )alace# assu ing this posture! ,hat's interesting is that Napoleon didn't actually sit for this portrait - the artist did it fro e ory! (t's -uite likely that Napoleon's posture in the picture is a painterly conceit rather than a faithful depiction of how he actually stood! At the ti e it was custo ary for i portant en to $e represented in paintings with their hand in their waist- coat# even when they didn't ha$itually adopt the posture! This convention was esta$lished in Europe and A erica long $efore Napoleon had co e to power# and there's even a portrait of 9eorge ,ashington in which he's adopt- ing this posture! ,ashington is re e $ered for any things# $ut not for standing around with his hand in his waistcoat! ,e all know people with signature tells - for e&a ple# the guy who can't stop shaking his foot# or the wo an who repeatedly curls her hair round her fingers in an unusual way! 7ost people recogniJe the signature tells of fa ous people today - like )rincess "iana's 'head-cant'# 7argaret Thatcher's 'eye-flash'# or )resident >eagan's 'head-twist' - $ut they don't understand what these tells reveal a$out the person concerned! (n the chapters that follow we will look at these tells and uncover their true eaning!

Trans/osed Tells

,hen you can

see so eone tapping their foot you

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reasona$ly assu e that they're feeling i patient at that o ent# and not that they were i patient so e ti e ago# or that they anticipate $eing i patient in the future! 7ost tells relate to what's happening at that o ent - in other words# they are 'ti e-locked'! There are two types of time&lo'.ed tells & one type reveals people's enduring traits# the other their current states! ,hen so eone who is chronically an&ious $ites his nails# it's $ecause of his enduring traits# not $ecause of any passing ood! On the other hand# when so eone who's acutely an&ious $ites his nails# it's $ecause of the current ood he's in# not $ecause of his enduring condition! (n each of these cases the nail-$iting reveals what the person is feeling at that ti e# even though it's a per anent e&peri- ence for the first person and a te porary one for the second! There are a nu $er of time&lo'.ed tells that reveal people's enduring traits! So e# like nail-$iting and hairpulling# are voluntary# while others# like tics# sweating# heavy or shallow $reathing# are involuntary! "epending on their severity# so e of these conditions ay re-uire edical or psychiatric treat ent! A classic e&a ple of a chronic time&lo'.ed tell is hysterical paralysis# where the person is una$le# for e&a ple# to use one of their ar s# not $ecause it's $een physically da aged# $ut $ecause they have e&perienced a trau atic event which has placed their ar $eyond voluntary control! (n such cases paralysis can $e cured only $y psychological treat ent# not $y any edical intervention! There are also states that lie dor ant# as it were# waiting to reveal the selves in people's actions! )ho$ias are a good e&a ple! )eople who Hu p up at the sight of a

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spider aren't in a per anent state of fear - it's only the appearance of a spider that akes the frightened! (t's the sa e with ' e ories in the uscles'! )eople who have e&perienced trau atic events so eti es lock their e ories of those events away in their uscles! The effects of these locked-up e ories can so eti es $e seen in the way that people hold their $odies! So eti es there's no e&ternal evidence - it's only when the uscles that retain these e ories $eco e rela&ed that the e ories are released! ,hen this happens the person is usually overwhel ed $y very powerful e otions! ,hile so e tells are time&lo'.ed# others are transposed in ti e! They are time&shi ted& that is# they reveal what the person was feeling earlier# or will feel later# and not what they are feeling at that o ent! There are any everyday e&a ples of time&shi ted tells. (f you watch people's hands while they're talking# you'll notice that they often use illustrative gestures to trace out the shape of the physical o$Hect they're talking a$out! The interesting thing a$out these gestures is that they tend to occur be ore the person utters the word that refers to the o$Hect! For e&a ple# so eone who's talking a$out a spiral staircase will perfor a spiralling otion with his hand $efore he actually says 'spiral staircase'! Fohn .ulwer# the seventeenth-century student of gesture# recogniJed this when he descri$ed how 'the *and# which is a ready 7idwife# takes often-ti es the thoughts fro the forestalled Tongue# aking a ore -uicke dispatch $y gestureE K K K For the gesture of the *and any ti es gives a hint of our intention# and speakes out a good part of our eaning# $efore our words# which acco pany or follow it# can put the selves into a vocall posture to $e

understood'! This
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pre-e ptive property of gestures shows that our thoughts can influence our actions $efore they inspire what we say - or# ore controversially# that our gestures ay actually shape what we think and say! On those occasions when we have trou$le re e $ering a word# it's often only $y perfor ing the appropriate gesture that we can recover the word fro e ory! There are other# e-ually revealing e&a ples of time& shi ted tells. 9eorge 7ahl# a clinical psychologist# descri$ed an interview with one of his patients in which the wo an was playing with her wedding ring while she was descri$ing her sy pto s! "uring this ti e she ade no ention of her hus$and! (t was only after she had stopped fiddling with her wedding ring that she started to co plain a$out her hus$and# saying that he didn't help her round the house and that he ade 4 her feel in- ade-uate! There are two ways to understand what's happening when the wo an plays with her wedding ring - either she had an unconscious i age of her hus$and at the ti e# or it was the act of playing with her ring that $rought her hus$and to ind and pro pted her to co - plain a$out hi ! Either way# it's clear that while she was playing with the ring she was not consciously thinking a$out her hus$and - that only ca e later! 6er anipu- lation of the ring is therefore transposed in ti e - it's a time&shi ted tell. On the other hand# if we were to regard her co plaint a$out her hus$and as a tell# we would con- sider it to $e a ti e-locked tell# $ecause it reveals what she was thinking a$out at that o ent!

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Predictive Tells
So e tells are predictive - they show what so eone is a$out to do ne&t or how a confrontation is likely to end! ( agine a situation where a young an and wo an are talking to each other on a park $ench# and she decides that it's ti e for her to leave! She doesn't Hust get to her feet# announce that she's leaving# and then disappear! (nstead she does things $y stages! To ensure that she doesn't upset the an# she starts $y producing a series of 'intention ove ents'# to show hi that she's thinking of leaving! These ay consist of tiny adHust ents to her gaJe or the way she arranges her ar s and legs! The i portant point a$out these intention displays is that they aren't necessarily conscious# and the wo an ay not even $e aware that she's producing the ! Although the wo an's signals are very su$tle# the an is likely to pick the up and to alter his own posture accordingly! .y responding to her displays and producing his own# he's a$le to show that he's understood her intentions! 6e ay $e unaware of the effect that her signals are having on hi # and how he is responding - in fact the entire dialogue of lea,ing tells ay $e played out without either of the $eing conscious of what's happening! There are other instances where people respond to tells without $eing aware of what's happening! ,hen two people are talking to each other it's not unco on for one or $oth of the to ' irror' the posture of the other! One person ay# for e&a ple# cross her legs and then turn her face# and a few inutes 3/ later her friend ay perfor e&actly the sa e actions! ,hen we i ic other people's actions in this way we are usually o$livious of our

13

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own actions - it's only when it's $een pointed out to us that we notice what we've $een doing! ?awning operates on si ilar principles! ,e all know that yawning is highly contagious# and that when one person yawns other people near$y are very likely to follow suit! >esearch has shown that it doesn't re-uire a co plete yawn for one person to copy another - the ere sight of an open outh# or the sound of a yawn# is often 33 enough to get other people yawning! Our a$ility to read other people's intention ove ents is highly developed! ,e don't need to think a$out it - it happens auto atically# very -uickly# and usually with re arka$le accuracy! =ike other ani als# we need to know whether other individuals are favoura$ly disposed towards us! (nstead of waiting to see what they do# we rapidly scan their $ehaviour for signs of intention ove- ents that will help us to decide what they're likely to do ne&t! (ntention ove ents play a central role in the resolution of confrontations! (n the ani al world threat displays are used to scare off the co petition - in this way individuals can get what they want without getting involved in a fight and risking inHury! (f threat displays don't work# physical attack ay $e necessary! (t's generally assu ed that individuals who produce threat displays are likely to attack! 6owever# research with $irds and fish shows that threat displays don't necessarily lead to attack - in so e cases individuals are $luffing and in others a 3@ threat is enough to achieve what they want! Threat displays# it turns out# are not a very good predictor of who's likely to win in a confrontation! 6owever# signs of uncertainty are a good predictor $ecause they show

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which individual does not want to take the confrontation to the ne&t stage! So# if you want to know which individual is ost likely to win a contest you should look out for retreat tells rather than threat tells. For e&a ple# a iddle- distance track athlete who takes the lead in a race ay or ay not dishearten the other athletes $y continuing to look ahead! 6owever# if he turns round to see where the others are# he's likely to e&pose his uncertainty and to reduce his chances of winning! "uring the presidential de$ate $etween 9eorge .ush and .ill *linton in >ich ond# .ush o entarily glanced at his watch! This fleeting action was a retreat tell& it showed that .ush had had enough and that he couldn't wait till the de$ate was over! *linton didn't steal a glance at his watch! 6e didn't need to - he was in the ascendant and he wanted the de$ate to continue!

Tell*n+ Tells
As we can see# tells are everywhere! (f you watch people talking to each other you'll notice that they are constantly oving their eyes# face# hands and $ody while they're speaking# and that they are Hust as active while they're listening! Every posture they assu e# even the icro- o entary# al ost i percepti$le# e&pressions that dash across their face# carry essages a$out their thoughts and feelings! .ut tells aren't confined to conversations - even when people are alone they are constantly shifting their $ody# touching their face and providing clues to their state of ind! Tells so eti es tell us things a$out people that they
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don't even know the selves! .ecause certain tells are controlled $y involuntary processes in the $rain they are outside people's conscious control and therefore uch ore accurate indicators of people's e otions than the accounts that they ight offer a$out their feelings! (f you ever have to choose $etween $elieving what so eone has to say a$out their feelings and what you can o$serve fro their involuntary tells# you should always opt for the latter! (n these instances the golden rule is always Trust the tells'# and not what people say a$out the selves# or what other people say a$out the ! So e tells are easily recogniJed and widely understood - for e&a ple# when so eone $lushes# everyone knows that he or she is feeling e $arrassed and selfconscious! Other tells aren't understood! That's $ecause they're not recogniJed as tells# or $ecause it's not clear what they ean# or $ecause they seldo even get noticed! Even when people do notice other people's tells it doesn't ean that they understand the ! This is especially noticea$le in relations $etween the se&es! (t's not unusual# for e&a ple# for a wo an to ake a friendly overture towards a an# and for the an to isinterpret her actions as a co e-on! E-ually# when we fail to notice the tells that other people produce# it doesn't ean that we aren't affected $y the ! (t's still possi$le for their tells to slip under our radar# so to speak# and to influence us in ways that we don't fully understand! )sychologists have discovered that arriages are ore likely to $reak down if one partner produces facial e&pressions of conte pt# even if the other 31 person is unaware that they're doing so! Tells are like the constituents of a language! .ut it's a very unusual language $ecause# while we all speak it

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fluently# we often don't hear what other people are saying or understand what their tells are telling us a$out the ! To $eco e ore proficient in the language of tells we need to $e ore o$servant - it's only $y noticing what people say and do that we can $egin to understand their thoughts and feelings! *oncentrating on tells akes us ore sensitive to other people# and ulti ately it akes our dealings with the ore rewarding! (t also helps us to understand our own $ehaviour# and the i pact that we have on others!

10

@! Tells

"o inant

,hen we eet people for the first ti e we rapidly Hudge the in ter s of whether they're do inant# friendly and 3 se&ually attractive! Although we so eti es think that we're ore interested in other issues# these three factors play a aHor role in the i pressions that we for of other people! ,e share these concerns with our nearest relatives# the chi panJees# who spend a lot of ti e sorting out their relative positions in the hierarchy! (n a chi panJee troop the distri$ution of do inance displays# su$ issive displays and groo ing creates a pecking order# which invisi$ly ranks individuals according to their rights to territory# food and se&! (ndividuals assert their do inance $y adopting a posture which creates an i pression of siJe# and which signals a readiness to attack! This ay take the for of a facing orientation# fi&ed gaJe# and heightening of the $ody! ,hen there's a confrontation it ay also involve stiffening of the li $s and erection of the ears and the hair on the $ack! A su$ issive chi panJee# on the other hand# will turn away# avert its eyes# flatten its ears and hair# and create an overall i pression of

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s allness! (n ost chi panJee troops su$ issive individuals will even turn around co pletely# presenting their rear to the do inant individual# who will then go through the otions of ounting the su$ issive individual and producing a few non-copulatory thrusts! Through this ritual# individuals acknowledge their relationship to each other and the pecking order in the troop is affir ed! ,e hu ans have inherited any of the postural signals used $y our non-hu an relatives! Although we don't have o$ile ears or erectile hair# we do use orientation# gaJe# apparent siJe and posture as signals of do inance and su$ ission in our dealings with each other!

Tall Tells
(n ost ani al societies there is a strong connection $etween height and social status! (n the case of hu ans the relationship is overwhel ing! Statistics show that taller people are ore successful than short people! They're also healthier# ore intelligent# and they tend to @ live longer! This is not a odern pheno enon8 recent e&cavations of an old graveyard in Norfolk# England# have revealed that taller people were enHoying longer lives as far $ack as 1 the ninth century! (n fact# the sy $olic association $etween height and power is very pri itive! (t goes $ack to the ti e when ar ies on the high ground had a strategic advantage over those $elow# and settle ents on the hill were a$le to defend the selves $etter than those in the valleys! The association now for s part of our language - we speak of the 'head' of the organiJation $eing 'superior' to 'those $elow'# and

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of the need to 'rise a$ove' or get 'on top of our pro$le s! ,o en say that they prefer a an to $e taller than the ! (t's also $een found that tall en have greater repro- ductive success than short en# which shows that wo en are actively selecting tall en as their + partners! (n the process# tallness has $eco e an esta$lished ideal in en# and it's now rapidly $eco ing one in wo en! Tallness in en is linked to higher levels of the ale hor one# testosterone# and to a 0 ore do inant personality! (n the history of the 5nited States only three presidents have $een shorter than the national average# and so e# like A$raha =incoln# towered over their conte poraries! The sa e association is found on ,all Street# where every inch in height a$ove the nor is worth an additional MB// per onth in B salary! Even in universities# where the staff are supposed to $e appointed on the $asis of acade ic e&cellence alone# we find that assistant professors are 3!@+ inches taller than the national average# associate professors are 3!0 inches# and full professors are 3!4+ inches taller than the average person for their age A and se&! One way to appear ore do inant is to increase one's apparent height $y positioning oneself a$ove other people! Another is to sit straight or to stand erect! )sychologists have found that people who adopt an erect standing posture tend to $e seen as ore do inant than those who adopt a slouched posture# and that those who are trained to stand erect feel ore confident and opti istic than those who continue to 2 stand in their custo ary fashion! (t has also $een found that when people succeed at a task they tend to respond $y sitting up straight# whereas those who fail at a task are ore likely to respond $y slu ping forward!

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.ut an erect posture isn't a cure for everything! (t is widely assu ed that people who feel depressed or defeated can i prove their state of ind $y sitting up straight! (n fact it's -uite the reverse! >esearch has shown that people who are given tasks involving failure show -uicker recovery when they are allowed to adopt a slu ped posture than when they are encouraged to sit up straight! *ontrary to what one would e&pect# a slu ped posture is actually an adaptive response to defeat - it ena$les people who feel deHected to gather their thoughts and to recover their 4 confidence in their own ti e!

Terr*tor*al Tells
)ower is fre-uently linked to territory in the ani al world! A ong $a$oons# the do inant or 'alpha' individual usually occupies the highest $ranches in a tree# defending its position fro the su$ordinates $elow and taking on the role of leader and protector! (t also lays clai to ore territory# $oth in the way it physically occupies the space around it and the way it keeps other individuals at $ay! (t's e&actly the sa e with hu ans! 6igh-status individuals occupy ore space - they have $igger houses# cars and offices! They also use up ore of the space around the # and other people usually acknowledge their clai s $y allowing the e&tra space! 6igh-status people see to create an invisi$le $oundary around the - not unlike a ilitary e&clusion Jone - which other people approach with caution! (ndeed# it's often the hesitant way that people approach the invisi$le $oundary around a do inant individual that provides the ost telling clues

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a$out how i portant they are# and that serves to reinforce that person's feelings of superiority! "o inance is also revealed and reinforced $y where 3/ people sit around a ta$le! At a $oard eeting the *hief E&ecutive Officer usually sits at the head of the ta$le# with those who are ne&t in i portance sitting closest to hi or her! )eople who sit at the head of the ta$le attract ore attention than anyone else! They also do ost of the talk- ing and get deferred to ore often! This is not si ply $ecause people who occupy this position happen to $e do inant# $ecause when people are rando ly assigned to different seats around a rectangular ta$le# the person who's $een placed at the head of the ta$le still attracts ost attention and does ost of the talking! (f you have a friend who's shy and retiring it's worth doing a little e&peri- ent8 ne&t ti e you have a dinner party# put hi at the head of the ta$le! (t's likely that within inutes he'll $e Hoining in# after half an hour he'll $e interrupting other people# and within the hour he'll $e do inating the conversation' The i portance that's attached to different positions is less evident with circular or s-uare ta$les than it is with rectangular or oval ta$les! >ectangular and oval ta$les are fine for $ilateral negotiations# where the two parties can occupy opposite and e-uivalent sides of the ta$le! ,hile this solution ay not give rise to disputes a$out preferential treat- ent# it is likely to encourage conflict $etween the parties $ecause of the opposing nature of the seating arrange ent! >ectangular and oval ta$les are notoriously ill-suited for ulti-party negotiations - one or ore parties ay threaten to walk out $ecause they don't feel that the seats they're $eing offered reflect their i portance in the negotiations!

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Seating positions also influence relationships in other ways! (ndividuals sitting round a ta$le are ore likely# for e&a ple# to address their re arks to people sitting oppo- site the than to those sitting $eside or at right angles to the ! This ay e&plain why# when they're seated with strangers# people usually choose to sit furthest fro high- status and low-status individuals# and closest to those who have the sa e status as the ! ,here people choose to sit in restaurants# pu$s and $ars also e&poses issues of status and control! (n pu$s and $ars courting couples tend to sit $eside each other so that $oth of the can see what's happening! (n a restau- rant# where food is the focus# they are ore likely to sit opposite each other so that each of the can keep the other in view! ,hen a couple is offered a restaurant ta$le $eside the wall# the an usually tries to sit with his $ack to the wall! This way he can keep a watchful eye on what's happening around hi - rather like a do inant ale chi panJee surveys the scene fro the top of a tree!

Standing Tells
The way people stand is another good guide to their status or the status they are trying to clai ! "o inant individuals fre-uently adopt a 'straddle stance'# with their legs straight and their feet wide apart! Su$ordinate individuals# on the other hand# are ore likely to adopt the 'parallel stance'# where the legs are straight and the feet are close together! The straddle stance offers ore sta$ility than the parallel stance# and this appears to e&plain why en# who have a higher centre of gravity# are ore likely to use the straddle

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stance than wo en! 6owever# this is not the only e&planation for this choice# $ecause en use this posture uch ore fre-uently when they're with other people - in other words# in situations where they're using posture for the purposes of co unication! There are two $asic essages conveyed $y the straddle stance! One is a acho essage# the other a threat signal! The acho essage co es fro the resolute i ova$ility of the posture - when so eone plants his feet apart he is literally and figuratively telling everyone that he intends to stand his ground# and that he won't $e oved! The threatening aspect of the straddle stance co es fro the fact that it is a loosely veiled phallic display - $y standing with his legs apart a an is actually putting his penis on display! )hallic displays are widely associated with do inance! A do inant ale $a$oon# for e&a ple# will fre-uently display its erect penis to re ind other $a$oons of his elevated social position! "o inant en seldo e&pose the selves in this way of course# $ut they do try to draw attention to their penis and to infor others how $ig it is through the clothes they wear or the way they arrange their li $s! (n the fifteenth and si&teenth centuries it was co on for high-status en to wear a codpiece# a padded pouch on the outside of the $reeches! *odpieces were fre-uently decorated and fashioned fro eye- catching aterialE and the higher 33 the an's status# the larger his codpiece! The sa e principle applies in so e traditional societies! (n New 9uinea# for e&a ple# en announce their position in the co unity $y the siJe and decorative features of their penis sheath! Although codpieces disappeared a long ti e ago# we can still find re nants of the in the shape of

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stonewashed Heans! 5ntil fairly recently it was -uite co on to find young en wearing Heans where the crotch was al ost entirely devoid of colour - a spectacle that was conveniently designed to draw the eye towards the crotch and to surreptitiously re ind everyone what lies $eneath! (n (taly# young en would go even further! 6aving $ought a new pair of Heans# they would wear the in the shower# furiously scru$$ing the aterial over their crotch with a hard $rush until it al ost looked $leached! Sporting their new Heans with a faded crotch# they would then parade the selves in pu$lic# Hust as young (talian en have done for centuries# drawing attention to their anhood! Not $eing content with their faded Heans# young (talian en have also developed another phallic display - 'the scrotch'! (f you watch the in pu$lic# you'll notice that they are constantly readHusting their crotch and scratching their testicles# often when they are alone $ut typically when they are with other en! Although it is largely un- intentional# this is clearly a phallic display which plays a significant part in co petition $etween en! (n ter s of its function# it is very si ilar to what the alpha ale $a$oon does when he displays his erect penis to his fellow $a$oons! ,hen a young an perfor s the scratch he is unconsciously trying to persuade other ales that he is do inant $ecause he's well endowed! The i pli- cation is that a large penis and testicles need special attention# and that without constantly adHusting hi self he would soon $eco e very unco forta$le! The scratch isn't confined to (taly - it's found in ost societies where acho attitudes are encouraged - and it's certainly not the only for of phallic display! There's also

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the 'crotch-yank'# where the hand is placed over the penis and testicles# and then yanked upwards! The purpose of this gesture is to pu$liciJe one's asculinity# which pro$- a$ly e&plains why it has $eco e a favourite of various $oy-$ands and singers like 7ichael Fackson# who need to re ind the pu$lic a$out their endow ents! (t's noticea$le that the ore fe inine 7ichael Fackson's face has $eco e# the ore pro inent the crotch-yank has $eco e as part of his dance routine!

S*tt*n+ Tells
Sitting postures can also convey essages a$out do inance! Sitting postures are essentially a$out co fort# convention and co unication! ,hen so e$ody sits down they usually arrange their legs so that they feel co forta$le# so that they don't violate any social nor s# and so that their posture conveys a certain essage! The essage that a sitting posture conveys need not $e intentional! (n fact it's ore likely to $e otivated $y unconscious desires! 6owever# the fact that you aren't always aware of the essages that you're sending via your sitting postures doesn't ean that other people are i - pervious to those essages! Although they ay not react consciously# it's often evident fro their responses that they are affected $y how you sit! Three $asic sitting postures can $e identified on the $asis of where people place their feet - 'straightleg' postures# where the legs are e&tended# 'step' postures# where the feet are placed directly under the knees# and

'tucked' postures# where the feet are pulled $ack under the
++

"O7(NANT TE==S

chair! ,hen they get the opportunity# do inant people prefer to adopt 'straight-leg' sitting postures! .y stretching out their legs# they sy $olically place ore of the pu$lic space under their personal Hurisdiction# there$y reducing what's availa$le to others and creating the i pression that their own needs atter ore than those of other people! On their own# 'step' sitting postures don't necessarily offer any clues a$out do inance! 6owever# the way that people position their knees does convey relia$le infor ation a$out whether they're feeling do inant or su$ issive! )eople who sit with their knees apart send clear# although usually unintended# signals that they are feeling do inant! This is ost noticea$le in the case of straight-leg sitting postures# where the legs are splayed and fully e&tended! A feeling of do inance is also conveyed $y postures like the 'anvil'# where the legs are $ent# the thighs are splayed and $oth feet are planted fir ly on the ground# and $y the 'figure four' posture# where the ankle of one leg rests on the thigh of the other# so that the li $s look like the nu $er +! .oth of these postures involve phallic displays! They are therefore used ore fre-uently $y en in parts of the world where there's a lot of e phasis on acho values# like the =atin A erican countries and the southern states of the 5S! ,o en don't like these postures# largely $ecause they can create an i pression of se&ual availa$ility! A fair a ount of suppleness and sta ina is re-uired to perfor the figure four# which is why the posture is associated with youthfulness! ,hen so eone adopts the figure four# they are ore likely to $e seen as youthful# rela&ed and do inant! So e sitting postures convey i&ed essages -

especially when the two legs are positioned differently!

+0

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OF

.ecause they convey a strong i pression of rela&ation# asy etrical sitting postures tend to $e ore do inant than sy etrical postures! .ut there are e&ceptions! For e&a ple# when so eone e&tends his legs and crosses his ankles# his e&tended legs show that he wants to $e seen as do inant! 6owever# his crossed legs give the ga e away - they show that he is really -uite reticent! >ela&ation is a key part of any do inance display $ecause it suggests that the individual isn't concerned a$out $eing attacked and could easily respond if necessary! >ela&ation is signalled $y postural and oveent cues - postural cues consist of low uscle tone# an a$sence of tension# and asy etric arrange ents of the ar s and legs# while ove ent cues consist of less ove- ent and slower ove ents of the $ody! As .alJac o$served# 'slow ove ent is essentially aHestic'! Su$ issive individuals display the opposite $ehaviour - they tend to adopt ore sy etrical poses# to rearrange their ar s and legs ore often# to show ore tension in their posture# and to ove their $ody -uickly and ore often! Through their posture# do inant individuals show that they are unconcerned a$out $eing attacked and don't e&pect it to happen! Su$ issive individuals give the i pression that they e&pect to $e attacked - they're tense and defensive!

Elbow Tells
To appear do inant# people need to create an i pression of physical strength# to look cal # and to appear un- concerned a$out any threats fro others!

One way to
+B

"O7(NANT TE==S achieve this is $y placing the hands on the hips! There are two ain versions of this posture - the one-handed 'ar aki $o' and the two-handed 'ar s aki $o'! The twohanded version is ore spectacular# $ut the one-handed version can $e pointed at other people in a way that the two-handed version cannot! There are three co ponents that ake hand-on-hip postures do inant8 0 THE E1'ANS2ON 3OM'ONENT. ,hen so eone places a hand on their hip they appear to $e larger and potentially ore threatening! ,hen $oth hands are used# the effect is dou$led! 6and-on-hip postures also e&pand the territory that so eone occupies - rather like straight- leg sitting postures! THE TH4EAT 3OM'ONENT. Anyone who has ever tried to push through a large crowd knows how effective the el$ows can $e at clearing a path! El$ows are $ony and sharp! They can $e used to nudge# lever or prod people out of the way without causing the kind of offence that ight arise if one were to use one's hands! (n this respect the el$ows are a 'second-grade weapon'# $ut a weapon nevertheless! This akes it possi$le for the el$ows to $e used in an understated# al ost su$li inal way! ,ith the ar s aki $o the essage is su$tler - the el$ows threaten people without the $eing fully aware of what's happening! THE '4E'A4ATO45 3OM'ONENT. The ar s aki $o posture is half-way $etween having the hands down $y one's side and having the raised and ready for attack! The posture is therefore a partial preparation for attack +A

T6E .OO< TE==S

OF

one where the intentions of the person are disguised $y the fact that the hands have conveniently co e to rest at the hips! (n the case of people who are ar ed with a sword or a pistol# placing the hand on the hip often $rings the hand closer to the weapon! This allows the hand to $e at rest while it is preparing for attack! "uring the si&teenth and seventeenth centuries the ar aki $o posture was an accepted part of upper-class ale deport ent! )eople in high office were fre-uently depicted in portraits with an el$ow fully e&tended - 6ans 6ol$ein's fa ous painting of 6enry V((( is a good e&a ple - and so eti es with their el$ow pointing enacingly at the viewer! At the ti e the ar aki $o posture was inti ately connected with the profession of ar s - so uch so that those who wanted to pass the selves off as having a ilitary $ackground would do so $y adopting the 3@ posture! (n 301@ "esiderius Eras us# the great "utch philosopher# co plained a$out those who 'stand or sit and set the one hand on the side# which anner to so e see eth 31 co ely like a warrior# $ut it is not forthwith honest'! The ar s aki $o posture has caused offence on other occasions! For e&a ple# after accepting the surrender of the Fapanese at the end of the Second ,orld ,ar# 9eneral "ouglas 7acArthur was photographed standing $eside the Fapanese E peror! ,hile the E peror stood to attention with his hands discreetly $y his side# 9eneral 7acArthur had his hands on his hips! The Fapanese saw this casual attitude as a sign of great disrespect! (n Fapan it is i polite to stand with one's hands on one's hipsE to do so in the presence of

the E peror# regarded $y was unforgiva$le!

$"

any Fapanese as a deity#

" O 7( N A N T TE==S

The !traddle !tan'e. This is 6ans 6ol$ein the ?ounger's fa ous portrait of 6enry V((( - legs apart and el$ows fir ly pushed out - a strong# vi$rant-looking onarch who is very uch in charge of his destiny and that of his people! 49

T6E .OO< OF TE==S Superficially all hand-on-hip postures look the sa e! On closer inspection# however# we find that there are actually four ain variants# each involving a different position of the hand or hands! 0 THE F2N.E4S 6A42ANT. 6ere the fingers face forward# the thu $ faces $ack# and the pal faces down! 7en favour the 'fingers variant' $ecause they feel $etter prepared for attack with their fingers facing forward! 7en tend to adopt this posture in order to assert the selves - either when they are feeling do inant# or when they feel that their do inance is $eing threatened! For e&a ple# when a goal is scored in a soccer atch# e $ers of the losing side often assu e the ar s aki $o posture# partly to threaten their opponents# $ut also to reassure the - selves! The posture can also $e used as a gesture of defiance! ,hen 7ick Fagger was strutting his stuff in the 34B/s# he fre-uently adopted an ar aki $o posture as part of his routine! This can $e seen very clearly on recordings of the Gimme !helter concert# when the defiant 'Fagger Swagger' was at its peak! 0 THE TH7MB 6A42ANT. (n this version the thu $ faces forward# the fingers face $ack# and the pal faces up! ,o en show a stronger preference for the 'thu $ variant' than do en! The ain reason for this is that wo en have a wider 'carrying angle' than en! This eans that they can $end their ar s further $ack at the el$ow# which akes it easier for the to place their hands on the hips with their thu $s facing forward! 0 THE 'ALM 6A42ANT. The 'pal
0/

variant' is the

ost

"O7(NANT TE==S affected of all the hand-on-hip postures! This is the rather unnatural# fle&ed posture of the hand# where the $ack of the hand is in contact with the hip and the pal faces away fro the $ody! (t's the hand position that is co only found in si&teenth- and seventeenthcentury portraits of kings# *avaliers and generals in other words# individuals who needed to distinguish the selves fro the rest of society $y adopting artificial poses! 0 THE F2ST 6A42ANT. 6ere the fist is in contact with the hip! This is potentially the ost threatening version of the hand-on-hip posture! .ecause en recogniJe the dis- ruptive potential of this version# they tend not to use it! ,o en# however# do use it - occasionally to show their defiance# and so eti es as a gesture of self- ockery! There's a fa ous photograph of .onnie )arker :of .onnie and *lyde fa e; where she has a foot on the front fender of their car# a cigar in her outh and a revolver in her right hand! 6er left el$ow leans on the la p of the car# while her right hand# holding the revolver# rests on her hip! ,hen we look at the photograph# we see i edi- ately that it's a picture of total defiance - not Hust $ecause she's clutching a gun# $ut $ecause she's showing her el$ows'

Orientation Tells
6ow people orient their $odies towards others can also convey essages a$out do inance! ,hen a an is talk- ing to his $oss he usually shows his respect $y orienting his $ody towards his $oss! The $oss# on the other hand# is

T6E TE==S

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OF

uch ore likely to orient his $ody away fro the su$ordinate! (n their separate ways# the su$ordinate shows that he's totally focused on his $oss# while his $oss shows that he's do inant and keeping his options open! There is# however# an entirely different set of essages conveyed $y $ody orientation! For e&a ple# you'll have noticed that when two strange dogs approach each other for the first ti e# they usually circle each other! 7aking sure that they don't approach each other head-on# the dogs present their flanks to each other instead! The reason for this is that in order to attack# dogs need to $e face-on! .y presenting their flanks they e&pose a vulnera$le part of their $ody# and this shows that they don't intend to attack each other! This process is called 'ritualiJation'# and it's found throughout the ani al kingdo # as well as a ong hu ans! (t's Nature's way of settling disputes through dis- plays of do inance and su$ ission# rather than through fighting# which can easily lead to inHury and death! =ike dogs# we hu ans also present vulnera$le parts of our $ody# including our flanks# when we want to show that we don't have aggressive intentions towards so eone else! So when an aggressive-looking stranger approaches you in a $ar# you're uch ore likely to present hi with the side of your $ody than to face hi directly! Standing face-on ight suggest that you're ready for a fight# whereas e&posing your flank shows that you're vulnera$le and un- defended# and that you don't present a threat! These two scenarios show that the sa e orientation can convey very different eanings in different situations! That's $ecause the eaning of orientation depends on whether or not people know each other! ,hen two people aren't ac-uainted and there's a lot of uncertainty# direct

0@

"O7(NANT TE==S

orientation is ore likely to $e interpreted as a prelude to attack! .ut when they do know each other# it's ore likely to $e seen as a sign of respect!

Face Tells
All five sensory odalities - sight# s ell# hearing# taste and touch - are found on or near the face# and of these touch is the only odality also to $e found elsewhere on the $ody! .ut the face isn't si ply a location for housing all the sensory odalities - it's also the ost i portant source of outgoing signals in the for of speech and features of the voice like accent and intonation# as well as yriads of e&pressions involving the eyes and uscles of the head and face! So e facial e&pressions# like the startle refle&# are entirely involuntaryE others# like the s ile# ay $e a genuine e&pression of pleasure or a deli$erate atte pt to create an i pression of genuine pleasure! .ecause the face is partly under conscious control# it's a aHor weapon in our daily atte pts to islead and deceive each other! (n spite of this# the face re ains the pri e source of infor ation a$out our e otional states - it's $y o$serving our faces that other people can tell whether we are feeling happy# sad# angry# surprised or frightened! =ooking at our face# they can also tell whether we're feeling do inant or su$ issive! The face conveys do inance signals in two ways! The first way is through 'facial attri$utes' - for e&a ple# whether the eye$rows are large or s all# the chin is s-uare or round# or the eyes are close together or

set wide apart! The second way actions' - for e&a ple#

is through 'facial

01

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how the eyes are widened or narrowed# the eye$rows raised or lowered# or the chin is pushed forward or pulled $ack! A person's facial attri$utes tend to last for decades# so eti es for ost of their life! Facial actions# on the other hand# ay change fro one second to the ne&t! Several facial attri$utes are associated with do inance! )eople with s-uare Haws are Hudged to $e ore do inant than those who have weak# receding Hawlines! )eople who have pro inent ridges a$ove their eyes are also regarded as ore do inant# and so are people with thin lips! )hysiogno ic attri$utes play a aHor role in how people are treated! 7en who have a 'do inant face' are likely to have se& earlier in life and to have ore se&! >esearch has also shown that en who have ore do inant faces are ore likely to attain high 3+ rank in the ar y! Non-hu an pri ates and hu ans share any signals of do inance! Several species of apes and onkeys# for e&a ple# lower their eye$rows as a do inance threat signal! (t's the sa e with hu ans! )eople whose $rows are set low# or who lower the # are seen as do inant# while those who have raised $rows# or who elevate 30 the te porarily# are seen as su$ issive! This is one of the reasons why wo en pluck their eye$rows - $y aking the thinner and raising the # wo en create a se i- per anent su$ ission display# which en are supposed to find attractive! The language of raised and lowered eye- $rows is widely understood! 6owever# there are parts of the world# including Africa and Asia# where raised eye- $rows are not interpreted as a sign of 3B su$ ission! Faw siJe also signals do inance! There are two reasons for this! Firstly# the teeth are a very pri itive and

effective weapon# and secondly the develop ent of a large Haw is

0+

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pro oted $y testosterone# which in turn is linked to do inance and aggression! )eople who have large Haws are usually assu ed to $e do inant# while those with s all Haws are assu ed to $e su$ issive! (t therefore helps to have a large Haw if you want to get ahead in $usiness# or if you want to have a successful career in the ar ed forces! (f your Haw isn't pro inent enough# you can always resort to plastic surgery and get it aug ented! Alternatively you can ake a ha$it of sticking out your Haw! The 'Haw thrust'# which involves raising the head slightly or pushing the $otto teeth out $eyond the top teeth# is a co on gesture of defiance# and it's widely used in confrontations $y children! )eople who have narrow eyes# or who narrow their eyes# are also seen as do inant! ,hen the eyes are narrowed as a do inance signal# they take on the appear- ance of a visor - it looks as if the person is peering through a slit in their hel et! There are good e&a ples of this in ovies like The Good# the Bad and the /gly# where *lint Eastwood and =ee Van *leef narrow their eyes and adopt a 'visor eyes' posture to ake the selves look tough! They also produce other revealing signs of do inance! One is the lowering of the eye$rowsE the other is the narrow# resolute set of the outh and the a$sence of s iling! =owered eye$rows convey an i pression of do inance $ecause they create a ore confrontational stare! .ecause facial e&pressions of anger include lowered eye$rows# so eone who akes a point of lowering their eye$rows is likely to appear angrier! >ecent research $y =arissaTiedens at Stanford 5niversity in *alifornia shows that displays of anger are fre-uently interpreted as a sign 3A of strength! This e&plains why so any people in positions of power affect

55

T6E .OO< OF TE==S

an air of perpetual gru piness - it akes the look do inant' A good e&a ple of affected gru piness ay $e seen in the TV series# The 0ea.est )in.# in which the presenter# Anne >o$inson# akes a point of not s iling! She also uses another dominan'e tell: looking over the top of her spectacles when she wants to ake the contestants look stupid! This is in fact one of her trademar. tells# and it fits very well with the role she's chosen to proHect of a rather do inant and cold-hearted presenter! =ooking o,er the top of the spectacles works in this way $ecause it draws attention to the eyes - it says in effect# '=ook at e# (' lowering y glasses so that ( can get a clear# uno$structed view of youE there's nothing you can hide fro e'' The o,erloo. tell is therefore a gesture of confrontationE it's a prelude to what Joologists call an 'agonistic stare'! The effect of the gesture is even stronger when it's acco - panied $y a slight dip of the head# $ecause this akes the stare ore threatening! Thin lips are another sign of do inance $ecause they show that so eone is deter ined! As we shall see later on# s iling is a highly affiliative gesture - it's a sign of openness and acceptance# and that's why it doesn't feature in the roles played $y *lint Eastwood and =ee Van *leef! >esearchers have found that en who are Hudged to $e do inant# and who have high levels of testosterone# actually produce uch s aller s iles# $ut that the sa e relationship doesn't hold for 32 wo en! So e do inant individuals never see to s ile at all! )resident Vladi ir )utin of >ussia is a good e&a ple of a national leader who's very sparing with his s iles! Although he's athletic# )utin isn't very tall# and he has a s all chin! Not

0B

"O7(NANT TE==S s iling gives hi a way of aking up for these deficits! Of course there are ti es when do inant individuals need to s ile! (n these situations they often concede $y producing a 'closed- outh s ile'# where the lips re ain together# instead of an 'open- outh s ile'# where the lips are parted and the teeth are e&posed! There are two types of closed- outh s iles favoured $y do inant individuals8 0 SEA=E" S7(=ES! 6ere the lips are kept together while the corners of the outh are stretched apart! The result is an elongated line across the face# and a strong i pression that everyone is $eing e&cluded fro knowing what's inside the person whose lips are sealed! Sealed s iles are a favourite of high-ranking $usiness en and politicians - you'll often find the on the photographed faces of directors in corporate $rochures! K *=A7)E" S7(=ES! 6ere the uscles around the outh are tensed to show that the s ile is $eing restrained! The actor *harlton 6eston is the chief e&ponent of the cla ped s ile - it's one of his trademar. tells. The cla ped s ile offers a way of s iling without actually s iling! (n this respect it's a asked s ile where the intention is not to conceal the s ile# $ut to draw attention to the failed atte pt at conceal ent! The cla ped s iie suggests that the person has a strong i pulse to s ile# $ut that they have anaged to $ring it under control! Luite often it's this aspect of control that for s the ain essage of this s ile!

0A

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5awn*n+ Tells
Everyone knows two things a$out yawning - that its purpose is to increase o&ygen intake# and that it's very contagious! The first is wrong - there's no evidence that yawning actually increases our intake of o&ygen - $ut the second is true! ,hy yawning is so contagious re ains so ething of a ystery# although it's known that people yawn when they see so eone else yawn# when they hear the yawn# when they read a$out yawning# and even when they Hust think a$out it! ,hy we actually yawn is also a ystery! Various e&planations have $een put for- ward# the ost recent $eing the suggestion that yawning 'cleans the $rain' $y flushing out the cere$rospinal fluid! (t's $een discovered that yawning is controlled $y very deep parts of the $rain $ecause there are so e $rainda aged people who cannot ove their outh intentionally# $ut who open their outh auto atically 34 when they yawn! 7ost of us think of yawning as a $oredo signal! (n fact there are four types of yawn# and they fall under the four Ts' -Tediu # Transition# Tension and Threat!
0 TE"(57 ?A,NS! These are triggered $y onotonous tasks# inactivity# tiredness and $oredo ! (f you watch so eone who's engaged in a repetitive task# or who's waiting in a long line to $e served# you'll notice that they often yawn! Tediu yawns are the ost co on type of all! 0 T>ANS(T(ON ?A,NS! These occur when people ove fro one kind of activity to another - for e&a ple#

02

"O7(NANT TE==S cli $ing out of $ed and getting ready in the orning# or preparing to go to $ed in the evening! ?awns also occur at social Hunctures - for e&a ple# i ediately after so eone has said good$ye to a close friend! ?awning can $e used as an a'ti,ity tell& in other words# when you see so eone alone# reading a $ook# and they start to yawn# you know there's a good chance that they're a$out to do so ething different! 0 TENS2ON 5A8NS. Tension yawns occur when people are tense - usually when a do inant person is close and they feel awkward or e $arrassed! ,henever people are an&ious they are lia$le to yawn - it's even $een reported in Oly pic athletes who are waiting in their starting $locks# and paratroopers who are a$out to Hu p out of the plane! These yawns are responses to stress! They are e&a ples of 'displace ent activity'# $ecause they help to displace an&iety to so e other activity! 0 TH4EAT 5A8NS. (n hu an as well as ani al societies# do inant individuals produce threat yawns! ?awning is found in a $road range of species# including fish# $irds# reptiles# onkeys and apes! (f there were a '?awning Oly pics'# $a$oons would $e the outright winners! ,hile other pri ates yawn a$out 3/ ti es a day# ale $a$oons produce 3/-3@ yawns per hour# and so eti es as any as @+ per hour' This is not $ecause $a$oons are tired or $oredE it's $ecause life in $a$oon society is so threatening!

A large proportion of $a$oons' yawns are designed to assert do inance and to threaten potential rivals! As wit h other non-hu an pri ates# ore yawning is produced $y

59

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adult ales than $y adult fe ales or $y youngsters of either se&! (ndividuals with higher levels of testosterone also produce ore yawning! The ain weapon of $a$oons is their teeth! 7ale $a$oons have larger canines than fe ales# and do inant ales tend to have larger canines than other ales! So it's usually the alpha ale who pro- duces ost of the yawns# putting his large canine teeth on display! As his status increases# so does his yawningE when he looses his status# his yawning starts to decline! 6u ans also use yawning as a do inance signal# although the $asis is not e&actly the sa e as it is for $a$oons! For one thing# en and wo en hardly differ in the siJe of their canines# which pro$a$ly e&plains why there isn't a $ig difference in how often en and wo en yawn! 6owever# when en do yawn they're uch ore likely to e&pose their teethE wo en tend to @/ cover their outh with their hand! This could $e $ecause wo en have $etter anners than en# $ut it ight $e a throw- $ack to a ti e when there was a difference $etween the dental e-uip ent of the se&es! Although our teeth are no longer our pri ary weapons# they are still used as a threat! (f you o$serve do inant people you'll find that they often yawn at those o ents when they need to assert the selves - for e&a ple# when they're feeling threatened and it looks as if so eone else ight try to usurp their position! This suggests that# for hu ans# the threat yawn is a reli' tell - in other words# a tell that is left over fro a ti e in our evolutionary past when our ancestors had larger canines and used the to inti idate each other!

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Tal Tells
,hen people of different status are together# the ost i portant person usually does ost of the talking! This ena$les the to re ind everyone else of their position! (t also gives the a chance to hear the sound of their own voice# and to listen to their own opinions rather than those of other people! "o inant people are -uicker off the ark when it co es to speaking! (t's $een found that when groups of people eet for the first ti e# the order in which they speak provides a fairly good guide to who will do inate the proceedings afterwards! The first person to offer his or her opinion invaria$ly assu es the role of leaderE the last person to ake a contri$ution tends to $e the person who ends up @3 taking orders! "o inant people interrupt others ore# and they are ore successful at seeing off people who try to take the floor fro the ! They do this $y continuing to talk over the other person# $y raising their voice# and $y using non- ver$al signals to discourage the other person! As a result# interruptions initiated $y the do inant person tend to show shorter $outs of overlapping speech than those initiated $y the su$ordinate person! "o inant people are ore confident in their speech# with the result that they use fewer hesitations and speech disfluencies like 'urn' and 'er'! They often ake a ha$it of talking loudly! This is especially noticea$le in .ritain# where old class divisions co e into play and e $ers of the upper class so eti es drown out the conversations of other people! "o inance is also evident in other aspects of speech! One of these is what psychologists call odation' that is# the tendency of individuals

'acco

to

odify their
B3

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speech style so as to $ring it into line with that of other people! This can $e done through shifts in accent# speech speed# for ality or pitch! Acco odation usually takes place $etween people who like each other# $ut it also occurs when there are differences in status! (n these circu stances the su$ordinate person tends to acco - odate his or her speech to that of the do inant person! A few years ago two sociologists# Stanford 9regory and Stephen ,e$ster# studied a selection of interviews fro the television %% chat show# )arry $ing )i,e. 5sing an instru ent that analyses low fre-uencies in the voice# they co pared the voices of the host and his guests# to see who had acco odated to who ! They discovered that while =arry <ing acco odated to high-status guests like EliJa$eth Taylor# people like "an Luayle acco odated to hi ! These su$tle changes in voice fre-uency operate outside of awareness - people don't know that they are odifying their voice to $ring it into line with so eone else's! (t shows# nevertheless# how sensitive individuals are to the status of other people# and how eager they are to adapt to the !

!oice Tells
Vocal characteristics like pitch are often assu ed to $e a good guide to do inance and su$ ission! (t has $een found that 'deep' sounds are associated with do inance and threat# while 'high-pitched' sounds are associated with su$ ission and appease ent! This association is found throughout the ani al world# fro whales to shrews - a good e&a ple is the deep aggressive growl of

B@

"O7(NANT TE==S

a guard dog# as opposed to the high-pitched yelp of a @1 su$ issive puppy! (n the ani al world# individuals with long vocal tracts produce uch deeper sounds! .ecause large individuals tend to have longer vocal tracts# the depth of the sound they ake provides a very good indication of how $ig they are# and how threatening they're likely to $e! 6owever# with hu ans there isn't a clear-cut relationship $etween $ody siJe and the depth of people's voices# so pitch doesn't provide a genuine tell of so eone's siJe! Nevertheless# when people are presented with recordings of deep and high-pitched vocaliJations# they consistently e&press the opinion that the deep voices $elong to do inant individuals and the high-pitched voices to su$- issive individuals! ,hy pitch should provide a genuine tell of siJe a ong ani als# $ut not a ong hu ans# is so ething of a ystery! (t ay $e due to an 'evolutionary lag' - in other words# the association $etween $ody siJe and pitch# which was present in our evolutionary ancestors# ay have installed a set of assu ptions in our inds# which are still at work even though the association has @+ long disappeared! (f vocal pitch doesn't provide evidence a$out $ody siJe in hu ans# it does offer significant clues a$out do inance! (t does this in several ways! Firstly# it's $een discovered that en who have deep voices have high levels of testosterone for e&a ple# ale $ass and $aritone singers# who have deeper voices# tend to have higher levels of testosterone than tenors! Secondly# it's known that testosterone is linked to do inance in en! Thirdly# vocal pitch often shows whether people are in a do inant or su$ issive state of ind! (ndividuals who are

B1

T6E .OO< OF TE==S

atte pting to $e do inant usually lower the pitch of their voice - that's why Fohn ,ayne advised en to 'talk low# talk slow# and don't say too uch'! On the other hand# people who are trying to appear su$ issive usually raise their pitch! ,hen others are talking to their $a$ies they instinctively adopt a higher pitch than @0 nor al! This has the effect of cal ing the $a$y! Of course others ay not know it# $ut the reason why they raise their pitch is that $a$ies are ost sensitive to higher vocal fre-uencies! The vocal pitch that individuals adopt often reflects their social standing! 7e $ers of su$ordinate groups often speak with a higher pitch than those who $elong to ore powerful groups in that society! ,e can see this very clearly in the 5SA during the heyday of 7otown# when African-A erican singers like The Stylistics sang in a high- pitched# falsetto register that is nor ally reserved for wo en! The sa e kind of selfe asculation could $e seen at work a ong the so-called '*oloureds' of South Africa during the apartheid era! The *oloureds are people of i&ed race! So e are the descendants of 7alay slaves# others the progeny of relationships $etween .lacks and ,hites! 5nder apartheid they lived in a political no an's land $etween the .lacks and the ,hites# and of all the racial groups in South Africa they were the ost insecure! Their arginal position was very evident in the highpitched speech style they used! (t $eca e their $adge of oppression# a way of showing that they didn't represent a threat to the ,hite esta$lish ent! >ising and falling intonation also carry i portant essages! Falling pitch is associated with state ents# certainty and do inance# whereas rising pitch is a characteristic of -uestions# uncertainty and su$ issiveness!

B+

"O7(NANT TE==S

6owever# that's not always the case! ,hen you talk to Australians# for e&a ple# you'll notice that they fre-uently ake their declarative state ents sound like -uestions $y ending with a rising intonation! This has the effect of aking their opinions appear less certain and less contentious# which in turn reduces the chances of conflict! 6owever# in other respects Australians are $eco ing ore assertive - or rather# Australian wo en are! *o parisons show that over the past five decades the pitch of wo en's voices in Australia has got deeper! The voices of Australian en and wo en are converging# and it's all $ecause wo en are a$andoning their su$ issive tones and starting to speak @B ore like en!

To"ching Tells
(f you watch people at an office drinks party# you'll notice that their position within the organiJation is often reflected in who they touch and who touches the ! 7ost of the touching that you'll see is $etween people who are at roughly the sa e level in the organiJation! One person pats his friend on the $ack# another ru$s her colleague on the ar # and yet another plants a playful punch on so e- one's shoulder! All of these are 'horiJontal' touches $ecause they're $etween notional e-uals! They're a$out friendship# ca araderie or lighthearted provocation# and they can $e utual or reciprocal - in other words# it's -uite accepta$le for people of si ilar status to have their ar s around each other's shoulders# or for one of the to )at the other on the $ack and for that person to respond with a si ilar gesture!

B0

T6E .OO< OF TE==S

=ooking round the party you'll also notice 'vertical' touches# that is# touches $etween people of different status! ?ou'll see that# as the $oss circulates a ong the staff# he places his hand on the shoulder of the young an who's Hust Hoined the co pany# or he s-ueeJes his secretary's ar as she walks past looking for a drink! These touches are one-sided neither the young an nor the secretary responds $y touching the $oss! (n fact it's the non-reciprocal nature of each touch# rather than where the hand akes contact# that identifies it as a vertical touch one that allows the $oss to e&ercise his sy $olic right @A to i pose hi self# however affectionately# on his staff! 7ost vertical touches consist of a do inant person touching a su$ordinate person# $ut the reverse does happen! (f the young an who'd Hust $een touched responded $y putting his hand on his $oss's shoulder# it would suggest that they are ore e-ual than they really are# and this could threaten the $oss's authority! There are so e situations# like walka$outs# where high status people don't ind $eing touched $y other people! .ut as a rule# they don't like it $ecause they know it can reduce their authority! (t can also cause offence! For e&a ple# when the Lueen was in Australia in 344@# the Australian )ri e 7inister# )aul <eating# thoughtlessly put his ar around her! 7any .ritons found this deeply offensive# and the .ritish ta$loid press nickna ed )aul <eating the '=iJard of OJ'! 7ost Australians couldn't see what all the fuss was a$out! They didn't realiJe that# for the .ritish# this is a very touchy su$Hect!

BB

"O7(NANT TE==S

#oo ing Tells

The do inance hierarchy in a chi panJee troop is reflected in the 'attention structure' of the troop# so that su$ordinate individuals spend ore ti e watching their superiors than vice versa# and all the attention is on @2 the alpha e $er of the troop! .usiness fir s operate on the sa e principle! 6ere again# su$ordinate individuals spend ore ti e watching their superiors than vice versa# and everyone's attention is focused on the $oss! The si ilarity $etween chi panJee troops and $usiness fir s goes even further! ,hen a do inant chi panJee eets a su$ordinate chi panJee# the su$ordinate in- dividual goes through an appease ent display $y lowering its $ody# averting its eyes# and so eti es pre- senting its $ackside! Su$ordinate chi panJees avert their gaJe $ecause staring is likely to invite an attack fro the do inant individual! The greeting rituals in $usiness organiJations are si ilar to those in a chi panJee troop! Although e ployees don't present their $acksides to their $oss - at least# not literally - they fre-uently try to ake the selves appear s aller and less threatening $y lower- ing their head and keeping their hands and feet close to their $ody! )atterns of gaJe are regulated in a si ilar way! ,hen two people are involved in utual gaJe# they are visually 'locked together'! ,hen they are of une-ual status# the )erson who averts gaJe# or 'unlocks' first# tends to $e the su$ordinate! The issue of who 'out-looks' who can have far-reaching conse-uences! (t has $een found# for e&a ple# that when two people eet for the first ti e# the )erson who 'out-looks' the other is likely to $e

ore
BA

T6E .OO< OF TE==S

talkative and influential when they go on to work @4 together in a group! (n a $usiness fir # if the $oss and a su$- ordinate happen to look at each other at the sa e ti e# it's usually the su$ordinate who $reaks off first! Veiled challenges to the $oss can# however# $e delivered through the eyes! For e&a ple# instead of openly disagreeing with the $oss# a su$ordinate can si ply engage hi in a su$tle $out of 'ocular ar wrestling'# holding his gaJe for slightly longer than he would nor ally do! (f carefully ti ed# this can have the desired effect# without appearing to $e disrespectful! (n conversations $etween people of une-ual status# do inant individuals usually show 'visual do inance' that is# they spend proportionately ore ti e looking at the other person while they are talking than they do 1/ while they are listening! There are several reasons for this! First of all# $ecause talking is a ore controlling activity than listening# do inant individuals like to hang on to the speaker role! To do this they watch the other person closely# aking sure that they're listening and that they're not a$out to try and take over! The opposite happens when do inant people find the selves in the listening role! Now# $y reducing the a ount of ti e they spend looking# they can show that they're not prepared to flatter the other person and that they don't e&pect to re ain in the listen- ing role for uch longer! Su$ordinate people# on the other hand# spend proportionately ore ti e looking while listening than looking while talking! .y $eing ore attentive in the listening role they anage to reinforce the do inant person's feelings of self-i portance# which ay of course only encourage the do inant person to talk even ore!

B2

"O7(NANT TE==S

The reason why su$ordinate individuals look less while talking is pro$a$ly due to their sense of insecurity! The listener is always Hudging the speaker! "o inant people don't ind this aspect of the speaker role - it doesn't upset the to know that a su$ordinate person is Hudging the ! Su$ordinate people# however# are understanda$ly an&ious a$out how they appear when they are talking to do inant people! To reduce this an&iety they si ply look at the do inant person less! >ela&ation is an essential feature of do inance! (t's displayed $y sinuous and slow ove ents of the $ody! That's $ecause the actions of do inant people are governed $y the 'principle of econo y'# whereas those of su$ordinate individuals are governed $y the 'principle of effort'! Su$ordinate people tend to $e unsure of the - selves when they're in the presence of do inant people! =ike low-ranking chi panJees# they're constantly on the lookout for trou$le! This shows itself in their general de eanour and in rapid# Herky ove ents of the eyes! "o inant people are uch ore sure of the selves# so their eye ove ents tend to $e s ooth and unhurried! 7any years ago# when ( was in the ,est African state of .urkina Faso# ( was fortunate to have an audience with the E peror of the 7ossi! ( was ushered into a reception roo # where the E peror sat# surrounded $y his courtiers# The E peror was a large an# with a very i posing )resence! ,hat struck e was how little the E peror actually did for hi self- actions that ost people would nor ally do for the selves# like pouring a glass of water# were perfor ed $y the courtiers and servants who fussed around hi ! ,hen he shifted his $ody or spoke# it was with enor ous econo y of ove ent! At ti es the only
13

69

T6E TE==S

.OO<

OF

things that appeared to ove were his eyes! ,hen so e- one addressed hi # he didn't switch his attention i ediately# as ost people would do! (nstead# after a suita$le delay# he would allow his head and eyes to drift towards the person# al ost as though he'd $een fil ed in slow otion! The E peror's actions were e&ecuted with- out the slightest hint of urgency! Every glance# every gesture# was perfor ed at an i perial pace# in his own ti e! (t re inded e of what NietJsche# the 9er an philosopher# said when so eone asked hi # ',hat is aristocratic%' The slow gesture and the slow glance#' he replied!

A/

1! Su$ issive Tells

(n any ways# su$ ission is the flip side of do inance! (n his fa ous $ook# The E1pression o the Emotions in Man and Animals# *harles "arwin descri$ed how the relation- ship $etween do inance and su$ ission is governed $y what he called the 'principle of 3 antithesis'! "arwin pointed out that when a dog is in a do inant and hostile state of ind it walks upright and stiffly# and its head is raised! The tail is erect# the hair on its head and $ack $egins to $ristle# the ears are pricked and pointed forward# and the eyes assu e a fi&ed stare! As the dog prepares to attack it $ares its teeth and the ears are pressed $ack! ,hen the sa e dog is in a su$ issive fra e of ind its appearance is al ost e&actly the opposite! Now# instead of walking upright# it lowers its $ody and crouches! The rigidity of the $ack and legs gives way to a ore fle&i$le posture! The tail# instead of $eing stiff and held upright# is lowered and wagged fro side to side! The hair $eco es s ooth# the ears are depressed and rela&ed# the teeth are no longer e&posed and the lips hang loosely! ,ith the drawing $ack of the ears the eyelids $eco e

9#

T6E TE==S

.OO<

OF

elongated and the eyes no longer appear round and staring!

S:ru++*n+ Tells
,hen "arwin ca e to apply the principle of antithesis to hu ans he selected the shrug! ',ith ankind#' he wrote# 'the $est instance of a gesture standing in direct opposition to other ove ents# naturally assu ed under the opposite fra e of ind# is that of shrugging the shoulders!' According to "arwin# the natural contrast to the feelings of helplessness associated with the shrug is the fra e of ind associated with displays of indignation! (n the case of the shrug# he tells us# the shoulders are raised# the el$ows are pulled inwards# the hands are raised and the fingers are e&tended! (n contrast# displays of indignation are characteriJed $y a s-uaring of the shoulders! The chest is e&panded# the li $s are held rigid and the fists are clenched! This all see s very convincing# $ut it is in fact istaken# $ecause displays of indignation are not the opposite of the shrug! (ndignation# as "arwin calls it# involves a raised head# with the shoulders thrown $ack# whereas in the shrug the shoulders are raised and the head is typically placed to one side! The opposite of raising the head is lowering the head# and the opposite of throwing the shoulders $ack is curling the forward! ,hat "arwin saw as the act of indignation was really a display of do inance! (n an# raising the head and drawing the shoulders $ack signals do inance# while lowering the head and drawing the shoulders forward signals su$- ission! (n the shrug# however# the head is placed to one

72

S5.7(SS(VE TE==S side and the shoulders are raised! Neither of these actions has 'an opposite' - it's not possi$le to lower one's shoulders or to do the opposite of placing one's head to the side! (n this respect the shrug is a 'wallflower action' it doesn't have a partner and it's destined to re ain on its own! (n contrast# displays of do inance and su$ ission are like insepara$le dancing partners - neither can e&ist without the other! Each# $y definition# takes its shape and ove ent fro the other! Although the shrug is forced# as it were# to sit on the side# watching the action# it is uch closer to su$ ission than it is to do inance! There are several reasons for this8 0 SHO7L(E4S. >aising the shoulders is an integral feature of the shrug# which owes its origins to the innate 'startle response'! ,hen we're e&posed to a loud# une&pected noise we instinctively raise our shoulders and pull our head down! This ena$les us to protect our head and neck fro inHury! >aising the shoulders as part of the shrug is also self-protective# $ut in this conte&t it's ore sy $olic! .ecause selfprotection is such an integral part of su$- ission# it eans that the shrug has ore in co on with su$ ission than with do inance! HEA(. ,hen people shrug they fre-uently place their head to one side! As we shall see later# 'canting' the head is a su$ issive gesture! .y adding this action to the shrug# the shrug is ade ore su$ issive! E5EB4O8S. Another feature that is often added to the shrug is raised eye$rows! ,hen this is done without the eyes $eing opened as well# the essage is one of

A1

T6E .OO< OF TE==S appease ent! *onse-uently# shrugs that are perfor ed with raised eye$rows are uch ore su$ issive than those produced without this addition! 0 7ESSA9ES! The essage of the shrug is one of helpless- ness! So eone who shrugs is saying# '( can't do anything a$out it'# '( don't know' or '(' not responsi$le'! These essages of i potence are o$viously uch closer to su$ ission than they are to do inance!

The shrug is the gestural cop-out par e1'ellen'e. (t's hardly surprising# therefore# that it's so popular in close-knit co unities where people are constantly aking de ands on each other for favours or infor ation# and where they need to find a way of refusing these de ands without causing offence! The shrug can $e perfor ed in several ways# depending on how the various co ponents of raised shoulders# raised ar s# e&posed pal s# raised eye$rows and canted head are co $ined! The way people co $ine these co ponents has a lot to do wit h their cultural $ackground! (n his fa ous study of (talians and Fews in New ?ork *ity# "avid Efron noted that while (talians tended to gesticulate wit h a wide circu ference o ove ent# Eastern European Fews have a ha$it of keeping @ their el$ows tucked in! These differences are also dis- cerni$le in the way they shrugE (talians tend to shrug with raised shoulders as well as raised ar s# whereas Eastern European Fews tend to raise their shoulders while keeping their shoulders tucked in! The (talian shrug is uch ore e&pansive# relying on the self-protection provided $y the raised shoulders! The Eastern European Fewish shrug is dou$ly defensive $ecause it relies on the protection

9$

S5.7(SS(VE TE==S

provided $y the raised shoulders as well as the el$ows $eing tucked in close! The fact that the el$ows are not on display also reduces the likelihood of the shrug appearing do inant! French shrugs# on the other hand# tend to $e econo ical! They often consist of nothing ore than a ' outh-shrug'# where the outh is forced into an inverted ' 5 ' $y dropping the Haw# keeping the lips together and si ul- taneously drawing the sides of the outh down! The classic French outh-shrug is acco panied $y the e&pression Bo 2# an eHaculation that neatly su ariJes the $ored# disdainful tone that the French have added to the $asic essage of the 1 shrug! (n fact# French shrugs fre-uently have a dis issive tone# al ost as if the shrugger were saying# '(' helpless to co ent# (' $ored and uninterested# and anyway it's irrelevant'' This contrasts with the essages conveyed $y other ethnic variants of the shrug while the (talians# for e&a ple# see to $e saying ',hat's it got to do with e# (' innocent'' the essage conveyed $y the Eastern European Fewish shrug is so e- thing like ',hat can ( do# (' powerless!'

(e)ens*;e Tells
(f strength and threat for the $asis of do inance displays# then weakness and defensiveness for the $asis of su$ ission displays! (ndividuals who want to signal su$- ission need to show that they aren't a threat and that their ain concern is self-protection rather than attack! This can $e done in three ways - $y $eing inactive# $y appearing s aller and $y looking

vulnera$le! (nactivity
A0

T6E .OO< OF TE==S

reduces the threat to others $ecause it's linked to the 'fear response'! ,hen individuals are in danger they fre-uently + 'freeJe'! This reduces their chances of $eing seen# $ut it also sends a very clear essage that the individual is not preparing to attack - especially when it's co $ined with postural adHust ents that are designed to ake the person appear s aller! There are several ways that people try to look s aller than they actually are! One is $y slouchingE another is $y s-uatting or sitting down! ,earing dull colours and avoiding padded shoulders and hats also helps! The ost potent essages of su$ ission are those associated with vulnera$ility# especially in the way that people arrange their ar s and legs! Standing and sitting postures are full of tells $ecause do inant people tend to adopt 'open' postures# while su$ issive people tend to adopt 'closed' postures! There are several su$ issive standing postures! One is the 'parallel stance'# where the legs are straight and parallel! Schoolchildren adopt this posture when they're talking to their teacherE soldiers use it when they're addressing a superior officer# and e ployees assu e it when they're talking to their $oss! (n less for al settings# su$ordinate people so eti es stand with their legs crossed# adopting a 'scissors stance'# where the legs are straight and one is crossed over the other# or the '$ent $lade stance'# where all the weight is on one leg and the other is $ent# with the foot positioned either in front or $ehind# with Hust the toes touching the ground! )eople who are shy or lacking in confidence also adopt these postures! Su$ ission is revealed in two aspects of sitting posture! One involves drawing $ack the feet and even

concealing
AB

S5.7(SS(VE TE==S

the so that they don't invade the pu$lic space and i pose the selves on other people! The other feature involves keeping the knees together andDor crossing the legs# either at the thigh or at the ankles! These postures are the antithesis of 'open legged' postures# where the genitals are put on display! ,ith the knees together and the legs crossed# the genitals are sy $olically placed out of sight and out of $ounds# and other people are prevented# again sy $olically# fro getting $etween the person's legs! The other i portant function of crossing the legs and keeping the close together is that this increases the a ount of 'auto-contact' - that is# the e&tent that the $ody is in contact with itself! ,hen people feel threatened# as they tend to do when they're $eing su$ issive# they often feel the need to reassure the selves $y increasing auto- contact! Again# this is not so ething that people consciously decide to do! 7ost of the ti e it happens without the $eing aware of what they're doing and why they're doing it!

Sel)-co<)ort*n+ Tells
,hen we're talking to so eone in a position of authority we tend to assu e that our own actions# rather than those of the other person# are $eing Hudged# and this akes us feel self-conscious and insecure! There are several ways that we cope with these feelings! One is $y engaging in auto-contact actions where we touch# hold or stroke our- selves! These self-co forting gestures serve to reassure us - Hust as they do when so eone else touches# holds or strokes us! (n this sense auto-contact actions are really

77

T6E TE==S

.OO<

OF

substitution tells& they're co forting and reassuring things that we do to ourselves when there isn't any$ody else around to do the to us! The potency of auto-contact actions lies in the fact that physical touch is the $est way to co fort so eone! (t's the ost pri itive and it's also the ost effective! The i - portance of touch is reflected in the co position of our skin# which has illions of receptor cells that are sensitive to the slightest change in pressure# and in the structure of our $rain# where it's $een discovered that the area in the prefrontal corte& that's devoted to touch is uch larger than the areas devoted to any of the other senses! Touch for s the $asis of the initial contact $etween other and childE it's touch that co forts the $a$y and akes it feel secure! That's why touch is so reassuring throughout our lives it recreates those feelings of love and security that we once e&perienced as a $a$y! The sad part of this is that if you watch people who feel deHected# lonely or vulnera$le - people lining up for $enefits# people waiting in accident and e ergency# people appearing in court they fre-uently touch the selves in a way that is re inis- cent of how their other co forted the ! The sa e applies to people who are $eing su$ issive! ,hen people are feeling su$ issive they fre-uently stroke their hair# especially the hair at the $ack of their head! These actions can $e traced $ack to the ti e when their others caressed their hair to co fort the # and when they supported the $y cradling the $ack of their head! ,hen people feel su$ issive they also touch their face# fre-uently placing their fingers on their lips! These self-co forting gestures also owe their origins to the way that others caress their

$a$y's face# play with its

A2

S5.7(SS(VE TE==S

outh and kiss it on the lips! 7others also hug their children when they're distressed! *onse-uently# when adults are feeling insecure or su$ issive they often try to recover these reassuring feelings $y perfor ing actions that ena$le the to hug the selves! One e&a ple of this is the 'ar grip'# where the hand stretches over the chest to gra$ the $icep of the opposite ar E another is the '$andoleer'# where the ar is e&tended over the chest to grip the opposite shoulder! (n the 'dou$le $andoleer' $oth ar s are crossed on the chest and each grips the opposite shoulder! These actions recreate the e&perience of $eing e $raced! Other self-co forting actions recreate the sensation of $eing held $y the hand! One is the 'pal press'# where the pal of one hand faces upward# holding the pal of the other hand! Another is the 'dovetail'# where the fingers of the two hands are intertwined! (n $oth these actions the pal s of the hands are either pressed together or kept loosely apart# creating a sensation that is very si ilar to holding hands# or having one's hand reassuringly held $y so eone else! These su$ issive hand postures are in arked contrast to do inant hand postures like 'steepling'# where the ar s usually rest on the el$ows# with the pal s facing each other and the tip of each finger lightly touching its opposite nu $er# aking the whole arrange ent look like the roof $ea s of a church! The steepling posture is used $y people who want to put their hands on display $ut who don't need to use the to co fort the selves! ,hile su$ issive hand postures atte pt to a&i iJe auto- contact# the steepling posture tries to keep it to the $are ini u !

$9

T6E .OO< OF TE==S

%ead Tells
*harles "arwin noticed that when people feel su$ issive they have a natural tendency to lower their head# aking the selves look s aller and less threatening! "arwin also suggested that the ha$it of nodding to signal 'yes' was linked to su$ issive lowering of the head! 5nfortunately for this theory# not every society signals affir ation $y nodding or dipping the head! (n (ndia# for e&a ple# people roll their head fro side to side to signal 'yes' or to show agree ent! This ove ent is -uite different fro the headshake# $ecause in the head-roll the head is rocked fro side to side in the sa e plane as the front of the $ody! The head can either $e rocked repeatedly fro side to side or the head-roll can $e perfor ed wit h a short# sharp ove ent of the head towards one of the shoulders! Although there are cultural differences in the head ove- ents that people use to signal 'yes' and 'no' # the ha$it of lowering the head as a sign of su$ ission 0 appears to $e universal! (n fact# the head is used to signal su$ ission in several ways8 0 HEA(-(2' TELLS. ,hen individuals walk $etween people who are having a conversation# you'll notice that they fre-uently 'duck' their head down in order to ake sure that they don't get in the way and to apologiJe for any inconvenience they ay have caused! So e people produce an involuntary dip of the head when they approach so eone who's i portant# especially when that person is unfa iliar to the or is involved in a con- versation with so eone else! .y watching people's heads when they approach high-status individuals# it's possi$le

2/

S5.7(SS(VE TE==S

*ead&'anting. 6ere Ferry 6all sends a clear essage of appease ent to )rince *harles $y tilting her head to one side!

T6E .OO< OF TE==S to identify how they feelE those who are rela&ed a$out status distinctions don't usually produce any su$ issive tells at all# whereas those who feel that they are intruding on an i portant person are likely to reveal their dis- co fort $y dipping their head very slightly! 0 6EA"-NO" TE==S! >epetitive nodding is also an integral part of conversation! ?ou often see people who are in the listener role nodding slowly while the other person is speaking! They do this $oth to show that they are listen- ing and to de onstrate that they don't want to take over the speaker's role! Fast nodding also shows that the listener understands the speaker# $ut $ecause it contains a sense of urgency# it shows either that the listener supports the speaker wholeheartedly or that the listener wants to take over the speaker's role! So while slow nodding sends the essage# '( understand what you're saying and ( want to continue listening'# fast nodding sends one of two essages - either '( totally agree with you' or '( understand you# $ut hurry up# ( want to say so ething now'' The distinction $etween these last two essages usually depends on where the listener is looking - at the speaker when he or she is $eing supportive# and away fro the listener when he or she wants the floor! 0 6EA"-*ANT TE==S! As we've seen# su$ issive people fre-uently lower their head or cant it to one side! 6ead- canting serves as an appease ent display $ecause it e&poses the neck# which is a vulnera$le part of the $ody# and $ecause it akes the person look shorter and there- fore less threatening! (t also akes the person look

2@

S5.7(SS(VE TE==S helpless# rather like a $a$y with its head to one side! (t's very likely# in fact# that head canting owes its origins to the innocent feelings of helplessness that we e&perienced as a $a$y# tilting our head to one side and resting it on our parent's shoulder! ,e also find re nants of these early e&periences in the shrug# which is often perfor ed with the head tilted to one side! 6ead-canting tends to $e used $y people who want to appear su$ issive or se&ually attractive# or $oth! There are several reports suggesting that wo en use head-canting ore than en# $ut this has not $een B consistently supported $y research! A research proHect in (taly# conducted $y 7arco *osta# 7arJia 7enJani and )io >icci .itti# looked at e&a ples of head-canting in paintings fro the thirteenth to the A nineteenth century! (t was discovered that co issioned portraits of powerful en seldo include head-canting# $ut that depictions of religious or pious figures fre-uently do! (n this study the researchers also found that head- canting is ore pronounced a ong fe ale figures than a ong ale figures! ,hether this is a case of art i icking life re ains to $e seen!

E=e Tells
For territorial and solitary species# flight is the natural solution to a conflict where it looks as if one's going to lose! For these species it's $etter to run away and live to fight another day than to risk $eing inHured! (n a social species like ours# flight isn't really an option $ecause our lives are $ased on co-operation! This eans that we can't si ply run away when there's a confrontation - we need
"!

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to find ways of living together! One way to do this is through the ritualistic ediu of su$ issive displays! These ena$le us to resolve conflicts without da age or loss of life# and they allow us to continue working together! ,hen we look ore closely at su$ ission displays we discover that they contain sy $olic ele ents of flight! This is noticea$le in the way that e $ers of social species use their eyes! ,hen they eet a do inant individual# they engage in what the Joologist 7ichael *hance called 'cut- off' - that is# they avert their gaJe so as to visually re ove the do inant individual fro 2 view! This has several i portant effects for su$ issive people! Firstly# $y re ov- ing the do inant person fro view# the su$ordinate person is $etter a$le to reduce their sense of fear! *ut-off is like a psychological for of flight - it ena$les in- dividuals to re ove potential attackers fro their ind! Secondly# cut-off shows that the su$ordinate person has no intention of attacking the do inant person! That's $ecause looking at the other person could $e a prelude to attack# whereas looking away is a preparation for defence! Thirdly# the act of looking away and de eaning oneself actually serves to 'cut off' any aggression fro the do inant person! That's $ecause su$ ission displays are hard-wired! ,hen we are confronted with so eone who's trying to look s all# defenceless and weak# our aggressive i pulses auto atically switch off! There are su$ ission8 0 T6E several ocular tells associated with

E?E-"()!

)eople fre-uently avert their gaJe

down- wards in order to appear su$ issive! This is usually a deli$erate action# and it is designed to placate so eone
2+

S5.7(SS(VE TE==S who's ore do inant! The Eye-dip is also used as a flirtatious signal! 0 THE E5E-SH7TTLE. Su$ issive people fre-uently flick their eyes fro side to side# often without oving their head! This is designed not only to try and take in everything that's happening around the # $ut also# instinctively# to search for possi$le escape routes! 0 THE E5E-'7FF. 6ere the eyelids are pulled $ack to ake the eyes look $igger! This conveys an i age of innocent attentiveness# and when the other person doesn't recog- niJe what's happening it can $e very disar ing! The eye-puff relies on the fact that $a$ies have disproportion- ately large eyes# relative to the rest 4 of their face! =arge eyes are an 'innate releaser'8 we feel protective and nurturing whenever we encounter so eone who has large eyes# or who has enlarged the to look ore appealing!

(t's worth noticing that all of these su$ issive ocular gestures are sy etrical - in other words# $oth eyes do the sa e thing! Asy etrical ove ents of the eyes tend to $e associated with ore infor al types of e&change# like friendship! There are# however# ways that these su$- issive ocular gestures differ fro each other! .oth the eye-dip and the eye-shuttle are otivated $y negative feel- ings# like fear or sha e# whereas the eye-puff gesture is designed to $e disar ing and solicitous! Another way that people try to appear disar ing is $y wearing their spectacles or their sunglasses on the top of their head! Elevating the glasses in this way is rather like

"

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lifting the visor on a hel et - it shows that no threat is intended! ,hen the glasses are placed on the forehead they create a 'four-eyed' spectacle# with the 'eyes' of the glasses a$ove and the real eyes $elow! .ecause the eyes of the glasses are larger# they take on the signalling role nor ally perfor ed $y the eyes! They $eco e 'super- nor al sti uli'# creating the i pression that the person has e&tra-large eyes - in other words is like a $a$y! All along the French >iviera - in fact anywhere where people are carefree and on display you'll see wo en strolling along# looking confident# well dressed and with their sun- glasses perched on their head! (f you were to ask the why they are wearing their glasses on their head they'd pro$- a$ly say it's a convenient place to put the ! 6owever# the real reason why they do it is to ake the selves look youthful# unthreatening and attractive!

E=ebrow Tells
(n adults# eye$row position can convey several essages# depending on what's happening with the eyes! There are four $asic postures involving the eye$rows and the eyes8 :3; Eye$rows in repose and eyes in repose - this is the e&pression of the face at restE :@; Eye$rows in repose and eyes widened - this is the threatening facial e&pression of anger# so eti es involving lowering of the $rowE :1; Eye$rows raised and eyes widened - this is the facial e&pression associated with the prototypical fear responseE and :+; Eye$rows raised and eyes in repose - the facial e&pression of su$ ission! The ancient >o ans used the ter super 'ilium# literally

2B

S5.7(SS(VE TE==S

'raised eye$rows'# to refer to the facial e&pression where the eye$rows are raised and the eyes are slightly closed! This is# of course# not the gesture of su$ ission - it's the e&act opposite# an e&pression of haughtiness or# to $orrow fro the =atin# superciliousness! The fact that this gesture and the facial gesture for su$ ission are distinguished on the $asis of whether the eyes are in repose or slightly closed shows how very co ple& facial e&pressions can $e! Although the difference $etween the two gestures is a atter of illi etres# no$ody confuses an e&pression of superciliousness with one of su$ ission! ,hen people want to de onstrate that they are not a threat# they fre-uently raise their eye$rows! This akes the look attentive and i pressed! ,hen the eye$rows are pinched together at the centre they create an i pression of concern! Of course the eye$rows can $e raised with or without $eing pinched! ,hen they are raised and pinched the result is a hy$rid gesture that conveys su$- ission and concern! Several ovie stars have perfor ed successful dou$le- acts with their eye$rows! (f there were Oscars for eye$rows# ,oody Allen's would certainly $e up for no ination! (n ovies like Annie *all# his eye$rows see to take on a life of their own# so eti es e phasiJing his own confusion# at other ti es rising to defuse antagonis towards hi ! .ut in the eye$row '6all of Fa e'# (t's9roucho 7ar&'s eye$rows that are king! ,e all re e - $er 9roucho for his enor ous greasepaint oustache# his cigar and his rolling eyes! .ut what really carried the per- for ance was his signature tell - the 9roucho 7ar& eye$row flutter'! 6aving delivered a punch line# 9roucho would flutter his eye$rows up and down# to show that he'd

"9

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co pleted what he was saying! 6ere the eye$rows acted as a pair of full stops# or rather e&cla ation arks# allow- ing *roucho a o ent of triu ph and giving the audience the opportunity to $e appreciative! A few .ritish actors have also used their eye$rows to good effect! The pre-war actor .asil >ath$one's eye$rows were virtually typecast for the role of superciliousness! >oger 7oore's trade ark tell is the single raised eye$row - actually his left eye$row - which he regularly enlisted in order to appear -uiJJical# seductive or all-knowing in his roles as the Saint and Fa es .ond! ,henever a villain needed to $e put down or a pretty lady needed to $e i pressed# his eye$row would spring into action# so eti es even upstaging >oger 7oore hi self!

S&iling Tells
6ow people s ile at each other can provide useful clues 3/ to their power relationship! "arwin noticed that s iling and laughter often occur together! 6e concluded therefore that they have the sa e origins# and that s iling is Hust a weak for of laughter! This idea see s very convincing# especially when you consider how easy it is to shift $etween s iling and laughter# and how close happiness is to a use ent! (n any languages the words for s iling and laughter even have the sa e root! 6owever# this theory has $een challenged $y the discovery that chi panJees have two -uite distinct facial

e&pressions that correspond to hu an s iling and laughter - a 'su$ ission face' where the lips are retracted and the teeth are e&posed# and a 'play face' where the
22

S5.7(SS(VE TE==S

lower Haw is dropped and the corners of the outh are 33 pulled $ack! The chi panJee's play face is very si ilar to hu an laughter $ecause the outh is opened wide and it's acco panied $y rhyth ic vocaliJation! At the sa e ti e the chi panJee's su$ ission face is very si ilar to the hu an s ile $ecause $oth are silent and the teeth are fully e&posed! These two chi panJee e&pressions serve very different functions! ?et hu an laughter and s iling often appear together and see to serve the sa e purpose! This suggests that# during their evolution# hu an laughter and s iling have converged! For our distant ancestors they were -uite different# $ut for us they are very si ilar! (f the chi panJee su$ ission face is designed to appease do inant individuals# does s iling serve the sa e function for hu ans% The answer is 'yes'# $ut it depends on how friendly the situation is and what kinds of s iles people produce! Take the case where two people are together and one has higher status than the other! ,hen the situation is not very friendly# the su$- ordinate person is likely to s ile uch ore than the do inant person! 6ere# s iling perfor s the role of appease ent! 6owever# when the situation is friendly# the do inant person ay actually s ile ore than the su$- ordinate person! The difference $etween these two situations# it turns out# is not that the su$ordinate person s iles less# $ut that the do inant person s iles ore in the friendly situation! (n other words# su$ordinate in- dividuals produce si ilar a ounts of s iling# regardless of whether the situation is friendly or unfriendly# $ut do inant people s ile far less in unfriendly situations and uch ore in friendly situations! 7arvin 6echt and 7arianne =aFrance# who have studied this pheno enon#

'9

T6E .OO< OF TE==S

point out that while a su$ordinate person needs to s ile to appease a do inant person# the do inant person is 3@ 'licensed' to s ile when he or she likes! The clue to why the do inant person s iles ore in a friendly situation $eco es clear when we look at the different ways that people co pose their facial features into a s ile! ,e all know that so e s iles are genuine and others are false! That's $ecause we see people pretending to $e happy# and we know what it feels like to s ile when we're feeling isera$le! Although we're constantly e&posed to fake s iles# and spend a great deal of our ti e producing the for the $enefit of other people# it's only since facial e&pressions have $een studied in detail that we have co e to understand what distinguishes a genuine s ile fro a false s ile! One of the first scientists to tackle this issue was the French anato ist# 9uillau e "uchenne de .oulogne# who pu$lished his M3'anisme de la physionomie humaine in 32B@# ten years $efore "arwin's $ook on the face appeared! "uchenne was fascinated $y the uscu- lature of the face - an interest he reputedly developed while e&a ining heads chopped off $y the guillotine! 6e was also the first person to apply electrical 31 currents to the face to see how the uscles worked! "uchenne discovered that genuine s iles involve two sets of uscles! The first is the 4ygomati' ma5or uscles# which run down the side of the face and attach to the corners of the outh! ,hen these are contracted the corners of the outh are pulled up# the cheeks are puffed up# and the teeth are so eti es e&posed! The second set of uscles# the orbi'ularis o'uli# surround the eyes! ,hen these are contracted the eyes $eco e narrow and 'crow's

9(

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feet' appear $eside the eyes! "uchenne recogniJed that the critical clue to a genuine s ile was to $e found in the region of the eyes# $ecause while the Jygo atic aHor uscles are under conscious control# the orbi'ularis o'uli are not! As he put it# The e otion of frank Hoy is e&pressed on the face $y the co $ined contraction of the Jygo aticus aHor uscle and the or$icularis oculi! The first o$eys the will $ut the second is only put in play $y the sweet e otions of the soul! ! ! The uscle around the eye does not o$ey the willE it is only $rought into play $y a true feeling# $y an agree- a$le e otion! (ts inertia# in s iling# un asks a false friend! (f you watch how su$ordinate people $ehave towards do inant people# you'll notice that ost of their s iles involve the uscles a$ove the outh instead of those around the eyes - in other words# they're ' outh s iles' rather than ' outhGeye s iles'# or what are known as '"uchenne s iles'! Strictly speaking# outh s iles are 'false' s iles $ecause they pretend to show enHoy ent $ut they're really only otivated $y the desire to appear socia$le and unthreatening! .ut if you watch how do inant people $ehave towards their su$ordinates# you'll notice that they s ile far less# $ut that their s iles are ore likely to $e ' outhGeye s iles'! This difference arises $ecause su$ordinates use s iling for the purpose of appease ent# whereas do inant people have the licence to s ile when and how they wish! S iles that are designed to appease ay differ fro genuine s iles in other ways! They ay# for e&a ple# involve the corners of the outh $eing pulled sideways rather than up# so that
43

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the resulting e&pression looks ore like a gri ace than a s ile! (n ore e&tre e situations the corners of the outh ay o entarily $e drawn down# there$y incorporating fleeting evidence of the fear-face into the s ile! (n these and other ways# the s ile ay reveal what lies $ehind its facade# and therefore what so eone is really feeling! (t has $een found that wo en s ile uch ore than 3+ en! This ay have so ething to do with the su$ordinate position that wo en occupy in society# although it doesn't e&plain why $a$y girls s ile ore than $a$y $oys as early as two onths! (nvestigations of the portrait photographs in school year$ooks show that as they get older# girls continue to s ile ore than $oys# and that the difference is ost pronounced after pu$erty! ,hen wo en occupy positions of power they don't auto- atically a$andon their s iling ha$its in favour of en's! (t's $een discovered that wo en who are in high-power roles don't s ile any less than wo en in low-power roles# $ut that en who are in high-power roles do s ile far less than those in low-power roles! Testosterone plays a part here# $ecause en with high levels of testosterone tend to produce s aller s iles# with less activity round the outh and eyes# whereas en with low levels of testosterone s ile ore fre-uently 31 and produce larger s iles! These differences are reflected in the inferences that people draw on the $asis of s iling! ,hen en and wo en s ile# they are $oth seen as happy# contented and rela&ed! 5ns iling en# on the other hand# are seen as do inant# whereas uns iling wo en are si ply seen as $eing unhappy! These inferences ay have so ething to do with the fact that wo en s ile uch ore than en# so that while an uns iling an

appears to $e fairly
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nor al# an uns iling wo an can look -uite unusual! *onse-uently# to appear nor al a wo an needs to s ile uch ore than a an! A an# on the other hand# doesn't need to s ile a lot $ecause other en aren't s iling that uch! ,hen people are asked to look at a s iling face and to decide whether the s ile is genuine# they auto atically look at the crow's feet areas on the outside of the eyes! They see to know# instinctively# that genuine s iles wrinkle up this part of the face# and so that's where to look! 6owever# although people clearly know where to look when they're deciding a$out the authenticity of a s ile# they are -uite happy to accept fake s iles instead! For e&a ple# when so eone has co itted a is- de eanour# other people are ore likely to treat that person leniently if he or she offers an apology in the for of a s ile! ,hat's interesting is that it doesn't atter very uch whether the s ile that the person produces is genuine or false - provided it's so e sort of s ile# people are prepared to $e lenient! This suggests that although we are capa$le of distinguishing a genuine s ile fro a false s ile# we don't always e&ercise this a$ility - there are even ti es when we actively see to suppress it! ,hat's i portant to us is that other people s ile at the right ti e! The fact that their s iling is a pretence doesn't see to $other us at all!

Bl"shing Tells
For *harles "arwin# it was the $lush# not laughter# 3B which distinguished an fro the other ani als!

"arwin's
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opinions a$out $lushing were very uch in line with attitudes that had developed during the previous century and were still in circulation in Victorian ti es! (n the eighteenth century the English developed the idea that e $arrass ent and $lushing are the outward signs of sensitivity to others! They reasoned that it was only possi$le for so eone to $eco e e $arrassed if they were capa$le of feeling sha e# $ut incapa$le of concealing it! The English realiJed# of course# that this could not $e said of foreigners! As *hristopher >icks has pointed out# it was 'part of the English an's o$Hection to foreigners that they are N$raJen-facedN# une $arrassa$le# and therefore untrustworthy! Especially the French ! ! ! 6ow can you trust a people whose very language does its $est 3A to conceal the e&istence of the $lush%' The Victorians had an a $ivalent attitude to $lushing - they regarded it as a sign of sensitivity# $ut they also felt that it was inappropriate for en to show their feelings $y $lushing in co pany! ,o en# on the other hand# were actually e&pected to $lush when so ething e $arrassing happened! For e&a ple# if a young lady happened to $e present when a gentle an entioned the su$Hect of se&# she was e&pected to show how shocked and innocent she was $y $lushing! 6ere $lushing carried a dou$le essage# $ecause in addition to declaring the lady's innocence it also showed that she was sufficiently infor ed a$out se& to $e shocked! This dou$le essage of the $lush - the fact that it ad itted what it tried to conceal - fascinated the Victorians! So did the fact that $lushing could not $e $rought under conscious control! The principles of order and self-control were central to Victorian society! .lushing represented a co plete negation of those principles and

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therefore challenged the things that society stood for! That is why people found $lushing so intriguing - it showed that genuine feelings could not $e disguised# and that the e otions could triu ph over reason! Victorian scientists were fascinated and perple&ed $y $lushing! "arwin hi self recogniJed that certain ani als redden when they $eco e i passioned# $ut that there were no ani al species that $eca e e $arrassed! "arwin concluded that only hu ans are capa$le of e $arrass ent $ecause only they possess the sort of selfconsciousness that gives rise to $lushing! This# as he pointed out# represents uch ore than the capacity to think a$out oneself8 'it is not the si ple act of reflecting on our own appearance# $ut the thinking what others think of us# which e&cites a $lush'! Self-consciousness and a concern with other people's opinions see to $e central to $lushing! ,e often $lush when we know that we've done so ething wrong or when we've violated other people's e&pectations of us# $ut we also $lush when we've attracted the attention of other people $y doing so ething positive! That's why we're as likely to $lush when we've $een caught out as when so eone offers us a co pli ent! 6owever# it's not Hust the recognition of our own failures and achieve ents that ake us $lushE we also $lush when we see other people getting e $arrassed# 32 especially when we identify with the closely! .lushing involves the autono ic nervous syste and it takes the for of increased $lood flow to the cheeks of the face# and so eti es to the neck and chest! 6ow $lushing actually works is still so ething of a ystery# although there's lots of evidence to show that it's associated with
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une&pected and unwelco e attention fro others! The individuals who are ost prone to $lushing are those who are ost concerned a$out how other people see the # and who are ost eager to $ehave properly and not do the wrong thing! ,hen individuals do ake a social gaffe or say so ething e $arrassing# traitorous $lushing often e&poses the ! )arado&ically# they can usually rely on $lush- ing to get the off the hook# $ecause $lushing functions like an apology# showing that they adhere to the nor s of the group! This can $e seen in the responses that $lushing evokes in others it has $een found# for e&a ple# that people who do so ething wrong and who then $lush are treated uch ore leniently than those who ake the sa e error $ut 34 who don't $lush! .lushing is an integral part of e $arrass ent# and it's often acco panied $y other signs of e $arrass ent# like speech distur$ances and half-hearted s iles# as well as looking down at the ground# touching the face or flicking out the tongue! (n this respect $lushing operates like a for of appease ent# showing other people our dis- co fort and regret! 6owever# unlike other for s of appease ent# $lushing is entirely outside our control - we can't redden our face deli$erately and we can't switch off a $lush once it's started! That's what akes it such a painful e&perience for the person who's $lushing# and a significant tell or everyone else!

Tong"e Tells
,hen children or adults are involved in a task they often push their tongue out $etween their lips! The 'tongue

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show'# as it's called# is associated with effort and concen- tration! (t has $een proposed that it also functions as an unconsciously otivated signal of reHection - in other words# people stick out the tip of their tongue to show others that they don't want to $e @/ approached! There is in fact so e e&peri ental support for this theory $ecause it has $een found that individuals are ore hesitant a$out approaching so eone who is $usy and showing the tip of their tongue than they are a$out approaching so eone who @3 is e-ually $usy $ut whose tongue is concealed! There ay of course $e nothing ysterious a$out all of thisE it ay si ply $e that we are slow to approach individuals who have their tongues out $ecause we don't like distur$ing people who are clearly preoccupied! 6owever# there is evidence that the tongue show is used in other situations to keep people at ar 's length! (n a detailed analysis of so e fil of a young couple kissing on a park $ench# Ada <endon found that the girl controlled the inti acy of the encounter $y occasionally with- drawing# and that as she did so she @@ would occasionally e&pose the tip of her tongue! )resenting her tongue was a way of showing her $oyfriend that she was te porarily inaccessi$le! (n ost cases of the tongue show people aren't aware that the tongue is sending a signal! The young girl on the park $ench pro$a$ly didn't know that she e&posed her tongue# let alone that she was using it to control her $oyfriend's enthusias ! Although he responded to her tongue shows# it's very unlikely that he was fully aware what was happening! ,hen people are e $arrassed they often produce a $rief 'tongue flick'! This is -uite different fro the

tongue show# $ecause while the tongue show can $e sustained for
9$

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several inutes# a tongue flick usually lasts no longer than a second - the tongue si ply darts out of the outh and then flicks $ack again! ,hile the tongue show is associ- ated with ental concentration and with inaccessi$ility# the tongue flick is a tell of e $arrass ent! ,hen so eone is $eing teased or they feel that they've $een caught out# it's not unco on to see the flick out their tongue# so eti es while they're s iling! (t's -uite possi$le that this $rief e&posure of the tongue is also designed to keep other people at ar 's length!

.roo<*n+ Tells
(n the world of apes and onkeys individuals who occupy si ilar positions in the social hierarchy nor ally take turns to groo each other $y re oving insects# lice and dead skin fro each other's hair! This type of groo ing is reciprocal8 it's an e&pression of friendship and solidarity $etween e-uals! As such# it's -uite different fro what takes place when a su$ordinate individual groo s a do inant individual! (n this situation the groo ing is a$out the ratification of power! That's why it's all one-way# directed fro the su$ordinate towards the superior# never the other way round! ,hen we co pare this with hu an touching# we find that it's the sa e $etween friends# $ut -uite different $etween people of une-ual status! Friends# for e&a ple# fre-uently reassure and show their affection $y touching each other! 6owever# where power differences are con- cerned# hu an patterns of touch are the opposite way round to what they are with apes

and
9'

onkeys - $ecause

S5.7(SS(VE TE==S

while do inant people reserve the right to touch their su$ordinates# su$ordinates need to ensure that they don't touch their superiors! ,ith hu ans# therefore# status groo ing has largely $een shifted to speech when we want to curry favour with our $oss# we resort to 'groo ing talk'! (n other words# instead of using our hands to stroke his $ody# we use our words to stroke his ego! 9roo ing talk is designed to help people appear likea$le and unthreatening to others! The desire to $e liked $y other people is very deep-seated - in fact it's essential to a social species like ours - and it's especially i portant when the people we're hoping to i press happen to $e ore powerful than us! There are two $asic strategies that individuals can use in this kind of situation! The first is 'self-deprecation' - saying negative things a$out oneself - and the second is 'other-pro otion' - saying positive things a$out so eone else! Self-deprecation can $e achieved $y ini iJing one's own achieve ents# con- cealing one's talents# or $y denying any responsi$ility for one's achieve ents or those of other people! Su$ issive people often use these techni-ues when they're talking to do inant individuals! This akes the appear unthreatening and it akes the do inant person feel ore self-i portant! )owerful people so eti es use self-deprecation strategies with their su$ordinates# $ut their intention then is usually to invite contradiction! ,hen the $oss turns to one of his su$ordinates# after he's ade a presentation to a client# and says# '?ou know# ( don't think ( did very well'# the $oss isn't asking his su$ordinate to agree with hi # he's laying a 'flattery trap' $y discreetly inviting the su$- ordinate to say so ething

co pli entary like# 'That's not

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true# $oss# you were $rilliant'' Flattery traps are also used $y su$ordinates and $y e-uals! For e&a ple# when a couple are returning fro a dinner party and the wife says# The other wo en there tonight were gorgeous'# she's not inviting her hus$and to agree with her - she's hoping that he'll say so ething like# 'Nonsense# darling# they weren't a patch on you'' The $eauty of the flattery trap is that one can hear positive things a$out oneself without having to say the oneself! .y luring people into aking co pli ents one can get the to say things that they cannot disown later on# and which are likely to influence how they think a$out one in the future! ?ears ago# psychologists discovered that if people can $e persuaded to pu$licly endorse opinions that aren't their own# they are likely @1 to agree with the later on! The sa e applies with the flattery trap! (f you can entice so eone to say positive things a$out you# they're ore likely to $e i pressed $y you in the future! There are several ways that people can ingratiate the - selves to others! One is $y agreeing with everything they sayE another is $y doing the favours! The third# and $y far the ost popular strategy# is $y @+ co pli enting and flatter- ing the ! ,hen we co pli ent so eone we're aware of what we're doing# $ut very seldo aware of our otives or the way that they unconsciously shape what we're try- ing to achieve! 7ost of us would $e horrified to discover Hust how uch we alter our $ehaviour in the presence of powerful and attractive people# in the hope that they'll like us and find us interesting! And yet we're constantly doing it agreeing with what they say# concealing our real opinions# telling the how clever they are# and generally $ehaving in a way that akes us ore accepta$le!

3//

S5.7(SS(VE TE==S

(ngratiation is a pervasive part of our social livesE it's also the essential lu$ricant in $usiness! (t oils the wheels of the organiJation# reducing the friction $etween people at different levels and s oothing their ascent up the corporate ladder! >esearch reveals the sad truth that in - dividuals wh o ake a $usiness of ingratiating the selves with their superiors enHoy ore career success than those who concentrate on getting the Ho$ done @0 properly! (ngratiation has o$vious $enefits for corporate e ployees $ecause it allows the to curry favour wit h their $oss# at very little cost to the selves! 6owever# it always carries the risk that it wil l $e recogniJed for what it is# and that the otives of the ingratiator wil l $e called into -uestion! ,hen the ingratiator is of lower status than his or her target# there's a uch greater danger that the target wil l decide that the ingratiator is not $eing sincere# si ply $ecause he or she has so uch to gain! There are several tricks that people use to ake their ingratiation less transparent8 0 (O8N.4A(2N.. To disguise their otives people often choose a less potent version of ingratiation - for e&a ple# co pli enting so eone rather than doing the a favour! .ecause favours involve ore ti e and effort than co pli ents they're uch ore likely to $e noticed and to raise suspicions! 0 (2L7T2N.. Another trick is using a 'diluted' rather than a 'concentrated' for of ingratiation - for e&a ple# co pli enting the $oss on a particular phrase in his speech rather than on the whole speech!

3/3

T6E .OO< OF TE==S 0 S2M'L2F52N.. Strategies that co $ine different types of ingratiation are uch ore o$vious than those that consist of Hust one kind! That's why the ost effective for s of ingratiation are those that consist of a single type! 0 3AMO7FLA.2N.. To work properly# ingratiation needs to $e conducted in the right conte&t and it should $e consistent with the relationship that the ingratiator has with the target! No suspicion is raised# for e&a ple# when a Hunior e $er of the $oard co pli ents the *EO on his speech to the investors! 6owever# when the sa e person akes a flattering re ark a$out the *EO's new hairstyle it's likely to set alar $ells ringing! The *EO's secretary# on the other hand# could co forta$ly co ent on his new hairstyle $ecause it's part of her role to ake sure that he looks s art! 0 SELE3T2N.. >esearch shows that people who have high self-estee like to $e flattered# $ut that those with low self-estee don't! (t also shows that people regard co pli ents that are consistent with how they see the - selves as $eing genuine# and those that are at @B odds with how they see the selves as $eing phoney! For e&a ple# a chess aster who considers hi self to $e $rilliant $ut unattractive would regard a co pli ent a$out his intelligence to $e genuine# $ut a co pli ent a$out his looks to $e false! To $e successful# an ingratiator needs to know not only who to flatter# $ut what to flatter the a$out! uch ore likely to take a

0 3O6E42N.. ,e are 3/@

S5.7(SS(VE TE==S co pli ent at face value when it's directed at us than when we hear it $eing targeted at so eone else! 7ay$e that's $ecause our critical faculties $eco e weaker when we're $eing flattered# or $ecause we're ore o$Hective when so eone else is $eing flattered! Either way# the people who are least i pressed $y flattery are those who o$serve it happening! They're also the ones who are ost likely to under ine the efforts of ingratiators $y calling their otives into -uestion! Seasoned ingratiators who know this try to ensure that other people aren't present to witness their atte pts at ingratiation# or if they are that they feel o$liged to support the ingratiator's opinions! )eople use these strategies to enhance their ingratiation and to reduce the chances of $eing found out! (t ay not $e necessary# however# to go to all these lengths# $ecause ost people are suckers for flattery! As the Earl of *hesterfield re arked in a letter to his son in 3A0@# 'Every wo an is infalli$ly to $e gained $y every sort of flattery# and every an $y one sort or another'!

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+! *onversation Tells
The ost o$vious thing a$out conversations is that people take turns! (t's unusual for ore than one person to $e speaking at a ti e# and when it does happen for any length of ti e it's $ecause the conversation has te - porarily $roken down! The reason why we take turns is $ecause of the li itations of our $rains8 we cannot talk and listen to so eone else at the sa e ti e! )sychologists who study conversation have found that people are re arka$ly skilled at taking turns! They have discovered that the ti e that elapses $etween one person co pleting their turn and the ne&t person starting to talk can $e so $rief as to $e al ost non-e&istent - in so e instances it's less than 0/ thousandths of a second' These are called 's ooth transitions'# $ecause the switch $etween one 3 speaker and the ne&t is so sea less! The universal rule of conversations is 'one person at a ti e'# and although ost conversations follow this rule# there are ti es when people speak at the sa e ti e and don't listen to each other! So e cases of 'overlap talk' arise $ecause the listener is trying to interrupt in order to

3/+

*ONVE>SAT(ON TE==S

take over the speaker role! 6owever# as we shall see later on# other cases of overlap talk arise# not through co - petition# $ut purely $ecause the listener wants to encourage the speaker! (n order to take turns in a conversation it's necessary for the speaker and the listener to show each other whether or not they want the floor! (n principle this could $e achieved $y each person declaring what he or she wants# $ut this ethod would $e very clu sy and inefficient! (nstead# turn-taking is organiJed through a set of conventionaliJed signals that people produce @ while they are talking or listening! Any conversation therefore operates at two levels - an 'official' dialogue# where people e&change ideas and opinions# and an 'unofficial' dialogue where they e&change signals a$out turn-taking and de onstrate how co itted they are to the conversation! .y using turntaking signals the listener can indicate whether he or she wants to 'avoid' the speaker role or to 'take' it# and the speaker can signal whether he or she wants to 'hold' the floor or 'yield' the floor to the listener!

Turn-a;o*d*n+ Tells
There are several ways that a listener can de onstrate that he or she doesn't want to take over the role of speaker and is happy to re ain in the listener role! 1 One is $y pro- ducing '$ack-channel' signals! These consist of ver$al responses like 'uh-huh'# 'yes' and 'yeah'# repetition of the speaker's words# nods and $rief s iles# which are designed to show that the listener agrees with the speaker or understands what the speaker is saying!

3/0

T6E .OO< OF TE==S

As we saw in the last chapter# the eaning of nodding depends on its te po# with slow nodding conveying agree ent# and rapid nodding signalling either enthusiastic agree ent or i patience and a desire to take over the role of speaker! 6ead-shaking also conveys different essages# depending on how rapidly the head is oved fro side to side! ,hen the head is shaken rapidly it shows that the listener disagrees with the speaker and would like to take over the speaker role! ,hen the head is shaken slowly it can convey an entirely different eaning! (f# for e&a ple# the listener has Hust told an incredi$le story and the listener responds $y shaking his head slowly# it de onstrates that the listener shares the speaker's incredulity# and i plies that the listener doesn't want to assu e the speaker role! There are three other ways that the listener can show that he or she does not want the floor! The first is $y pro- ducing an 'attentiveness display'! .y re aining silent# orienting towards the speaker# and gaJing intently at the speaker# the listener can show that he or she is interested in what the speaker has to say and therefore has no desire to take over the speaker role! The second is $y producing an 'unintention display'! 5nintention displays are the opposite of 'intention displays'! For e&a ple# if you're listening to so eone and you want to say so ething you can usually re-uest the floor $y producing an intention display# like leaning forward# lifting a finger or opening your outh slightly! These ove ents get the essage across $ecause they are preparatory to speaking! 5nintention displays# on the other hand# consist of actions that hinder your a$ility to speak# like folding your ar s# pressing your lips together or placing a hand or a finger

3/B

*ONVE>SAT(ON TE==S

over your outh - in other words perfor ing actions that are the opposite of preparatory ove ents to speak! The third way that listeners de onstrate that they don't want the floor is $y asking -uestions! These can take the for of -ueries which stand on their own# like '"o you co e here often%'# or they can take the for of tag -uestions like 'isn't it%' or 'don't you think%' which are tagged on the end of state ents! Asking -uestions invites the other person to assu e the speaker role or to continue occupying it! ,o en often use this ploy when they eet a an for the first ti eE they produce lots of $ack-channel signals and ask lots of -uestions# which ake the look attentive! A an who is treated in this way $y a wo an tends to assu e that she is genuinely interested in what he has to say# and this encourages hi to keep talking - so eti es to the point of taking up per anent residence in the speaker role! .ecause the an is so caught up in what he's saying# he often forgets to ask the wo an a$out herself! ,o en often start out facilitating en's conver- sations# and then end up regretting it!

Turn-tak*n+ Tells
,hen you are in the listener role there are several ways you can show the speaker that you want the floor! One is $y producing 'alerting signals' - for e&a ple# raising your hand or widening your eyes slightly to show the other person that you want to speak! Another way is $y opening your outh and $reathing in audi$ly - in other words# producing slightly e&aggerated versions of the 'preparatory ove ents' that you would nor ally perfor Hust $efore

3/A

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you started talking! The third way is $y producing 'negative $ack-channel'! (nstead of supporting the speaker wit h '$ack-channel signals'# you can try to persuade the speaker to give up the floor $y sighing# looking away# or i patiently nodding your head - in other words# doing things that are designed to discourage the speaker fro continuing! Finally# you can always try to take the floor $y interrupting the speaker! (nterruptions occur when tw o people are talking at the sa e ti e# $ut not all cases of si ultaneous talk count as interruptions! There are three kinds of overlap talk8 0 S7''O4T2N.. This occurs when the listener akes a positive re ark while the other person is talking! For e&a ple# while the other person is talking the listener ight say# '( co pletely agree with you'! Although this interHection overlaps with the speaker's talk it doesn't count as an interruption $ecause it's not designed to transfer the speaker role to the listener - it's intended to keep the speaker and the listener in their present roles! 0 SN2'2N.. This occurs when one person is talking and the listener says so ething like '>u$$ish'' or '( don't agree'! Again# although there is overlap talk# these interHections are not necessarily cases of interruption $ecause the listener ay have no intention of usurping the speaker's role - the listener ay si ply want to e&press a point of view# and possi$ly unsettle the speaker in the process! 0 2NTE447'T2N.. (nterruptions occur when the overlap talk is a product of co peting desires for the floor - for e&a ple# when one person is speaking and the

other
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*ONVE>SAT(ON TE==S person talks across that person in an atte pt to secure the floor for hi - or herself! Successful interruptions occur when the speaker relin-uishes the floor to the interrupter# and unsuccessful interruptions occur when the speaker anages to see off the challenge and hold on to the floor!

(nterrupters use several tricks to ensure success! One is to raise their volu e - it's $een discovered that interrupters who talk louder than the other person are + ore likely to ac-uire the floor! Another trick is to appear resolute! (nterrupters who talk without hesitation# and who re ain unaffected $y the fact that the other person is also talking# are ore likely to succeed! So are interrupters who con- tinue to talk $eyond the point where ost interrupters give up the challenge! There are two critical points in overlap talk! One is the 'accident point' and the other is the 'challenge point'! For e&a ple# when the listener thinks that the speaker is a$out to give up the floor and starts to talk# $oth of the are likely to end up talking at the sa e ti e! .ecause the interrupter has no intention of gra$$ing the floor fro the speaker# he or she is likely to stop talking at the 'accident point'# which is a$out one second into the over- lap talk! .y stopping at this point# rather than later# the interrupter can show the speaker that the overlapping talk was accidental! 6e can also get this essage across $y stopping the interruption in idsentence rather than at the end of the utterance! The other critical point in overlap talk is the 'challenge point'! This is the point where interrupters nor ally give up the challenge# and it occurs a$out two to three seconds after the $eginning of overlap

3/4

T6E TE==S

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talk! (nterrupters who are serious a$out taking the floor ay need to go $eyond this point# and in the process they lay the selves open to the accusation that they are inter- rupting! 6alf-hearted interruptions tend to peter out $efore they get to this stage! (nterruptions are affected $y a variety of factors# includ- ing status# gender# fa iliarity and culture! ,hen there's a status difference# the high-status person is ore 0 likely to interrupt the low-status person! On $alance en are ore likely to interrupt wo en than vice versa! (n this conte&t interruption is often used as a eans of e&ercising control over the conversation and therefore over the other person! That's why en are ore likely to interrupt wo en during the early stages of ac-uaintance - when they're treating the as wo en rather than individuals and trying to assert the selves! )eople have very different attitudes to interruption# and so do different cultures! (n 7editerranean societies interruption $etween close friends is often the nor # and it's not unusual to find situations where several people are speaking at once! This is also true of so e Fewish fa ilies# where interruption is used as a way of B showing solidarity and enthusias ! To categoriJe these interruptions as $attles for control of the floor is to isunderstand the - they're Hust a way of getting involved and voicing one's opinions!

T"rn)*ielding Tells
So far we've looked at what happens when the listener wants to continue in his or her role# as well as the various strategies listeners can use in order to usurp the

speaker's

no

*ONVE>SAT(ON TE==S

role! .ut what a$out the speaker% 6ow do speakers hold on to the floor# and which signals do they use when they want to relin-uish the floor% ,hen speakers want to give up the floor they send 'turn-yielding signals' to the listener! As we've already seen# so e of these signals are trans itted $efore the end of the turn# aking it possi$le for listeners to ake a 's ooth transition'# where the $eginning of their turn coincides with the end of the previous speaker's turn! One of the ways that speakers signal the end of their turn is $y altering their pattern of gaJe - if the speaker is looking elsewhere# he or she ay signal that the turn is A co ing to an end $y looking at the listener! This is crucial when there's a group of people - in this situation the person who the speaker looks at last is 2 ost likely to $eco e the ne&t speaker! The end of a sentence usually arks the 'co pletion point' of a turn# $ut $ecause each turn contains so any co pleted sentences this in itself is not enough to show when the speaker is a$out to end their turn! Additional signals are re-uired! One of these is a drop in vocal pitch! 6and gestures can also serve as signals that the turn is co ing to an end! Occasionally the end of a turn is arked $y a particular phrase - one e&a ple is the ha$it that so e people have of co pleting their turn with the e&pression# '( don't know' or '( don't know# really'! So e people shrug their shoulders# which conveys a very si ilar essage at the end of their turn! Starkey "uncan# who has ade a detailed study of turntaking signals# has pointed out that people so eti es produce turn-holding signals at the sa e ti e as turnyielding signals# and that when this happens the presence of a single holding signal is enough

333

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to eli inate the effects of any nu $er of yielding 4 signals!

T"rn)holding Tells
(n order to hold on to the floor the speaker needs to give the i pression that he or she has lots ore to say! This can $e done in several ways! (t often involves the eyes! (n a two-person conversation the listener usually looks ore intently at the speaker than the speaker does at the listener! One reason why speakers are less visually attentive than listeners is $ecause they need to arshal their thoughts while they're talking# and they find it ore difficult to do this when they're faced with the distracting sight of the listener! The other reason is that looking serves as a turn- yielding cue! So for the speaker who wants to continue talking it's $etter not to look at the listener too uch - it ight give the false i pression that the speaker is a$out to give up the floor! Fro the speaker's point of view# the end of each sentence represents a potential 'co pletion point' which the listener ay construe as the end of their turn! To con- tinue talking# the speaker needs to produce additional signals to show that the end of the sentence doesn't ean the end of the turn! The "utch psychologist# Fohanneke *aspers# has discovered that speakers use speech elody to indicate that they want to continue talking! To signal this intention the speaker raises the pitch on the final stressed sylla$le and 3/ aintains the pitch at this level until the ne&t pause! The speaker can reinforce the i pression that he intends to continue talking $y producing narratives in the

for
33@

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*ONVE>SAT(ON TE==S

stories or Hokes! Another way is $y enu erating a series of points! For e&a ple# in a discussion a$out religion the speaker is less likely to $e interrupted if he tells his fe ale co panion that there are five proofs for the e&istence of 9od# and then starts to go through the one at a ti e! She's unlikely to interrupt hi while he's talking a$out# say# the third proof of 9od# $ecause she knows that there are still two ore proofs to co e! A si ilar floor-holding techni-ue is found in the use of e&pressions like 'and'# 'also'# ' oreover' and 'in addition' - all these speech 'connectives' infor the listener that the speaker has ore to say! The hands are so eti es used for the sa e purpose! As we'll see in the chapter on oreign tells# it's not unusual for (talians to hold the floor $y counting with their fingers! 6aving indicated that he's going to produce a list of points# the speaker either raises or clasps each finger in turn to show where he is in the list of things he's talking a$out# and therefore how any points he still intends to cover! The advantage of this anual ethod of enu er- ation is that the nu $er of issues to $e covered is not left $ehind in so ething the speaker said earlier - it's crystal- liJed in what the speaker is doing with his hands at that very o ent# so it's difficult to ignore! 5sing the hands in this way also gives the speaker an e&cuse to keep his hands oving# which is a sure sign that he intends to keep talking! Speakers also hold the floor $y discouraging interruptions and $y not succu $ing to the when they do occur! They can discourage interruptions $y $eing e phatic# $y looking away fro the listener# $y keeping the hands in otion# $y producing lists# and $y talking in

331

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a way that ini iJes the opportunities for listeners to start talking! Speakers who hold strong opinions use a range of 'atte pt-suppressing' strategies to prevent listeners taking over fro the ! One of 7argaret Thatcher's favourite e phatic gestures is the 'eye-flash'# which she uses to e phasiJe what she's saying and to de onstrate 33 that she's so e$ody to $e reckoned with! 7ick Fagger also uses the eye-flash gesture to underline what he's saying! ,hen speakers are interrupted# there are several things they can do to hold or retrieve the floor! Talking louder is one option! Another strategy is to use what 3@ Al$ert Scheflen called a 'transfi&'! (f you watch people in conversation you'll notice that when speakers are interrupted they so eti es continue to hold the posture they were in when they were interrupted! A speaker who had his hand raised at the ti e will freeJe it in id-air# Hust as if he were play- ing a ga e of 'statues'# and will continue to hold that position until he can regain the floor! .y keeping his hand in this fi&ed position# he shows that he has not co pleted his turn and that he intends to stay that way until the speaking role returns to hi ! ,hen he realiJes that he's not going to get the turn $ack i ediately# he's likely to lower his hand! (n that way he can signal that he's a$andoning his clai to the speaker role! Alternatively# speakers can hold the floor $y relegating the other person to the listener role and aking sure they stay there! ,e have already seen that one of the things that listeners do spontaneously is produce $ackchannel! This can take the for of supportive nods# 'uh-huhs' and various re arks that are intended to encourage the speaker while de onstrating that the

listener has no desire to take over the role! )eople who like to hold on to the
33+

*ONVE>SAT(ON TE==S

speaker role instinctively know that the $est way to keep the other person in the listener role is to encourage the to produce $ack-channel! This can $e done in two ways! One is $y using e&pressions like 'you see'# 'don't you think'# 'right%'# 'O<' and Frank .runo's 31 trade ark# 'know what ( ean%'! These e&pressions are e&a ples of '$ack- calling' $ecause they call on the listener to provide $ack-channel and therefore push the other person deeper into the role of listener! The other way to elicit $ack- channel is $y rewarding the listener whenever she produces $ack-channel! (f the speaker s iles or looks affectionately at the listener every ti e she says 'uh-huh'# it shouldn't $e long $efore the listener is producing ore $ack-channel# and in the process e&cluding herself fro taking over the role of speaker! An e&pression like 'you know what ( ean' can serve as an instance of $ack-calling# especially when it has a rising# interrogative contour! .ut the sa e e&pression can also serve as a 'co prehension arker' or an 'agree ent arker' - in other words# as a declarative state ent that su ariJes the presu ed understanding or agree ent $etween the speaker and listener! ,hen the speaker says# 'you know what ( ean'# he isn't necessarily asking the listener to provide $ack-channelE he ay si ply $e trying to get the listener to accept his point of view! So e speakers try to do all the talking and to ensure that they have the listener's undivided attention! ,hen speakers defend their role aggressively# listeners are inclined to respond $y orienting their $ody away# averting their gaJe and generally looking for an opportunity to escape! This is an inversion of the nor al state of affairs# where the listener pays ore attention to the speaker than

330

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the speaker does to the listener! A listener who's retreating in this way does not represent a threat to the talkative speaker $ecause she's not after the speaker role! 6owever# in order to secure his occupancy of the speaker role# the speaker so eti es needs to ake sure that the listener re ains in hers! So eti es this can $e done physically! For e&a ple# during the nineteenth century# the conversational practice of '$utton-holding' :or '$utton-holing'; was widespread - the speaker woul d gra$ hold of a $utton on the listener's coat in order to get his attention and stop hi getting away! The English essayist# *harles =a $# provides a slightly e&aggerated description of the practice8 ( was going fro y house in Enfield to the (ndia-house one orning# and was hurrying# for ( was late# when ( et *oleridge# on his way to pay e a visitE he was $ri ful of so e new idea and# in spite of y assuring hi that ti e was precious# he drew e within the door of an un- occupied garden $y the road-side# and there# sheltered fro o$servation $y a hedge of evergreens# he took e $y the $utton of y coat# and closing his eyes co enced an elo-uent discourse# waving his right hand gently# as the usical words flowed in an un$roken strea fro his lips! ( listened entrancedE $ut the striking of the church recalled e to a sense of duty! ( saw it was of no use to atte pt to $reak away so# taking advantage of his a$sor$tion in his su$Hect# (# with y penknife# -uietly severed the $utton fro y coat and deca ped! Five hours afterwards# in passing the sa e garden# on y way ho e# ( heard *oleridge's voice# and on looking in# there he was# with eyes closed# - the $utton in his fingers# - and his right hand

33B

*ONVE>SAT(ON TE==S gracefully waving# Hust as when ( left hi ! 6e had 3+ never issed e!

Tal Tells
,hen we're talking to people# we tend to focus on what they say# rather than how they say it or the precise e&pressions they use! *areful attention to the actual words that people use can often provide a uni-ue insight into 30 what they are thinking! 0 '4ONO7NS. )eople who fre-uently use the word ' ( ' tend to $e concerned with the selves# although it does depend on the conte&t in which the word is used! Those who prefer to use 'we' are often trying to avoid aking any reference to the selves as individuals! 5se of 'we' can also denote an inclusive fra e of ind - for e&a ple# one an ight go on holiday with his wife and then talk a$out the e&perience using the word '('# while another ight use the word 'we' to give the i pression that he'd $een on holiday with his wife# even though he hadn't! Then there's the use of the royal 'we'! A fa ous and rather revealing e&a ple of this occurred after the $irth of 7argaret Thatcher's grandchild# when she announced to the press# ',e are a grand other'! 0 ATT4A3TO4S. )eople differ widely in ter s of how co forta$le they are with $eing the centre of attention! (ndividuals who like to $e in the li elight tend to talk a$out the selves! They also show a preference for 'dropping'# which can take the for of 'na e-dropping'#

33A

T6E .OO< OF TE==S 'place-dropping' or 'e&perience-dropping'! Of these three# na e-dropping is the ost effective eans of increasing one's social status $ecause it e&ploits the need that all of us have to keep our opinions consistent! For e&a ple# if you like person A and you know that person A likes person .# then you are ore likely to like .# $ecause it keeps your opinions in line with each other! (f you were to decide that you didn't like . your opinions would $e un$alanced! The sa e principle applies with na e-dropping! ,hen your work colleague co es over to you and tells you a$out a fa ous person who he's Hust et# he's not si ply passing on a $it of news - he's actually encouraging you to like hi ore $ecause so eone who you ad ire appears to like hi ! 0 (EFLE3TO4S. )eople who are shy or who want to avoid the attention of others often resort to linguistic 'deflectors'! (n conversation they fre-uently ask the other person -uestions a$out the selves# or they steer the con- versation towards topics that are closer to the other person's interests! This auto atically shifts the spotlight away fro the and reduces the chances that they will have to reveal so ething a$out the self! The other deflecting strategy that shy or insecure people use is to talk a$out i personal atters! This deflects attention fro the selves and the other person# and shifts it towards less threatening topics like architecture or the weather!

0 3ONT4ASTO4S. ,ords like '$ut'# 'however' and 'nevertheless' are used to set up a contrast! They're favoured $y people who like to point out that things aren't always

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*ONVE>SAT(ON TE==S what they see # or who want to put forward another point of view! )eople often set up contrasts $y descri$ing one set of affairs# only to negate part of it later on! For e&a ple# your friend ight tell you that her hus$and is very loving# $ut that he does like to have his privacy! .y setting up this contrast# your friend is doing several things - she's showing you that she doesn't have a onedi ensional view of her hus$and# and that she doesn't approve of his desire for privacy! SOFTENE4S. )eople often say things that are designed to soften the i pact of what they are going to say ne&t! (f you're going to criticiJe so eone# you ight say so e- thing like# '( don't want you to take this the wrong way'# $efore you tell the what you think a$out their ta$le anners# the co pany they keep# or their ina$ility to arrive on ti e! Softeners like '( hope you don't think (' $eing rude' and '( don't want to $e critical' are usually two-faced $ecause they provide a cloak under which people can $e rude and critical while denying that it's their intention to do so! The sociologist Eugene ,einstein called these linguistic devices 'pre-interpretations'# or 3B 'printerps' for short! The potency of the printerp lies in its a$ility to defuse other people's negative reactions $y telling so eone that you don't want the to take your ne&t re ark the wrong way you are in effect ruling out their nor al response! ?ou're also providing yourself with a linguistic $unker - so ewhere you can hide if the other person does take offence and $rings out the $ig guns! Of course it doesn't follow that the person who is offered a printerp auto atically accepts it! For e&a ple# you ight say to your friend# '( don't

want you to take this a iss'!

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T6E .OO< OF TE==S .efore you've had a chance to say anything else# your friend ight Hu p in and say '.ut'' This is your friend's way of reHecting the softener# showing that your efforts to prepare the ground for what follows si ply haven't worked! ,einstein pointed out that interpretations can also $e offered afterwards! A re ark like 'That's not what ( eant' is a 'post-interpretation'# or what he calls a 'posterp' - it's designed to rule out certain interpretations retrospectively! The 'pre-apology'# or 'prepalog'# also tries to itigate the effects of what is a$out to follow! ,hen people say things like '( hate to tell you this# $ut ! ! !' or '('ve never done this $efore'# they are trying to get the other person to lower the standard against which their ne&t re ark or ne&t action is likely to $e Hudged! )repalogs play an i portant role in re-uests $ecause they protect the 'face' of everyone concerned! Saying so ething like '( don't want to $e a nuisance# $ u t ! ! ! ' warns the other person that a re-uest is a$out to $e ade and that it's not $ased on any presu ption! .ecause it's polite and su$ issive# it puts the other person in an awkward position where a refusal is likely to ake hi or her appear unreasona$le! 0 HE(.ES. Everyday speech is full of e&pressions like 'well'# 'sort of # 'kind of # 'like' and 'you know'! These conversational fillers are so eti es called 3A 'hedges'! There has $een a lot of de$ate a$out why people use hedges# and a$out who uses the ost! For e&a ple# people often use hedges like 'kind of :or 'kinda'; and 'sort of :or 'sorta'; when they say things such as '(t's kind of cold today'! These hedges indicate i precisionE

they show that the speaker should not $e held to account for
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*ONVE>SAT(ON TE==S the inaccuracy of the state ent# and they suggest that there's so ething peculiar a$out whatever they're descri$ing! (n the 5nited States ost educated people prefer 'kind of and 'sort of to 'rather'# although 'rather' is often favoured $y upper-class people in the northeast - presu a$ly $ecause of its e&clusive# English associations! '<ind of is generally preferred to 'sort of # $ut 'sort of enHoys a lot of popularity in the southern states!
32

For a long ti e it was held that the e&pression 'you know' is a sign of powerlessness# and that is why wo en use it ore often than en! There is now so e dou$t whether wo en do use the e&pression ore fre-uently! (t's also $eco ing clear that 'you know' perfor s several different functions# depending on where it appears in an utterance# whether it's preceded $y a pause# and whether it's spoken with a rising# falling or level intonation! Fanet 6ol es# who has ade a special study of 'you know' in everyday speech# has discovered that wo en don't use the e&pression ore fre-uently# $ut that en and wo en often use it for -uite different purposes - while wo en use 'you know' to underline their confidence in what they're saying# en use it to e&press uncertainty 34 and to show that they're $eing i precise! '?ou know' can $e used as a for of '$ack-calling' - in other words# as a eans of eliciting $ack-channel and support fro the listener# and ena$ling the speaker to continue! ,hen it's used as a 'ver$al filler' it can perfor the sa e task as e&pressions like 'sort of# 'you see' and '( ean'# which speakers use to keep speaking and to dis- courage other people fro trying to take the floor! ,hen it appears at the end of an utterance# 'you know'

can $e
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used to show that the speaker is prepared to relin-uish the floor! E-ually# the e&pression can take on a 'search function'# helping the speaker to re e $er the ne&t word or phrase! This is often what's happening when 'you know' is preceded $y a pause!

Post"re Tells
The way people use their $odies often provides clues to their co it ent to a conversation! ,hen two people are talking to each other# they spend so e of the ti e looking at each other and the rest looking elsewhere! )eople who spend a lot of ti e looking away give the i pression that they are not interested in the other person! <nowing this to $e the case# even when we find so eone e&tre ely $oring we try not to look away too uch# for fear that we will reveal our feelings! (nstead# we watch the other person politely# creating the false i pression that we find the interesting! The three ain sources of infor ation provided $y the $ody are the eyes# the torso and the legs! )eople are generally aware of what they're doing with their eyes# so gaJe doesn't always prove to $e a very relia$le source of infor ation a$out individuals' feelings towards each other! .ecause people are far less aware of where their torso is facing# it's often a uch $etter indicator of their feelings! 6owever# when it co es to gauging so e- one's co it ent to a conversation# the $est place to look is at their legs and feet! There are two reasons for this! One is that people are often -uite unaware of these parts of the $ody! (n

fact# if we produced a scale of $ody awareness# we'd find that

3@@

*ONVE>SAT(ON TE==S people are ore aware of their front than their $ack# and ost aware of their head and face# followed $y their ar s# hands and torso# and least aware of their legs and feet! The second reason why the legs are especially infor ative is that they are associated wit h pri itive i pulses of flight! ,hen people feel threatened they react either $y defend- ing the selves or $y trying to escape! (n the process of preparing to escape they often produce intention oveents that give rise to various @/ postures! .ecause these are outside conscious control they reveal people's true feelings a$out the person they're talking to! 0 THE 'A4ALLEL STAN3E. 6ere the legs are straight and parallel# so that the feet are planted close together and the weight of the $ody is evenly distri$uted $etween the ! )eople who adopt the parallel stance are usually $eing non-co ittal - they're neither showing that they intend to go nor that they wish to stay!

3@1

T6E .OO< OF TE==S THE ST4A((LE STAN3E. Again the legs are straight# $ut this ti e the feet are spread apart! As we saw earlier# the straddle stance is typically a posture of do inance $ecause it widens the $ody# takes up ore space and surreptitiously presents the genitals! .ut $ecause the feet are set apart# the straddle stance is also a posture of i ova$ility - it shows that the person does not intend to go! (f you watch a group of young en standing in a circle - say# in a sports clu$ after a atch - you'll often find the adopting the straddle stance! This posture is an e&pression of their solidarity! .y standing with their legs apart they're showing that they're acho and that they have no intention of leaving!

THE S32SSO4S STAN3E. (n the scissors stance the legs are crossed# Hust as if they were the $lades of a pair of scissors! This posture can $e perfor ed with $oth legs straight :the 'scissors stance'; or with one leg $ent across

3@+

*ONVE>SAT(ON TE==S or $ehind the other :the '$ent $lade stance';! The scissors stance is the classic posture of i o$ility! (t's a perfect e&a ple of an 'unintention display' $ecause it shows that the person is co itted to the conversation and has no intention of leaving! .ecause it is co pletely devoid of any suggestion of i patience# the scissor stance also co es across as a gesture of su$ issiveness! THE B7TT4ESS STAN3E. (n the $uttress stance ost of the $ody's weight is on the 'support' leg# while the other leg acts as a $uttress - rather like a flying $uttress on a cathedral! (n this posture the support leg is straight and the $uttress leg is either straight or $ent - typically it's $ent at the knee and the foot is positioned so that it's pointing away! This standing posture enHoyed enor ous popularity as a for of ale display fro the 7iddle Ages until the iddle of the nineteenth century - in fact fro the appearance of en's hose until the dis- appearance of tight $reeches! (t ena$led en to 'show the leg' and to assu e a posture that distinguished the fro the @3 co on classes! Nowadays the $uttress stance pretends to $e a convenient way of resting one leg while the other supports the $ody! ,hat it really shows# however# is that the person wants to leave! That's $ecause of its close si ilarity to the act of walking! ,hen so e- one starts to walk away they auto atically transfer the weight of their $ody on to one leg so that the other leg is free to ake a step! That's very si ilar to what happens in the $uttress stance# where ost of the $ody weight is supported $y one leg! Although the other leg doesn't actually take a step# the fact that it could do so shows that the $uttress stance is really a disguised intention

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ove ent to depart! This is especially true when so e- one repeatedly shifts his or her weight fro one foot to the other! ,hen you see so eone with the $uttress stance it's worth looking at where the toe of their $uttress foot is pointing $ecause it often shows what they're think- ing! So eti es the foot is pointing at so eone who the person is secretly thinking a$outE ost of the ti e# how- ever# you'll find that it's pointing in the direction where they're hoping to ake their escape! One of the lessons we learn fro watching conversations is how skilled people are at synchroniJing their turns and ti ing their interHections and interruptions down to a few illiseconds! (n spite of our re arka$le talent for coordinating conversations and knowing what to say to each other# we have very little conscious awareness of the principles on which our e&pertise is $ased! Ne&t ti e you get a chance# ask so eone whose conversation you've Hust witnessed what they've $een doing# and see what they say! ?ou ight find that they can offer you a fairly detailed account of wh o said what to who ! .ut they won't $e a$le to tell you how they oriented towards the other person# how they used their hands and eyes to hold the floor# or how they anaged to ward off several atte pted interruptions! 7ost of us are like this! (n spite of our enor ous talent as conversationalists# we're re arka$ly ignorant of the tells that we produce and those that we respond to! =istening to other people's conversations and watching the ore closely won't necessarily ake us ore interesting conversationalists! .ut it wi l l give us a uch $etter understanding of the way that people try to control the floor and atte pt to influence each other!

3@B

5+ Tells

Political

)olitics is all a$out appearances - it's as i portant for politicians to convince other people that they have certain principles as it is to conceal the fact that they are prepared to a$andon these principles in favour of power# oney or fa e! (n pu$lic polls a$out the integrity of different pro- fessions# politicians regularly appear near the $otto of the league ta$le# usually Hust a$ove second-hand car salesen! This reflects the widespread pu$lic distrust of politicians# and the recognition that what they pretend to do and what they actually do# are very different things! )oliticians have long recogniJed this two-faced feature of politics! (n any cases it see s to $e what attracted the to the profession in the first place!

%ealth Tells
Although politicians co e in all shapes and siJes# so e

aspects of appearance are ore conducive to success than others! 6eight see s to $e a significant factor especially
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when you consider that only three of the past 5S presidents were shorter than the national average for their period! A$raha =incoln# for e&a ple# was a $ig person in ore ways than one# easuring in at B feet + inches! Of course there have $een ore di inutive# and no less effective# heads of state - like 7ussolini and 6aile Selassie - $ut they ade up for their lack of height in other ways# and where possi$le concealed it! 7ussolini ade hi self look taller $y standing on a $o& when he addressed the crowds fro his $alcony! ,henever 6aile Selassie sat on the i perial throne a pile of cushions would $e placed under his feet so he could avoid the indignity of having his feet dangling in id-air! (t's widely assu ed that Napoleon was also short - we so eti es refer to so eone who's short and over$earing as having a 'Napoleonic co ple&' - $ut there's no evidence to support this notion! (n fact Napoleon was a$out 0 feet B inches# which was the average height of a French an in his day! (t's possi$le that he si ply looked short $eside the grenadiers of his ( perial 9uard# who were specially selected for their height# and that's why we still think of hi as unusually short! (t's essential for political leaders to look fit $ecause people unconsciously associate the health of the $ody politic with the health of their head of state! That's why )resident Franklin "! >oosevelt# who'd had polio# tried to hide $oth his physical disa$ility and the fact that he spent so uch ti e in a wheelchair! (t's why 9eorge ,! .ush goes Hogging in pu$lic# why .ill *linton did the sa e when he was in office# why 9eorge .ush Sr played tennis# why >onald >eagan ade it known that he pressed weights# and why >ichard Ni&on

s-ueeJed all the

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pu$licity he could out of his early days as a foot$all player! There are even photographs of the young Ni&on playing A erican foot$all without a hel et - a practice which# his critics reckoned# e&plained so e of his peculiar political decisions in later life! Fohn F! <ennedy and .o$$y <ennedy were $rought up in a fa ily that $elieved in the virtues of tea ga es# although FF< found it difficult to take part after he'd inHured his $ack during the Second ,orld ,ar! Once# when he was addressing a group of sports coaches# .o$$y <ennedy announced that# 'E&cept for war# there is nothing in A erican life - nothing - which trains a $oy $etter for life than foot$all!' Sy $olically# the fitness of the 5S )resident is very i portant! One need only think of the ti e when )resident Fi y *arter went Hogging with his aides and collapsed fro e&haustion! The fa ous photograph of *arter# with his legs $uckled underneath hi and a vacant look on his face# sent a rever$erating shudder round the country! (t was this revelation of his vulnera$ility# coupled with the failed atte pt to rescue the 5S hostages in (ran# which led to the freefall in *arter's popularity# and to his eventual defeat $y >onald >eagan! )hotographs# and their a$ility to engrave an i age on people's inds# play a critical role in the pu$lic i age of politicians! For e&a ple# when 9eorge ,! .ush nearly choked on a pretJel it was fairly easy to dis iss the incident as a Hoke! 6owever# had a photographer $een present to record the event# we ight have $een e&posed to a very undignified spectacle :definitely not what one e&pects fro the leader of the western world'; and .ush's reputation could have $een irrepara$ly da aged!

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Ha*r Tells
One of the features that helps to create an i pression of youthful vigour in a politician is a full head of hair! A few years ago# Neil <innock# the for er leader of the =a$our )arty# who has hardly any hair# wrote a teasing letter to ,illia 6ague# the then leader of the *onservative )arty# to warn hi that his lack of hair was likely to dis-ualify hi fro ever $eco ing )ri e 7inister! Several onths later the *onservative )arty was defeated at the polls and 6ague was forced to resign# only to $e replaced $y lain "uncan S ith# a an with even less hair than 6ague! (f '<innock's *urse' works# the *onservatives are likely to re ain the party of opposition until they elect a leader with a full head of hair! .ecause $a$ies often don't have any hair on their head and people lose their hair as they get older# $aldness can $e a sign of e&tre e youth as well as age! (n 6ague's case the lack of hair# coupled with his $a$ylike features# ade hi look too young! (t gave the i pression that he was unprepared for a life in politics! All things $eing e-ual - which of course they never are in politics - it's an advantage for politicians to have a full head of hair and to look youthful and vigorous! .ecause they are associated with age and aturity# $eards don't offer politicians any special advantage# unless - as in the case of Fidel *astro - the $eard is $eing used to support an i age of the politician as a revolutionary! ,hen the *(A was thinking of ways of re oving *astro during the 34B/s# they ca e up with the idea of developing a depilatory lotion which# when applied to *astro's chin# would co pletely re ove his $eard and e&pose the unknown face $eneath!

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Although they never pursued the idea# they realiJed# -uite correctly# that without his $eard *astro would have $een unrecogniJa$le!

8alk*n+ Tells
)oliticians also try to create an i pression of youthful vigour through their postures and ove ents! (nterestingly# posture provides less opportunity to convey an i age of strength# largely $ecause it's easier to fake! That's why politicians put so uch effort into the way they ove their head# ar s and hands# and the way they walk! The way an ani al oves provides a very clear picture of its strength# agility and deter ination# and it's the sa e with politicians! Fohn F! <ennedy was the first )resident of the television age# and he used it to full advantage! "uring the fa ous <ennedy-Ni&on de$ates in 34B/# people who had listened to the first de$ate on radio put Ni&on ahead! 6owever# those who had watched the de$ate on television put <ennedy ahead of Ni&on# and as things worked out# actually offered a ore accurate prediction of the final result! (t is television's capacity to capture those rather pri itive aspects of de eanour - to put appearances on a par with su$stance - that helped <ennedy to get elected# and which has ade or $roken politicians ever since! 6ow politicians walk sends very strong essages a$out what they're like - or rather# how they want to $e seen $y others! These essages are so eti es conveyed $y walk- ing speed - for e&a ple# whenever )ri e 7inister 6arold ,ilson $oarded an aeroplane he ade a

ha$it of running
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up the stairs so that everyone thought he was fit! .ut it was >onald >eagan who anaged to transfor walking into a for of art! (f you ever watched hi closely you'll have noticed that he oved in a way that conveyed an i - pression of weighty o entu - and# $y suggestion# of political su$stance as well! This was partly achieved $y his resolute stride - aking it look as though his aides were struggling to keep up with hi - and partly $y the vigorous way in which he oved his ar s! ,hen people walk# their ar s swing through an arc in the sagittal plane :i!e! the plane that's in line with the ove ent of their $ody through space;! The full e&tent of the arc# forward and $ack# provides an inde& of vigour# $ecause young people tend to swing their ar s higher at the front and further up at the $ack# partly $ecause they ove faster than older people! Swinging the ar s a'ross the $ody also helps to create an i pression of asculine strength! There are two factors at work here - one $eing the difference $etween en and wo en# and the other $eing the e&aggerated effect of $ody-$uilding on gait style! ,hen en and wo en stand upright# there's a tendency for en's ar s to rotate slightly inwards :what physi- ologists call 'pronation'; and for wo en's ar s to rotate slightly outwards :what physiologists call 'supination';! This se& difference is partly due to the fact that wo en can $end their ar s further $ack at the el$ow than en! This is called the 'carrying angle' and it's $een e&plained as resulting fro the fact that wo en have wider hips than en and spend ore ti e carrying $a$ies! .ecause wo en have a greater carrying angle than en# their ar s swing further on the $ack-swing

31@

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than en's! (n order to distinguish the selves fro wo en# and to e phasiJe their asculinity# en use ore upswing than $ack-swing! The other reason why en show ore pronation in their ar s is that the latissimus dorsi uscles under their ar s are ore developed! This has the effect of oving their shoulders forward and rotating the ar s inwards! This effect is very noticea$le in $ody-$uilders! .ecause $ody-$uilders have over-developed latissimus dorsi and deltoid uscles# their ar s are pronated ore than ost# and the gap $etween their ar s and chest is accentuated# giving the a ore si ian# ape-like appearance! Also# $ecause their thighs are overdeveloped# $ody-$uilders tend to have a ore rolling gait# swinging their legs outwards as they ove forward! (t's often said that a picture is worth a thousand words! (t's also true that# in politics# a oving i age is worth a thousand pictures - especially when it co es to walking style! News footage of >onald >eagan striding through the ,hite 6ouse or across the lawn gave the i pression of a happy# energetic young an who was totally in control! >eagan created this i pression $y su$tly incorporating features of the $ody-$uilder's gait into his walking style# $y swinging his ar s across his $ody and $y rotating his hands to the point where they al ost faced $ackwards! At the sa e ti e# $y keeping his hands open and rela&ed he increased their apparent siJe# eli inated any suggestion of latent an&iety# and created a su$li inal i age of so eone who was ready to reach for his gun! ,hile >eagan was a consu ate political perfor er - possi$ly the $est that A erican politics has ever seen - there's no evidence that he was interested in what other

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people's $ehaviour revealed a$out their personality or their otives! 6e was a great $eliever# however# in the art of divination with Helly$eans! 6e once fa ously re arked that 'you can tell a lot a$out a fellow's character $y his way of eating Helly$eans' - for e&a ple# does so eone show hi self to $e a creature of ha$it $y picking out Hust one colour# or does he reveal his i pulsiveness and lack of self-consciousness $y gra$$ing a whole handful! (n ore ways than one# >eagan's presidency was a 'Helly$ean presidency'! A large Har of Helly$eans always presided over the i portant eetings that he held in the ,hite 6ouse# and at the inaugural gala in 3423 it's reported that so e +/ illion Helly$eans were consu ed' (n a recent survey in A erica >onald >eagan was voted the third-greatest 5S )resident of all ti e# $ehind 3 9eorge ,ashington and A$raha =incoln! The result of this poll surprised any political pundits $ecause >eagan didn't produce any i pressive legislation or particularly in- spiring speeches# and he'd $een involved in the *ontra scandal! 6owever# pundits often overlook the fact that politicians are Hudged $y their @ de eanour as uch as $y their policies! =ittle things# like the way politicians walk or s ile# can have a far greater i pact on how they are re e $ered than all their political achieve ents and failures! (n the end# >eagan's $lunders# his political gaffes# his ignorance and his so nolent attitude to the office of )resident - all these things were forgiven $ecause he was a$le to produce the right tells. "uring his presidency *linton also adopted a acho walking style# and 9eorge ,! .ush has followed in his footsteps! (ndeed# 9eorge ,! .ush is pro$a$ly the fittest 5S A erican )resident there's ever $een! 6e runs a

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seven- inute ile# which puts hi in the first or second percentile in the fitness rankings for en of his age! ?ou can see that .ush is fit fro his $uild and fro the way he walks# although there's a strong suggestion of artifice in his gait $ecause he doesn't have the uscles to warrant the $ody-$uilder's lope that he's cultivated! Nevertheless# .ush's walking style sends a very clear signal of asculinity to the electorate! (t can also unnerve people who eet hi ! This happened when )ri e 7inister Tony .lair et )resident .ush at *a p "avid in @//@! The television news footage showed the two leaders walking together# .ush casually dressed in a leather $o $er Hacket# and .lair in an open-necked shirt! .ush is striding presidentially# with his ar s pronated and e&tended away fro his $ody# and his hands rela&ed and facing $ack- wards Hust like a $ody-$uilder! Not to $e outdone# $ut not wanting to i ic his host# .lair strolls along with his hands casually tucked into his trouser pockets so ething he never does in pu$lic' 6ere .ush has clearly upped the ante in the asculinity stakes and .lair has tried to atch hi ! .y tucking his hands into his pockets .lair is trying to show that he's also tough and rela&ed# $ut that he's not prepared to play Tonto to .ush's =one >anger!

(e)ens*;e Tells
(n The Prin'e :301@;# his fa ous treatise on politics# 7achiavelli o$served that ' en rise fro one a $ition to anotherE first they secure the selves fro attack# and then they attack others'! The threat to politicians can co e fro other political parties# the electorate or the edia! (t can

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also co e fro their own partyE politicians ay therefore find it necessary to attack their allies ore vigorously than their foes! (n order to survive# politicians need to $e constantly on their guard against attack! (f you watch politicians aking political speeches you'll notice that they often gesticulate with their hands while they're talk- ing! *loser inspection of their hand ove ents shows that when politicians are feeling insecure they often produce hand postures that are sy $olically defensive their hands ay# for e&a ple# cross their $ody# or the pal s of their hands ay $e pushed forwards as if they are a$out to parry an i aginary $low! The facial e&pressions of politicians can also $e reveal- ing! One of .ill *linton's trade ark tells is the 'o&$ow outh'# where the lower lip is pushed upwards# shaping the outh into an inverted '5 ' ! .ill *linton uses this e&pression when he wants to show that he's deter ined! 9eorge ,! .ush and Tony .lair use the gesture for the sa e purpose! ,hile the o&$ow outh provides a display of resolution# the fact that it also involves a tensing of the uscles over the chin shows that it is essentially a defensive gesture - it's how people react when they think so eone is a$out to punch the on the chin# and it's how politicians give the selves away when they're feeling vulnera$le! That's why >ichard Ni&on was photographed so often with an o&$ow outh during the ,atergate scandal# and why .ill *linton produced the sa e facial e&pression so often during the 7onica =ewinsky affair! There are five other ways that politicians can defend the selves against attack8 :3; $y adopting a friendly de eanourE :@; $y odulating their voice so that they sound ore attractive and less threateningE :1; $y

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producing appeasing signalsE :+; $y kissing $a$iesE and :0; $y creating the i pression that they're popular and adora$le!

Fr*endl= Tells
)oliticians often atte pt to ward off aggression $y presenting the selves as a ia$le individuals - in other words# as the kind of people who no$ody would ever have any reason to attack! >onald >eagan had this down to a T! (t was crystalliJed in his fa ous re ark# during the presidential de$ate# when he turned to Fi y *arter and said# There you go again' aking it appear that *arter was so ehow $eing unfair $y trying to e&pose hi ! >eagan's s iles were usually $road and generous! 5nlike those of any other politicians# which are restricted to the outh region# >eagan's s iles fre-uently e&tended to the eyes# showing that his feelings of friendship and enHoy- ent were genuine! The key thing a$out a genuine s ile is that it's uch ore likely to elicit reciprocated s iling fro other people# and this in turn is likely to ake the feel ore positively disposed to the person who s iled in the first place! 9enuine s iles are like agnets - they act at a distance# realigning people's feelings and aking the point in the sa e direction! That's what akes the so effective as a defensive weapon in politics! >eagan fre-uently e ployed an upgraded version of the s ile - the 'drop-Haw s ile'! (t's no accident that .ill *linton# who was e-ually concerned with outward appearances# also ade a ha$it of using the drop-Haw s ile - possi$ly even ore than >eagan! .ut

what
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distinguishes the drop-Haw s ile fro other s iles and akes it so special% S iles can include various degrees of outh opening! At one e&tre e are cases where the outh is hardly opened at all! This can produce a 'sealed s ile'# where the lips re ain together during the s ile# a 'top-teeth s ile'# where Hust the top teeth are seen# or a 'full-teeth s ile'# where the top and $otto teeth are e&posed! On the other hand# in a 'drop-Haw s ile' the outh is opened wide and either the top teeth or $oth sets of teeth are e&posed! The distinctive feature of the drop-Haw s ile is that it looks al ost e&actly like the chi panJee 'play- face'# which is the evolutionary precursor of hu an laughter! .ecause they are ore dra atic# drop-Haw s iles can $e seen at a greater distance! .ut what really sets drop-Haw s iles apart fro other s iles# and reco ends the to politicians# is the fact that they loo. like laughter! This affects other people in three ways! Firstly drop-Haw s iles convey a pri itive essage of playfulness! Secondly# they don't contain any suggestion of appeaseent# like other s iles do! Thirdly# $ecause laughter is uch ore contagious than s iling# drop-Haw s iles are likely to induce the sa e feelings in other people! A drop- Haw s ile therefore akes a politician look playful and unthreatening# and akes other people feel playful and unthreatened! There are other ways that politicians create an i - pression of friendliness! One of >eagan's signature tells was his 'head-twist' - a wry half-s ile acco panied $y a cock of the head# which he would use whenever he wanted to appear folksy and fa iliar! (n fact# in ter s of $oth its ove ent and its essage# >eagan's head-twist

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was very si ilar to a wink! =ike a wink# it was confined to one side of the face! (ts essage# like that of the wink# was one of co plicity - it was a way of aking other people feel included! .ut >eagan's head-twist also had a Huvenile# al ost rascally# -uality to it! (t ade hi look like 6uckle$erry Finn# or one of those naughty# freckled- faced kids in the atinee ovies! The gesture worked $ecause it ade >eagan look vulnera$le and endearing!

!ocal Tells
>eagan had other endearing tricks up his sleeve! One was his deep voiceE another was his $reathy way of speaking! "eep voices are associated with do inance# asculinity and concern - all -ualities that >eagan anaged to proHect with his voice! '.reathy' voices are often con- trasted with 'tense' voices! (n a $reathy voice there's a high rate of airflow over the vocal cords# while in a tense voice the rate of airflow is low! As a result# tense voices tend to sound etallic# whereas $reathy voices sound rela&ed and airy - in fact it's often said that a $reathy voice sounds like 'voice i&ed with air'! )eople with $reathy voices sound 1 war # while those with tense voices tend to sound cold! 6owever# $reathy voices are acoustically inefficient $ecause they re-uire a lot of effort and $ecause they're ore difficult to understand! On the whole# wo en tend to have ore $reathy voices than en# which is one of the reasons why they sound ore war and se&y! ,o en with par- ticularly $reathy voices include the 6ollywood actress Audrey 6ep$urn and the .ritish

actress Foanna =u ley! 7ale politicians who speak with a $reathy register don't
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necessarily sound ore fe inine - they Hust sound war er! (n >eagan's case# however# the story doesn't end there# $ecause he often spoke in a whisper# especially when he was on television! (n recent years whispered voices have $eco e very popular# particularly a ong ale ovie stars! ,hispered speech is# $y definition# $reathy speech at a lower volu e! The attraction of -uiet# low-volu e speech is that it creates an illusion of physical closeness and psychological inti acy! ,hen >eagan used to deliver his cosy# fireside chats on television all these vocal -ualities co $ined - the depth of his voice aking hi sound asculine# his $reathiness aking hi sound war # and the whispered delivery aking hi appear inti ate and friendly! (t's no wonder that other politicians have taken a leaf out of >eagan's $ook and odified their voice in order to ake the sound ore attractive! >eagan's old pal 7argaret Thatcher# for e&a ple# was advised to lower her voice a few octaves so that she would sound softer and ore concerned! Si ilar shifts in vocal register can $e heard in other .ritish politicians# so e of who have $een coached to lower their voices in order to ake the sound less agitated and ore hu an! Evidence of the advantages offered $y a deep voice ay $e found in a study conducted $y Stanford 9regory and Ti othy 9allagher# in which they co pared the voices of 5S presidential candidates in eight of the national elections since 34B/ :this did not + include the last election;! The authors e&a ined 34 de$ates! 5sing spectral analysis# they easured what's called the 'funda- ental fre-uency' of each candidate's voice# paying special attention to the

spectru
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$elow !0 k6J! ,hen

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they co pared each pair of candidates they discovered that in every one of the eight elections the candidate with the deeper voice also got the highest percentage of popular votes' This provides clear proof# if proof is needed# that politics isn't Hust a$out principles! *rucially# it's a$out possessing a voice that sounds convincing and presidential!

A,,ease&ent Tells
One way for politicians to avoid $eing attacked is to 0 signal that they have no intention of attacking others! Another way is to produce an appease ent display that 'cuts off' other people's aggression! The first strategy can so eti es $e seen during Luestion Ti e in the 6ouse of *o ons# when the govern ent of the day and the opposition parties face each other across the large ta$le on which are situated the two dispatch $o&es! (n the front rows# right in the iddle of their party# $ut on opposite sides of the house# sit the )ri e 7inister and the =eader of the Opposition - looking for all the world like oriental potentates at the head of their ar ies# ready to do $attle! At Luestion Ti e the standard practice is for the =eader of the Opposition to rise to his or her feet# to approach the dispatch $o&# ask a -uestion# and then sit down! Ne&t# the )ri e 7inister rises and approaches the dispatch $o&! 6e then answers the -uestion :or doesn't answer the -uestion; and sits down! The rules of the house entitle the =eader of the Opposition to ask three -uestions altogether! The way that the )ri e 7inister and the =eader of the Opposition position the selves at the dispatch $o&es

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reflects the te perature of their political e&change! ,hen the e&change is reassuringly polite# each tends to face the other directly while standing at their dispatch $o&! 6owever# when the de$ate gets heated# there's a arked tendency for the )ri e 7inister and the =eader of the Opposition to orient their $odies away fro each other! This is 'flanking'# and it's found throughout the ani al world! As we've seen# when dogs eet in the park for the first ti e# they usually approach each other side-on# presenting their vulnera$le flanks to each other in order to signal that they don't intend to attack! (t's e&actly the sa e in the 6ouse of *o ons! .y orienting their $odies away fro each other# the )ri e 7inister and the =eader of the Opposition ay appear to $e directing their re arks towards their supporters who are located $ehind the ! (n fact they are instinctively e&posing the undefended sides of their $ody in order to show that they have no intention of getting into a physical fight - Hust as dogs $ehave when they eet in the park!

Ba-*) issing Tells

Elections are a ti e for politicians to run around kissing $a$ies! So eti es it see s like 'open season' wherever you look politicians are lifting $a$ies up# hugging the and planting their lips on their poor unsuspecting cheeks! (t's generally assu ed that politicians kiss $a$ies $ecause they want people to think that they're healthy# nurturing# loving individuals! (n fact# $a$y-kissing is nothing of the sort - it's erely a

way for politicians to defend the selves against attack! For e&a ple# when a do inant $a$oon is
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chasing a su$ordinate $a$oon it's not unco on for the retreating $a$oon to pick up an infant $a$oon and to use it as a shield! This has the i ediate effect of 'cutting off' the do inant $a$oon's aggression! (t works $ecause $a$oons# like hu ans# are progra ed not to hurt $a$ies! So when a ale politician picks up a $a$y and holds it aloft# he's not showing how uch he loves $a$ies - he's actually using the $a$y to 'cut off the aggression that he unconsciously feels the electorate B har$ours towards hi ! (n other words# he's not saying# '=ook how uch ( love $a$iesE aren't ( a nice guy%' (nstead he's saying# '=ook# (' holding a $a$y! "on't try to hit e' ?ou ight accidentally inHure the $a$y'' There are so e politicians who don't kiss $a$ies# presu a$ly $ecause they don't feel threatened or $ecause they don't feel the need to enlist the kind of protection that a $a$y affords! 7argaret Thatcher was one of these - in fact it's very difficult to find a photograph of her kissing a $a$y! There was a fa ous occasion# however# when she was visiting a far and chose to lift up a $a$y cow! 6istory does not recall whether she actually kissed the calf# or if she did# where she planted the kiss! )resident =yndon .! Fohnson# it see s# also preferred to pick up ani als rather than $a$ies! On one occasion he gra$$ed his pet $eagle $y the ears and lifted the poor dog off the ground! The dog didn't see terri$ly concerned# $ut ani al lovers everywhere were incensed! (nstead of aking =.F look endearing# it had the opposite effect# and it wasn't long after this event that his popularity started to decline!

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Ad"lation Tells
Another way that politicians can deflect aggression is $y aking the selves appear popular and adora$le! This works on the si ple psychological principle that we are ore likely to feel positively disposed towards so eone if they're popular! Their true -ualities aren't that i portant - what actually shapes our feelings and akes us want to associate with so eone is the fact that other people like or ad ire that person! (t's e&actly the sa e with politicians - the ore we see the $eing applauded or adored# the higher they rise in our esti ation! )oliticians understand this process# and that's one of the reasons why they go to such lengths to surround the selves with ad irers! .asically politicians have three types of ad irer - the general pu$lic# the party faithful# and the adoring spouse! The ost convincing de onstrations of pu$lic adulation occur when a politician oves through a crowd of the party faithful who are cla ouring to touch hi or her! The ore dra atically people reach out# the faster the politician oves through the crowd and the ore he or she appears to enHoy the e&perience# the ore irresisti$le# even god-like# the politician appears to $e! This kind of adulation is essential to politicians and it can $e achieved in several ways! As the sociologist 7a& Atkinson points out in Our Masters6 7oi'es# politicians use a fascinating range of strategies to A elicit applause fro an audience! One trick is to use 'contrasting pairs'# where an undesira$le option# for e&a ple# is co pared to a highly favoura$le outco e! Another is the 'three-part list'# which con- veniently provides the audience with clues a$out when to start applauding! The way that politicians control applause

3++

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is also critical! For e&a ple# a politician who tags a re ark on to the end of a punch line once the applause has $egun is likely to kill off the applause! On the other hand# politicians who choose their o ent carefully# and who use their hands to da pen the applause# are likely to give the i pression that they're $oth odest and in control! (deally# of course# a politician should only atte pt to dis- courage applause when it already shows signs of ending! (n the 5S it's traditionally $een assu ed that the task of the First =ady is to stand $y her an! For e&a ple# .ess Tru an# the wife of )resident Tru an# $elieved that her role in life was to 'sit $eside her hus$and# $e silent# and $e sure that his hat is straight'! (n fact the ain responsi$ility of the First =ady is to elevate the )resident in the eyes of other people $y appearing attentive and i pressed! Nancy >eagan played the 'adoring wife' role to perfection! ,hen >onald spoke in pu$lic# she always watched hi intently# giving hi a doe-eyed# .a $i look# as if she were in the grips of a teenage infatuation! ,hile Nancy's adoration of her hus$and tended to $e al ost entirely ocular# as well as rather froJen# 6illary *linton's support for .ill *linton was ore tactile and affectionate! *herie .lair also produces a very convincing perfor ance of the adoring wife! .y gaJing attentively at Tony whenever he speaks# or when he's $eing applauded at the party conference# and $y clutching his hand whenever she gets a chance# she anages to elevate hi in our eyes! After all# if she adores Tony .lair so co pletely# shouldn't we% There are occasions when the ta$les are turned# and presidents or pri e inisters show how uch they adore their wives! 6owever# these occasions are rare# and they're often ironic! ,hen Fohn F! <ennedy and the

First =ady
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The Adoring 0i e +ole. .y hugging her hus$and in pu$lic# *herie .lair unwittingly akes the )ri e 7inister appear ore appealing and lova$le to other people! 3+B

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ade a state visit to France in 34B3# Fackie was at the height of her popularity! At a state $an-uet FF< Hokingly re arked that he would $e re e $ered as the an who acco panied Fackie <ennedy to )aris! )sychologists have found that en who are associated with attractive wo en gain an enor ous a ount of ad iration fro other en! .y drawing attention to Fackie# and $eing ironic# FF< was only doing hi self a favour! 7ost of the adulation ai ed at politicians co es fro people who can $e seen or heard! There are# however# cases where adoring e $ers of the pu$lic re ain out of sight! (f you watched >onald >eagan or .ill *linton when they were in office you'll have noticed that they often waved knowingly at individuals in the crowd! >eagan# for e&a ple# would so eti es nudge Nancy# point to so e- one out of view# wave and give the a huge s ile! So e of these people# one suspects# did not actually e&ist - they were 'phanto friends' who >eagan would pretend to wave at in order to ake hi self look a ia$le and popular! This suspicion is reinforced $y the fact that >eagan had very $ad eyesight# which ade it difficult for hi to pick out individuals at a distance!

O..ensive Tells
,hen politicians are not defending the selves against attack# they're usually attacking other people! Their aggressive otives are so eti es concealed in their iconic hand gestures or ade e&plicit in their ver$al insults! There are five aggressive activities that politicians i ic when they're feeling aggressive# and each is

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8'oni' *and Gestures. )oliticians' intentions towards other people are often revealed in their unconscious ove ents and gestures perfectly de onstrated here $y 7argaret Thatcher! 3+2

)O=(T(*A= TE==S associated wit h a different group of hand postures8 0 '7N3H2N.. ,hen politicians want to ake an e phatic point they fre-uently for their hand into a fist and use it like a clu$ to $eat ti e to what they're saying! So eti es the closed fist is raised in the air as a salute# at other ti es it ay $e sla ed down on the lectern as a way of e phasiJing a key point# or out of anger or frus- tration! (n its role as a clu$# the aggressive i plications of the fist are o$vious - it is $eing used# sy $olically# to crush whatever the speaker feels needs to $e destroyed! There are occasions when the hands are used to gra$ an o$Hect which could serve as a sy $olic weapon! For e&a ple# when Nikita <hrushchev addressed the 5nited Nations in 34B/# he got so cross that he took off his shoe and $anged it on the lectern' 0 '4O((2N.. )oliticians often use an e&tended forefinger to ake their point or to issue a warning! So eti es the finger is raised in the air# didactically! At other ti es it ay $e used like a dagger or a sword# thrusting down- wards or in the direction of the audience or an i aginary adversary! .42''2N.. (n order to har so eone it's so eti es necessary to gra$ hold of the first! ,hen they are aking political speeches# politicians often reveal their aggressive feelings towards others $y gra$$ing hold of i aginary people or issues and then shaking or s-ueeJ- ing the ! S34AT3H2N.. The fingernails provide a pri itive eans 3+4

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of tearing into other people's flesh! ,o en so eti es threaten other people# either seriously or playfully# $y $aring their fingernails! There's a very fine divide $etween gra$$ing an i aginary friend and threatening an i aginary friend with one's fingernails - it all co es down to a slight inward curl of the fingers which lines the fingernails up for attack! 0 3HO''2N.. As the artial arts have shown# the outer edge of the hand can $e used to chop and inHure other people! )oliticians who want to cut through an issue often use a downward chopping otion of the hand! The =a$our politician Tony .enn often does this! Fohn 7aHor also used this gesture when he was )ri e 7inister8 when talking on a sensitive issue he would $ring his hand down and to the side in a cutting otion to show that he wished to sweep issues and pro$le s away! 7aHor has always $een a keen cricketer - it's possi$le therefore that what appears to $e a dis issive# sweeping action of the hand is really a sy $olic cricketing stroke which he uses to knock other people's ideas all the way to the $oundary! Although 7aHor was a consu ate politician# he disliked the rough-and-tu $le of parlia entary Luestion Ti e# especially when he was )ri e 7inister! This was evident fro the 'flight refle&' that he e&hi$ited at the dispatch $o&! ,henever he rose to answer a -uestion# he woul d place his note$ook on the dispatch $o&# and then address the house! .ut a fraction of a second $efore he'd co pleted his state ent# he woul d $egin to ake tiny preparatory ove ents# like oving his feet or re- arranging his note$ook! So eti es# as he was finishing

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his state ent# he would give the dispatch $o& a tiny push to propel hi self $ackward! 6is $arely concealed eager- ness to return to his seat showed that he was never entirely co forta$le with the cut-and-thrust of Luestion Ti e! (' sure he would uch rather have $een at =ord's# watching the cricket!

2nsult*n+ Tells
)arty politics is very uch like pri itive warfare! A setpiece $attle $etween two tri$es in New 9uinea# for e&a ple# often $egins with the two warring parties taking up positions on near$y hills# aking sure that they're far enough apart to avoid each other's issiles $ut close enough to $e heard $y the other side! Fro their secure positions the warriors then shout $oasts and insults at each other! After a while# they descend into the valley# a skir ish takes place# so eone is wounded# and the two ar ies return to their villages to lick their wounds and to talk endlessly a$out their courageous e&ploits during the ca paign! Talk# it turns out# is the ost i portant part of pri itive warfare! The sa e is true of politics! (n $oth cases the opposing factions spend a lot of ti e $oasting a$out the - selves and their glorious achieve ents# and slagging off the other side! .oasts and insults are essential to politics $ecause they provide parties and politicians with a eans of enhancing their own reputation and self-estee # while devastating that of the opposition! Apart fro under ining

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people# insults also serve other valua$le psychological functions! One is to enrage the person who's under attack to the point where they engage in a hasty and ill-considered response that akes the look even ore stupid! Another function is to increase one's own reputation as the originator of well-ai ed# a using and destructive re arks a$out other people! )olitical insults fall into several categories8

0 'A4T5 2NS7LTS. This category of insults is ai ed at the opposition# rather than at individual politicians who represent the opposition! Typically they draw attention to the inco petence of the other party# like ,inston *hurchill's fa ous re ark a$out the =a$our )arty8 They are not fit to anage a whelk stall!' 6arold 7ac illan's da ning dis issal of the =i$eral )arty also falls into this category8 'As usual the =i$erals offer a i&ture of sound and original ideas! 5nfortunately none of the sound ideas are original and none of the original ideas are sound!' 0 3OL( 2NS7LTS. The purpose of these insults is to ake so eone appear cold and une otional! >eferring to >o$ert )eel# .enHa in "israeli said# 'The >ight 6onoura$le gentle an is re iniscent of a poker! The only difference is that a poker gives off the occasional signs of war th!' 0 EMAS37LAT2N. 2NS7LTS. These# of course# are designed to under ine so eone's asculinity! )ri e 7inister =loyd 9eorge# for e&a ple# once said of 6er$ert Sa uel# the =i$eral politician# ',hen they circu cised 6er$ert Sa uel they threw away the wrong

$it!'
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)O=(T(*A= TE==S 0 7N>7AL2F2E( 2NS7LTS. These insults create the i pression that the person does not have the necessary -ualifications to do the Ho$! ,inston *hurchill# for e&a ple# once descri$ed *le ent Attlee as 'A odest an who has uch to $e odest a$out'! 0 ANTH4O'OMO4'H23 2NS7LTS. 6ere the person $eing insulted is co pared to an ani al so as to ake hi or her appear $eastly or ineffectual! )icking on hi once again# *hurchill descri$ed *le ent Attlee as 'A sheep in sheep's clothing'! On the sa e ovine the e# "enis 6ealey once said of Sir 9eoffrey 6owe8 '.eing attacked $y hi is like $eing savaged $y a dead sheep!' 0 7N'42N32'LE( 2NS7LTS. 6ere the o$Hect of the insult is represented as so eone who pretends to have principles $ut in fact doesn't have any at all! Adlai Stevenson# for e&a ple# descri$ed >ichard Ni&on as 'the kind of politician who would cut down a redwood tree and then ount the stu p to ake a speech for conservation!'

0 'HONE5 2NS7LTS. These insults draw attention to the deceitful and phoney aspects of so eone's character! 9erald Ford# for e&a ple# once said# '>onald >eagan doesn't dye his hairE he's Hust pre aturely orange!' 0 ST7'2(2T5 2NS7LTS. 6ere the person is represented as unintelligent! =yndon .aines Fohnson's fa ous re ark a$out 9erald Ford is a good e&a ple8 '6e is so du $ he can't fart and chew gu at the sa e ti e!'

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(nsults are the E&ocets of political weapons! (f the target is right and they're carefully ai ed# they can have a devas- tating effect on how a politician is perceived! (n so e cases the da age can $e per anent! The .ritish now find it e&tre ely difficult to talk a$out 9eoffrey 6owe without thinking of a dead sheep# while in A erica it's al ost i possi$le to have a conversation a$out 9erald Ford with- out so eone entioning chewing gu or farting!

/ntervie0 Tells
There are several ways that political interviews are supposed to differ fro ordinary conversations! Typically the interviewer should ake the first ove# set the agenda# ask the -uestions# and have the last word! The politician# on the other hand# is e&pected to follow the interviewer's lead# to answer the -uestions without waffling# and not to ask the interviewer -uestions unless clarification is needed! This is the way political interviews are supposed to $e conducted! (n practice# however# they often turn out to $e -uite different! (nterviewers ask politicians two types of -uestion 'closed -uestions'# which re-uire a 'yes' or 'no' answer# and 'open -uestions'# which allow the politician to give an answer without saying 'yes' or 'no'! >egardless of which type of -uestion they pose# interviewers are always trying to get politicians to give 'direct' answers - that is# responses that address the -uestion# rather than 'indirect' answers which don't address the -uestion! (n the early 344/s# Sandra 6arris studied political interviews

in .ritain and discovered that 'direct' answers featured in

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)O=(T(*A= TE==S only +/ per cent of politicians' responses! (n other words# B/ per cent of their responses did not address the interviewers' -uestions! This tendency to dodge the -uestion was ost arked with closed -uestions# whic h are $y far the ost co on type of -uestion that interviewers put to politicians! 6ere she found that only @/ per cent of closed -uestions elicited either a 'yes' or 'no ' answer! ,hen she co pared political interviews wit h other types of interview she found that the percentages of indirect answers were uch lower in other types of interview# ranging fro + per cent for edical interviews to 30 per cent for agistrates' inter- views - co pared wit h B/ per cent for politicians' The fact that politicians don't provide straight answers to straight -uestions is a aHor reason why the pu$lic regards the as evasive! They're also seen as underhand and sli y $ecause of the way they answer -uestions# or don't answer the ! >esearch $y )eter .ull and his colleagues at ?ork 5niversity shows that there are several ways that 4 politicians dodge the -uestion! They include the following8 K 7A<(N9 A )O=(T(*A= )O(NT! (n the vast aHority of cases where politicians fail to answer the -uestion# it's $ecause they're using the opportunity to ake a political point that is not directly relevant to the -uestion! This suggests that politicians and interviewers see political interviews -uite differently while the interviewer is try- ing to get the politician to answer the -uestion# the politician is using the -uestion as a soap$o& fro which to ake his or her views known to the pu$lic! (t also shows how politicians work to their own agenda#
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T6E .OO< OF TE==S deciding in advance what they're going to say in an inter- view# regardless of what -uestions they're asked! 0 .O2N. ON THE ATTA3K. This is the ne&t ost co on response! )oliticians often dislike the -uestions they're asked! So eti es it's $ecause they feel the -uestion is $iased or intended to ake the look sillyE at other ti es it's $ecause they think the -uestion is factually incorrect or Hust plain o$Hectiona$le! Faced with a nasty -uestion# politicians can either play $y the rules and provide so ething that looks like an answer# or else they can attack the -uestion and say what they dislike a$out it! Attacking the -uestion is actually a fairly co on response and it offers two clear advantages - it puts the spotlight $ack on the interviewer and helps to unnerve the interviewer and discourage hi or her fro asking difficult -uestions later on! (t's even ore inti idating when the politician attacks the interviewer $y suggesting that he or she is uninfor ed# $iased or unreasona$le! )oliticians differ in their preferences for these two strategies! For e&a ple# when she was )ri e 7inister# 7argaret Thatcher was ore likely to attack the inter- viewer# whereas Neil <innock# the =eader of the Opposition# was ore likely to attack the -uestion! 0 .262N. HALF AN ANS8E4. The ne&t ost co on way of dodging a -uestion is to offer an inco plete answer! This happens when a politician responds to a -uestion that has several parts# or deals with only part of a -uestion# or starts to answer the -uestion $ut gets distracted and fails to provide a full answer!

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)O=(T(*A= TE==S 0 4EF7S2N. TO ANS8E4. )oliticians often refuse to answer -uestions when it's clearly legiti ate for the not to give an answer - for e&a ple# when they're asked to divulge confidential infor ation or to ake predictions! (n these cases they can get away $y appealing to a higher principle# such as the need to keep a secret or $e discreet! 0 2.NO42N. THE >7EST2ON. This often happens when the interviewer interrupts the politician to ask another -uestion! (nstead of answering the new -uestion# the politician si ply continues to answer the original -uestion# $ehaving as if the new -uestion had never $een asked!

0 4E'EAT2N. THE ANS8E4. )oliticians ay refuse to answer a -uestion# insisting that they have already answered it! This also conveys other essages - it suggests# for e&a ple# that the politician is fully aware of what's happening# and that he or she is not prepared to play along with the interviewer! There are# however# cases where the politician will use the sa e for of words in response to apparently different -uestions! This is intended to ake the politician look confident# and the interviewer inco petent! There are several reasons why politicians' answers are e-uivocal and vague! For a start# using i precise language allows politicians to give answers that don't offend any$ody! ,hen the electorate is divided on a controversial issue it's o$viously not in the politician's interests to give an answer that's likely to alienate large nu $ers of people
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- it's far $etter to say nothing on the su$Hect# while appear- ing to voice an opinion# or to answer a different -uestion altogether! Another reason why politicians e-uivocate so uch is that they don't like $eing constrained or $ossed a$out $y interviewers! ,hen she was )ri e 7inister# 7argaret Thatcher was e&tre ely evasive in her answers during political interviews - uch ore so# in fact# than Neil <innock# the =eader of the Opposition! A $ig otive for her e-uivocation# one suspects# was the desire to show that she was her own an# and that she was -uite capa$le of setting the agenda for the interview! 6owever# when it ca e to closed -uestions - that is# -uestions that re-uire a 'yes' or 'no' answer - she gave any ore direct answers than Neil <innock! Far fro $eing inconsistent# these two findings show how uch 7argaret Thatcher liked to play the do inant role - on open -uestions she would e-uivocate in order to show who was $oss# while on closed -uestions she would give direct answers to show that she was supre ely confident and wasn't worried a$out alienating people 3/ who disagreed with her! (n TV interviews the spotlight is very uch on the politician! After all# it's the politician who does ost of the talking and who's on the screen ost of the ti e! .ecause interviewers play a supporting role# it's natural to assu e that they have less responsi$ility for what happens during the interview# or that the interplay $etween interviewer and politician isn't i portant! 6owever# this interplay is e&tre ely i portant! (t was very evident in the interviews that took place when 7argaret Thatcher was in power! (t was not unusual# for e&a ple# for interviewers to interrupt 7argaret Thatcher in fact she was interrupted ore often

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than any of the other political leaders at the ti e! At first it was assu ed that this ight have had so ething to do with the fact that she was a wo an# while all the inter- viewers and other political leaders were en! This would have $een consistent with the general finding that en interrupt wo en ore often than they do other en# and ore often than wo en interrupt en or other wo en! (t was even suggested that 7argaret Thatcher was $eing interrupted ore often $ecause she was inadvertently giving off ore 'turn-yielding' signals# which isled interviewers into thinking that she was a$out to 33 stop talking! The fact that 7argaret Thatcher tended to give long# ra $ling answers ay also e&plain why she was interrupted so oftenE as she $egan to drift away fro the -uestion# interviewers would ask another -uestion in order to try and $ring her $ack to their agenda! ,hat's interesting a$out these cases of interruption is that 7argaret Thatcher hardly ever gave up the floor - when she was interrupted $y the interviewer she si ply kept on talking as though nothing had happened! This reinforced her i age as a tough politician and e&asperated the inter- viewers who had to deal with her! (n the early days of television# political interviews were odelled on the cosy e&changes that took place in gentle en's clu$s! (n 3403# for e&a ple# when =eslie 7itchell interviewed the )ri e 7inister# Anthony Eden# he $egan $y saying# ',ell now# 7r Eden# with your very con- sidera$le e&perience in foreign affairs# it's -uite o$vious that ( should start $y asking you so ething a$out the international situation today - or perhaps you would prefer to talk a$out ho e% ,hich is it to $e%' On that occasion Eden chose to talk a$out ho e affairs!

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)olitical interviews in .ritain re ained o$se-uious until the arrival of >eginald .osan-uet# who is credited with producing the first aggressive interruption of a .ritish politician# although $y today's standards it was a odel of reticence! (t happened in 340A when .osan-uet inter- viewed 6arold 7ac illan! 'Sir'# he interHected# 'as ti e is short could we -uestion you on a do estic atter which ( think is upper ost in our inds at the o ent%' '(f you ust'# replied 7ac illan! 9one are the days when interviewers apologiJed for interrupting# or allowed politicians to set the agenda for the interview! Nowadays interviewers have uch ore power and they are prepared to $e co $ative! )oliticians are now understanda$ly nervous a$out interviewers# especially when# like the ..*'s Fere y )a& an# they are reputed to eat politicians for $reakfast! )a& an is $est re e $ered for a television interview in which he asked 7ichael 6oward# the then 6o e Secretary# whether he had threatened to overrule the director of the )rison Service! The 6o e Secretary gave an evasive answer# so )a& an kept repeating the sa e -uestion until he got a satisfactory answer! (ndeed# he asked the sa e -uestion a total of fourteen ti es' For a co $ative interview to take place it's necessary for $oth parties to play $y the rules! There are occasions when $oth parties get hot under the collar - the altercation in 3422 $etween Vice )resident 9eorge .ush and "an >ather# the *.S anchor# over the (ran-*ontra affair is one e&a ple - and there are ti es when the interviewee decides that 3@ enough is enough and leaves! This has happened

several ti es with politicians! (n 342@# when >o$in "ay was interviewing Fohn Nott# the "efence Secretary# he referred
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to hi as a 'here-today-gone-to orrow politician'! Nott stood up and left the roo ! 6enry <issinger also walked out on Fere y )a& an when )a& an asked hi # -uite rightly# whether he felt like a fraud accepting the No$el )eace )riJe! .ecause interviewers now potentially wield ore power than politicians# politicians need to find ways of ensuring that interviewers don't give the a tough ti e! One way to do this is for politicians to sta p their authority on the interview $y showing that they are not prepared to $e interrupted! Another is to $e e phatic a$out their opinions! 9eorge ,! .ush# for e&a ple# fre-uently uses the e&pression# ' ake no istake a$out it'# to press ho e his point of view! One of his signature tells is a ' icro-nod'# a $arely percepti$le dip of the head# which he tags on to the end of a state ent# like a corporeal full stop - as if to say# 'There you are# ('ve told you now! There's nothing ore to $e said on the su$Hect'' One of 7argaret Thatcher's signature tells is the 'eye- flash'! ,henever she wants to e phasiJe a state ent and ake it appear incontroverti$le# she o entarily enlarges her eyes# using the at the end of her utterance to create a pair of ocular e&cla ation arks! This is -uite different fro what happens in the 'eye-puff'# where the eyes are opened wide in order to create an i pression of childish attentiveness! Another option availa$le to politicians is to inti idate the interviewer! This can $e done $y under ining the interviewer# attacking the -uestion# and suggesting that the interviewer is isinfor ed or $iased - in short# $y $reaking the interviewer's rhyth and under ining his or her confidence! One way to do this is $y producing lots of

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'negative $ack-channel signals'! These are the discourag- ing signals that people use when they're in the listener role - things like puJJled e&pressions# gaJe aversion# and prepar- atory speech ove ents! =isteners use these signals to indicate that the speaker isn't aking sense# that they don't agree# and that they'd like to take over the speaker role as soon as possi$le! They are the opposite of '$ack-channel signals'! .ack-channel signals are the encouraging signals - such as nods and 'uh-huh' sounds - that listeners produce when they want to show the speaker that they understand and agree with what he or she is saying# and that they have no intention of taking over the speaker role in the conver- sation! ,hen 9eorge ,! .ush is $eing asked awkward -uestions# he often resorts to 'negative $ack-channel' in order to throw the interviewer off $alance! 6e does this $y looking around# $y s iling artificially# and $y giving the i pression that he's a$out to start speaking! Negative $ack- channel can certainly help politicians to keep difficult interviewers at $ay! After all# it's what interviewers use when they want to give politicians a tough ti e! .ecause politics relies so heavily on appearances it appeals to people who are fascinated $y hu an $ehaviour! So does its reliance on su$terfuge and pretence! .ecause politicians spend so uch ti e pretending to $e so ething they're not# there's a uch greater chance that they will inadvertently reveal their true feel- ings# or their real intentions# in what they do! The high dra a of politics# the way that politicians a$andon their colleagues# cut secret deals# switch allegiances# create s okescreens# cover their $acksides# deflect $la e and take credit where it's not due - all these things ake the appearance of tells all the ore

likely!
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9reeting

9reetings perfor several i portant tasks! First of all they provide people with an opportunity to acknowledge each other and to enter into conversation! Secondly they give people a chance to de onstrate that they can $e relied upon to a$ide $y the wider conventions of society# and thirdly they allow the to reaffir or work out what kind of relationship they're going to have with each other! 9reeting rituals differ enor ously fro one culture to the ne&t! 6owever# within a co unity they tend to follow a fairly stereotyped pattern - that way the participants know what's e&pected of the and what the other person is likely to do ne&t! (n spite of this# there is always enough variation $etween greetings to allow inferences to $e drawn a$out the participants! (n fact# $y watching how people greet each other it's often possi$le to see what kind of people they are and what their attitudes are to each other!

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Trans*t*on Tells
7ost greetings consist of three phases - a 'recognition phase'# where the participants notice each other and signal their utual recognition# an 'approach phase'# where they ove towards each other# and a ' eeting 3 phase'# where they shake hands# e $race# or whatever! ,hen a large distance separates people to $egin with# and there are others around# it can take -uite a while for the to get through all these phases! On the other hand# when they start off close to each other# there's a tendency for the approach phase to disappear and for the other phases to $e co pressed into one! The way that people $ehave during each phase can $e very revealing! (n western society# the recognition phase can take several for s# depending on how well the participants know each other and the level of inti acy they are trying to achieve! .asically there are two clusters of distance signals! One consists of 'polite' signals# like raising the eye$rows# s iling with the lips together# pre- senting the pal of the hand# and nodding or dipping the head! The other cluster consists of 'enthusiastic' signals# like waving one or $oth ar s# open- outhed s iles# laughter# and loud calls to the other person! (n order to underline their feelings of e&hilaration# people often widen their eyes and drop their Haw# si ulating the facial e&pression of surprise! As a rule# people who are ac-uainted tend to e&change polite recognition signals# whereas people who know each other well are ore likely to e&change enthusiastic recognition signals# especially when they haven't seen each other for so e ti e! 6owever# $ecause recognition signals i ply e-uality#

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they are seldo used $etween people of different status! Si ilar distinctions are noticea$le during the approach phase! )olite distance signals# for e&a ple# are often followed $y a detached approach# with one or $oth par- ties walking slowly towards the other! This detach ent can often $e seen in the way that people avert their gaJe# cross their ar s over their $ody# or engage in for s of displace- ent activity# like touching their hair or rearranging their clothes# as they walk towards each other! Enthusiastic distance displays# on the other hand# are usually followed $y a hurried approach# where the attention of $oth parties re ains fi&ed on the other person# and where there are preparatory signals which indicate whether the parties are lining up to e $race or kiss each other or shake hands! Nor ally there's no dou$t a$out what's going to happen when two people reach each other# si ply $ecause of the situation# the nature of their relationship# or the a ount of ti e they've $een apart! .ut there are occasions when it's not entirely clear how people are going to greet each other! 7ost of the ti e# however# people use the approach phase to show whether they intend to hug# kiss or shake hands! ?ou only need to stand in the arrivals lounge of an inter- national airport to see how differently people $ehave# depending on how they're a$out to greet each other - the approach phase that precedes a hug or a kiss is usually -uite different fro one that occurs $efore a handshake! ,hen people do have a pro$le deciding what to do# it's usually a$out whether they should shake hands or greet the other person ver$ally! 9reeting rituals can $e divided into two types - greetings of respect# which are designed to e phasiJe differences in power# and greetings of solidarity# which

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convey essages of friendship and e-uality! (n edieval ti es# en and wo en would pay ho age to their overlord $y kneeling on one knee! =ater on the $ow was introduced for en! This was done $y drawing $ack the right leg so that $oth knees were $ent# and $y leaning forward! >e oving or doffing the hat was also part of the greeting ritual and this was done either $efore or during the act of $owing! The corresponding salutation for wo en at the ti e was the curtsy# which involved genuflecting $oth knees and lowering @ the $ody! All these greetings of respect involved $ody lowering! They were also distinguished $y asy etry# which eant that the su$ordinate person greeted the superior while the superior effectively did nothing! 9reetings of solidarity# on the other hand# were sy etrical - they consisted of a utual kiss# and so e- ti es an e $race! <issing was used as a gesture of affection as well as a sign of goodwill $etween en and wo en# and $etween e $ers of the sa e se&! Although the handshake was around at the ti e it was not used as a greeting! (nstead it was e ployed to seal agree ents! ,riting during the seventeenth century Fohn .ulwer descri$ed how the handshake was used to secure financial agree ents and how the language of the handshake differed fro one =ondon arket to another! The 'fish dialect of .illingsgate'# he tells us# was very different fro the 1 '6orse >hetori-ue of S ithfield'! (t was only uch later# towards the end of the Victorian era# that the handshake was e ployed as a greeting of solidarity!

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%andsha e Tells
"o handshakes ake a difference% The answer is yes# they do! This is illustrated $y a rather clever e&peri ent conducted $y Allen <onopacki in the 5S# where a @0-cent coin was left in a pu$lic telephone + $ooth! 7ost of the strangers who used the $ooth i ediately afterwards picked the coin up and put it in their pocket! As they were e erging fro the $ooth a student would approach these people and ask the whether they had seen his -uarter! Over 0/ per cent lied and said that they hadn't seen the coin! (n the second half of the e&peri ent the student greeted each person e erging fro the $ooth# introduced hi self# shook their hand# and then asked whether they had seen the -uarter! Now# only @+ per cent of the people who had pocketed the coin lied! (n this situation shaking people's hands clearly ade a difference $ecause it created a $ond of solidarity that ade it uch ore difficult for people to lie! One of the things that reco ends the handshake as a greeting of solidarity is its sy etry - the fact that $oth people perfor the sa e action! 6owever# when we look ore closely at how people actually shake hands# we find that they often perfor slightly different actions# and that these serve as an i portant source of infor ation a$out the kinds of people they are and how 0 they feel a$out each other! These handsha.e tells aren't always apparent to people who aren't involved in the handshake! (n so e cases they're not even evident to the other person who's involved in the handshake! 6andshakes can vary according to who initiates the # how the hand is presented# how any pu ps they

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include# wh o controls the handshake# whether they are acco panied $y a s ile# what people say when they greet each other# and so on ! The grip itself can vary according to how tightly or li ply the hand is held# the te perature of the hand# how dry or da p it feels# its position in relation to the other person's hand# and what the rest of the $ody is doing! .asically# there are eight types of handshake8 0 THE BONE347SHE4. One of the cardinal rules of handshaking is that the grip should $e neither too tight nor too li p# and that each person should adHust the pressure of their grip to that of the other person! There are people who violate these re-uire ents $y s-ueeJing the other person's hand! So eti es this is done unwittingly! 7ost of the ti e# however# it's done as a show of strength or a way of putting the other person in their place! )eople who want to show others that they are not as weak and ineffectual as they look often use the $onecrusher as a for of co pensation! 0 THE L2M' HAN(SHAKE. A li p handshake occurs when so eone offers a hand that is totally rela&ed! (t doesn't e&ert any pressure on the other person's hand# and it doesn't contri$ute to the utual production of the handshake! A person who offers a li p handshake is so eone who# in ore senses than one# doesn't connect with the other person! =ike their hand# they re ain passive and detached - they're si ply not focused on the person they're greeting! This often happens with people who are self-i portant or who have to shake hands with lots of people! *hair an 7ao# for e&a ple# is reputed to have had a very li p# non-co ittal handshake!

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9>EET(N9 TE==S So eti es a weak handshake is a cultural convention B in ,est Africa handshakes tend to $e very soft! 6owever# other otives are so eti es at work! ,o en who want to cultivate an i pression of languid fe ininity often present a rather li p hand to the person they're greeting! Strong people often do the sa e# $ut in their case it's to e phasiJe their strength! (t's said that 7ike Tyson offers a rela&ed# al ost tender hand when he greets people outside the $o&ing ring - the co plete opposite to what happens inside the ring! 0 THE F24M HAN(SHAKE. A fir handshake occurs when the fingers are wrapped round the other person's hand and the grip is neither too tight nor too loose! ,illia *haplin and his students at the 5niversity of Ala$a a conducted a detailed investigation of the relationship $etween handshake style and A personality! They dis- covered that people who are e&troverted and e otionally e&pressive tend to use a fir handshake# whereas people who are neurotic and shy don't! They also found that people who have an open attitude to new e&periences use a fir handshake# $ut that this only applies to wo en! 7en who have an open attitude to new e&peri- ences are no ore likely to use a fir handshake than a li p handshake! THE L2M'ET HAN(SHAKE. There are so e people who won't let go when they get hold of so eone's hand - they hang on like a li pet! There are several otives $ehind the li pet handshake# $ut they all co e down to the issue of control! .y holding on to so eone's hand after a handshake so eone can set the agenda and engage the

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T6E .OO< OF TE==S other person for uch longer than he or she would otherwise have wished! ,e have all encountered people like this# or else we have seen the in action! They are so desperate to ake sure so eone doesn't leave# or that they don't take over the conversation or change the su$Hect# that they cla p their hands on the and won't let go! (t's interesting that people who are trapped in this way seldo have the nerve to pull their hand away! They usually re ain stuck to the person until they can think of an e&cuse to e&tricate the selves# or until so eone else co es to their rescue! THE 3LAMM5 HAN(SHAKE. )eople who have sweaty hands often try to disguise this fact $y wiping their hand on their clothes $efore they shake hands with so eone! A -uick wipe ay re ove the surface sweat# $ut it doesn't always re ove the cla y signs of an&iety! Another trick that people with sweaty hands use is to cup their pal slightly so as to reduce the surface area of their hand that co es into contact with the other person's hand during the handshake! Not every cla y hand# however# is a sign of nervousness! (t is esti ated that 0 per cent of the population has hyperhidrosis# a chronic sweating condition# which is due to genetic factors rather than an&iety! THE 4E2NFO43E( HAN(SHAKE. ,hen people want to ake their handshake ore enthusiastic or inti ate they so eti es clasp the other person's right hand in $oth their hands! This is Hust one of several versions of the reinforced handshake - in other versions the left hand ay $e placed on the other person's shoulder# upper ar

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9>EET(N9 TE==S or forear ! )eople who produce reinforced handshakes auto atically put the selves in control of the greeting $y increasing the a ount of physical contact# and therefore their co it ent to the other person! Single-handed handshakes can so eti es $e indifferent# $ut a reinforced handshake cannot! 0 THE 4ELO3ATE( HAN(SHAKE. (n a sy etrical hand- shake the participants' hands should eet idway $etween the - in other words in the iddle of no an's land! There are two ways that the handclasp can $e relocated so that it takes place in one person's space! The first is the 'huddled handshake'# where one person pulls the other person into his personal space# there$y creating a handshake that's on his own ter s! The second is the 'invasion handshake'# where so eone fully e&tends her ar # so that the handclasp is forced to take place in the other person's space# rather than her own! To the outside o$server the cul ination of these two types of handshake ay look rather si ilar# $ut to the participants they feel -uite different# $ecause they are aware who is pushing or pulling who # and who ends up deciding where the hand- shake should take place! THE 7''E4 HAN(SHAKE. Another way that people can ake a handshake asy etrical and i pose the selves on the other person is $y rotating their forear so that their own hand ends up on top# and the other person's $elow! Even though they ay not $e consciously aware of what's happening# the person who anages to get his or her hand on top - in the prone position - auto- atically gains an advantage over the person whose

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hand is $elow# in the supine position! That's $ecause prone positions are associated with do inance and control# while supine positions are connected with su$- ission and passivity! Even if they are co pletely unaware of the position of their hands# the person whose hand is on top wil l feel ore do inant# and the person whose hand is $elow wil l feel ore su$ issive! Although we tend to think of handshakes as uni portant# they can reveal a great deal a$out the way people resolve issues of do inance! For a handshake to work it is essential that the participants co-operate so that their hands actually eet! .y watching how people position their hands it's possi$le to see if $oth have their hands in the sa e position# or if one person is trying to gain the upper hand! ,hat one person stands to gain $y having their hand on top# the other stands to lose# not only $y having their hand $elow# $ut also $y having to accept that position in order to ake the handshake work!

'ower Tells
The way politicians shake hands tells us a lot a$out the silent e&pression of power! =ike ost en who occupy positions of power# )resident 6arry Tru an was used to having his own way# and this showed in the way he shook people's hands! ,hen he et 9eneral "ouglas 7acArthur at ,ake (sland in 340/# the two of the were photographed shaking hands# wit h Tru an's hand a$ove and 7acArthur's hand $elow! *onsistent wit h this#

Tru an is
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The /pper *andsha.e. A display of do inance is often revealed $y literally taking the upper hand when shaking hands! Following their televised de$ate# FF<# who not only won the de$ate $ut went on to win the 34B/ 5S presidential election# has his hand on top# while the loser# Ni&on# has his underneath! 3A1

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talking and s iling# while 7acArthur is looking -uite unhappy! The two en were not seeing eye to eye at the ti e# and it wasn't long afterwards that Tru an took the drastic easure of relieving 7acArthur of his co and of the 5N forces in <orea! There is also a photograph of )resident 6arry Tru an in 3401# Hust $efore he stepped down# greeting )resident-elect "wight Eisenhower! Once again Tru an has his hand on top and Eisenhower has his $elow - e&actly what you'd e&pect fro the i perious )resident and the uch ore easygoing )resident-elect! ,hen Fohn F! <ennedy et >ichard Ni&on for their fa ous televised de$ate in 34B/# the two en were photographed shaking hands! There's no indication in the face of either of the as to who was feeling ore con- fident at the ti e - $oth are s iling and looking very co posed! 6owever# their handshake does contain a crucial tell & <ennedy has his hand on top# while Ni&on has his $elow! This is a perfect e&a ple of a oretell $ecause it appears to prophesy <ennedy's victory over Ni&on! Of course oretells aren't really prophetic! They Hust look that way $ecause $oth the tell and the event are caused $y other factors - in this case# possi$ly <ennedy's popularity and Ni&on's unconscious realiJation that he wasn't going to win the election! ,hen heads of state eet in front of the ca eras# it's essential that they $oth appear in a positive light and that neither overshadows the other! ,hen two states en are standing side $y side# there's nothing to favour one over the other! 6owever# when they're shaking hands# the leader on the left of the picture has a natural advantage $ecause his or her ar is showing# while that of the other leader re ains hidden!

This is the 'left-side advantage'!

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News coverage of 9eorge ,! .ush and Tony .lair often shows the standing close together# shaking hands! .ush is usually on the left of the picture and .lair on the right! ,hen viewers look at these i ages they si ply see two heads of state greeting each other! They seldo notice the asy etry of the picture# and the way it affects their per- ception of the two leaders! .ecause ore of .ush's ar is in view# he appears# su$li inally# to $e ore in control and therefore the ore powerful of the two! This effect is ore pronounced when the two leaders are standing close to each other# engaged in a 'huddled handshake'# $ecause in these circu stances one hardly sees the ar of the person on the right at all! So e politicians see to know this instinctively# and they so eti es take steps to try and ini iJe the disadvantages of appearing on the right of a picture! There are two ways of doing this8
0 4ELO3AT2N. THE HAN(SHAKE. .y e&tending their ar early and forcing the handshake to take place in the other person's space# a politician can ensure that ore of their right ar appears in the photograph! This is e&actly what Nikita <hrushchev did when he et )resident <ennedy in Vienna in 34B3! At the ti e <ennedy was feeling distracted $ecause his $ack was giving hi a lot of trou$le! <hrushchev# on the other hand# felt that he could run rings around <ennedy# who he regarded as a political lightweight! This is apparent in the way that he took the initiative during the handshake! As they approached each other# <hrushchev# who was on the right# reached forward so that the handshake took place in <ennedy's $ody Jone rather than his own! ,ith his ar e&tended# <hrushchev looked confident and

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friendly! <ennedy# whose ar was $ent# looked cautious and tense! .y a si ple ruse# <hrushchev had anaged to turn the eeting to his own advantage! A very si ilar event took place when )resident Ni&on et *hair an 7ao in )eking in 34A@! (n the fa ous photograph of their eeting# Ni&on appears on the left# $ut 7ao appears to do inate the encounter $ecause he has his ar fully e&tended and it looks as if he is shaking Ni&on's hand# rather than the reverse! 0 O'EN2N. THE HAN(SHAKE. ,hen two politicians are shaking hands and facing each other directly# the politician on the left has the 'left-side advantage'! 6owever# when the two politicians are oriented ore towards the ca era# the left-side advantage starts to disappear $ecause the ar of the person on the right co es into view! There is a fa ous photograph of >ichard Ni&on shaking hands with Elvis )resley# in which )resley appears on the right of the picture! .ecause $oth en are oriented towards the ca era# )resley's entire right ar is visi$le# and he therefore appears to $e Hust as i portant as the )resident!

)oliticians who discover that they are a$out to end up on the right side of the picture don't need to resign the selves to looking passive when they shake hands with so eone! .y e&tending their ar towards the other person or $y angling their $ody towards the ca era they can effectively eli inate the disadvantages of appearing on the right! The sy $olic i portance of handshakes cannot $e overesti ated# especially in the political sphere! The
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relationship $etween the 5S and *u$a# for e&a ple# has $een very tense since *astro ca e to power! Although there have $een high-level contacts# they have not $een ade pu$lic for fear of upsetting the e&iled *u$an co unity in the 5S! 6owever# when .ill *linton attended a eeting of world leaders at the 5nited Nations in @///# he happened to $u p into Fidel *astro! On the spur of the o ent the two leaders shook hands# e&changed a few pleasantries and then went their separate ways! ,hen a ,hite 6ouse spokes an was asked if *linton had shaken hands with *astro# he denied that any- thing of the sort had happened! =ater on# when the ,hite 6ouse realiJed that too any people had witnessed the handshake to allow a cover-up# it relented and ad itted that a $rief# i pro ptu e&change had indeed taken place and that the two en had shaken hands! The fact that it was considered necessary to deny that a handshake had taken place illustrates how powerful the handshake can $e as a sy $ol of acceptance! (n politics a handshake is never neutral! Nowhere was the power of the handshake ore evident than in the historic eeting that took place $etween ?itJhak >a$in and ?asser Arafat on the ,hite 6ouse lawn in 3441# orchestrated and overseen $y .ill *linton! .efore the eeting took place there was a lot of nervousness $ecause no$ody knew how >a$in and Arafat would $ehave when the o ent ca e for the to shake hands! The ,hite 6ouse )ress Secretary# 9eorge Stephanopoulos# re e $ered the preparations in great detail8 On Saturday orning we practised the handshake! This was Hust a dry runE four guys in Heans around

y desk#
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T6E .OO< OF TE==S trying to figure out how to ake this diplo atic tango flow! First ca e the signatures# with ultiple copies of the treaty# all needing ultiple signatures! Then the )resident would turn to his left# shake Arafat's handE turn to his right# shake >a$in's handE take a half-step $ack# with his ar s slightly lifted fro his sides# and hope that Arafat and >a$in would reach across his $elt for the picture of the decade ! ! ! The last thing ( said to *linton was 'think a$out your face'! 6e knew enough not to have a $ig grin at the $ig o entE $ut if he overco pensated# it ight look glu ! ! ! ,e practised a closed outh s ile! , he n the $ig day ca e# everything worked according to plan8 The cere ony floated past like a drea ! >a$in still looked fretfulE Arafat was ecstaticE and at the cli actic o ent *linton see ed ore presidential than ever cal # confident and fully in control as he took his halfstep $ack with his half-s ile in place# and gently cleared a path! The crowd took a collective $reath! Then Arafat and >a$in grasped each other's hands# pu ped the up 2 and down# and the entire lawn e&ploded! The fa ous photograph of >a$in and Arafat shaking hands is ful l of fascinating tells. *linton co pletely do inates the occasion - not only is he in the centre of the picture# uno$structed $y the others# $ut he stands a good head a$ove >a$in and Arafat# reinforcing the essage that the 5S is $igger# stronger and ore $enevolent than any other country! The ost interesting feature of the photograph is the way that *linton's ar s are stretched out# wit h the

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hands open# e&tending $eyond and including the other two protagonists! ,ith this posture *linton takes on a -uasi-religious role! Not only does he see to $e solely responsi$le for the rappro'hement $etween (srael and the )alestinians# $ut he also appears# rather like the fa ous statue of *hrist the >edee er a$ove >io de Faneiro# to $e offering a $enediction on the newly for ed relationship!

Hu++*n+ Tells
.efore the .erlin ,all ca e down# hugs were an integral part of politics in Eastern Europe! (n those days a anly $ear hug was the standard greeting $etween co unist leaders# with possi$ly a kiss or two on the cheek thrown in for good easure! Nowadays the political $ear hug has all $ut disappeared# largely $ecause of its association with a defunct political ideology! Today's politicians in Eastern Europe are uch ore likely to shake hands! Outside the political arena# the e $race serves as a greeting ritual for people who are very close# who haven't seen each other for a long ti e# or who feel the 4 need to co fort and console each other! (n so e respects the e $race is ore inti ate than the social kiss# $ecause while one wouldn't think twice a$out giving one's host or hostess a kiss on the cheek as one leaves their house# one wouldn't drea of hugging the unless one knew the very well! There are several types of hug and each contains i portant tells. 0 S2(E-ON H7.S. A side-on hug occurs when two

people are standing side $y side and one or $oth of the puts an
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T6E .OO< OF TE==S ar round the other and gives a s-ueeJe! This type of hug is often used $y people who are worried that their affectionate actions ight $e isinterpreted - a an# for e&a ple# ight hug his ale friend in this way $ecause he doesn't want anyone to think he's gay# or the $oss ight give his fe ale secretary a sideon hug $ecause he doesn't want anyone to think he's aking a se&ual advance! 0 F7LL-F4ONTAL H7.S. This is the real thing - a hug where the $odies of the two people co pletely overlap! )eople who want to e&press their affection for each other# and who aren't concerned a$out what others think a$out the # prefer this type of hug! 0 HALF-MOON H7.S. A half- oon hug is produced when two people face each other while they hug# $ut their $odies only partially overlap! (t's used $y people who are worried a$out the se&ual inferences that ight $e drawn fro a full-frontal hug! 0 ST4A2.HT-7' H7.S. 6ow co forta$le people are with a hug can often $e seen in what they do with their pelvis and where they place their feet! Those who are co - itted to a hug# and who are not trying to e&ploit it for other purposes# usually stand up straight# so that their $ody Hust akes contact# or al ost akes contact# with that of the other person!

0 3ON3A6E H7.S. )eople who are reluctant to hug so eone tend to reveal their feelings $y placing their feet further away! This reduces the chances of their $ody
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9>EET(N9 TE==S co ing into contact with that of the other person! )elvis position is another critical tell# $ecause people who are unco forta$le a$out hugging tend to pull their $otto away fro the other person! 0 3ON6E1 H7.S. ,hen so eone wants to show that they are attracted to the person they are hugging they usually position their feet close# and push their pelvis towards the other person! .ecause ost of the 'official $usiness' of social interaction takes place a$ove the waist# what individuals do with their feet and hips during a hug ay $e noticed $y the person who's $eing hugged# $ut it's seldo spotted $y the other people who happen to $e near$y! For the student of tells# however# they are a rich source of infor ation a$out what is happening $etween people 'unofficially'! 0 'ATTE( H7.S. ,here people place their hands and what they do with the during a hug is also highly infor ative! 7ost people grasp or envelop the other person in their ar s! The ore intense their feelings for the person# the tighter they hug the and the longer they sustain the e $race! ,atching people hugging each other it's noticea$le how any hugs include ultiple pats on the $ack - usually $y one person rather than $oth people! )atting is very revealing $ecause it looks like a for of reassurance# and that's how we all tend to think of it! 6owever# the real purpose of patting during a hug is to act as a release signal - it's a 'release pat'! ,atch two people who are a$out to e $race each other and you'll soon spot the critical role that patting plays in $ringing the hug to a close! ?ou'll see a an walk over to a
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wo an he knows and wrap his ar s around her! She responds $y placing her ar s around hi ! A few seconds later she pats hi on the $ack! The an i ediately releases his hold and they $oth disengage! ,hat the an doesn't realiJe is that he's unconsciously acting on instructions fro the wo an - $y patting hi on the $ack she's telling hi that the hug is over! The wo an is e-ually o$livious to what's happening o$viously# she knows that she's patting the an on the $ack# $ut she doesn't realiJe that she's using the pat as a 'ter ination signal'! (n the conte&t of the e $race# patting therefore serves as a stealth tell - it pretends to $e so ething it's not! (t ay look like a gesture of affection# $ut its real purpose is to draw the hug to a close# and to do so with- out causing any offence!

K*ss*n+ Tells
So e societies have strict rules a$out how individuals should greet each other# $ased on their gender# age and social rank! There are also unwritten rules in our society# $ut these tend to $e ore fluid and ill defined! There are situations# for e&a ple# where it's not entirely clear whether we should kiss so eone on the cheek or shake their hand# even though the choice that we ake could have far-reaching conse-uences! "uring the presidential election Al 9ore and 9eorge ,! .ush appeared# separately# on the Oprah 0in rey !ho(. 9ore had ac-uired a reputation as so ething of a kisser $efore he appeared on the show - he'd given his wife# Tipper# an enor ous kiss at the *onvention the previous onth!

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6owever# when 9ore appeared on Oprah's show he politely shook her hand! .ush# in co plete contrast# kissed Oprah on the cheek! The way that the two candidates greeted Oprah reinforced the pu$lic's perception of 9ore as cold and stiff# and of 9eorge ,! .ush as open and friendly! =ittle things# like the way so eone greets other people# can often have an enor ous i pact on how they are seen! .roadly speaking# there are two types of kiss8 0 3HEEK K2SSES. These tend to $e social kisses and they are used for greetings and farewells! 0 MO7TH K2SSES. They are usually part of se& and ro ance! 6owever# there are cases where outh kisses appear as part of the greeting ritual! The English are widely regarded as rather cold and unde onstrative! (t therefore co es as so ething of a surprise to discover that there was a ti e when the English were the undisputed kissing cha pions of Europe! "uring the fifteenth century it was co on practice for en and wo en to e&change kisses of 3/ friendship# even when they were strangers! ,hen the "utch scholar# "esiderius Eras us# visited England in 3+44 the custo had reached epide ic proportions! 6e wrote a letter to a friend# telling hi 8 ',henever you co e you are received with a kiss $y allE when you take your leave# you are dis issed with kissesE you return# kisses are repeated! They co e to visit you# kisses againE they leave you# you kiss the all around! Should you eet anywhere# kisses in a$undance# 33 wherever you ove# there is nothing $ut kisses!' These

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kisses were not the custo ary pecks on the cheek that one finds today - they were kisses on the lips' 7ost Europeans at the ti e considered this practice highly i proper# and even the French :who we now regard as a nation of great kissers; were scandaliJed $y the English social ha$it of kissing on the lips! The English kissing custo started to decline during the si&teenth century# $ut it lasted up to the >estoration in 3BB/# when it was a$andoned! At that point the English Hoine d the league of non-kissing nations! 6owever# over the past few decades things have started to change and social kissing is now aking a serious co e$ack! The way that people kiss each other socially tells us a lot a$out what kind of people they are# their attitudes to each other# and how they feel a$out kissing! 0 HAN( K2SSES. 5p until the last world war it was co on for en in Europe to greet wo en $y kissing their hand! This practice has disappeared a ong young people# $ut there are still so e elderly en who have retained the custo of kissing wo en's hands when they eet the ! 0 HEA( K2SSES. <issing so eone on the forehead or the top of the head is another one-sided way of kissing people - it's how parents kiss their young children and it's also used as a for of $enediction! (f so eone kisses you on the head it shows that they have a protective attitude towardsyou! 0 3HEEK K2SSES. Social kisses typically consist of kisses on the cheek! (n countries where the convention is

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9>EET(N9 TE==S esta$lished# every$ody knows which side to start and how any kisses to e&change! (n countries like the 5S# the 5< and Australia# where kissing custo s are still evolving# people are often unsure a$out which cheek to kiss first# and how any ti es they should kiss the other person! 0 6A377M K2SSES. ,hen people ostensi$ly kiss each other on the cheek they so eti es iss the target altogether and end up kissing the air instead! These 'vacuu kisses' fall into two types - ' issed kisses'# where the parties' cheeks touch $ut their lips don't connect with the other person's cheek# and 'air kisses'# where they go through the otions without aking any physical contact at all! Air kisses appear when people are unco forta$le a$out physical contact# and $oth types of vacuu kiss are co on a ong wo en who don't want to distur$ their ake-up or leave traces of lipstick on the other person! 0 FE2.NE( K2SSES. (f you watch people kissing socially# you'll notice that there are so e people who press their cheek against the other person's without even pursing their lips# let alone kissing the air! These 'feigned kisses' pretend to $e real kisses $ut they don't offer anything ore than the cheek! They tend to $e produced $y people who are passive $y nature# and who would rather $e kissed $y so e$ody than have to kiss the ! The interesting thing a$out a feigned kiss is that the other person doesn't usually notice it - it's only people near$y who see what's really happening!

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0 6O3AL2?E( K2SSES. So e kisses on the cheek are silent# while others include an audi$le s ack of the lips! Other kisses are acco panied $y loud vocaliJations like ' wah'' So eti es these sound like signs of appreciation# and on other occasions they co e across as so ething of a Hoke! .ut# in spite of the e&aggeration and the laughter that acco panies the # these sounds are actually signs of disco fort $eing ade $y people who want to distance the selves fro the kiss $y ocking it! )eople who are totally at ease with social kissing - like the (talians or the French - don't acco pany their kisses with vocaliJations! (t's only those who are self-conscious a$out social kissing - like the .ritish - who find it necessary to e&aggerate and acco pany their kisses with loud noises! (t's their way of drawing attention to the kiss so that they can disown it!

Na<e Tells
,hen people eet for the first ti e they usually introduce the selves or so eone else introduces the ! Self- introductions are fairly straightforward - they can occur at the $eginning of an encounter or so e ti e after people have struck up a conversation! An introduction perfor ed $y so eone else tends to $e a $it ore co plicated $ecause the introducer has to orchestrate the eeting# na e the people $eing introduced :the introducees;# and possi$ly say so ething a$out the ! ,hen introducers descri$e or 'package' introducees# they need to perfor three tasks - firstly# they need to

legiti iJe the say

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introduction#

secondly they need to

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so ething favoura$le a$out each person# and thirdly they need to provide a $asis on which the introducees can con- struct a conversation! The ideal 'package' does all three things! 6owever# so e introducers are so eager to legiti iJe the introduction that they end up e&aggerating the achieve ents of the introducees :e!g! 'This is Susan - she's the ost $rilliant pianist in the country'';# while others are so concerned a$out offering an authentic description that they fail to offer the introducees anything to talk a$out :e!g! '*an ( introduce you to *harles - he's working on a revision of Fer at's theore '';! The essential part of an introducer's role is to na e the introducees :e!g! 'Susan# ('d like you to eet *harles! *harles# this is Susan';! ,hile this re-uire ent see s si ple enough# it is fraught with all kinds of pro$le s# not least $eing the prospect that the introducer will forget so eone's na e! .ecause introducers are under a lot of pressure to perfor # it's very easy for the to $otch this crucial part of the introduction! (t's often -uite difficult to introduce people who one doesn't know well! .ut knowing so e$ody well doesn't necessarily ake things any easier# $ecause it's -uite co on for the introducer to draw a $lank when he or she tries to re e $er the na e of a close friend! Fortunately there are several strategies that introducers can use to save their own face# and that of the person whose na e they are struggling to re e $er! One strategy is for the introducer to ask the person what their na e is at the start of the introduction! '(' sorry#' the introducer ight say to one of the introducees# '$ut ( can't re e $er your na e'! ,hen the introducee says# '7argaret S ith'# the introducer co es $ack with# '?es# (

know it's 7argaretE ( Hust wasn't sure a$out your surna e''
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Another strategy is for the introducer to create an audi$le space where the na e is nor ally offered# in the hope that the person will -uickly provide his or her own na e! (n this situation introducees are usually very o$liging! ,hen the introducer# for e&a ple# says# 'And this i s ! ! ! ' # and leaves enough space to indicate that he is a$out to offer the na e# the introducee will usually co e to the rescue! '! ! ! 7argaret S ith'# she'll say# $efore anyone notices that the introducer has forgotten her na e! Another strategy is to package each person so that the o ission of their na e isn't o$vious! ?et another is to hurriedly e&cuse oneself at the critical point where na es are nor ally provided - for e&a ple# '7ay ( introduce you to each other! ! ! Oh no' 7y other-in-law has Hust arrived' ( have to go' ! ! ! *ould you please introduce yourselves to each other%' So e people ake a point of re e $ering so eone's na e when they're introduced to the ! For e&a ple# when he's introducing .ill to To # the host says# '.ill# ay ( intro- duce you to To !' As they are shaking hands# .ill says# '6ello# To '# and To says '6i# .ill'! >epeating so eone's na e in this fashion provides a very convenient way of re e $ering their na e# as well as showing the other person that you've taken the trou$le to re e $er it! (n the 5S and *anada# where this practice is fairly widespread# it is Hudged very favoura$ly! )eople who repeat na es are liked ore than those who don't# unless the person who's doing it has so ething to gain $y $eing pleasant# in which case na e repetition is seen as a for of ingratiation! There are several reasons why people forget the na es of people who they've Hust et! One is that

they're not paying attention! Another is that there are too any distractions! The third is that there are too any na es to
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re e $er# and the fourth is that they're so an&ious that they can't file the infor ation away! The people who are $est at re e $ering na es are highly otivated! 7any use a ne onic to help the ! The .ritish )ri e 7inister .enHa in "israeli is reputed to have had a re arka$le e ory for na es# $ut it wasn't infalli$le! Asked what he did when he couldn't re e $er so eone's na e# he con- fessed that he always resorted to the sa e strategy - he'd turn to the person and say# '6ow is the old co plaint%' "israeli clai ed that it always worked!

'art*n+ Tells
7e ory is governed $y 'pri acy' and 'recency' - the things we re e $er $est are those that we heard first or heard last! (t's the sa e with social encounters! ,hat shapes our opinions ore than anything else is what happens when we first eet so eone# and what happens when we leave that person! That's why we invest so uch effort in greeting and parting rituals we in- stinctively know that the way we appear to others depends on how we say hello and good$ye! (n so e respects parting rituals are rather si ilar to greeting rituals! =ike greeting rituals# they are 3@ concerned with transition! They also have a rather si ilar# $ut reversed# te poral structure to greetings while greetings consist of a 'recognition phase'# an 'approach phase' and a ' eeting phase'# partings are ade up of a 'separation phase'# a 'withdrawal phase' and a 'farewell phase'!

( agine that two young people# a an and a wo an# are having a drink in a $ar after work! At so e point the
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wo an realiJes that it's ti e for her to leave# so she -uickly steals a glance at her watch! This is the first 'advance cue' that she intends to leave# and it arks the $eginning of the 'separation phase'! This phase provides the young an and wo an with an opportunity to coordinate their e&pectations so that they are $oth on the sa e 'departure schedule'# and no$ody gets left $ehind! This is achieved through a co plicated e&change of signals! For e&a ple# after the wo an has glanced at her watch# the an ight a$sent indedly touch his $riefcase! They continue talking for a while! She then orients her $ody towards the door# unconsciously signalling where she's ai ing# and he i ediately responds $y finishing his drink! At each stage in this choreographed se-uence# each person is signalling their intention to leave and the other is providing clearance - one person's actions are saying# '(' planning to leaveE what do you think%' and the other person's responses are saying# 'That's fine $y e! (' -uite happy to draw this to a close!' The signals e&changed $y people who don't know each other very well are usually very tentative! The signals e&changed $y close friends are also -uite su$tle! .ut even when the signals $etween friends are $old and e&plicit# they're usually acco panied $y itigating assurances that are designed to ake sure that the other person doesn't feel a$andoned! (f# for e&a ple# the young wo an in the $ar had suddenly got to her feet and announced# '(' off now'# she would pro$a$ly have tried to reassure the an that it wasn't her choice# and that her i inent departure had no $earing on their friendship whatsoever! ,hen people part co pany they need to do two things

- they need to $ring the encounter to a successful close#

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and they need to show that the relationship they enHoy with the other person won't $e affected $y their departure! To get the first part of this essage across# the participants need to send out 'closure signals'E to convey the second part of the essage they need to provide each other wit h 'relationship signals'! There is an enor ous range of closure signals that people can use! So e are linguistic# others non-ver$al! One of the ways that people draw a conversation to a close is $y reducing the a ount of ti e they spend looking at the other person# and the a ount of '$ack-channel signals' they produce while the other person is speaking! As we've seen# '$ack-channel signals' consist of nods and 'uh-huh' sounds that are designed to encourage the other person and to show that one doesn't want to take over the speaker role! >educing these signals usually sends a clear essage to the other person that the conversation is starting to win d down ! The head# ar s and legs are also used to get this essage across! >apid nodding of the head# shifting the weight fro one leg to another# placing the hands on the ar rest of the chair - all these 'intention displays' are used to show that one is preparing to leave! So e closure signals are $old and clear! 7ost# however# are very su$tle! .ut even when they are $arely visi$le# ost closure signals anage to reach their target! >elationship signals are designed to reassure the other person that the end of the encounter does not signal the end of the relationship! This essage is conveyed $y several kinds of talk8 0 @7ST2F23AT2ON TALK. )eople who are a$out to leave often announce that they're going $ecause they have to#

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not $ecause they want to leave! "uring a party# for e&a ple# a guest ight turn to the hostess and say# '(' sorry we have to leave so early# $ut we pro ised the $a$ysitter we'd $e ho e $y eleven o'clock!' 0 3ONT2N72T5 TALK. )eople try to reassure each other $y proHecting their relationship into the future! ,hen they say good$ye to so eone they say things like# 'See you soon'# '=et's keep in touch' or '('ll call you ne&t week!' 0 E6AL7AT2ON TALK. )eople try to protect their relation- ship $y e&pressing their gratitude to the person they're leaving! ,hen they leave a social gathering# for e&a ple# they tell the host and hostess how uch they enHoyed the evening! Si ilarly# when they $u p into an old school- friend and are saying good$ye# they often e&press their pleasure with re arks like# '(t's good to see you again!'

There's often a lot of pressure on departing guests to e&aggerate their appreciation# especially when they've heard other guests telling the host and hostess how uch they enHoyed the evening! They feel :a; that they should not $e outdone $y the previous guests# and :$; that they should say so ething original! This can very rapidly give rise to a for of 'gratitude escalation'# where each departing guest feels co pelled to produce a ore florid e&pression of thanks than his or her predecessor! 7ark <napp captures the situation thus8 Take# for e&a ple# the final o ents of a cocktail party! Several guests are lined up ahead of you saying good$ye to the hostessE you hear each guest preceding you

say
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9>EET(N9 TE==S so ething like8 '*ynthia# we've had a great ti e! (t was so uch fun! Thanks a lot ! ! !' Now it's your turn! .ecause of the attending farewells preceding you# you ay $e forced to add e phasis which you ay not feel# $ut which is de anded lest you $e seen as unoriginal and un- appreciative! 6ence you $oo out with8 '*ynthia ! ! ! Hust fantastic' ( can't re e $er when ( had a $etter ti e! ?ou and Ieke ust co e over to our house so eti e!' =ater# as your wife -uestions the wisdo of your spontaneous invitation# you discover that you yourself aren't sure why you e&tended the invitation 31 in the first place! "uring a parting ritual people often ove away fro each other and then $ack again! (f you watch people saying good$ye# you'll notice how one of the takes a step $ack# or several paces away fro the other person# and then returns to their for er position# so eti es repeating this process a nu $er of ti es! This is the 'yo-yo pheno enon'! (t's very co on in spaces that encourage this kind of ove ent# and where the participants aren't under any pressure to leave in a hurry! (f you watch people chatting on the street you'l l often see one or $oth of the oving away and then $ack again as a prelude to leaving altogether! So e years ago# when ( was watching people in the centre of O&ford# ( recorded one couple that ade a total of seventeen oves away fro each other $efore they finally separated' On the surface the 'yo-yo pheno enon' looks like a $ad case of indecision - or a theatrical ausse sortie# where an actor pretends to e&it and then returns i ediately to the stage! .ut it's neitherE it's the conse-uence of closure signals and relationship signals
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co peting with each other! ,hen people start to close a conversation# one of the things they do is ove away! Si ilarly# to show that the relationship is still i portant# they ove towards the other person! (n order to signal that they want to $ring the encounter to a close and that their relationship is still intact# people fre-uently end up oving $ack and forth! (t's the alternation of these two types of signal that gives rise to the yo-yo pheno enon! .efore people physically separate# they ay hug# kiss or shake hands - the decision often depends on what they did when they greeted each other! 6owever# this doesn't necessarily ean the end of the separation phase# $ecause they will often recycle so e of the earlier ele ents of the ritual# so eti es repeating the entire se-uence $efore they actually ove away fro each other! The 'withdrawal phase' of the parting is often fairly straightforward - one or $oth people si ply turn on their heel and walk away! .ut even at this late stage in the proceedings there are tells that reveal what people are thinking! ,hen people are approaching each other they usually focus on the front of their $ody - adHusting their tie# $uttoning up their Hacket or rearranging the front of their hair! 6owever# when people ove away fro each other they usually focus their attention on the $ack of their $ody $ecause they know that this is ost likely to $e noticed $y the other person! The way that people adHust the $ack of their $ody is often a giveaway! For e&a ple# when so e- one s ooths the $ack of their hair Hust as they are a$out to withdraw# it shows that they recogniJe - even un- consciously - that they ay $e o$served fro $ehind as they walk away!

The ha$it of attending to the $ack of one's $ody prior to

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leaving is very uch the prerogative of wo en# si ply $ecause wo en are ore likely to $e Hudged or ad ired fro $ehind than en! ,o en will so eti es put their hand $ehind the and pull their Hersey down over their $otto as they're a$out to walk away! This is the hind&hide tell# and it shows that the wo an in -uestion is worried a$out the siJe of her $otto ! ,o en who are proud of their $ackside# or who wish to draw attention to it# are ore likely to flatten out their dress or to position their hands close to their $otto $efore they walk away! ,hile people are oving away# they so eti es enter a 'farewell phase'# where they throw a glance over their shoulder# or turn around and wave# $efore continuing on their way! ,hen the parting is inconse-uential people don't turn around! .ut when the parting has an e otional significance they often e&perience a strong te ptation to turn around and have a final look at the other person $efore going on their way! One of the reasons why people turn round is that they regret the parting and don't want the separation to take place! Another otive is to check whether the other person is still watching the - when you've Hust left so eone it's always reassuring to discover that they haven't $roken off yet# and that they're watching you until you finally disappear fro view! )artings# like greetings# are all a$out ratifying relationships and provid- ing the other person with reassurances! The fact that these goals are regularly achieved $y the e&change of $rief utterances and fleeting gestures shows what a crucial role tells play in our lives!

340

A! Tells

>oyal

On a state visit to .raJil# the "uke of Edin$urgh is reputed to have asked a .raJilian ad iral whether the glittering display of edals on his chest was won on the artificial lake outside the capital# .rasilia! '?es# sir'# replied the ad iral# 'not $y arriage'! >oyalty is of course not $ased on achieve ent - it's $ased on parentage and arriage! =ike cele$rities# the royals are constantly in the li elight# $ut while cele$rities need to work hard to stay there# the royals re ain fa ous regardless of what they do! )eople who want to retain a position of do inance need constantly to re ind others how i portant they are - they need to adopt a do inant de eanour# insist on their point of view# and see off anyone who ight try to challenge their position! That's not the case with royalty! .ecause their position derives fro who they are rather than what they do# they don't need to $ehave do inantly! .ecause they're secure in their position# and $ecause people are always deferring to the #

they can actually afford to send out affiliative and friendly signals! (n so e
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cases they ay even try to endear the selves to other people $y $ehaving su$ issively!

Fr*endl= Tells
)eople often feel awkward and self-conscious when they eet royalty - they get flustered# tongue-tied and don't know what to say! Even powerful individuals who run large corporations can $e reduced to gi$$ering# in- articulate idiots when they eet e $ers of the royal fa ily! To counter this effect# and to put people at their ease# the royals ake a ha$it of producing friendly signals - they s ile# ake Hokes# and are attentive to what people have to say! This is the odern face of royalty! 6owever# if you watch so e of the early fil footage of the .ritish royal fa ily you won't find uch s iling! Although 9eorge V# for e&a ple# is reputed to have had a good sense of hu our# he didn't show it in pu$lic! 7ost of the i ages we have of hi are rather severe! ,hen this was pointed out to hi he replied# ',e sailors never s ile on duty!' 6is first son# Edward# )rince of ,ales# was renowned as a practical Hoker# although this side of his character $eca e less evident after he succeeded to the throne as Edward V(7# and it see ed to disappear altogether after his a$dication! 9eorge V(# who succeeded his $rother Edward# proHected an i age of so eone who was serious and unfunny! 6e seldo s iled in pu$lic# preferring to adopt the dutiful de eanour of his father# 9eorge V! The person who is largely responsi$le for the shift to a ore engaging style of royal $ehaviour is Lueen

34A

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EliJa$eth# the Lueen 7other! "uring the $litJ in late 34+/ she ade several visits to the East End of =ondon# where she et people and talked to the a$out the hardships they were e&periencing! Those who et her were struck $y her friendly infor ality# and $y the way she focused on what they were saying! (n his diaries# 6arold Nicolson descri$es the effect she had on people at the ti e8 ! !! when the car stops# the Lueen nips out into the snow and goes straight into the iddle of the crowd and starts talking to the ! For a o ent or two they Hust gaJe and gape in a aJe ent! .ut then they all start talking at once! '6i' ?our 7aHesty' =ook here'' She has that -uality of aking every$ody feel that they and they alone are $eing spoken to! (t is# ( think# $ecause she has very large eyes which she opens very wide and turns 3 straight upon one! The accessi$ility of the onarchy was given a further $oost in 34A/ when the present Lueen# who was on an official visit to Australia# perfor ed the first royal 'walka$out' $y strolling along a cordoned crowd and eeting people who had co e to wave at her as she drove $y! (n those days the walka$out offered people an opportunity to shake hands with the Lueen and# very occasionally# a chance to e&change a few words with her! Nowadays the royal walka$out is even ore infor al# and the Lueen and the "uke of Edin$urgh ake a point of engaging people in conversation! ,hen *harles# Anne# Andrew and Edward ove down a line of well-wishers# there's even ore Hoking# s iling and laughter!

6u our plays a aHor role# $oth in the pu$lic's perception of the onarchy and the onarchy's perception of
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itself! >o$ert =acey relates an incident when the Lueen and )rince )hilip were driving down a uddy lane near Sandringha # and the vehicle splashed ud all over a @ wo an walking down the lane! The wo an shouted so ething# and the Lueen called $ack to her# '( -uite agree with you# ada !' '6 #' said )hilip# 'what did she say# darling%' The Lueen replied# 'She said# N.astards'N' ,hen he was younger the "uke of Edin$urgh was known for his pranks# and the Lueen# like her other $efore her# has a reputation for $eing a gifted i ic! Anne has a $luff# irreverent sense of hu our# while *harles does a good line in wry self-efface ent! 6u our also lu$ricates the royal fa ily's relationship with the pu$lic! For e&a ple# if you watch )rince *harles shaking hands with e $ers of the pu$lic you'll notice that the e&changes are often interspersed with laughter# so e of it provoked $y his a using re arks# so e of it in response to what other people are saying! These good-hu oured e&changes carry i portant essages $ecause they show that *harles doesn't always stand on cere ony# and that he possesses the -uality that the .ritish value ore than any other - a sense of hu our! >o$ert )rovine fro the 5niversity of 7aryland has dis- covered that laughter often functions as a su$ issive signal - in other words# that su$ordinate individuals use laughter to appease do inant individuals# while do inant individuals try to get people to laugh so that they can retain the upper 1 hand! This is evident when *harles is oving through a crowd# cracking the occasional Hoke# ostensi$ly to ake everyone feel rela&ed $ut really so that he can elicit appeasing peals of laughter! So eti es one of the crowd will ake a wisecrack that gets *harles laughing! The fact that this happens doesn't under ine the

344

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idea that laughter is a$out appease ent - it Hust shows that *harles is so eti es happy to $e su$ issive! One of )rince *harles's signature tells is his ha$it of raising his eye$rows! 6e uses this gesture in conversation# usually when he's talking to so eone he doesn't know well# and when he wants to show that he's $eing attentive! *harles's eye$row-lift is invaria$ly acco panied $y a very slight widening of the eyes# which shows that he's interested in what the other person is saying! The degree of eye-widening is critical# $ecause if he raised his eye$rows without opening his eyes it would suggest that he was $eing haughty! E-ually# if he were to open the wide it would give the i pression that he didn't $elieve what the other person was saying! As a rule do inant individuals don't raise their eye$rowsE if anything# they lower the in order to appear ore threatening! .y raising his eye$rows# *harles is therefore producing a su$ issive display! 6e's trying to appear attentive# $ut in the process he's un- intentionally producing an appease ent signal! This doesn't necessarily ean that *harles co es across as $eing su$ issive - $ecause his identity depends on his royal status he can afford to produce the occasional appease ent display without appearing su$ issive!

(*stance Tells
The po p and circu stance surrounding the onarchy is designed to give it a sense of ystery and detach ent# and to underline the fact that e $ers of the royal fa ily are very different fro the rest of us! 9ravity and for ality are essential features of royalty $ecause

they separate the

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onarchy fro its su$Hects! The pro$le # of course# is that for ality co es into conflict with accessi$ility# aking it difficult for a sovereign to inspire $oth respect and affection! The co peting de ands on onarchs have $een recogniJed for a long ti e! (n The Boo. o the Courtier# pu$lished in 30@2# .aldassare *astiglione wrote a$out the difficulty that the ruler encounters when he tries to co $ine ildness + and fierceness! ,riting in 3B+3# Sir >o$ert Naunton descri$ed how Lueen EliJa$eth ( had 'the stile to winne the hearts of the people'! She did this $y 'coupling ildnesse with aHesty' - the first she had inherited fro her other# the second fro 0 her father! Nowadays royalty still has to contend with the co peting de ands of appearing regal and affa$le! One without the other doesn't work! (t's essential that royals appear elevated $ut not out of reach# and that they co e across as friendly without $eing overly fa iliar! One way that the onarchy retains its distance is through its de eanour! 7e $ers of the royal fa ily usually re ain physically inaccessi$le and contact with the tends therefore to $e on their own ter s! "uring walka$outs it's the e $ers of the royal fa ily who decide who they're going to greet! They're also the ones who initiate the greetings $y e&tending their hand and who $ring the e&change to an end# often again with a handshake! Sy $olic distance is also reflected $y physical distance# with the Lueen standing within ar 's range# $ut not too close to the other person! The Hournalist Si on 6oggart has suggested that the Lueen has three $asic e&pressions# 'a dour glare# verging on a scowl# delight# and lively interest!!! (t is the B last one she uses at garden parties'! On cere onial occasions the

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Lueen usually adopts a rather grave e&pression# $ut there are ti es - for e&a ple# when her horse does well in the "er$y - when her spontaneous e otions co e to the fore! The Lueen is at her $est on for al social occasions and when she's $eing co pletely rela&ed! (t's situations that are neither one thing nor the other that she see s to find ost difficult! Sy $olic distance is so eti es conveyed $y language - for e&a ple# the way that e $ers of the royal fa ily ight refer to 'we' or 'one' when they ean '(' or ' e'! The use of 'we' $y onarchs has a long tradition - it derives fro the notion of the ruler as ore than a single individual# which is said to go $ack to the ti e when the >o an E pire was split in two# with one E peror in >o e and another in *onstantinople! Lueen Victoria is reputed to have said# ',e are not a used' to show that she# herself# was not i pressed! This is isleading on two counts! Firstly# there is no record that she ever used this e&pression! Secondly# there is lots of evidence that Lueen Victoria was fre-uently a used - her Hournals repeatedly include the phrase# '( was very uch a used'# and it's known that A she was given to uncontrolla$le attacks of the giggles! .ut royal use of the ter 'we' isn't always straightforward! Edward V(((# for e&a ple# often used the ter in correspondence with his $eloved ,allis Si pson! (n one letter he wrote# 'not any$ody or anything can 2 separate ,E !! ! 9od $less ,E'! The reference here was not to hi self# $ut to $oth of the # where ',E' was o$tained $y co $ining the first letters of ,allis and Edward! 7e $ers of the royal fa ily are ore likely to use the pronoun 'one' when referring to the selves! ,hen he was

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asked a$out the prospect of $eing <ing# *harles once replied# '( didn't wake up in y pra one day and say N?ippee ! ! !N you know! .ut ( think it Hust dawns on you# slowly# that people are interested in one!' The use of 'one' often replaces the first person with the third person singular# aking it sound as if the speaker is talking a$out so eone else instead of hi self! This draws attention away fro the speaker and shifts it towards their role! ,hen so eone refers to hi - or herself as 'one' it reduces their individuality! .ut ost crucial of all# it creates a distance $etween the speaker and the person who's $eing addressed $ecause it treats the speaker as if he or she isn't present!

Hand Tells
Sy $olic distance is also conveyed $y posture! (f you watch e $ers of the royal fa ily# you'll notice that they have distinctive ways of holding their hands8 0 THE HAN(3LAS'. The Lueen uses several hand postures# $ut her favourite appears to $e the 'handclasp'# where the pal of one hand is placed in that of the other - in her case the left hand usually rests on top of the right! The Lueen also e ploys a related posture# where several of the fingers of one hand clasp one of the fingers of the other hand! (n $oth of these postures the hands are linked in front of the $ody# and in ost cases they're positioned de urely on the lap! .oth postures are essentially defensiveE $ecause the hands are occupied they also appear to $e unthreatening!

@/1

T6E .OO< OF TE==S 0 THE HAN(BA.. =ike any wo en of her generation# the Lueen often walks around with her hand$ag suspended fro her ar ! .ut unlike that of other wo en# hers is largely decorative! (t isn't stuffed full of akeup# parking tickets and oney# $ecause so eone else carries things for her! The Lueen does occasionally use her hand$ag to send cryptic signals - it's known# for e&a ple# that when she reaches for her hand$ag it's a signal to her assistants that she's a$out to ove on to so ething else! 0 THE 34ANE 'OST74E. The "uke of Edin$urgh has a ha$it of walking around with his hands clasped $ehind his $ack! This is the 'crane posture'# and it's widely recog- niJed as one of the "uke's trade ark tells. 6e also perfor s the 'half crane' $y placing his left hand $ehind his $ack when he's shaking hands! The act of placing the hands $ehind one's $ack is a do inant gesture# $ecause it e&poses the $ody and leaves it unprotected fro frontal attack! (t's the $ody's way of saying# '=ook at e! (' so con- fident that no$ody will attack e that ( a prepared to keep y hands $ehind y $ack# where they're not in a position to defend e!' As far as we can tell# the "uke of Edin$urgh only adopted the crane posture after the coronationE prior to that he preferred to clasp his hands in front of hi ! One of the things that attracted the "uke to this posture is the fact that it akes hi look confident! The other is that it akes hi look very different fro the Lueen - while her hands are neatly folded on her lap# his are tucked away $ehind hi ! So strong is the "uke of Edin$urgh's need to distinguish hi self# that if the crane posture hadn't e&isted# he would have needed to invent it!

@/+

>O?A= TE==S 0 THE 'O73H 'OST74E. (n order to ensure that he isn't confused with his parents# *harles has avoided the hand- clasp and the crane! (nstead of clasping his hands in front or $ehind hi # he's developed a ha$it of slipping his right hand into his Hacket pocket! This is the 'pouch posture'# and in *harles's case it consists of several discrete ele ents! First of all there's the act of turning up the flap# so that the hand can $e placed in the Hacket pocketE then there's the $usiness of placing the hand in the pocketE finally there's the a$$reviated se-uence where he fiddles with the flap without placing his hand in the pocket! The pouch posture is clearly otivated $y an unconscious desire to conceal the hand - not $oth hands# ind you# Hust the hand that's the stronger of the two! ,hen people conceal their hands it shows that they either want to hide their feelings or that they need to restrain their i pulses! ,hen *harles puts his hand in his pocket he so eti es uses his thu $ as a 'stop'# so that while his fingers re ain hidden his thu $ is still e&posed! This# in itself# is interesting $ecause actions that give pro inence to the thu $s are ' acho' gestures - it's what tough guys do when they tuck their thu $s into their $elt or push their hands into their trouser pockets and leave their thu $s outside!

To"ching Tells
Touch is often used as a arker of status! The social psychologist# Nancy 6enley# has pointed out that while high-status individuals reserve the right to touch their su$- ordinates# they in turn aren't entitled to touch their

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superiors! Touch# she suggests# acts as a 'status re inder' - the idea $eing that $y o$serving patterns of touching in a group of people it's possi$le to work out who has 4 control over who ! ,e can see this very clearly with royalty! ,hen e $ers of the royal fa ily are doing a walka$out# it's they who initiate the handshake and who therefore grant people per ission to touch the ! .ecause of the association $etween power and touch# there are strict rules against people unilaterally touching the onarch! Apart fro shaking her hand# no$ody is allowed to touch the person of the Lueen! ,hen this rule is violated# as it was when the Australian )ri e 7inister put his ar around the Lueen in 344@# it al ost caused an inter- national incident! This tactile attitude of Australians towards royalty goes $ack a long way! ,hen Edward# the )rince of ,ales# visited Australia in 34@/# it see ed as though everyone was trying to ake contact with hi ! 6e recorded the spectacle in his Hournal8 The 'touching ania'# one of the ost re arka$le pheno ena connected with y travels# took the for of a ass i pulse to prod so e part of the )rince of ,ales! ,henever ( entered a crowd# it closed around e like an octopus! ( can still hear the shrill# e&cited cry# '( touched hi '' (f ( were out of reach# then a $low on y head with a folded 3/ newspaper appeared to satisfy the i pulse! There was a ti e# during the 7iddle Ages# when it was widely $elieved that people who suffered fro scrofula# a glandular disease which was called 'the <ing's evil'#

could $e cured $y $eing touched $y their $elief in

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the 'royal touch'# as it was called# lasted fro the ti e of Edward the *onfessor right up to 3A3+# when Lueen Anne perfor ed the last royal touch $y an English 33 onarch! Although people no longer $elieve in the curative power of the royal touch# there is so ething very pri itive a$out the desire to touch and $e touched $y royalty! That's why so any people reach out to shake their hand! (n these situations# touch $eco es a ediu of assi ilation - $y touching a e $er of the royal fa ily people feel that they are incorporating so e of the royal agic into the - selves and connecting the selves to so ething that's ti eless! The way people touch each other so eti es e&poses things a$out their relationship that they would rather keep hidden! A dra atic case of this occurred in 3401! At the ti e )rincess 7argaret was having a secret love affair with 9roup *aptain )eter Townsend# who had $een e-uerry to her father# the <ing! The secrecy was necessitated $y the fact that 7argaret was only twentytwo# while Townsend was thirty-eight! To co plicate atters further# he was divorced! The ro ance $eca e pu$lic knowledge during the coronation! .efore the cere ony $egan# )rincess 7argaret was waiting in ,est inster 9reat 6all! Townsend was standing near$y! She turned towards hi and a$sent indedly $rushed a piece of fluff fro his lapel! (t was this tiny gesture - this tell of inti acy - that revealed to the world that )rincess 7argaret was in love with )eter Townsend! One of the things that ade )rincess 7argaret's gesture so noticea$le was the fact that she $elonged to a fa ily that was not given to pu$lic displays of affection! Even to this day# the royal fa ily rarely touch other people# e&cept

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to shake hands# and there's very little physical contact $etween the fa ily e $ers in pu$lic! (n fact# if it were a foreign country# psychologists would pro$a$ly refer to the royal fa ily as a 'non-contact culture' - that is# a society where touch is reduced to the $are ini u ! For e&a ple# when the Lueen and the "uke of Edin$urgh went on a round-the-world tour of the *o onwealth in 3401# they left *harles# who was five years old at the ti e# in the care of his nanny! ,hen they returned si& onths later# *harles was taken to the airport to greet his parents! ,hen his parents appeared# they didn't lift *harles up and give hi a $ig hug or a kissE instead they greeted hi with a handshake - in other words# they resorted to a greeting that ost people would reserve for strangers and ac-uain- tances# even in those days# $ut not for children# and certainly not for their own child who they hadn't seen for half a year' The low fre-uency of touch within the royal fa ily is partly due to the fact that its e $ers need to proHect an i age of inaccessi$ility# even a ong the selves! (t also arises fro the heavy schedule of duties that the Lueen and the "uke of Edin$urgh have always had to fulfil# and the reduced opportunities they have had to $e with their children! ,hen *harles was young he would usually only see his other twice a day - for half an hour in the orn- ing and half an hour in the early evening! @ The rest of the ti e he was cared for $y nannies!' (f there were a scale for easuring royal touch# the Lueen and )rince )hilip would definitely $e at one end and )rincess "iana would have $een at the other! The tactile side of "iana's personality was evident# $oth in the way that she $rought up her children - she was

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constantly cuddling and touching ,illia and 6arry and the way she related to e $ers of the pu$lic! ,hile the esta$lished e $ers of the royal fa ily were $usy cultivating an i age of regal detach ent# "iana's instinct was to ake contact with individuals! ,hen people were waiting to eet her she would often rush over to greet the ! (nstead of keeping her distance# she would ove into their physical space# creating the i pression that she was eeting the on their ter s rather than hers! "iana's style in pu$lic was 31 one of 'i ediacy'! .y getting close to people# $eing open and receptive# and giving the her undivided attention# she created an at osphere of infor ality and war th that ade an indeli$le i pression on those who et her - one that# in any respects# was si ilar to the feelings that the Lueen 7other had aroused during the Second ,orld ,ar! )eople who et "iana felt touched $y her - all of the figuratively# and so e of the literally! ,hen "iana opened a purpose-$uilt A("S clinic at the 7iddlese& 6ospital in 342A# she was photographed holding hands with a young an who was suffering fro A("S! This i age had an enor ous i pact on people's perceptions of the disease! At the ti e there was a great deal of preHudice towards A("S sufferers! .y sitting down $eside an A("S patient and holding his hand# "iana co pletely reHected such preHudice! ,ith no ore than a touch# she de on- strated that people with A("S are no different fro any other patients suffering fro life-threatening diseases! (t's often said that "iana was adored $ecause of her charity work# $ecause she was vulnera$le and $ecause she was so $eautiful! All these factors undou$tedly played a part# $ut the thing that endeared her to the pu$lic ore

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than any other was the way she physically touched people! Touch is the ost pri itive e&pression of love and friendship! .y reaching out to individuals# "iana 3+ touched a very deep chord in people! She also showed her feel- ings - so ething that the royal fa ily seldo do! ,hile "iana was alive# *harles see ed content to accept the restrictions on outward displays of e otion dictated $y royal convention! "iana# on the other hand# vaulted over these restrictions to get to people# and they loved her for it! Since "iana's death# *harles has $eco e uch ore tactile in his relationship with ,illia and 6arry! 6e's $een seen hugging and even kissing the - doing things that "iana did with the $oys# $ut which he hi self wasn't e&posed to when he was a child!

1harles Tells
,hen they were together it was always assu ed that "iana was the shy one and that *harles was rather co - posed! (t's true that "iana was a shy person! .ut it's also the case that *harles is given to spells of self- consciousness! This is evident fro the range of 'displace ent activities' that he produces when he's in the pu$lic eye! 0 THE 37FF-L2NK F2((LE. Several of *harles's ha$its con- sist of threshold tells - that is# they occur as he's crossing an invisi$le $oundary fro one situation to another! ,atch hi e erge fro a chauffeured car at a

gala per- for ance and you'll see how he characteristically draws his hand across his $ody and reaches for the opposite
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The Cu lin. Fiddle. A sure sign of an&iety or self-consciousness is revealed in this s all $ut highly significant gesture - as de onstrated here $y )rince *harles! @33

T6E .OO< OF TE==S cuff! This is *harles's 'cuff-link fiddle' - he resorts to it whenever he's on display and in transition! Although *harles has ade the cuff-link fiddle his own# it's very si ilar to the an1iety tells that other people display when they're approaching so eone - like crossing their ar s over their $ody# rearranging their clothes or touching their hair! 7ost people have access to a range of an1iety tells# dropping one in favour of another! .ut *harles has re ained faithful to the cuff-link fiddle since he first dis- covered it as a young an! 6is cufflinks have $eco e e otional lightning conductors# a eans of dispelling his an&ieties and providing hi with a sense of security - very si ilar# in fact# to what psychoanalysts call a 'transitional o$Hect'! *harles has also# it see s# passed this ha$it on to other people# $ecause Tony .lair has $eco e a cuff-link fiddler too! 0 THE T2E T73K. *harles's ha$it of straightening out his tie is another one of his threshold tells. 6e usually does this $y tucking his tie into his Hacket! (n fact the action is now so ingrained in hi that he will straighten out his tie even when it doesn't need straightening# or when it isn't even there' ,hen he's wearing $lack tie he fre-uently slips his hand under the lapel of his Hacket# Hust as if he were wear- ing a tie and wanted to straighten it out! 0 THE NASAL FOL( 82'E. *harles also has a ha$it of wiping his inde& finger down the fold $etween his nose and cheek! 6e tends to do this on pu$lic occasions# when he's aware that crowds of people are watching hi ! 0 THE EA4LOBE 47B. Another of *harles's tells is the

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>O?A= TE==S 'earlo$e ru$'# which involves gra$$ing his earlo$e and surreptitiously giving it a -uick ru$! 6e does this when he's feeling ildly self-conscious! 0 THE AS2(E. *harles has a very distinctive way of talking out of the side of his outh# which he does when he wants to put $rackets around what he's saying - it's his way of showing that he's changing# for e&a ple# to a ore Hocular ood! Actors so eti es produce an 'aside' as a way of showing that they're dealing with a paren- thetical issue or that they're colluding with the audience! That is what *harles is essentially doing when he talks out of the side of his outh - he's stepping out of his nor al role and into a ore inti ate role that he hopes to share with his audience!

The fact that he e&hi$its any displace ent activity at all is -uite revealing! After decades of royal duties we woul d e&pect *harles to $e fairly i une to the unsettling presence of large crowds! Evidently he isn't# $ecause whenever he's confronted $y lots of people his hand reaches for the security of his tie or his cuff-links or $oth! Although *harles is very uch a an of the world # these little for s of displace ent reveal a sensitive and potentially vulnera$le side of his character!

2iana Tells
"iana had several -uite distinctive anneris s# ost of the associated with shyness! She had a ha$it# for e&a ple# of looking down at the ground when she was

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talking to people# and she was also given to $outs of $lushing! These outward signs $egan to disappear with age# $ut her feeling of awkwardness was never far fro the surface! There were si& facial e&pressions that "iana ade her own 8 0 THE E5E-'7FF. "iana had very large eyes# which she accentuated $y adopting an 'open-eyes' e&pression! One of the things that people find irresisti$le a$out very young $a$ies is the siJe of their eyes relative to the rest of their face - their huge eyes act as 'innate releasers'# aking people feel protective and nurturing! 9rown wo en can appear ore vulnera$le and elicit si ilar responses $y e&panding their eyes! This is what "iana did - she widened her eyes and ade people feel that they needed to look after her! 0 THE S'EN3E4 SM2LE. "iana was renowned for her radiant s ile! This wasn't an artificial s ile - it was the genuine article# the heartfelt s ile with all the features of authenticity# like sy etry and activation of the uscles round the eyes! 0 THE '74SE( SM2LE. "iana had an unusual ha$it of pursing her lips and pulling the to one side while she was s iling! This was in fact a restrained s ile# and she used it when she was feeling shy or e $arrassed! .y restraining her s ile in this way she showed that she was a used# $ut that she felt it was inappropriate to show her a use ent! 0 THE (2''E( SM2LE. The dipped s ile is perfor ed $y

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>O?A= TE==S s iling while the head is lowered and the eyes are look- ing up! This reproduces the look that the young child gives to grown-ups# where the eyes are looking up at the adult! ,hen "iana adopted this e&pression it ade her appear younger and ore vulnera$le! As we shall see in the discussion of se1ual tells# the dipped s ile is also a 'co e-on'# and that's why "iana appeared so seductive when she used this s ile! 0 THE HEA(-3ANT SM2LE. Occasionally "iana would tilt her head to one side while she was s iling! As we saw earlier# head-canting also gives the i pression of vulner- a$ility and su$ issiveness! .y tilting her head to one side "iana ade herself appear co pletely unthreatening! 0 THE T74N-A8A5 SM2LE. This occurred when "iana's head was turned away fro the other person while looking at the and s iling! This produces what *harles "arwin called a 'hy$rid e&pression'# ade up of actions which convey two opposing essages - s iling# which signals approach# and turning away# which signals 30 avoid- ance! The tension $etween these two essages gives the hy$rid e&pression its irresisti$le appeal - like a etal alloy# it's stronger than its constituent ele ents! ,hen people talk a$out "iana's s ile it's the turn-away s ile that they usually re e $er! (n any ways this was "iana's signature tell $ecause it encapsulated $oth her openness and her shyness# and it highlighted her in - decision! The turn-away s ile is neither one thing nor the other - it's neither an atte pt to turn away nor a wholehearted s ile! (n this respect it's rather like "iana herself

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- so eone who was like everyone else and who shared their senti ents# $ut so eone who also happened to $e a e $er of the royal fa ily!

8*ll*a< Tells
One of the things that )rince ,illia has inherited fro his other is his height! At B feet 1 inches he's very tall for a e $er of the royal fa ily - in fact# when he ascends to the throne he'll $e the tallest .ritish onarch ever# taller even than 6enry V(((! For a long ti e ,illia had a ha$it of stooping! (t was an adolescent way of aking hi self look less conspicuous! (n his case it was also a way of hiding fro the unwanted attention of the press and people who treat hi as if he's so ething special! The stooping ha$it has now largely disappeared# $ut ,illia can still $e socially withdrawn - Hust like "iana was on occasions! (n fact# several of ,illia 's tells can $e traced to his other! There are also so e tells that he owes to his father! 0 THE HEA( (2'. =ike his other# ,illia is naturally reticent! That's one of the reasons he likes to ride around on his otor$ike with his hel et on - it allows hi to travel incognito! ,illia doesn't like to $e treated differ- ently and he has a strong dislike of the press# $ecause of the paparaJJi# who he sees as responsi$le for his other's death! ,hen he's on display or feeling pursued# his natural instinct is to lower his head and look down! (t's his ca ouflage# his way of pretending that the people who are $othering hi aren't there! =ike "iana# ,illia

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>O?A= TE==S also has a ha$it of lowering his eyes when he's talking to people! This isn't another escape atte pt - it's si ply an e&pression of his shyness! ,illia 's aternal grandfather# =ord Spencer# was a rather shy person too! (n his youth he was also very good looking! ,illia is unusually hand- so e for a e $er of the royal fa ily# and lots of young girls find hi irresisti$le! The other thing that girls like a$out hi is his reserve - it allows the to i agine that they're doing the chasing! This is $orne out $y the fact that# in 3442# he received ore than a thousand Valentine cards! (t was illustrated even ore dra atically that year when ,illia travelled with *harles and 6arry to *anada! There he was repeatedly o$$ed $y hundreds of screa ing girls - Hust as if he were a pop star' 0 THE S'EN3E4 SM2LE. =ike "iana# ,illia has an infectious s ile# which we're seeing ore and ore! The s ile is $road and generous# and it usually shows signs of genuine pleasure! This is particularly noticea$le when his guard is down and he's feeling unthreatened! ,hen ,illia is under pressure to appear Hovial his s iles are usually ore artificial they're $riefer# his gaJe is averted# and they don't enlist the uscles round the eyes! ,illia also uses the pursed s ile that was so characteristic of his other! =ike her# he co presses his lips and pulls the to one side! 0 THE T2E T2(5. One of ,illia 's threshold tells is the 'tie tidy'! For e&a ple# when he gets out of a car wearing a tie and Hacket and he walks towards a $uilding# he often straightens out his tie! =ike other threshold tells this

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action occurs when he's in transition - it's a way of ark- ing the change# preparing for what's a$out to happen# and displacing an&iety! Although ,illia 's 'tie tidy' and *harles's 'tie tuck' $oth involve ties# they're guided $y -uite different otivations! ,hen *harles tucks the end of his tie away he's aking sure functionally and etaphorically - that there aren't any loose ends around and that what's superfluous is put out of view! ,hen ,illia tidies his tie he's not trying to conceal anything - he's Hust s artening up what's already visi$le! At the o ent , illia still has the anneris s of a youngster! (f you watch hi standing $eside

*harles# you'll see a iddle-aged gentle an with his hand in his Hacket pocket# and a young an# with his pelvis pushed forward and his legs on display# assu ing the pose of an athlete! Over the ne&t few years ,illia is going to change# and so will his anneris s! So e of his ha$its ay $eco e ingrained# while others are a$andoned in favour of new ways of $ehaving! One issue that still needs to $e resolved is what he does with his hands - will he follow the "uke of Edin$urgh and keep his hands $ehind his $ack# or will he odel hi self on his father and tuck one of the in his pocket% Or is he ore likely to develop his own distinctive style of $ehaviour%

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2! Tells

An&iety

)eople $eco e an&ious when they feel threatened! This is a nor al# self-protective response to a perceived danger# and it often precedes actions that are designed to deal with the threat! 6ow an&ious so eone feels is likely to depend on their personality and how threatened and help- less they feel! 7ost people only feel threatened and an&ious occasionally! So e people# however# don't appear to e&perience any an&iety at all# while at the opposite e&tre e there are people who see to $e in a per anent state of nerves! )sychologists distinguish $etween two types of an&iety - 'trait an&iety' and 'state an&iety'! As the ter i plies# trait an&iety refers to an&iety that is a trait# in other words# part of so eone's personality! A person with trait an&iety tends to feel an&ious# regardless of the situation! State an&iety# on the other hand# is a response to a particular situation! This is the natural way to respond - to feel an&ious when circu stances are threatening# and to feel rela&ed when the situation isn't threatening! Of course the whole notion of threat is highly su$Hective - people who

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have high levels of trait an&iety# for e&a ple# tend to see ost situations as threatening! ,hen hu ans or ani als are under attack there are several strategies at their disposal - they can fight# flee or 3 freeJe! Each of these responses involves very different actions - attacking or defending oneself against the assailant# running away or keeping perfectly still! Although they differ superficially# these strategies are all associated with heightened physiological arousal# which involves increased heart rate# $reathing and pal ar sweating! These processes are auto atic and involuntary - in other words# people don't have any control over the - so they provide a very relia$le indication of e otions! One of the distinguishing features of heart rate is that people don't always notice s all increases $ut they do notice it when their heart starts pounding! (n the case of sweating# people are often painfully aware that their an&iety is apparent to other people# and that is why they go to such lengths to cover it up! 6eart rate and sweating are united $y the fact that they're al ost i possi$le to fakeE $reathing is different $ecause people can pretend to $reathe faster or slower than nor al! As a rule# we don't want others to notice our sy pto s of an&iety# $ecause it shows that we aren't fully in control! (t also under ines our confidence and puts other people at an advantage! Although we can't always control our an&iety# we can take steps to ensure that other people don't notice it! (n fact it's often our atte pts to conceal our an&iety that reveal what we are really feeling!

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Sweat*n+ Tells
Sweating is central to ther oregulation - when we get hot our sweat glands produce ore sweat# which evaporates and cools the surface of the skin! .ut sweating also occurs in response to highly charged e otional events# like giving a speech in front of a crowd of strangers# sitting in the dentist's chair# or preparing to Hu p out of a plane with a parachute! >esearch on sweating shows that while ther oregulatory sweating occurs all over the $ody# $ut less noticea$ly on the pal s# e otional sweating is con- centrated on the face and the pal s of the hands# where the sweat glands are ost densely packed! E otional sweating often catches people unawares# especially when they're inclined to $e self-conscious! ('ve often watched people who appear to $e co pletely co posed stand up to give a speech# only to see perspiration pouring down their forehead a few inutes later! (t's also happened to e on several occasions - one inute you're feeling confident and in control# and the ne&t you're sweating profusely! So eti es all it takes is a stray idea# a o ent of self-dou$t# to initiate the sweating! Once you start to perspire it's very difficult to stop! That's partly $ecause sweating# like $lushing# is very la$ile# $ut it's also $ecause sweating feeds on itself - when you realiJe that other people can see you sweating this akes you ore an&ious# which in turn encourages you to continue sweating# and so the vicious cycle continues! .ut sweating need not dis-ualify people fro pu$lic speaking! The .ritish )ri e 7inister# Tony .lair# is a good e&a ple of so eone who often sweats profusely when he's speaking in pu$lic# $ut who

has not allowed it to hinder hi

in any way!
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)eople can detect increases in their heart rate and sweating! They recogniJe# however# that while an increase in their heart rate isn't evident to others# an increase in their perspiration is! The way people react to their own sweating is often very revealing# and so are the little tricks that they use to cover it up! (f you watch people who are a$out to shake hands with so eone i portant# you'll see that they so eti es wipe their right hand discreetly $efore e&tending it for the handshake! This is usually done on the prete&t of perfor ing a co pletely different task# like putting their hand in their pocket or straightening out their Hacket! For good easure# it's usually done when other people's attention is elsewhere! One way to reduce the chances of sweating is to re ove so e of one's clothing! ?ou often see ale politicians take their Hacket off when they walk on to the stage to ake a speech! This is partly done to create an i pression of infor ality and resolution - to show the audience that the politician is prepared to get his hands dirty - $ut it's also done to help the politician keep cool# cal and collected!

Breathing Tells
,hen people are $reathing nor ally they $reathe a$out once every five seconds# each ti e taking in a$out B// cu$ic centi etres of air! .reathing is largely perfor ed $y two sets of uscles - the uscles of the chest# and the uscles of the a$do en! (n nor al $reathing the a$do inal uscles do ore work than the chest uscles! The chest uscles# however# are ore

involved in deep $reathing# and there's a tendency for wo en in the west to

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use their chest uscles ore than en! The reason for this difference $etween the se&es is not entirely clear# $ut it ay have so ething to do with the cultural pre iu that is placed on wo en having a flat sto ach and large $reasts! ,hen so eone feels threatened and an&ious their $reathing rate increases# they $reathe ore with their chest# and their $reathing $eco es shallower! As the psychologist ,illia Fa es put it# ',hen a fearful o$Hect is $efore us 1 we pant and cannot deeply inspire'! This is a natural defensive reaction# and it serves the purpose of preparing the individual for 'fight or flight'! 6owever# there are cases where people continually hyperventilate in the a$sence of any i ediate threat $y $reathing too fast and $y taking in too uch air! So eone who is hyper- ventilating is likely to increase their $reathing rate fro once every five seconds to once every three seconds# and to increase their air intake $y 0/ per cent! Although hyper- ventilation draws ore o&ygen into the lungs# it has the adverse effect of reducing the a ount of car$on dio&ide in the $ody# which in turn akes the person feel disoriented# diJJy and an&ious! )eople who $reathe nor ally - that is# slowly and with large tidal volu e - tend to $e confident and e otionally sta$le! (n contrast# people who $reathe fast and with shallow $reaths tend to $e worried# shy and unsure of the selves! 6a$itual hyperventilators pay a high price# $ecause they're prone to chronic an&iety# panic attacks + and even heart pro$le s! (t is still not known what causes what-whether unusual $reathing patterns are responsi$le for disa$ling psychological effects# or whether people develop unusual $reathing patterns $ecause they feel

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an&ious and despondent! 6owever# it is possi$le to alleviate people's feelings of an&iety $y getting the to $reathe properly! This supports the idea that our oods are influenced $y the way we $reathe# rather than vice versa! .reathing is one of those things that we do without thinking - although we can deli$erately alter our $reathing pattern# we never have to think a$out $reathing $ecause our autono ic nervous syste does the Ho$ for us! 7ay$e it's $ecause we don't think a$out $reathing# or $ecause we take it for granted# that we pay so little attention to it! ,hen we're with other people we're seldo aware of how fast they're $reathing# or whether they're $reathing ore with their chest than their sto ach! (f we were ore attentive to how people $reathe we'd know a lot ore a$out what they are feeling!

Post"re Tells
The three options that are availa$le to an ani al under attack - fight# flight or freeJe - are reflected in the way that an&ious people use their $odies to defend the selves# to escape sy $olically# and to appear inert and unthreatening! The 'fight' response is reflected in the rigid postures that an&ious people adopt# where the uscles are tense and the $ody creates a defence against the outside world! ,ilhel >eich referred to this as '$ody ar our'# and Ale&ander =owen called it 0 'psychoso atic ar oury'!

=owen noticed that people who are an&ious and who therefore feel the need to protect the selves fro others# often show hypertonicity of the chest wall - the region that
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is ost likely to $e su$Hected to a frontal attack! 6e also ade the point that the ar s and hands are potential weapons# which can $e used for attack or for counter- attack! ,hen people rely on their hands and ar s# there's no need for any other for of defence! 6owever# when aggression isn't an option they often transfor their $ody into a protective shield! =owen suggested that 'psycho- logically the ar our is the e&pression of the attitude of stiffening to eet an attack rather than striking $ack! "yna ically the tension in the front is produced $y pulling $ack the shoulders and pelvis# thus putting all the frontal uscles on the stretch at the sa e ti e that they are contracted! ,hen the front and the $ack of the $ody are thus encased in a rigid sheath of tight B uscles# we can say that the organis is ar oured!' The 'flight' response is found in the way that an&ious people ove their $odies! ,hile the ove ents of confident people tend to $e s ooth# those of an&ious people are often Herky and uneven! This can $e seen in their $reathing pattern# which so eti es consists of a series of 'stepped' inhalations rather than a single# s ooth inhalation of air! An&ious people are often restless# producing lots of sudden hand ove ents close to the $ody# as opposed to infre-uent ove ents which are s ooth and away fro the $ody! The constant shifts of posture produced $y an&ious people look like an overflow of e&cess energy# which in one sense they are! .ut these agitated ove ents are $est understood as disguised and regressed atte pts to escape fro what is perceived as a threatening situation! ,hen an an&ious person taps his foot i patiently it eans that he is preparing his feet for a getaway# and when he plays with his hands or fiddles with

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his keys it shows that he wants to get down on his hands and knees and crawl away as fast as possi$le! 7ost of the ti e he doesn't notice what he's doing# let alone recog- niJe the significance of his actions! Other people are often o$livious too - even if they do notice his agitated ove- ents# they don't necessarily recogniJe the as an e&pression of his desire to escape! The 'freeJe' response is revealed in people's postures! An&ious people tend to adopt rigid postures and to sit or stand in ways that a&i iJe auto-contact! ,hen they're standing# they're inclined to select postures like the 'scissors stance'# where the legs are straight and crossed# either at the knee or at the calf! ,hen an&ious people are sitting they often cross their legs# usually at the thigh# $ut so eti es at the calf or the ankle! ,hen their legs aren't crossed# they tend to $e close together# often with the feet tucked under the chair! As we saw earlier# these are essentially su$ issive postures# $ut they also help people to feel less an&ious! *rossing the legs# for e&a ple# gives people the feeling that their genital region is protected# and this akes the feel ore secure! )ostures that $ring the thighs together also increase the a ount of contact that people have with the selves# and therefore the degree of co fort that they feel! (deally# ost people prefer to $e co forted $y others! .ut if others aren't availa$le or willing to provide it# people often resort to co forting the selves! One way they achieve this is $y pressing their thighs together! An e&tre e version of a self- co forting posture is 'the pretJel'! 6ere the legs are crossed at the thigh and the

foot that $elongs to the leg on top is curled round the ankle of the other leg# aking the person look as if they've $een tied up $y a ad
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contortionist! As we saw earlier# leg-cross postures serve as 'unintention displays' - they show other people that the person has no intention of oving! (n this respect they're e&a ples of the 'freeJe' response - it's what ani als do when they're in danger of $eing spotted $y a predator! An&iety also produces other for s of inactivity! For e&a ple# when people feel an&ious they often feel the need to urinate# although when other people are near$y the i pulse is usually reduced! Even when they're not feeling an&ious# en find it difficult to urinate with so e- one standing $eside the ! This e&tended ' icturition latency'# as psychologists have la$elled it# is ost evident in pu$lic toilets# where en are often A flanked $y co plete strangers!

%and Tells
An&iety is often evident in the way that people use their hands! ,hen people are feeling an&ious they often anip- ulate o$Hects - you'll see the playing with their keys# twisting the ring on their finger or tugging at their clothes! An&ious people also touch the selves as a eans of gain- ing co fort! They ay ru$ their hands together - this was one of 9eorge .ernard Shaw's trademar. tells - or they ay tug their earlo$e# stroke their chin or run their fingers through their hair! ,here people touch the selves is often very revealing! For e&a ple# a an who tugs at the skin under his chin reveals that he's worried that he's putting on weight! Ioologists have discovered that when ani als have

conflicting

otives they often engage in 'displace ent

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activities' which are -uite unrelated to their i ediate 2 goals! This also happens with hu ans! ,hen people e&perience conflicting otives - as they do when they feel an&ious - they often produce 'self-directed $ehaviours' which draw off so e of the e&cess energy and give the a te porary feeling of co fort! These actions are so e- ti es called 'adaptors'# $ecause they help people to adapt to their internal conflicts! The ain focus of self-directed $ehaviours like adaptors is the 4 head and the face! (f you go into a hospital waiting roo or an area where people are lining up for $enefits# you'll notice that people fre-uently touch the selves on the face - one person ight support her chin in her hands# while another is scratching the side of his face or s oothing down his hair! These selfco forting gestures are often unconsciousE they are designed to alleviate the an&iety that people feel when they find the selves in awkward situations! (t's noticea$le that when individuals perfor selfdirected actions# they don't ake contact with Hust any part of their $ody - instead they touch the selves where other people ight caress or stroke the if they were 3/ availa$le to do so! An&ious people spend so uch ti e stroking their hair $ecause this is how their others co - forted the when they were $a$ies! Selfco forting adaptors are therefore regressive - they take people $ack to a ti e when their parents alleviated their distress $y touching and caressing the ! As adults we don't usually have our parents around to provide us with a sense of security! So instead# we do to ourselves what our parents once did for us! ,hen people feel an&ious they often e&ternaliJe their an&iety $y fidgeting or $y anipulating o$Hects that are

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close at hand! One thing they do is play with their glasses! 6ow they anipulate the can $e very revealing! For e&a ple# people who chew or suck the ends of their glasses are actually engaging in a very pri itive for of self-co forting! They are like the $a$y who sucks its thu $ or chews its $lanket they're taking co fort fro having so ething in their outh! Then there are people who hold their glasses in their hands# opening and closing the $ut aking sure that they look sy etrical! These people tend to $e neat and co pulsive and they have a strong need to $e in control! )eople who are constantly re oving their glasses tend to $e indecisive and evasive - they can never decide whether they should have their glasses on or off! (n so e cases it's done to confound other people# so that they don't know what's going to happen ne&t! Then there are people who constantly $reathe on their glasses and polish the lenses! They too need to $e in control and to know what's happening - they like a clear view of the world! The purpose of so e adaptors is to offer protection rather than co fort! There are five ain 'protective' adaptors! These include the 'eye-cover'# where a hand is placed over the eyes# the ' outhcover'# where a hand is placed over the outh# and the 'face-cover'# where the pal s of $oth hands are used to cover the whole face! )eople often use these covering gestures when they've received $ad news or when they've Hust witnessed so e- thing distressing! All three actions can $e seen after the results of a political election have $een announced - victorious candidates can usually $e seen s iling# laugh- ing and raising their hands# while the defeated candidates are covering their eyes or outh# or even their whole face!

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.y covering their eyes# people are preventing the selves fro seeing the thing that is distressing the # and $y covering their outh they are si ultaneously concealing their distress and preventing the selves fro saying so e- thing they ight later regret! These covering gestures are essentially sy $olic! For e&a ple# when you hear a$out an air crash on the radio# you are as likely to cover your eyes as your ears - $y covering your eyes you are $ehaving as if you had actually seen the accident# not Hust heard a$out it! The other two 'protective' adaptors are the 'head-clasp' and the 'cradle'! The $est place to see these gestures is at a sporting event like a foot$all atch# especially when there's a lot at stake for $oth sides! ,hen a player shoots at goal and narrowly isses# you often see the supporters clasp their head in despair - the hands rise up and cover the top of the head# creating a anual crash hel et! This is a natural# unlearned response# and it's found all round the world! (t works etaphorically $ecause it's designed to shield the head# not against physical $lows# $ut fro the psychological da age of witnessing so e terri$le spectacle! (n 344B the England foot$all tea played 9er any in the se i-finals of the European *ha pionship in Turin! At the end of the full period the score was 3-3# so the atch had to $e decided on a penalty shoot-out# where si& players fro each side have to take turns at getting the $all past the other tea 's goalkeeper! The tea s were level at five points apiece# when 9areth Southgate# the England idfielder# stepped up to the line to take his shot at goal! This was a crucial point8 if he issed and the ne&t 9er an player got the $all in the net# 9er any would win and go

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on to the final# and England would $e out of the co petition! ,hen Southgate placed the $all# walked $ack and started his run he knew how i portant it was to get the $all into the net! 7ay$e it was the weight of responsi- $ility resting on his shoulders# or ay$e he had a o entary loss of concentration - $ut# instead of striking the $all cleanly# he tapped it softly# and the 9er an goal- keeper had no pro$le stopping it $efore it got near the goal outh! As Southgate turned and $egan his lonely walk $ack across the pitch# he realiJed the grave con- se-uences of his issed penalty! ,hile he was walking $ack towards his tea ates# with his eyes downcast# Southgate did what so any foot$all players do when they're in the depth of despair - he 'cradled' the $ack of his head in his hands! There isn't uch that a foot$all player can do to console hi self in this kind of situation - he can't talk to hi self or pat hi self on the $ack or give hi self a hug! 6owever he can co fort hi self $y perfor ing the 'cradle'! Although he doesn't realiJe it# $y placing his hands round the $ack of his head he is repeating the action that his other used to support his head when he was a helpless $a$y! The sense of security that he felt then is inti ately connected in his ind with the sensation of having the $ack of his head supported! .y clasping the $ack of his head in his own hands# the player is therefore su$stituting hi self for his other! The 'cradle posture' isn't only seen on the foot$all pitch - it can $e found wherever people feel insecure and need to protect the selves fro threats# either real or i agined! (f you watch a heated $oardroo eeting you're likely to witness a few e&a ples of the 'cradle'! (n fact there are

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T6E .OO< OF TE==S ANO(ET? TE==S

@1@

The Eye&'o,er# Cradle and *ead&'lasp. *lear de onstrations of dis$elief and disappoint ent are evident in these gestures when the =iverpool foot$all tea narrowly fails to score against 7anchester 5nited! @11

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two postures you are likely to see# which look very si ilar $ut their functions are -uite different! One is the 'cradle'E the other is the 'catapult'! (n $oth gestures the hands are clasped round the $ack of the neck# $ut while the el$ows are pulled $ack and the chest is e&panded in the case of the 'catapult'# the e phasis in the 'cradle' is on supporting the head! The 'catapult' is in fact a disguised gesture of aggression! .y pulling his el$ows $ack and e&panding his chest# a an increases his apparent $readth and akes hi self look threatening! ,hile his hands appear to $e taking refuge $ehind his head# they are actually waiting to a $ush anyone who strays too close! As we have seen# the purpose of the 'cradle' is co pletely different! 6ere the hands perfor a purely supportive role - there is no sense in which they are $eing pulled $ack in preparation for attack! .oth the 'catapult' and the 'cradle' can $e seen in $usiness settings when people feel threatened! The 'catapult' is likely to $e used when one person wants to inti idate anotherE the 'cradle' when individuals feel the need to co fort the selves! The first is a disguised for of counter-attack# while the second is a surreptitious for of self-assurance!

Face Tells
An&iety shows on the face! An an&ious s ile is -uite different fro a genuine s ile $ecause it lacks the contraction of the orbi'ularis o'uli uscles round the eyes and the wrinkled crow's feet that appear $eside the eyes# which are the hall arks of a genuine s ile! =ike other false s iles# an&ious s iles tend to appear rather

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suddenly# to last longer than you'd nor ally e&pect# and then to disappear -uite suddenly! An&ious s iles are also given away $y unusual uscular activity round the outh! (n a genuine s ile the corners of the outh are pulled upward $y the 4ygomati' ma5or uscles# whereas in an an&ious s ile the corners of the outh ay $e pulled sideways or even downwards! Finni 6arrigan and "ennis O'*onnell at *alifornia State 5niversity at Fullerton found that when people are an&ious their faces show ore signs of the fear e&pression# and that as an&iety increases wo en 33 s ile less than en! ,e tend to think of laughter as an e&pression of happi- ness and a use ent# $ut it can also $e a sign of an&iety! A good e&a ple of this ay $e found in the fa ous e&peri ents that Stanley 7ilgra conducted 3@ on o$edi- ence during the 34B/s! 7ilgra set up a $ogus la$ at ?ale 5niversity# co plete with a phoney 'e&peri enter' in a white coat# and an e-ually phoney 'learner'# whose task it was to re e $er lists of words! )eople who volunteered to take part in the e&peri ents were invited to train the learner $y giving hi electric shocks! The volunteers didn't realiJe it# $ut the learner was in league with the e&perienter and never actually received any shocks! The surprising discovery was that when they were urged to do so# -uite ordinary people were prepared to ad in- ister powerful electric shocks to the learner# especially when he was sitting in an adHacent roo where it was possi$le to hear# $ut not see hi writhing a$out in agony! Although the volunteer su$Hects were prepared to ad inister these electric shocks# any of the were clearly unco forta$le a$out perfor ing the task they'd $een given! This often resulted in $outs of inappropriate

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laughter - in fact a third of the volunteers who took part in the e&peri ent produced nervous laughter and s iling! ,hen the learner ade a istake# the e&peri enter would instruct the su$Hect to give the learner an electric shock# each ti e increasing the voltage! ,hen the su$Hect co plied and flicked a switch# the learner would screa in pain# cry out for help# co plain that he had a weak heart# or go co pletely silent! These cries of pain and pleas for help caused the su$Hects a lot of distress# $ut that didn't stop the giving the learner an even $igger shock a few o ents later# and then laughing when they heard hi screa ing! ,hen they were interviewed afterwards# the su$Hects could not e&plain why they had $urst out laughing! At first glance it appeared that they were a used $y the pain they were inflicting! .ut that was not the case - their laughter was si ply a nervous reaction to the punishing regi e that they had created with the help of the e&peri enter! ,hen people are feeling an&ious they tend to reduce the a ount of ti e they spend looking at others! They also spend ore ti e searching for '$olt holes' and 'escape hatches'! (ndeed# the gaJe of an&ious people often focuses on how they can get out of a situation# rather than how they can ake a positive contri$ution to what is happen- ing! An&ious people are ore likely to look away when they're in a conversation! This is largely $ecause they're worried a$out the negative conse-uences of disagree- ent! (n fact an&ious people don't necessarily differ fro confident people in ter s of how uch ti e they spend looking at the other person during a conversation - so long as there are no disagree ents! 6owever# as soon as there's any sign of disagree ent# an&ious people start to reduce

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the a ount of ti e they spend looking at the other 31 person! For an an&ious person the eyes are like a dou$le- $arrelled shotgun! )rovided the safety catch is on and things are going s oothly# there's nothing uch to worry a$out! .ut as soon as the at osphere turns tense the eyes $eco e a pri ed weapon - that's why it's $est to keep the hidden! Another ocular sign of an&iety is $linking! The pri ary purpose of $linking is to lu$ricate the surface of the eyes# to spread the tear fil evenly over the cornea# and to keep it clean and healthy! .link rate is affected $y a variety of factors! These include features of the environ ent# like te perature# hu idity and lighting# $ut they also include attentional factors# such as whether so eone is reading or watching so ething closely! The average $link rate is a$out 30 $links per inute :with wo en showing a higher rate than en;# $ut this drops dra atically when people are reading! Fohn Stern fro ,ashington 5niversity in St =ouis has studied $linking e&tensively! 6e has discovered that there is a strong link $etween so eone's $linking rate and their e otional state - the ore tired or an&ious they are# the ore 3+ fre-uent their $linking! Stern points out that )resident Ni&on was a great $linker! "uring the ,atergate hearing# when asked -uestions he did not want to answer# Ni&on's $linking rate rose enor ously!

Mout: Tells
The ost telling signs of an&iety are associated with the lips# outh# throat# oesophagus and sto ach - in fact the entire gastrointestinal tract fro lips to anus! (f you

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think of yourself as a tu$e through which your food passes# it's not surprising that your e otions affect the essential parts of you! The real reason why your oods are so inti ately connected wit h your digestive syste is that it has a co pletely integrated syste of nerves called the enteric nervous syste ! The enteric nervous syste # which is al ost a $rain in its ow n right# responds to the sa e neurotrans itters as the central nervous syste # and that's why changes in one so often cause changes in the other! ,hen people feel an&ious# several refle&es associated wit h the digestive syste co e into play8 0 (45 MO7TH. One of the early signs that so eone is feeling an&ious is a dry outh! This is produced $y a te porary shutdown of the saliva glands! There are visual as well as auditory cues that indicate when so eone has a dry outh - not only does the person look like he's chewing sawdust# $ut his voice also sounds dry and echanical! 0 3O7.H2N.. ,hen people $eco e an&ious they often get a tickling sensation in their throat# which akes the cough# so eti es uncontrolla$ly! The feeling that there is an e&cess of saliva at the $ack of the throat also causes coughing! 0 S8ALLO82N.. After )resident *linton had uttered those fa ous words# '( did not have se&ual relations with that wo an# 7iss =ewinsky'# he looked down and then swallowed hard! 7ost people# when they feel an&ious# have an overwhel ing desire to clear their throat $y swallowing! ,o en can usually achieve this without

@12

ANO(ET? TE==S $eing noticed# $ut $ecause en have a larger Ada 's apple# they tend to have ore difficulty concealing this kind of nervous swallowing! 0 B2T2N. L2'S. According to *harles .ell# the Victorian anato ist# the lips are# of all the features# 'the ost suscepti$le of action# and the ost direct indices of the 30 feelings'! This can $e seen $oth in the ove ent of the lips and in the ways in which they co e into contact with the teeth! There are several lip-$iting gestures associated with an&iety! First there's the 'lip$ite'# where either the top or the $otto lip is held $etween the teeth! As we saw earlier# this is a gesture of self-restraint# a sy $olic way of preventing oneself fro saying so e- thing that one ight afterwards regret! .ut it can also $e a gesture of an&iety or e $arrass ent - in other words# a way of holding on to oneself with one's teeth! Then there's the 'liplip-$ite' gesture# where $oth the top lip and the $otto lip are pulled inwards and held tight $etween the teeth! This gesture is a trademar. tell of the great A erican athlete# *arl =ewis - or at least it was when he was picking up edals and in the pu$lic eye! ,hen =ewis was interviewed on TV he would fre-uently reveal his disco fort $y pulling his lips in and securing the $etween his teeth! (n every other respect =ewis always ca e across as confident and articulate - it was only his 'lip-lip-$ite' that gave hi away! 0 NA2L-B2T2N.. )eople who ha$itually $ite their nails tend to score low on psychological tests of self-estee # and high on easures of an&iety! (t has also $een suggested that nail-$iting is a sign of inhi$ited hostility#

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with nail-$iters turning their aggression inwards upon the selves# rather than outwards towards other people! 0 MO7TH2N. OB@E3TS. ,hen people feel an&ious they often have a desire to put so ething in their outh! This is a throw$ack to the co forting e&perience of sucking the $reast and# following that# sucking the thu $! The two ost co on for s of oral co fort $ehaviour found in our society are chewing gu and s oking cigarettes! S oking is often portrayed as a sign of coolness# and s okers as people who are in control! (n fact# s okers often use cigarettes to cal their nerves and control their an&iety! The oral co fort provided $y chewing gu is evident fro the a ount of gu that coaches and tea anagers get through while they're watching a ga e! For e&a ple# if you watch Ale& Ferguson# the anager of 7anchester 5nited# you'll notice that his gu -chewing reflects the te porary fortunes of his tea ! ,hen 7anchester 5nited is ahead and playing well# Ferguson's chewing is cogitative and slow! ,hen the tea is $ehind or playing $adly# the speed and pressure of his gu - chewing increases dra atically! (f you're in the stands# you don't need to watch the players to find out how 7anchester 5nited are faring - you can gauge their progress $y watching Ale& Ferguson's Haw ove ents'

Tal Tells
An&iety is also revealed $y the voice! ,hen people are feeling an&ious there's an overall increase in uscle tension# and this leads to an increase in pitch# or what

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linguists call 'funda ental fre-uency'! )ertur$ations in pitch - what linguists call 'Hitter' and 'shi er' - are also 3B evidence of an&iety! =oudness is another indicator it's the opposite of slow and soft speech# which is 3A usually a sy pto of sadness or depression! ,hen people feel an&ious they tend to talk faster and to talk less! That's $ecause they don't want to cast other people in the role of listener for any longer than necessary# and they don't want to draw attention to the selves! The $est way to achieve these goals is to reduce what one has to say and to increase the speed at which one says it! Although an&ious people speak faster# they are often -uite slow when it co es to answering -uestions - that's $ecause they spend ore ti e thinking a$out what kind of answer they're going to 32 give! The relationship $etween an&iety and pausing isn't straightforward# $ecause it depends on whether people have trait or state an&iety - in other words whether they are chronically an&ious or si ply an&ious in a particular situation! (t's $een found that when chronically an&ious people are talking they tend to pause less - they're agitated and they want to hurry through what they're saying! On the other hand# when acutely an&ious people are talking# they tend to pause ore than nor al - they have to deal with their i ediate feelings of an&iety at the sa e ti e as deciding what to say! The pauses that are a feature of acute an&iety are often filled with speech disfluencies# like 'u ' and 'er'# which ena$le speakers to show that they have ore to say# and that they want to retain the floor! .oth chronically and acutely an&ious people are inclined to stutter! Stutterers tend to stutter ore when they're an&ious# and so do non-stutterersE even people who hardly

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ever stutter are ore likely to do so when they're feeling 34 threatened and insecure! The thing that people dread ore than anything else is pu$lic speaking! 7ost people e&perience so e degree of 'speech pho$ia'# $ut there are so e people who are co - pletely disa$led $y their fear of pu$lic speaking! (t's often said that the ore e&perience one has at pu$lic speaking# the easier it $eco es! This ay $e true for lots of people# $ut for so e pu$lic speaking re ains a source of deep an&iety! >egardless of how often they do it# and how acco plished they've $eco e# they continue to worry a$out $eing the centre of attention# forgetting their lines# and looking ridiculous in front of so any people! .ecause an&iety is a negative e otional state it's difficult to control# and the tells associated with an&iety are therefore difficult to conceal! This works $oth ways it akes it easy for us to detect the an&iety of other people# $ut it also akes it easy for the to identify our feelings of an&iety! )eople try to conceal their an&iety in various ways! One is $y working on their state of ind so that they no longer feel an&iousE another is $y trying to cover up their an1iety tells. The only pro$le with this strategy is that it fre-uently produces a tell& suppressing tell# which gives the lie to the person's atte pt at conceal ent! )eople who surreptitiously take a drink of water when their throat is feeling dry# or who wipe their hand on their clothes $efore shaking hands# often reveal ore a$out their internal state than they would have done had they not tried to cover up their an&iety in the first place! (n other words# tell&suppressing tells are often ore revealing than the tells they're designed to cover up - that's $ecause

they point to the person's an&iety as well

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as to their desire to conceal it! So# if you don't want other people to know how an&ious you feel# ake sure they don't notice your an1iety tells. And whatever you do# don't let the catch you trying to cover up these tells.

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4! Se&ual Tells
Tells are an essential part of courtship! (n fact# without the there would $e no such thing as courtship or love# and se& as we know it would cease to e&ist! The i portance of tells lies in the si ple fact that courtship# love and se& re-uire people to e&change signals - signals a$out se&ual inclination# availa$ility# readiness and co pati- $ility! Even though we ay not intend to# we are constantly sending and receiving se&ual essages! ,hile other people are looking us over and deciding how se&y# attractive# enthusiastic or desperate we are# we're $usy aking the sa e decisions a$out the ! (n this regard se1ual tells are like grains of pollen - although they aren't always evident# they're everywhere!

Bod* Tells
One of the $ases on which people ake se&ual inferences a$out each other is their 'secondary se&ual character- istics'! )sychologists use this ter to distinguish the

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'pri ary se&ual characteristics' of en and wo en - like the penis and testes of the ale and the vagina# uterus and ovaries of the fe ale - fro their nonprocreative characteristics! (n en these include facial and chest hair# a deep voice# and a $igger# ore uscular $ody! (n wo en they include $reasts# a wider pelvic girdle and the deposit of ore fat on the thighs and $uttocks! Nature's intention# it appears# is that these secondary se&ual characteristics should serve as se&ual cues# ena$ling en and wo en to assess each other's fitness as a ate! To a large e&tent# Nature's intentions are fulfilled - in the a$sence of any other infor ation# en do find wo en with large $reasts and 3 an hourglass figure ore attractive! And wo en# on the whole# e&press a preference for en with hairy chests# s-uare shoulders and neat @ $otto s! The things that en and wo en look for in partners are# however# highly suscepti$le to the influence of culture# fashion and circu stance! The physical attri$utes that en in our society regard as attractive in a wo an are often very different fro those that get en's pulses racing in other parts of the world! ,ithin our own society there have $een arked historical variations in people's notions of $eauty! *o pare# for e&a ple# the delicious plu p ladies painted $y >u$ens with the scrawny odels and *alista Flockharts of today! The fact that so e en prefer flat-chested wo en# or wo en with a high waist-to-hip ratio# shows that they are using alternative criteria for choosing a partner! "avid .uss# fro the 5niversity of Te&as# has conducted a large# cross-cultural survey on what en and wo en 1 look for in a partner! 6e reports that en universally

prefer a wo an
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who is young and shapely with un$le ished skin! ,o en# on the other hand# place greater store on the an's wealth and his a$ility to provide security! The divergent criteria e ployed $y en and wo en reflect their differing otives in the ating ga e - the an needs a partner who can produce lots of healthy children and who's strong enough to care for the # while the wo an# it see s# needs a an to provide for her# and to protect her and the children! Fro an evolutionary point of view this all akes perfect sense! 6owever# it fails to take into account the enor ous fluidity in ate choice - for e&a ple the fact that so e people prefer a ate who doesn't fit the evolutionary odel# or that when they do find one who fits the odel they adopt a co pletely different set of selection criteria! All things $eing e-ual# a wo an ay prefer a an who can provide for her! .ut when she has arried a successful $anker and had several children# she ay decide that she wants to find e&cite ent elsewhere! (n searching for a se&ual partner outside her arriage# she's uch ore likely to have a fling with her tennis coach than with a wealthy $usiness an! After all# when people have got what they want# they don't necessarily want ore of the sa e - they want so ething new and different' ,o en who possess the physical attri$utes that en desire are uch ore likely to $e noticed $y en! .ut it doesn't always follow that en are ore likely to approach the # or# if they do# that they're likely to hang around if they don't get any encourage ent! (n fact# en are uch ore likely to pursue a wo an who isn't $eauti- ful $ut who gives off the right signals than a wo an who is gorgeous $ut doesn't appear to $e availa$le! (n contests

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$etween courtship signals and looks# courtship signals + usually win hands down! (t follows fro this that a wo an who has all the right physical attri$utes# and who co ple ents these with all the right signals# is likely to $e ore attractive to en than one who has the attri$utes $ut doesn't produce the signals# or vice versa! The O&ford philosopher# >o$ert .urton# reached this conclusion in his Anatomy 0 o Melan'holy# first pu$lished in 3B@3! '(t is true'# he wrote# 'that those fair sparkling eyes# white neck# coral lips# turgent paps Pswelling $reastsQ# rose-coloured cheeks# Gc # of the - selves are potent enticersE $ut when a co ely# artificial# well-co posed look# pleasing gesture# an affected carriage shall $e added# it ust needs $e far ore forci$le than it was'! Nowhere is this ore evident in odern ti es than in the case of 7arilyn 7onroe - a wo an who had what it takes and knew how to use it! (f you've seen the ovie !ome )i.e 8t *ot you'll re e $er the re arka$le scene where she walks down the railway platfor # while Tony *urtis and Fack =e on stare at her undulating $otto - oving# as Fack =e on descri$es it# 'like Fell-o on springs'! The reason why 7arilyn's wiggle is so effective here is that it draws attention to her fe inine hips! This $rings us to the o$servation that the pri e purpose of seductive $ehaviour is to accentuate secondary se&ual characteristics! This in fact is the clue to why so e seductive signals are used $y wo en $ut not $y en# and vice versa! ,hen a wo an pouts her lips# arches her $ack or leans forward so that her $reasts are pressed together $etween her ar s# she is accentuating the physical attri$utes of her se&! These actions are 'illu inations' - they give pro inence to a particular feature of a wo an's

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appearance# Hust like the accentuated letters in a anuscript! A an who pulls hi self up to his full height in the presence of a wo an# and who e&pands his chest or lowers his voice# is essentially doing the sa e thing - he's illu inating the differences $etween hi self and the wo an# aking his appearance ore asculine and# $y contrast# hers ore fe inine!

Action Tells
Not $eing content to look different# en and wo en have conspired to $ehave differently as well! These differences in $ehaviour - what >ay .irdwhistell neatly referred to as 'tertiary se&ual characteristics' - provide en and wo en with a way of e phasiJing their gender and aking the - selves ore attractive to e $ers of the B opposite se&! ,hen a an is trying to appear attractive to a wo an he's ore likely to engage in prototypical ale $ehaviour - like sitting with his legs apart# e&tending his feet into the shared space# splaying his ar s# and generally creating the i - pression that he needs lots of space to acco odate his enor ous fra e! 6e will also shift his $ody ore fre-uently# changing postures# enlisting his hands to underline what he's saying# and oving his hands away fro his $ody! (n contrast# the wo an's gestures are likely to $e towards her $ody! To appear fe inine she's inclined to keep her ove ents slow# her gesticulation odest and her legs close together# and to cultivate the i pression that she needs less physical space for her

$ody# not ore! ,hen it co es to facial e&pression# however# the situation tends to $e reversed# with the wo an $eing lively and
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ani ated# while the an tries to give the i pression that he's ore controlled! "espite increasing se&ual e-uality# en and wo en try to appear attractive to the opposite se& $y acting accord- ing to type - en $ehave in a ore anly fashion# while wo en act in a ore fe inine way! One way that en try to $e anlier is $y $eing do inant! 7any of the 'illu inations' of en's $ehaviour - like standing tall# e&panding the chest# and standing or sitting with the legs apart - are in fact do inance signals# while those of wo en - like sitting with the ankles crossed# canting the head to one side# and touching the face happen also to $e su$ issive $ehaviours! 6owever# this doesn't ean that during courtship en only use do inance signals# or that wo en restrict the selves to su$ issive signals! There are nu erous instances where the roles $eco e reversed# with the wo an taking the role of other and the an that of a child! These departures fro socially pre- scri$ed roles# coupled with regressive e&cursions into the world of play# are an essential part of courtship! =aughing# tickling# and generally playing the fool give the an and wo an a chance to e&peri ent with their roles and to show each other that they're har less and unthreatening# Hust like children! Fooling around also ena$les the to introduce the nurturing# loving activities that for part of the relationship $etween parent and child into their own relationship!

A;a*lab*l*t= Tells
,ith ost a als it's the ale who does the se&ual

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advertising# showing fe ales that he's strong# healthy and resourceful# and that he'll ake a perfect ate! ,ith hu ans# however# it's usually the other way round $ecause ost of the se&ual advertising is done $y wo en - it's wo en who are dressing up# styling their hair# and wearing ake-up and perfu e! .ut things weren't always this way! For e&a ple# in seventeenth-century England# during the age of the 'dandy'# it was the en of polite society who dressed like gaudy peacocks and their wo en who looked like plain peahens! (t's e-ually true to say that while wo en today do ost of the se&ual advertising# en are taking on an increasing share of the $urden $y spending oney on clothes# keeping up with hairstyle fashions# and wearing aftershave and cologne! *lothes# Hewellery# ake-up and perfu e are all worn on the person! .ut there are other for s of se&ual advertising that don't appear on the person# like wealth and possessions! (n this area of advertising it's en who usually do ost of the work# investing in cars# apart ents and gadgets so that they can i press e $ers of the opposite se&! ,e advertise our se&ual availa$ility in a nu $er of ways! These include the clothes we wear# how we wear the # which parts of our $ody we e&pose# the postures we assu e# the facial e&pressions we adopt# how we ove our eyes# and what we say! ,hen young people enter a nightclu$ or a $ar they usually $egin $y surveying the scene! So eti es they do so innocently# to see if their friends are there# $ut ost of the ti e they're aking a -uick assess ent of the availa$le talent! There are two ain ways that they do this8

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SEO5A= TE==S 0 S3ANN2N.. )eople ap out their social environ ent $y scanning it visually! 7onika 7oore# who has ade an e&tensive study of courtship strategies# has identified what she calls 'the roo enco passing glance'# where the head and eyes ove together# rather like radar# tracing an arc through the roo # and then returning to A their original position! The purpose of scanning is to perfor an initial survey and not necessarily to focus on a specific person or group of people! That co es later! 0 '4OMENA(2N.. (nstead of casting their eyes around# people so eti es check out the roo $y walking around! The advantage of pro enading is that it ena$les individuals to $e noticed $y other people# and to e&a ine the at close -uarters! (n this way# pro enad- ing is rather si ilar to the Spanish and South A erican paseo# when young en and wo en stroll $ack and forth# watching each other and $eing seen! ,ith hundreds of young people illing around and checking each other out# the spectacle in a nightclu$ is 2 very si ilar to a 'lek'! =eks are the 'singles $ars' of the ani al world - patches of ground where ales and fe ales congregate so that the ales can display to the fe ales# and the fe ales can decide which ale to ate with! =ekking occurs in a wide range of species# including $ats# antelopes# frogs# *anada geese and the greater prairie chicken! (n all these species there is pronounced 'se&ual di orphis ' - in other words# the ales look very different fro the fe ales# and ales who display at a higher rate usually anage to ate with ost of the fe ales! This# of course# is often what happens in a hu an

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'lek' like a nightclu$# where the ore fla $oyant and active ales tend to $e ore successful! (f you watch people in a nightclu$ you'll notice that their $ehaviour is often e&travagant! This is partly $ecause they're co peting with each other for attention! .ut it's also $ecause of the low lighting# which akes it difficult to see what others are doing# and the a $ient noise# which akes it difficult to hear what they're saying! )eople usually respond to this situation $y increasing the a pli- tude of their signals $y raising their voice# e&posing ore of their $ody# and dancing wildly! So e people si ply keep repeating the selves to the sa e person! (nterestingly# uch the sa e thing happens with $irds! (t's $een discovered that $irds that nest in noisy ha$itats deal with the pro$le of noise $y increasing the 4 a plitude of their signals and $y singing louder! They also incorporate a lot ore redundancy and repetition into their songs - Hust like those $ores in the nightclu$ who can't stop repeating the selves' (n order to attract each other's attention in a nightclu$# en and wo en need to signal their se&ual availa$ility! They do this in one of two ways - either $y '$roadcasting'# so that everyone present knows that they're se&ually avail- a$le# or $y 'narrowcasting' - in other words# $y 'targeting' a specific individual! For e&a ple# a wo an ay $road- cast her availa$ility $y wearing revealing clothes# e&posing parts of her $ody# or dancing provocatively! (n doing so she wants everyone to know that while she ight $e availa$le to someone# she is definitely not availa$le to Hust anyone & a distinction that lots of en find it difficult to understand! ,o en's $roadcasting is often linked to their enstrual cycle - it's $een found that when wo en

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are in the iddle of their cycle and therefore ost receptive# they are ore likely to visit singles $ars and nightclu$s without their current partner and to wear clothes that reveal ore of their $ody# and that they 3/ are ore attracted to en with asculine features! Not only are they ore se&ually availa$leE they're also looking for en who are likely to $e ore se&ually active!

A//roac: Tells
,hen it co es to ro ance# en like to think that they're the ones who ake the first ove and who decide how fast the relationship should progress! All the research on hu an courtship shows that this is si ply not the case# and that# as "arwin put it# courtship is al ost always a atter of 'fe ale choice'! (n nightclu$s# $ars and at parties# it's the wo an who invaria$ly akes the first ove! She does this $y producing an approa'h tell - a signal which is not too e&plicit# $ut which is sufficiently clear to show a an that he ay approach her! (t's her way of giving hi 'clearance'! ,hen a an responds and walks across the roo # he's doing so at the wo an's $ehest! Fro his point of view things usually see -uite different - $ecause he's ade the effort to cross the roo he's inclined to think that he's the one who's taken the initiative! 7en are far less likely to engage a wo an who hasn't shown that she's approacha$le# although there are o$viously cases where en will advance on a wo an who hasn't even noticed the # let alone given the clearance! ,hen the an takes the initiative in this way his chances of success are usually

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reduced# si ply $ecause he's ro$$ing the wo an of a chance to $e in control! 6e can usually get round this $y appearing to $e su$ issive or $y giving the i pression that his intentions are entirely non-se&ual! ,o en produce a variety of approa'h tells - so e in 'clusters'# others individually! They include the following8 0 THE ST4OBE .LAN3E. A wo an who is attracted to a an will so eti es stare across the roo at hi until she anages to catch his eye! ,hen this happens# she can rely on either fre-uency or duration of eye 33 contact to signal her clearance! She can rely on fre-uency $y hold- ing his gaJe for a second or two and then averting her head and eyes slightly# $ut not so far that she appears to $e re oving herself fro the interaction altogether! Then# while the an continues to look at her# she turns her head and eyes $ack towards hi and repeats the cycle all over again! 7onika 7oore clai s that it usually takes three $rief glances to get 3@ the essage across to the an! 0 THE E5E-LO3K. (nstead of using several $rief glances# a wo an can show a an that she's approacha$le $y hold- ing his gaJe for slightly longer than she would in other circu stances! ,hen we look across a crowded roo and happen to catch a stranger's eye# we usually avert our gaJe within a second or two! This allows us to dis- engage $efore there's any suggestion that we ight wish to pursue the interaction! .y fi&ating her eyes on a an and holding his gaJe for longer than nor al# a wo an shows the an that she's prepared to 1 take things further!' 0 THE E5E-FL23KE4. ,hen a wo an catches the eye of

an
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SEO5A= TE==S attractive an she can usually gra$ his attention $y per- for ing an 'eye-flicker'! 6ere the upper eyelids are raised very slightly and for a fraction of a second# so that the gesture re ains al ost i percepti$le and only evident to the person at who it's directed! The $rief elevation of the upper eyelids will so eti es cause the eye$rows to rise as well# $ut it's the eyes rather than the eye$rows that carry the real signal! .y opening the eyes in this way# a wo an shows a an that he's the person she's looking at! The flick of the eyelids also transfor s the signal into a -uestion - it akes the an feel that the wo an is say- ing to hi # ',hat ne&t%' 0 THE HA24-FL23K. 6aving caught a an's eye $riefly# a wo an will so eti es flick her hair to show hi that she's approacha$le! She can do this either $y running her hand through her hair or $y tossing her head so that the hair $ounces up and assu es a slightly different position! These actions serve as a 'youth display' $ecause it's only young wo en who have soft# fle&i$le hair that can con- vincingly $e rearranged or flicked! As wo en get older their hair $eco es less plia$le and the hair-flick $eco es less of an option! (t's not unusual# however# to find wo en with lac-uered or very short hair actually flicking their head when they co e across a an they fancy! 0 THE 'O7T. A wo an can indicate that she is approach- a$le $y looking at a an and pouting her lips! She can convey the sa e essage $y licking her lips! These gestures draw attention to a distinctive feature of fe ale physiology - the fact that wo en have larger lips than en! ,hen $oys enter pu$erty their $ody is flooded with

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es !s e"!#e$ T%&s e#'!u"a(es %e ("!) % !* %e&" +a)$ ,&"ls- *a'es "e.a&# *a&"l/ '%&l0l&1e !2e" %e sa.e 3e"&!0$ 4#'"eas&#( le2els !* !es "!(e#5 %!)e2e"5 a' uall/ 0&s6 '!u"a(e %e ("!) % !* *a'&al 7!#e5 a#0 lea0 &#s ea0 ! a %&'1e#&#( !* %e l&3s$ A* e" 3u7e" /5 *ulle" l&3s 7e'!.e a *ea u"e !* sexual 0&.!"3%&s.$ C!#se8ue# l/5 )%e# a )!.a# 3!u s !" l&'1s %e" l&3s5 s%e au !.a &'all/ 0"a)s a e# &!# ! !#e !* %e" se'!#0a"/ sexual '%a"a' e"&s &'s5 a#0 ! %e *a' %a as 3e!3le 7e'!.e sexuall/ a"!use0 %e&" l&3s 7e'!.e e#(!"(e0 )& % 7l!!0$ T%e sa.e e**e' &s !* '!u"se a'%&e2e0 )& % "e0 l&3s &'1$ W%e# %ese (es u"es a"e a"(e e0 a a .a# %e/ usuall/ '!#s & u e a# &#2& a &!#$ 4 -s esse# &al5 %!)e2e"5 %a %ese (es u"es 7e su7 le a#0 7"&e*5 7e'ause al %!u(% a )!.a# .&(% )a# a .a# ! 1#!) %a s%e-s a33"!a'%a7le5 s%e )!ul0#- )a# %&. ! %&#1 s%e-s a 3us%!2e"$ 0 T%3 SM/#3+ W%e# a )!.a# )a# s ! &#2& e a s "a#(e .a# ! a33"!a'% %e"5 %e s&(#al %a s%e-s .!s l&1el/ ! use &s a s.&le 6 usuall/ a 7"&e* s.&le %a -s 14 '!#*&#e0 ! %e .!u %$ 4# %ese '&"'u.s a#'es s%e-s u#l&1el/ ! 3e"*!". a *ull s.&le5 3a" l/ 7e'ause *ull s.&les e#0 ! 7e "ese"2e0 *!" *"&e#0s a#0 a'8ua&# a#'es$ T%&s '!#*!".s ! %e 3"&#'&3le %a 5 &# !"0e" ! 7e e**e' &2e5 approach tells s%!ul0 al)a/s 7e .u e0$ T%&s a33l&es as .u'% ! s.&les as & 0!es ! .!2e.e# s !* %e %ea05 e/es a#0 l&3s$ 4 -s 2e"/ u#l&1el/ %a a 7"!a0 s.&le 7e )ee# s "a#(e"s )&ll 7e "e(a"0e0 as a# &#2& a &!#9 & -s .u'% .!"e l&1el/ ! 7e &# e"3"e e0 as a s&(# !* "e'!(#& &!#$ T%e sa.e a33l&es ! exa((e"a e0 s a"es5 3!u s a#0 "ea""a#(e.e# s !* %e %a&" 6 7e'ause %e/-"e #! .u e0 %e/-"e l&1el/ ! 7e see# as a +!1e "a %e" %a# as a s&#'e"e &#2& a &!#$

25 6

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Fl*rt*n+ Tells
Flirting tells fall into three $road categories - 'co e-ons'# 'put-offs' and 'hang-ons'! '*o e-ons' consist of approa'h tells# which give the other person per ission to ake a ove# and promotion tells# which are designed to pro ote se&ual interest and ove the relationship on to the ne&t stage! ')ut-offs' are the e&act opposite of 'co e-ons' - they e&press a total lack of interest and are designed to reHect the advances of the other person! '6ang-ons'# on the other hand# put the courtship process on hold - their purpose is to stall the relationship without discouraging the other person's interest! (n the ating ga e wo en use all three types of tells# while en tend to concentrate on co e-ons! 7en usually flatter the selves that they ake ost of the running in courtship# and that they control the whole process# $ut as we've seen it's wo en who are really in 30 charge! (n the early stages of an encounter wo en produce a lot of co e-ons# even when they aren't actually attracted to the an and have no intention of 3B taking things any further! They also i& co e-ons with hang-ons in order to increase a $iguity and to foster the illusion that the an is in charge of proceedings! (n fact en are notoriously $ad decoders of wo en's tells# often assu ing that a 3A wo an is interested in the when she isn't! That's $ecause a an auto atically assu es that an attractive wo an is ai ing her availa$ility signals at hi personally# when she's actually $roadcasting the to everyone! 7en also have a tendency to inflate co e-ons in their ind# and to assu e that put-offs are only hangons! This tendency of en to isread wo en's signals

is part of a

ore
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widespread insensitivity! Not only are en less o$servant# they are generally not as tuned in to other people's needs as wo en are!

'osture Tells
The postures that a an and a wo an adopt when they eet for the first ti e often reveal their hidden feelings for each other! For e&a ple# if the wo an folds her ar s and coils her legs together it's very unlikely that she's a$out to run headlong into an affair! On the other hand# if the an sits with his legs apart and leans his $ody towards the wo an it shows that he finds her attractive and is trying to i press her! Open postures are generally associated with positive# accepting attitudes# whereas closed postures are linked to guarded and negative ones! )osture switching is another atter altogether! For e&a ple# when a wo an repeatedly crosses and uncrosses her legs in the presence of a an# she's doing ore than alternating $etween closed postures - she's actually draw- ing attention to her legs! 6er otive for doing this is usually unconscious! There are ti es# however# when it's deli$erate - like the fa ous scene in Basi' 8nstin't# in which Sharon Stone crosses and uncrosses her legs to draw attention to the fact that she's not wearing anything under her dress' 7ost of the cases where wo en cross and uncross their legs in the presence of a an are far less dra atic than this# and a lot of the ti e the an isn't even aware of what's happening! Nevertheless# the way that a wo an

positions and oves her legs is always very infor ative# and the postures that the an adopts are e-ually telling!
25 :

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Le+ Tells
,o en also try to ake the selves attractive to en $y e phasiJing the length of their legs# relative to the rest of their $ody - trying# in this respect# to ake the selves look ore like a .ar$ie "oll! The reason why en find long legs se&y is that when girls go through pu$erty they have a growth spurt and this leaves their legs looking longer than the rest of their $ody! (t's at this stage in their develop ent that girls $eco e wo en and start to get noticed $y en! (t is this youthful phase in their lives that wo en try to recover when they atte pt to ake their legs look 32 longer! There are three '.ar$ie "oll strategies' that they can e ploy! The first is to wear high heels! The second is to wear a swi ing costu e or gy kit with a 'high leg' - this akes a wo an's legs look longer $y creating the illusion that they $egin at her hips! The third way that wo en can accentuate the length of their legs is $y walking on tiptoe! This works $est when they're not wearing any shoes# and it's a sure sign that they find so eone attractive! Take the case where a good- looking an arrives at a house party and several people# including the host and hostess# are sitting round the swi - ing pool in their $athing costu es! The hostess notices the an arriving# so she gets up and goes to greet hi ! .ut notice that she's not walking flat-footed - she's oving towards hi on tiptoes' And to ake sure that no$ody thinks she's $ehaving strangely# she akes a show of dodg- ing the wet patches $y the side of the pool! O$serving this little scene we can see that the hostess wants everyone to think that she's trying not to slip on the puddles! .ut the real reason is that she's trying to i press the guest - $y

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walking on tiptoe she's discreetly trying to ake her legs look longer! (n addition to increasing the apparent length of a wo an's legs# high heels also arch her $ack! This arching of the $ack is si ilar to 'lordosis' in the ani al world! (n certain ani al species lordosis acts as a se&ual releaser fe ale ha sters and guinea pigs# for e&a ple# will arch their $ack to show a ale that they are se&ually receptive! ,hen a wo an sticks out her $otto and arches her $ack it has the sa e arousing effect on a an - that's why 'girlie agaJines' are full of pictures of wo en in this posture! ,hen a wo an finds a an attractive she so eti es reveals her feelings $y arching her $ack! This ay occur while she's standing up# sitting down# or leaning forward and supporting her weight on the ta$le! The action ay $e al ost i percepti$le# $ut it shows that she's se&ually attracted to hi !

S,atial Tells
The way that a an and a wo an arrange the selves spatially says a lot a$out what each of the is hoping to achieve# and a$out which stage they have reached in their relationship! As a rule# the closer people are to each other physically# the closer they are e otionally and se&ually! This also applies to how directly or o$li-uely they orient their $odies towards each other! "uring the early stages of courtship $oth individuals need to treat the other person's space with caution and respect# aking sure not to ove in close $efore the other person has given the clearance! One of the oves that people use to gauge the other person's reactions is the '-uick-step'!

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The last ti e ( saw the '-uick-step' used the se-uence went as follows8 A young an and a wo an were in con- versation# with their $odies attentively oriented towards each other! They were standing so e distance apart# with a large patch of no an's land $etween the ! After a few inutes# and while she was still talking# the young wo an took a $ig step forward# co pleted what she was saying# and then took an e-ually $ig step $ackward# ending up where she'd started! Although the an wasn't consciously aware what was happening# his response was right on cue - he started to talk and as he did so# he stepped right into the iddle of the space she had Hust vacated! 6e had now $eco e uch ore ani ated! Suddenly it was apparent that he found her attractive! ,hat had clearly happened was that $y stepping into no an's land the wo an had taken the initiative and produced a very powerful approa'h tell. .y stepping $ack she had invited hi to advance towards her# and without $eing fully aware of what was happening# he had happily o$liged - she had created a vacuu in the space $etween the # and he had unwittingly $een drawn into it! ,atching this e&change# ( knew that neither the wo an nor the an realiJed what was happening! She didn't know that she was using the '-uick-step' or that her ove- ents would have the desired effect on hi ! E-ually# he didn't realiJe that her actions had controlled his# Hust as uch as if she were a puppeteer and he were a puppet! ( was also struck $y the re arka$ly si ple way that she had anaged to ove the relationship on to the ne&t phase - $y getting hi to step forward she had co pletely changed his attitude and encouraged hi to see that the situation was now full of pro ise!

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#oco&otor Tells
,alking style also plays a part in courtship - especially in the early stages when people are aking snap Hudge ents a$out each other! (n odifying their gait to i press e $ers of the opposite se&# wo en tend to accentuate their fe ale characteristics! One way they do this is $y rolling their hips! Another is $y swinging their ar s further $ack as they walk# and $y turning their ar s outward in order to e phasiJe the fact that wo en's ar s are ore 'supinated' than those of en! 7en who wish to e phasiJe their asculinity tend to do the opposite - they swing their ar s across their $ody and further up in the front# and they rotate their wrists inward in order to stress the fact that en's ar s are ore 'pronated' than those of wo en! To draw attention to their youth# en and wo en often walk vigorously# $ouncing along and generally creating the i pression that they have energy to spare! This energetic style of walking# which is especially noticea$le in young en# is very si ilar to 34 the ha$it of 'starting' found in the ani al world! For e&a ple# when young gaJelles spot a lion near$y# they usually ove away fro the predator - not $y running as fast as they can# $ut $y leaping high into the air! There are several theories a$out why ani als stot# $ut all agree that starting is a highly in- efficient eans of escape! One theory is that ani als stot in order to display their physical prowess - $y leaping into the air a gaJelle is# in effect# saying to the lion# '=ook at how strong ( a and how uch energy ( have to spare' There's no way you're ever going to catch e'' These essages a$out

strength and energy are also contained in

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the way that young people walk - they are a way of showing e $ers of the opposite se& that one would ake an e&cellent ate!

Head Tells
(n the early stages of courtship people often go to e&traordinary lengths to ake the selves appealing and to put the other person at ease! There are several head signals that help to further these ai s8 0 THE NO(. ,o en are often very attentive listeners# nodding their head and encouraging en to keep talking - and then regretting it afterwards' 0 THE HA24-FL23K. The hair-flick so eti es serves as an approa'h tell. And in the later stages of courtship it provides wo en as well as en with a su$tle way of dis- playing their youth and appearing ore attractive to each other! 0 THE HEA(-3ANT. As we have already seen# when the head is tilted to one side the person looks helpless and appealing! The origins of head-canting can $e traced to the way that $a$ies rest their head on their parent's shoulder# and the fact that tilting the head to one side e&poses a vulnera$le part of the $ody# the neck! The head-cant is an ideal courtship signal $ecause it sends a essage of appease ent - it's a way of saying to the other person# '=ook# ( trust you so uch that (' prepared to e&pose a really vulnera$le

part of

y $ody to you'! A
263

T6E .OO< OF TE==S related appease ent gesture# often used $y young wo en# is the 'shoulder-lift'! This is perfor ed $y raisins the shoulders very -uickly# and $y raising the eye$rows and s iling at the sa e ti e! 0 THE NE3K-SHO8. (n addition to the head-cant# there are other 'vulnera$ility displays' involving the neck that are used as co e-ons! (n one the chin is raised slightlyE in another the head is turned# so that the other person gets an uno$structed view of the neck! .oth these actions fall into the category of sho( tells actions that are designed to e&pose a vulnera$le or particularly appealing part of the $ody! A si ilar effect is achieved when people touch their neck! A wo an who's attracted to a an ay lightly run her fingers along her neck# there$y drawing his attention to her vulnera$ility and ulti ately to her suit- a$ility as a partner! This action falls into the category of 'pointers' - that is# instances where people use a hand or a finger to draw attention to a part of their $ody! Another e&a ple of a sho( tell is the 'e&posed wrist display'# where the ar is positioned so that the inside of the wrist is pre- sented to other people! This# like the 'neck-show'# involves a vulnera$le part of the $ody! ,hen a wo an draws attention to her neck or her wrists she's usually unaware of what she's doing! =ikewise# even if the an responds positively# he's unlikely to $e a$le to descri$e what she's done or what it is a$out her that he finds so attractive!

E=e Tells
The crucial role that the eyes play in courtship has long

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$een recogniJed! ,riting in the early seventeenth century# >o$ert .urton called the eye 'a secret orator# the first $awd# the gateway of love'! 6e referred to the eyes as 'the shoeing-horns' and 'the hooks of love'# pointing out that $y si ply looking at each other# lovers are a$le 'to understand one another's eanings# $efore they co e to speak @/ a word'! )sychologists have discovered that when people eet for the first ti e they often reach a decision a$out each other within a atter of a few seconds# and fre-uently $efore the other person has had a chance to say anything! These 'snap Hudge ents' are therefore often $ased on @3 visual infor ation! ,hat's ore# people wil l often cling to their snap Hudge ents# even in the face of disconfir - ing evidence! "uring courtship the participants use their eyes to 'assess' and 'e&press' - in other words# see how the other person is $ehaving and responding# as well as to convey infor ation a$out their own needs# intentions and feelings! The e&pressive role of the eyes is evident in a nu $er of signals8 K T6E E?E-)5FF! One way that people ake the selves irresisti$le is $y enlarging their eyes! This is especially noticea$le in wo en! An al ond-shaped face# a s all chin# rounded cheeks# a pert nose and large eyes are all part of the so-called '$a$y face' those innate releasers that ake us feel protective @@ towards $a$ies! .y enlarg- ing her eyes when she's with her lover# a wo an akes herself look defenceless# which in turn akes her lover feel ore protective towards her! 6e too can achieve this effect with the eye-puff!

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T6E .OO< OF TE==S 0 THE (2''E( HEA(. ,hen she's looking at her lover# one of the ways that a wo an can ake her eyes look $igger is $y lowering her head! This creates a fore- shortened effect# so that her chin appears to $e s aller# while the top of her face# including her eyes# see s to $e $igger! .ut there's also another principle at work! .ecause children are shorter# they so eti es look at adults out of the top of their eye sockets! ,hen a wo an lowers her head while looking at her lover it auto- atically akes her see uch s aller# and therefore ore in need of protection! The fact that lowering of the head is associated with su$ ission is another reason why wo en are ore likely to dip their head when they're flirting with a @1 an! (n fact >uth *a p$ell and her colleagues at 5niversity *ollege =ondon have found that individuals who are photographed looking down are seen as @+ ore fe inine! 0 (2LATE( '7'2LS. ,hen people $eco e aroused either pleasantly or otherwise - their pupils tend to dilate! 6owever# people can't consciously control the siJe of their pupils# and they have no way of knowing how large or s all their own pupils are! )eople are generally ore attracted to individuals with large pupils than to those with constricted pupils# although they are seldo aware of the role that pupil siJe plays in their preferences! .ut there are individuals who know a$out pupil dilation and who use it to gauge other people's oods! For e&a ple# it's reported that in prerevolutionary *hina# Hade sellers used to watch the pupils of their custo ers so that they could see if they liked a particular piece of Hade or were happy to pay the @0 asking price! (n

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SEO5A= TE==S the si&teenth century# (talian wo en used a tincture of $elladonna to dilate their pupils! .elladonna :which eans '$eautiful wo an' in (talian; contains atropine# which dilates the pupils# aking the person look ore aroused and therefore ore attractive! 0 THE S2(E8A5S LOOK. This is done $y looking at so e- one while one's head is turned away! The sideways look conveys two opposing essages - the directed gaJe signals approach# while the averted head signals avoid- ance! The tension $etween approach and avoidance is partly what gives the sideways look its appeal - it's this that akes the person who is perfor ing the sideways look appear so interesting and attractive! This is especially the case when the look is co $ined with a s ile to create a 'turn-away s ile'! The other factor $ehind the gesture's appeal is the i plicit suggestion that the person is turning $ack! ,hen a wo an looks at a an with her head averted he's inclined to get the feel- ing that she has stopped what she was doing in order to look at hi ! 6e ight even i agine that the sight of hi was so arresting that the wo an's head didn't have ti e to catch up with her eyes' ,o en ostly use the side- ways look# although en do e ploy it with the sa e co-uettish effect! .ecause it involves a presentation of the side of the face# the sideways look can also $e seen as a for of 'flanking' - in other words# the appease ent that's signalled $y offering the side of one's $ody can also $e conveyed# in a slightly reduced for # $y presenting so eone with the side of one's face! HOO(E( E5ES. The hooded look is achieved $y lowering @BA

T6E .OO< OF TE==S the upper eyelids# raising the eye$rows slightly# and hold- ing this e&pression for a while! The effect of this is to narrow the eyes# aking the look like '$edroo eyes'# and to increase the distance $etween the eye and the eye$row# which is one of the things that happens when people try to appear su$ issive! (n a sense the hooded look offers the $est of $oth worlds# $ecause in addition to aking the person appear su$ issive it also gives the a rather knowing and ysterious look# as if they were har$ouring so e secret! This# however# is not the only e&planation! )aul Ek an has suggested that the reason why hooded eyes are so seductive is that they reproduce the e&pression that appears on people's faces Hust $efore they have an @B orgas ! ,hether or not this is true# it is certainly the case that the hooded eyes gesture is used ore $y wo en than $y en - ost of the ti e in earnest# $ut so eti es in Hest! (t was very popular during the age of the silent screen# when it $eca e the hall ark of actresses like 9reta 9ar$o# who so eti es co $ined it with the sideways look! 7arilyn 7onroe was also very keen on the hooded-eyes gesture# which she often co - $ined with the 'parted-lips posture'! (n this posture the Haw is rela&ed and the lips are separated# as if they were inviting a kiss! ,ith the lips parted and the eyes half- closed# a wo an certainly looks like she's in the throes of se&ual ecstasy! 7en find this co $ination of tells seductive $ecause it hints at the pleasure that they could induce in the wo an if only they were given a chance!

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Touc:*n+ Tells
*ourtship is associated wit h various kinds of touching! These include people touching the selves# touching the other person# and occasions when they touch or anipu- late o$Hects! 0 SELF-TO73H2N.. )eople touch the selves for all kinds of reasons when the at osphere is se&ually charged! As we have seen# when people feel an&ious or self- conscious they often produce 'adaptors' $y touching their face or ru$$ing their ar in order to co fort the - selves! )eople also touch the selves as a way of drawing attention to a particular part of their $ody! *onsider a young an and a wo an who are out on a date in a restaurant! ,hile the young an is talking# the young wo an is leaning forward with the pal s of her hands supporting her chin and her fingers wrapped round her cheeks! She's doing a 'face fra e' using her hands as a picture fra e to define the i age that she wants hi to focus on! ,hile the young an is talking he a$sentindedly co $s his fingers through his hair! This action is a 'pointer' $ecause# even though he doesn't know it# its purpose is to alert his date to his fine head of hair# and to set her thinking a$out what it would $e like to run her own fingers through it! )ointers do two things - they draw so eone's attention to a part of the $ody and they raise the issue of what it would $e like to do to so eone what they're doing to the selves! All this occurs outside conscious awareness - neither the person who produces the pointer nor the person to who it's addressed are likely to recogniJe what's actually happening! (f you

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The 9e'.&sho(. .y e&posing her neck 7arilyn 7onroe akes herself look vulnera$le and se&y! 6ere# too# she uses other 'co eons'8 the !houlder&)i t Gesture akes her appear su$ issive# while the *ooded&eyes )oo. and the Parted&lips Posture suggest that she's in the throes of se&ual ecstasy! @A/

SEO5A= TE==S watch 6ugh 9rant on screen you'll notice that he often produces a sheepish grin when he's running his hand through his hair! The ostensi$le purpose of the grin is to suggest that he's feeling e $arrassed# and that's why he's running his hand through his hair! (n fact# the sheepish grin is a facial decoy - it's designed to o$scure the fact that he's touching his hair $ecause# deep down# he wants the viewers to ad ire it! 0 OTHE4 TO73H2N.. As we saw earlier# although wo en tend to call the shots in courtship# it's usually the an who touches the wo an first! That's $ecause the wo an has indicated that she's ready to $e touchedE she has# in effect# given the an the green light! The touching that takes place during the early stages of courtship is very different fro the touching that occurs during the later stages# $oth in ter s of who's likely to initiate it and what for it takes! (n loving relationships wo en tend to get touched ore than en! That's partly $ecause wo en have a lower touch threshold than en and are therefore ore @A sensitive to touch! This differ- ence e erges soon after $irth! )artly for this reason# girls usually show ore enHoy ent of touch than $oys# and this leads to their $eing touched ore $y their parents! .ut in addition to $eing ore sensitive to touch# and appreciating it ore# wo en also regard touch as ore eaningful! For the # touch is an i portant sign of love and affection# whereas for so e en it's often nothing ore than a eans to an end! 0 OB@E3T TO73H2N.. )eople who are courting often reveal their feelings towards each other $y the way they

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T6E .OO< OF TE==S anipulate o$Hects! (n a restaurant# for e&a ple# the way that a wo an caresses her wine glass or runs her fingers up and down its ste ay reveal her intentions towards the an she's dining with! E-ually# the way that the an reaches across the ta$le# picks up the wo an's car keys# and starts to play with the # offers strong proof that he wants to possess so e part or all of her! ,atching what people do to o$Hects often shows what they would like to do to each other!

Tal Tells
7en and wo en often worry a$out what they're going to say to each other when they first eet $ecause they know that it can have a $ig i pact on what happens @2 ne&t! 7en put a lot of effort into chat-up lines! .ut $ecause wo en have heard ost of the $efore# and aren't terri$ly i pressed with the new ones# en's opening ga $its often fall flat! 7en also ake a lot of effort in other ways - lowering the pitch of their voice to ake the sound ore asculine and speaking -uietly so that the conversation feels ore inti ate! =owering the voice is pro$a$ly a good idea $ecause wo en are attracted to en with deep voices - or at least they are when they hear the on the telephone# i agining that they're tall and heavily uscled! (n this respect# voice -uality is actually a dis- honest signal $ecause it's an unrelia$le indicator of $ody siJe and it's fairly easy to fake! 6owever# it is a fairly honest signal of do inance and se&ual drive# $ecause en with deep voices have higher levels of testosterone! *onse-uently# wo en who think that a an with a deep

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voice is $ig and uscular are likely to $e disappointed# while those who e&pect hi to $e do inant and se&y are likely to have their e&pectations pleasantly @4 confir ed! "uring the early stages of courtship en tend to ply wo en with co pli ents! Foan 7anes and Nessa ,olfson# who analysed co pli ents in great detail# discovered that three--uarters of the include the word 'you' - which is hardly surprising - and that a third include the 1/ word 'nice'! The for ulaic nature of ost co pli ents akes the very easy to co pose and e-ually easy to co prehend! 7ost people are sceptical a$out co pli- ents# $ut this doesn't stop people using the # and it certainly hasn't reduced their effectiveness! Another thing that works is self-disclosure! >elationships $etween wo en are often characteriJed $y intense disclosure - fe ale friends will often know everything there is to know a$out each other's past# not to ention the inti ate details of their se& life! A an knows where his $est friend works# which foot$all tea he supports# and who he's sleeping with# $ut his friend's e otional life 13 is pro$a$ly a co plete ystery! 7any wo en live in hope of finding a an who enHoys self-disclosure as uch as she does - who wants to curl up with her on the sofa and talk a$out his e otions! <nowing this# a an will so eti es switch to a fe inine style of interaction during the early stages of courtship - talking to the wo an a$out his worries and concerns# and asking her a$out her feel- ings! .ut this doesn't always last! Once they're secure# en often revert to their old ways - they go $ack to talk- ing a$out the selves# and dealing with facts rather than feelings! .ecause language is our crowning glory there's every

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reason to e&pect that an a$ility to speak clearly will $e fairly high up in the list of things that en and wo en look for in a partner! >ecent research shows that it's only en who place a pre iu on finding an articulate co - panion! ,o en - possi$ly $ecause they know it's e&pecting too uch - don't go looking for a ate with lin- guistic skills! They're uch ore i pressed with other -ualities# like a an's sense of hu our!

Lau+:ter Tells
=aughter isn't e&actly an aphrodisiac# $ut it is a vital ingredient in ce enting relationships! The research on laughter shows that when en and wo en are together# 1@ it's the wo en who do ost of the laughing! ,hen wo en are asked what they look for in a an they usually say that they want a guy who likes a good laugh $ut what they're really looking for is a an who akes them laugh! >o$ert )rovine has pointed out that the ai of en is to ake wo en laugh# not to laugh or $e a used the - selves! Fro a wo an's point of view# it doesn't atter very uch whether the an is given to laughter - what is i portant# however# is that he passes 11 the 'laughter test' $y aking her laugh! (n a research study $y <arl 9ra er and (renRus Ei$lEi$esfeldt in 9er any# conversations were recorded $etween pairs of young en and wo en who had et for the first ti e! The researchers found that the ore a wo an laughed during the eeting# the keener she was to eet the an again# regardless of how often he had laughed! For the en# however# it was the other way

round! They
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were keen to get together again with the wo an if they had anaged to ake her laughE their enthusias for another eeting had nothing to do with how uch 1+ they personally had laughed! ,hen a an and a wo an eet for the first ti e# the likelihood of the for ing a relationship is not predicted $y the total a ount of laughter they generate# nor $y how uch the an laughs - it's predicted $y the a ount of laughter the wo an produces! There are several e&planations for this! One is that laughter reduces the potentially threatening nature of an encounter $etween a an and a wo an - the wo an feels that if the an is capa$le of $eing a using then he can't $e uch of a threat! (t ight also $e that the $ioche ical changes $rought a$out $y laughter act as a for of foreplay - in other words# wo en want a an who's prepared to tickle her fancy# while en want a wo an who wants her fancy tickled and clearly enHoys it! Finally# there's )rovine's e&planation in ter s of the relationship $etween laughter and status! 6e suggests that 'the desire $y wo en for en who ake the laugh ay $e a veiled re-uest for do inant ales! 7en who pass the audition for do inance are acknowledged with wo en's 10 laughter'! ,e don't nor ally consider laughter in this light! That's $ecause we perceive people who try to ake others laugh as creators of fun and levity# not as individuals who are try- ing to enhance their own status! 3 re e $er a situation any years ago# not long after y wife and ( had et# when we spent the evening with another guy and his girl- friend! "uring the evening the guy switched to a co edy routine# putting on funny voices and pulling faces! .oth of the girls were in stitches# $ut 3 wasn't a used at all! =ater#

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when we were driving ho e y future wife said how uch she'd enHoyed herself and how a using she'd found the other guy! ( said ( didn't find hi in the least $it funny! Of course# what ('d failed to recogniJe is that# $y a using the girls# he'd $eco e ore do inant! ( was $usy co - plaining that his sense of hu our was infantile! ( didn't realiJe that ( was feeling gru py and aggressive $ecause he'd used laughter to elevate his own i portance in the eyes of the two girls# and# in the process# to reduce ine!

1o&,ati-ilit* Tells
,hen people eet for the first ti e# they e ploy a i&ture of co e-ons# hang-ons and put-offs! ,hen things are going well $etween the # ost of the signals consist of co e-ons! ,hen there's dou$t a$out the progress of the relationship the hang-ons increase in nu $er# and when the relationship is going nowhere the put-offs start to take over! 7onika 7oore has ade a special study of the put- offs used $y wo en# or what 1B she calls 'reHection signals'! These include facial gestures like yawning# frowning and sneering# as well as head-shaking and anual gestures like putting her hands in her pockets or crossing her ar s! All of these signals are used to deter the an# and to show hi that the wo an isn't interested in taking things any further! *ourting couples often reveal their co pati$ility through their ove ents and postures! There is a strong tendency for individuals who like each other# or who feel so e rapport# to co-ordinate their ove ents and to atch their postures! Studies of 'interactional

synchrony'
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have shown that people who are on the sa e wavelength are ore likely to synchroniJe their 1A actions! ,ith our restaurant couple# for e&a ple# the an ight take a drink fro his glass and the wo an ight respond $y wiping the corners of her outh with her napkin! A few o ents later she ight lean on the ta$le# and he ight respond $y oving his chair! ,hat akes the interaction synchronous is the underlying rhyth of the an's and wo an's activities - it's not essential that they copy each other# only that they integrate their separate contri$utions into the sa e $alletic perfor ance! There are occasions# however# when courting couples perfor the sa e actions! Studies of 'postural atching' show that the closer two people are e otionally# the ore si ilar the postures that they adopt! This works in $oth directions - not only do people adopt si ilar postures when they feel ore rapport# $ut they also feel greater rapport after they have assu ed the 12 sa e posture! (ndividuals don't ake a deli$erate# conscious decision to copy each other! >ather# it's a atter of these processes occurring spontaneously and unconsciously# so that even after people have assu ed the sa e posture they're not aware of what they've done! One reason why postural atching occurs during courtship is that certain postures are linked to certain e otions# so that when two people adopt the sa e posture they are ore likely to e&perience the 14 sa e feel- ings! This relationship $etween posture and ood is very $asic! )eople# for e&a ple# who are hypnotiJed and instructed to e&perience a particular feeling are uch ore likely to co ply if they are placed in a posture that is conducive to that feeling! (f they are put into a posture

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that is inconsistent with that feeling# they ay not e&peri- ence it fully# or even at all! The sa e kind of relationship that e&ists $etween posture and e otion also occurs in everyday life! )eople who copy the postures of others are in a uch $etter position to e pathiJe with the than those who adopt very different postures! ,o en# it appears# have a uch stronger need for postural atching than en! 9eoffrey .eattie discovered# for e&a ple# that ale-fe ale and fe ale-fe ale pairs assu e the sa e posture ore than half the ti e# $ut that in ale- ale pairs the individuals only adopt the sa e posture for a$out a +/ -uarter of the ti e that they're together! 7en# it see s# are less inclined to atch each other's postures! ,o en# on the other hand# like to copy the person they're with# regardless of whether it's a an or a wo an! (f postural atching provides a easure of a couple's co pati$ility# it's e-ually true to say that its opposite# postural is atching# offers an inde& of a couple's inco pati$ility! One of the first sy pto s of trou$le in a relationship is the tendency of individuals to adopt very different postures when they're together! Even when the postures are si ilar# they ay $e dia etrically opposed# so that instead of facing towards each other# the two people face away fro each other! The way that people use their eyes is e-ually telling! Think of that fa ous occasion when )rince *harles and )rincess "iana were fil ed sitting in the $ack of a car# Hust $efore it was announced that they were going to separate! .oth of the had a rather studied# so $re countenance# $ut even ore revealing were their postures and their gaJe - each of the was oriented away fro the other# and their eyes studiously avoided each other's! The reHection signals

were flying in $oth directions!

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(n contrast to the signs that a relationship is disintegrat- ing# there are tells which show when so eone is deeply in love! These include distraction# lack of concentration# sighing# stuttering# and an ina$ility to sleep# eat or drink! The sy pto s of love and influenJa are often si ilar - feeling hot and cold# a lack of energy# and an overpower- ing desire to go to $ed! =ovesickness also e&hi$its so e of the sy pto s of O$sessive *o pulsive "isorder - one- track thinking# strong preoccupations# fi&ation with routines# and the knowledge that one is $ehaving irrationally $ut can't do anything a$out it!

2n)*del*t= Tells
There are four ain types of infidelity! The first involves nothing ore than a shared inti acy $etween two people where at least one of the is arried! These ental acts of unfaithfulness are often conducted $y letter# on the tele- phone or $y e ail! Although they don't have a physical co ponent# they can so eti es $e Hust as dangerous as a se&ual affair# especially when they generate strong attach- ents! The second type is the 'one-night stand'# where the couple has a $rief fling $ut doesn't consolidate the relationship! The third involves an e&tended affair which lasts for a few weeks or onths# and the fourth consists of a long-ter relationship# for e&a ple $etween a arried an and his istress! Su$terfuge is the essence of infidelity! )eople will go to enor ous lengths to cover their tracks# create credi$le ali$is and conceal their actions! (n spite of their $est efforts# however# they invaria$ly leave a trail of tells

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$ehind the ! These include changing an esta$lished routine# uncharacteristic irrita$ility# concern a$out their weight or appearance# vagueness# anony ous phone calls# and an apparent loss of interest in se&! Of course any of these sy pto s ay appear for other reasons# so people who suspect their partner need to $e dou$ly sure that what they see as the signs of infidelity aren't si ply the proHections of their own insecurity and Healousy!

Possessive Tells
)eople use a variety of strategies to retain their ate these are what Joologists call ' ate-guarding' or ' ate retention' tactics! 7ate retention tactics fall into two $road categories - those that are directed at the ate# and those that are addressed to potential rivals! Those directed at the ate include positive overtures# like displays of affection# gifts# pro ises and declarations of love! They also include 'threats'# 'teases' and 'put-downs'! 'Threats' are warnings to the ate a$out what will happen if they're unfaithful# while 'put-downs' are ways of reducing a ate's selfestee to the point where they don't feel worthy of any$ody else's affection! 'Teases' involve flirting with other people in pu$lic so that one's ate feels Healous +3 and ore possessive! 7en use threats and put-downs ore than wo en# while wo en use teases ore than en! Strategies that are directed at the ate tend to $e private in nature! Those that are targeted at potential rivals are uch ore

pu$lic! They include 'resource signals' - in other words# displays of wealth that try to persuade potential rivals that they
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don't have the resources to co pete# as well as 'threats' that are intended to scare the off! 'Ownership signals' are the ost co on# and in so e ways the ost interesting of the ate retention tactics# $ecause people aren't always aware of using the ! 7ost ownership signals involve physical pro&i ity - they create the i pression that two people are e otionally close $ecause they're physically close! For e&a ple# a an who puts his ar round his wife's waist# or his hand on her shoulder at a party# sends two essages privately he reassures his wife and pu$licly he tells everyone that she $elongs to hi ! The wife who re oves a piece of lint fro her hus$and's Hacket# or who adHusts his tie# sends out the sa e essages of reassurance and ownership! )eople also show that they are together $y putting their ar s round each other# linking ar s or holding hands while they're walking along! The sociologist +@ Erving 9off an called these actions 'tie signs'! 6e argued that their ain function was to show that the people con- cerned are connected# hence 'tied' to each other! One of the revealing features of an esta$lished relationship is whether the two people re ain in physical contact while they are walking# and if they do# how they actually do it! Although hand-holding appears to $e a fairly sy etrical activity# one person has to have his or her hand in front# while the other person has to take up the $ack position! ,ith a arried couple# for e&a ple# it's usually the hus$and who assu es the 'front hold' and the wife who has the '$ack hold'! (t isn't clear whether this happens $ecause en are taller or $ecause they prefer to lead fro the front! ,hen the wife takes up the 'front hold' position# it's usually $ecause she's taller than her hus$and and

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therefore finds the '$ack hold' unco forta$le! (f she's shorter# it's usually $ecause she likes to $e in charge even at the cost of so e physical disco fort to her and her hus$and! There was a good e&a ple of this at the in- auguration of 9eorge ,! .ush in @//3! After the cere ony was over# .ill and 6illary *linton started leav- ing! The two of the were walking along hand in hand# with .ill looking co posed and very uch in control# and 6illary looking supportive! 6owever# if you'd looked at the ore closely# you would have noticed that 6illary had the 'front hold'# while .ill had the '$ack hold' - an arrange ent which could not $e e&plained in ter s of their height! (t showed that 6illary was in charge# not .ill! 6u an courtship# like that of other ani als# consists of a series of stages# starting with the first eeting and progressing through to intercourse and the esta$lish ent of +1 so e kind of relationship! The transition fro one courtship stage to the ne&t is ine&trica$ly $ound up with tells which take the for of invitations to ove to the ne&t stage of inti acy! A wo an ight orient her $ody towards a an to show hi that she's approacha$le# or a an ight $rush the hair fro a wo an's face to show that he wants to kiss her! The way that individuals respond to these overtures decides whether the courtship is going to pro- ceed to the ne&t phase# or whether it's going to get stuck or unwind altogether! ,hat's critical in this whole process# of course# is the way that people read each other's tells. (t's not enough for the participants to notice each other's tells & they also need to decode the correctly! )eople ake two errors when they interpret 'ourtship tells. One is to err on the side of caution# to ' entally ini iJe' the tell $y assu ing that the other person's gestures of

affection don't
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ean anything! The other error is to ' entally e&pand' the tell $y interpreting friendly $ehaviour as a sign of ro antic or se&ual interest! As we have seen# en are uch ore likely to entally e&pand wo en's tells. ,o en# as a result# are often left wondering how the an got the idea that they were so keen# and dou$ting their a$ility to send the right essage! The ideal situation would $e one where en and wo en didn't entally ini iJe or e&pand each other's tells. .ut given the need for understate ent and su$tlety# which are essential to courtship# this is very unlikely!

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3/! =ying Tells

A lot of the things that we say to other people aren't true - they're fi$s# fudges# fa$rications# falsehoods and $arefaced lies! (t has $een esti ated that we lie to a third of the people we eet each day! =ying is especially co on when people are trying to i press each other# and that's why it's so prevalent in dating and courtship! >o$ert Feld an at the 5niversity of 7assachusetts found that B/ per cent of the people who took part in one of his studies lied at least once during a 3/- inute eeting# and that ost of the told two or three lies in that ti e!' >esearch on lying shows that there is no difference in the nu $ers of lies told $y en and wo en# $ut that there are differences in the types of lies they tell - en are ore likely to produce lies that are designed to ake the look i pressive# while wo en are ore likely to tell lies that are intended to ake other people feel @ good! ,o en are generally ore inclined than en to e&press positive opinions# $oth a$out the things they like and the things they don't like! *onse-uently# when wo en are faced with the possi$ility of upsetting so eone - for e&a ple

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when they're given a present they don't want - they're ore likely to try and protect the other person's feelings $y telling a white lie! So e people consider lying to $e a cri e# regardless of how $ig or s all the lie is and what effect it has# while others feel that certain lies are legiti ate# possi$ly even necessary! For e&a ple# when a wo an asks her hus$and whether he likes her new hairstyle# she's usually inviting hi to say so ething co pli entary rather than to give an honest opinion! The hus$and who akes the istake of telling his wife that he doesn't like her new hairstyle is ask- ing for trou$le! So is the wife who offers her hus$and less than fulso e praise when he asks her what she thinks a$out his perfor ance on the sports field# or the speech he gave at the office party! =ying lu$ricates interpersonal relationsE without lies our social life would soon grind to a co plete halt! )eople differ enor ously in their propensity to lie! At one e&tre e are the '9eorge ,ashingtons'# who odel the selves on the A erican )resident who could not tell a lieE while at the other e&tre e are the '7achiavellis'# who odel the selves on the Florentine states an who advocated lying as a legiti ate eans of achieving one's goals! )eople who score high on easures of anipulation are ore likely to tell lies# and not to feel $ad a$out it! The sa e is true of people who are highly e&pressive and socia$le! )eople who fre-uently lie tend to $e very popular - pro$a$ly $ecause their ingratiating 1 lies endear the to others! *on artists# hoa&ers and politicians have to $e acco plished liarsE in fact an a$ility to proHect an i age of honesty# without feeling any sense of guilt a$out it# is an essential feature of their role! Sales people also

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need this a$ility! A few years ago .ella "e)aulo fro the 5niversity of Virginia perfor ed an e&peri ent with sales personnel who were re-uired either to lie or to + tell the truth! ,hen she e&a ined their actions and speech she couldn't find a single difference $etween those who were telling the truth and those who were lying!

(etect*on Tells
Although lies for a large part of our e&changes with other people# we're actually not very good at telling whether so eone is deceiving us or telling the truth! This isn't for lack of evidence# $ecause 4/ per cent of lies are acco - panied $y tells which# like a cri inal's 0 fingerprints# leave $ehind traces of deception! )eople often pride the selves on their a$ility to detect if so eone is telling the a lie# especially when that person happens to $e so eone who they know well! 6ow often have you heard a other announce that her children could never lie to her $ecause she 'knows the too well'# or a young an clai that his girlfriend could never pull the wool over his eyes $ecause he can 'see right through her'% (n fact the research on lie detection suggests that $oth the other and the young an are pro$a$ly is- taken# $ecause people only detect a$out 0B per cent of the lies they're e&posed to# which is slightly a$ove what you'd B e&pect $y chance! (t's also $een discovered that as people get to know each other $etter their a$ility to detect each other's lies doesn't i prove - it so eti es A gets worse'

This happens for various reasons! One is that as people get to know each other well# they $eco e ore confident
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=?(N9 TE==S in their a$ility to detect each other's lies! 6owever# their accuracy doesn't necessarily increase - it's usually Hust their confidence that grows! 7oreover# when people get to know each other well# they're ore likely to allow their e otions to get in the way of their analytical skills and this reduces their a$ility to detect each other's lies! Finally# as each person gets to know what type of evidence of deceit the other person is looking for# they're a$le to odify their $ehaviour to reduce the chances of detection! There are several reasons why people are so $ad at detecting lies8 0 BL2SSF7L 2.NO4AN3E. Even when there are clear signs that so eone is lying# they ay go unnoticed# not $ecause people are insensitive to these signs# $ut $ecause they don't want to ad it to the selves that the other person is lying! One of the ain reasons why individuals $elieve other people's lies is $ecause they want to $elieve the # with the result that they end up as co-conspirators in their own deception! *on artists understand this principle co pletely and they ake a 2 point of telling people what they want to hear! The desire not to discover the truth is also found in politics! The .ritish )ri e 7inister Neville *ha $erlain is $est re e $ered for the way he was deceived $y the 9er an *hancellor# Adolf 6itler! ,hen *ha $erlain returned fro 9er any in 3412# $randishing a signed agree ent with 6itler# he declared that 6itler was a an to $e trusted! At the ti e there was evidence that 6itler intended to invade *Jechoslovakia# $ut *ha $erlain chose to ignore this evidence - had he acknowledged what was happening it would have HeopardiJed his
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T6E .OO< OF TE==S atte pts to secure peace! )eople have all kinds of otives for ignoring the fact that so eone is lying to the ! A wife ay choose to fool herself that her hus$and is not having an affair in the hope that he will lose interest in the other wo an and return to her! E-ually# parents ay overlook the fact that their son is taking drugs $ecause they don't want to have to deal with the pro$le ! 0 TH4ESHOL( SETT2N.S. (ndividuals' assu ptions a$out the prevalence o lying can affect their a$ility to spot liars and truth-tellers! )eople who are very trusting and who therefore don't e&pect others to deceive the are likely to set their detection threshold very high! As a result they are likely to identify the truth-tellers -uite accurately# $ut not the liars! 6ighly suspicious people have the opposite pro$le - $ecause they set their threshold too low# they inadvertently identify ost of the liars# $ut fail to spot the truth-tellers! )olice officers are a good e&a ple of the second type $ecause they tend to set their lie detector threshold so low! The only reason why they are successful at spotting liars is 3/ $ecause they think everyone is lying' 0 .7T FEEL2N.S. There are two ways of identifying a liar - $y looking out for clues to deceptionE or $y relying on one's intuition! (t has recently $een discovered that people who use their gut feelings are less accurate in detecting liars than those who try to $ase their decisions 33 on the evidence! (ndeed# when it co es to detecting deceit# intuition is usually ore of a hindrance than a help!
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=?(N9 TE==S 0 M7LT2'LE 3A7SES. )eople often ake the istake of thinking that specific actions are clues to deception# and not to anything else! (t is so eti es assu ed# for e&a ple# that people who touch their nose while they're talking are auto atically telling a lieE that the gesture is a sign of lying# and nothing else! These assu ptions over- look the fact that actions and utterances ay so eti es provide clues to deception# while on other occasions they ay provide clues to states of ind that have nothing to do with deception! )eople who rely on the polygraph lie detector often ake this istake! The poly- graph easures respiration# heart rate and pal ar sweating - all of which are indicators of arousal! ,hen people $eco e an&ious# their $reathing rate increases# their heart rate goes up# and their pal s start to sweat ore profusely! ,hen people are lying they often $eco e an&ious# and their an&iety can $e detected $y the polygraph! 6owever# there are ti es when people $eco e an&ious without lying# Hust as there are cases where people lie without e&periencing any an&iety at all! 0 LOOK2N. ELSE8HE4E. )eople also fail to detect lies $ecause they are looking for clues in the wrong place! ,here people look is usually deter ined $y what they $elieve are the giveaway signs of lying! (f you ask people how they can tell if so eone is lying to the # they usually ention shifty eyes or the way people fidget with their hands! The other signs of dishonesty that people ention include s iling# rapid $linking# long pauses# and talking too fast or too slow! So e of these $ehaviours have in fact $een found to $e clues to deception# $ut any are not! ,hen >o$ert <rauss and his colleagues at

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*olu $ia 5niversity in New ?ork co pared the signs that people use to detect lying with those that are actually associated with lying# they discovered that there was very little overlap!
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E=e Tells
7ost people $elieve that gaJe aversion is a sign of lying! They assu e that $ecause liars feel guilty# e $arrassed and apprehensive# they find it difficult to look their victi in the eye# and they therefore look away! This is not what happens! Firstly# patterns of gaJe are -uite unsta$le - while so e liars avert their eyes# others actually increase the a ount of ti e they spend looking at the other person! .ecause gaJe is fairly easy to control# liars can use their eyes to proHect an i age of honesty! <nowing that other people assu e gaJe aversion to $e a sign of lying# any liars do the e&act opposite - they deli$erately increase their gaJe to give the i pression that they're telling the truth! So# if you want to know if so eone's lying to you# don't li it your attention to shifty eyes - also look out for those o ents when the other person is gaJing at you ore intently than usual' Another supposed sign of lying is rapid $linking! (t's true that when we $eco e aroused or our ind is racing# there's a corresponding increase in our $linking rate! Our nor al $linking rate is a$out @/ $links per inute# $ut it can increase to four or five ti es that figure when we feel under pressure! ,hen people are lying they fre-uently $eco e aroused# and when liars are searching for an answer to an awkward -uestion#

their thought processes

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speed up! (n this kind of situation lying is fre-uently associated with $linking! 6owever# we need to re e $er that there are ti es when people have a very high $link- ing rate# not $ecause they're lying# $ut $ecause they're under pressure! Also# there are ti es 31 when liars show -uite nor al $linking rates!

Bod= Tells
Fidgeting and awkward hand ove ents are also thought to $e signs of deceit - the assu ption $eing that when people are lying they $eco e agitated and this gives rise to nervous ove ents of the hands! As we entioned earlier# there is a class of gestures called 'adaptors'# which consists of actions like stroking one's hair# scratching one's head or ru$$ing the hands together! ,hen people tell lies they so eti es feel guilty or worried a$out $eing found out# and these concerns can cause the to produce adaptors! This tends to happen when the stakes are high or when the liar isn't very good at deception! 7ost of the ti e the e&act opposite happens! Again# $ecause liars are worried a$out revealing the selves# they tend to inhi$it their nor al gestural ha$its! As a result their actions are likely to $eco e ore froJen# not ore ani ated' 7ove ents of the hands# like those of the eyes# tend to $e under conscious control# and that's why the hands aren't a relia$le source of infor ation a$out lying! There are other parts of the $ody# however# which are also under conscious control $ut# $ecause they're overlooked and neglected# often prove to $e a very useful source of clues a$out deception! >esearch on lying shows that when

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people are asked to tell a lie they tend to produce ore signs of deception in the lower part than in the upper part of their $ody! ,hen video recordings of these people are shown to other people who are re-uired to Hudge whether they are lying or telling the truth# the Hudges are ore accurate if they are e&posed to 3+ recordings of the lower part of the $ody! *learly there is so ething a$out the legs and feet which shows the to $e an underrated source of in- for ation a$out lying! (t see s that liars focus their efforts at conceal ent on their hands# ar s and face# $ecause they know that's what other people will $e watching! .ecause their feet feel re ote# liars don't $other a$out the - $ut it's often tiny adHust ents of the legs and feet that $etray the !

Nose Tells
One gesture that reveals a lie is the ' outh-cover'! ,hen this happens it's as if the liar were taking precautions to cover up the source of his deception# acting on the assu ption that if other people can't see his outh then they won't know where the lie has co e fro ! 7outh- covering actions can range fro full-$lown versions where the hand co pletely covers the outh# to gestures where the hand supports the chin and a finger surreptitiously touches the corner of the outh! .y placing a hand on or near the outh# a liar $ehaves like a cri inal who can't resist the te ptation to return to the scene of his cri e! Fust like the cri inal# the hand lays itself open to detection - at any o ent it could $eco e apparent to others that the act of touching the outh is an atte pt to conceal a lie!

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There is# however# a su$stitute for touching the outh# which is touching the nose! .y touching his nose the liar e&periences the o entary co fort of covering his outh# without any risk of drawing attention to what he is really doing! (n this role# nose-touching functions as a su$- stitute for outh-covering - it's a stealth teDD- it looks as if so eone is scratching his nose# $ut his real intention is to cover his outh! There is also a school of thought that says that nosetouching is a sign of deceit -uite separate fro anything to do with the outh! One of the proponents of this idea is Alan 6irsch who# together with *harles ,olf# has done a detailed analysis of .ill *linton's grand Hury testi ony in August 3442# when the )resident denied 30 having had se& with 7onica =ewinsky! They discovered that while *linton was telling the truth he hardly touched his nose at all# $ut that when he lied a$out his affair with 7onica =ewinsky he touched his nose an average of once every four inutes! 6irsch called this the ')inocchio syndro e'# after the fa ous character whose wooden nose $eco es longer every ti e he tells a lie! 6irsch suggested that when people lie their nose $eco es engorged with $lood# and that this produces a sensation that is alleviated $y touch- ing or ru$$ing the nose! There are at least two argu ents against the ')inocchio syndro e'! One is that nose-touching ay si ply $e a sy pto of an&iety# rather than a sign of deceit! The other is that when people lie they often feel apprehensive and fearful a$out $eing found out# and that these e otions are associated with the $lood draining away fro the face - in other words# with vasoconstriction# not vasodilation! This is the view of 3B 7ark Frank of >utgers 5niversity! Frank

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also points out that e&peri ental research on lying has not shown nose-touching to $e a co on sign of deceit! Of course it's -uite possi$le that nosetouching does not e erge in la$oratory settings# where the stakes are low and the price that people pay if they are e&posed as a liar is not terri$ly high! (t's also feasi$le that nose-touching isn't a sign of deceit for everyone - it ight si ply $e the trade ark tell of so e people# including .ill *linton! Finally there's the possi$ility that nose-touching has nothing at all to do with deceit or with an&iety# $ut that it's an unconscious for of reHection! >ay .irdwhistell con- sidered that when one person ru$s their nose in the presence of another# it reveals the first person's 3A dislike of the second! As he put it# the 'nose ru$ a ong A ericans is as uch a sign of reHection as the word NNo'N ' 9iven this interpretation# .ill *linton's nosetouching $efore the grand Hury ight $e seen as an e&pression of his deep dis- like for his interrogators# and not as a clue to the fact that he was lying to the ! Surrounding this de$ate there re ains the unresolved -uestion of what we ean when we say that so eone is lying - is it that we know the to $e lying# or do they have to $elieve that they're not telling the truth% As 7ark Frank has pointed out# this issue is highly pertinent to the case of .ill *linton and his testi ony during the =ewinsky affair! There are so e people who argue that *linton knew that he was lying# $ut there are others who insist that# given his definition of 'se&' and the way he constructed his evidence# he wasn't lying at all! The interesting -uestion that arises fro this is whether people who have to persuade the selves that they're not lying $ehave any

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The Mouth&'o,er is an i portant lying tell. ,hen he testified to the 9rand Fury during his i peach ent trial# .ill *linton repeatedly touched his outh! Other lying tells# also seen here# include e&cessive sweating# restrained ove ent of the hands# and increased levels of gaJe!

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differently fro those who start out with the conviction that they're telling the truth!

Mask*n+ Tells
,hen so eone knowingly tells a lie they have to hide two things - firstly the truth# and secondly any e otions that ight arise out of their atte pts at conceal ent! The e otions that liars feel are generally negative feelings like guilt# or fear a$out $eing found out - $ut liars can also e&perience the thrill of pulling the wool over other people's eyes - what )aul Ek an has 32 called 'duping delight'! ,hen people tell s all# innocuous lies they usually don't feel any negative e otions at all! 6owever# when they're telling $ig lies# and there's a lot at stake# they often e&perience very powerful negative e otions that need to $e concealed if the lie is to re ain hidden! A negative e otion can $e concealed $y turning away the head# $y covering the face with the hands# or $y asking it with a neutral or a positive e otion! The strategies of turning away and covering the face don't always work $ecause they tend to draw attention to what the liar is trying to conceal! 7asking# on the other hand# ena$les liars to present an e&terior that isn't necessarily connected with lying! The ost co only used asks are the 'straight face' and the s ile! The straight face re-uires the least effort in order to ask his negative e otions all the liar needs to do is put his face into repose! The s ile is potentially ore effective as a ask $ecause it suggests that the person is feeling happy and contented - in other words#

e&periencing e otions that one doesn't nor ally associate with lying!
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S<*l*n+ Tells
Of all the facial e&pressions# s iling is pro$a$ly the easiest to produce! (t's also disar ing $ecause it akes other people feel positive and less suspicious a$out the liar! .ut the thing that really reco ends the s ile is the fact that ost people aren't very good at telling the difference $etween a genuine s ile and a false s ile# $ecause they tend to take s iles at face value! )eople can usually identify '$lended s iles' which display negative e otions! They find it very easy# for e&a ple# to spot a ' isera$le s ile'# where the inside edges of the eye$rows are raised and the corners of the outh are either pulled up or slightly lowered! .ut people are notoriously $ad at spotting false# un$lended s iles# and that's why they're used to ask the negative 34 e otions associated with lying! (f you ask people how to spot a liar they often ention s iling! They'll tell you that when so eone is lying they're ore likely to use a s ile to ask their true feelings! 6owever# research on lying shows that it's the other way round - people who are lying s ile less than those who are telling the truth! ,hat appears to $e happening is that liars occasionally adHust their $ehaviour so that it's the opposite to what everyone e&pects of people who are telling a lie! This doesn't ean that liars have a$andoned s iling - it si ply shows that they s ile less than people who are telling the truth! ,hen disse $lers do s ile they often give the selves away $y producing a counter- feit s ile! There are several identifying features of counterfeit s iles8

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0 (74AT2ON. *ounterfeit s iles are sustained for longer than genuine# heartfelt s iles!

uch

0 ASSEMBL5. *ounterfeit s iles are 'put together' ore rapidly than genuine s iles! They are also dis antled ore -uickly! 0 LO3AT2ON. *ounterfeit s iles tend to $e confined to the lower half of the face# whereas genuine s iles involve the uscles that pull up the corners of the outh as well as the uscles that tighten up around the eyes and pull the eye$rows down slightly! *ounterfeit and genuine s iles are controlled $y different parts of the $rain - voluntary centres produce counterfeit s iles# while genuine s iles are produced involuntarily! 0 S5MMET45. 9enuine s iles appear on $oth sides of the face# whereas counterfeit s iles so eti es appear ore strongly on one side of the face :usually the right side;! That's $ecause the neural pathways associated with voluntary and involuntary facial e&pressions are different! (f you see a sy etrical s ile it could $e either genuine or false# $ut if you co e across a lopsided s ile there's a good chance that it's false! Although sy etrical and lopsided s iles are -uite different to look at# people tend to react to lopsided s iles as if they were genuine! That's why we are so unconcerned a$out the authenticity of s iles - provided other people s ile at us# we don't uch care what kind of s ile we're offered!

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M*cro-tells
,hen people try to ask their e otions their face receives two opposing sets of instructions - while involuntary processes in the $rain are instructing the face to show their true feelings# voluntary processes are instruct- ing the face to display the asked e&pression! For asking to work# voluntary processes need to have the upper hand# so that the person's real e otions re ain hidden! Successful asking depends on several factors# including the a$ility to ask one's e otions# and the strength of the e otion that is $eing suppressed! ,hen an e otion is very strong it can so eti es overwhel atte pts to suppress it# so that the asked e&pression gives way to the real e otion! There are ti es# however# when the real e otion o entarily $reaks through# and the asked e&pression then reinstates itself i ediately! These gli pses of people's real feelings are called ' icro- o entary % e&pressions' or mi'ro&tells. They are e&tre ely fast and short-lived - typically less than a second# and so eti es as short as one twenty-fifth of a second - the e-uivalent of a single fra e in a standard video recording' )eople don't know it when they produce mi'ro&tells# and the vast aHority don't notice it when they're e&posed to the ! 6owever# people like the police can $e trained to spot the # and they can also $e taught how to use the to interpret other people's $ehaviour! ,hen people lie they so eti es produce mi'ro&tells that reveal their true feelings! A person ight# for e&a ple# $e telling a story a$out how he anaged to fight his way out of a $urning $uilding# giving the i pression that he co pletely in co and during the incident! ,hile

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he's telling the story his face re ains co posed! .ut all of a sudden his e&pression changes to one of fear# and then it i ediately switches $ack to its nor al co posure! (f you were watching this# and you didn't know a$out mi'ro& tells# you pro$a$ly wouldn't notice what had happened# and you al ost certainly wouldn't spot the $rief e&posure of fear! To the trained o$server this mi'ro&tell would $e a useful source of infor ation a$out the person telling the story - it would show that he is trying to give the i - pression of $eing in control# $ut that during the incident he actually e&perienced a great deal of fear! .ecause mi'ro&tells are co pletely involuntary they are rather like traitors - without our knowing it# they $etray what we're thinking# $ut only to those who understand what they ean! 7ark Frank and )aul Ek an have shown that these fleeting gli pses of people's real e otions can $e a valua$le tool in the detection of @3 deceit! Although they aren't co on# mi'ro&tells can $e e&tre ely infor - ative! For e&a ple# after the Falklands war the .ritish )ri e 7inister# 7argaret Thatcher# appeared on a tele- vision progra e and a e $er of the audience asked her why a .ritish su$ arine had $een given orders to torpedo the Argentine $attleship# the Belgrano. 7rs Thatcher replied that the Belgrano was inside the .ritish e&clusion Jone and was therefore a legiti ate target! (n fact this was not true - the Belgrano was outside the e&clusion Jone and was actually sailing away fro the Falkland (slands when it was attacked! ,hen 7rs Thatcher gave this untruthful reply she appeared co - posed# and at one point even produced a false s ile! There was a o ent# however# when her asked e&pression dropped# and an e&tre ely $rief e&pression of anger# with

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the eyes $ulging and the Haw thrust forward# appeared on her face! The anger that 7rs Thatcher had anaged to hide $roke through! .ut no sooner had it appeared# than it was re oved and her asked e&pression was reinstated! The way that people react when they are no longer re-uired to convince others that they're telling the truth can also provide su$tle clues to deceit! For e&a ple# ost travellers passing through custo s have nothing to fear $ecause they're not carrying any contra$and! The s uggler# on the other hand# needs to keep up the pretence of appearing nor al# and usually anages to carry it off! ,hat often distinguishes the s uggler as he walks through custo s is the uscular tension in his $ody! .ecause it's not apparent how he nor ally walks# these tensions are very difficult to spot! ,hat is noticea$le# how- ever# is what happens when the s uggler has gone past the custo s officials! (t's at this point# when he has nothing ore to worry a$out# that the s uggler is likely to rela& his $ody and to produce a tension release tell. The change that occurs is seldo dra atic - it usually takes the for of a slight lowering of the shoulders - $ut it's possi$le to detect! The fact that so eone rela&es as he passes through custo s suggests that he sees the custo s officials as a threat and that he has so ething to hide! (nevita$ly# there are so e people who feel tense a$out going through custo s even when they have nothing to hide# and who are therefore likely to e&hi$it the sa e tension release tell as the guilty s uggler! This only goes to show that while tells are highly infor ative# they don't always offer a )erfect guide to what is happening in people's heads!

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Talk*n+ Tells
7ost people $elieve that liars give the selves away $y what they do# rather than what they say or how they say it! (n fact# it's the other way round - the $est indicators of lying are to $e found in people's speech rather than in their $ehaviour! Aldert VriH fro )orts outh 5niversity has suggested that when people try to catch liars they pay too uch attention to their non-ver$al $ehaviour and not @@ enough to speech! This# he points out# is reflected in the tendency to overesti ate the chances of detecting deceit $y watching so eone's $ehaviour# and to underesti ate the chances of catching liars $y listening to what they say! Several features of talk provide clues to lying! So e involve the ver$al content of what people say# others the way that people articulate what they're saying! 0 32437MLO37T2ON. =iars often $eat a$out the $ush! They tend to give long-winded e&planations with lots o digressions# $ut when they're asked a -uestion they're likely to give a short answer!
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0 O7TL2N2N.. =iars' e&planations are painted with $road $rushstrokes# with very little attention to detail! There's seldo any ention of ti e# place or people's feelings! For e&a ple# a liar will tell you that he went for a piJJa# $ut he pro$a$ly won't tell you where he went or what kind of piJJa he ordered! ,hen liars do provide details they are seldo in a position to ela$orate on the ! So# if you ask a liar to e&pand on his account# it's very likely that he'll si ply repeat hi self! ,hen a truth-teller is asked the sa e -uestion# he usually offers lots of new

infor ation!
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=?(N9 TE==S SMOKES34EENS. =iars often produce answers that are designed to confuse - they sound as if they ake sense# $ut they don't! E&a ples of re arks that don't ake sense include .ill *linton's fa ous response during the )aula Fones harass ent case# when he was asked a$out his relationship with 7onica =ewinsky# and answered# 'That depends on what the eaning of NisN is!' Another e&a ple is the Hustification that the e&- ayor of New ?ork *ity# "avid "inkins# gave when he was accused of failing to pay his ta&es8 '( haven't co itted a cri e! ,hat ( did was fail to co ply with the law!' NE.AT26ES. )olitical lies are fre-uently couched in the for of a denial - re e $er .ill *linton's fa ous denial# '( did not have se&ual relations with that wo an# 7iss =ewinsky!' ,hen a politician denies that he is going to introduce a new easure# like raising ta&es# you can usually take this as a sign that the easure is a$out to $e introduced! As Otto von .is arck said# 'Never $elieve anything in politics until it has $een officially denied!' =iars are ore likely to use negative state ents! For e&a ple# during the ,atergate scandal# )resident Ni&on said# '( a not a crook!' 6e didn't say# '( a an honest an!' 8O4( 3HO23E. =iars ake fewer references to the selves - they use words like ' ( ' # ' e' and ' ine' less fre-uently than people who are telling the truth! =iars also tend to generaliJe $y aking fre-uent use of words like 'always'# 'never'# 'no$ody' and 'everyone'# there$y entally distancing the selves fro the lie!

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T6E .OO< OF TE==S 0 (2S3LA2ME4S. =iars are ore likely to use disclai ers such as '?ou won't $elieve this'# '( know this sounds strange# $ut' and '=et e assure you'! "isclai ers like these are designed to acknowledge any suspicion the other person ay feel in order to discount it! 0 FO4MAL2T5. ,hen people are telling the truth in an infor al situation they are ore likely to use an elided for - for e&a ple# to say 'don't' instead of 'do not'! So eone who is telling a lie in the sa e situation is ore likely to say 'do not' instead of 'don't'! That's $ecause people $eco e ore tense and for al when they lie! 0 TENSE. ,ithout realiJing it# liars have a tendency to increase the psychological distance $etween the selves and the event they're descri$ing! As we have seen# one way they do this is $y their choice of words! Another is $y using the past tense rather than the present tense! 0 S'EE(. Telling a lie re-uires a lot of ental work $ecause# in addition to constructing a credi$le line# the liar needs to keep the truth separated fro the lie! This places de ands on the capacities of the liar# which in turn can slow hi down! That's why people pause $efore producing a lie# and why lies tend to $e delivered at a slower pace than the truth - unless# of course# the lie has $een carefully rehearsed# in which case there should $e no difference in speed! 0 'A7SES. =iars also produce ore pauses $etween their words and sentences# and so e of these pauses are filled with speech disfluencies like 'urn' and 'er'!

The cognitive
1/+

=?(N9 TE==S work involved in producing a spontaneous lie also gives rise to ore speech errors# slips of the tongue and false starts# where the person starts a sentence and then a$andons it for another sentence! 0 )(T*6! The pitch of so eone's voice is often a very good indicator of their e otional state# $ecause when people get upset the pitch of their voice starts to rise! E otions are closely connected to vocal pitch# and the changes that occur when people $eco e e otional are very difficult to ask or conceal! Although increases in pitch are fairly consistent# they are so eti es -uite s all# and it is usually necessary to have heard so eone speaking in other situations $efore one can decide whether the pitch of their voice has risen! There is a lot of talk nowadays a$out actions that are supposedly associated wit h lying - people wil l tell you that if so eone scratches their nose or responds to a -uestion $y looking to the left# then it proves that they are telling a lie! None of this is true - there are no specific $ehaviours that show that so eone is lying! They ay show that so eone is in a state of conflict# under the in- fluence of strong e otions or trying to cover up their feelings of disco fort# $ut it doesn't follow that they are therefore telling a lie! As )aul Ek an has re arked# 'There is no sign of deceit itself - no gestures# facial e&pression# or uscle twitch that in and of itself @+ eans that a person is lying'! Another authority on lying# .ella "e)aulo# echoes this opinion when she points out that $ehavioural and speech indicators have a 'pro$le atic association' with deception8 'They correlate with deception# $ut not perfectly'! &

1/0

T6E .OO< OF TE==S Although there is no guaranteed ethod of detecting lies# there are certain things that you can do to increase your chances of spotting a liar8 0 To detect a lie successfully you need to set your criteria so that they're neither too high nor too low! That way you'll avoid co ing to the conclusion that no$ody ever tells a lie# or that every$ody lies all the ti e! 0 ,here possi$le# the actions that so eone perfor s while they are supposedly lying should $e co pared with how they $ehave when they are telling the truth! 0 To $e a good lie detector you should also concentrate on $ehaviour that falls outside conscious control or that people are likely to ignore! 0 9iven the opportunity# focus your attention on what people say and how they say it# rather than on what they do! 0 (t's i portant to work out whether the lie is likely to $e spontaneous or rehearsed# and whether it's a high-stakes or a low-stakes lie! ,hen the stakes are low or the lie has $een rehearsed# the task of detecting the lie is uch ore difficult! 0 To spot a lie you should always focus on a $road range of $ehavioural and speech clues! (f you think you can spot a liar on the $asis of a single clue# you're deceiving yourself!

306

33! Tells

Foreign

,hen people speak the sa e language it's often very difficult to tell where they co e fro si ply on the $asis of their voca$ulary# gra ar or accent! 6owever# there is so eti es a 'shi$$oleth'# a test that shows where they co e fro ! The word 'shi$$oleth' is entioned in the .ook of Fudges in the Ol d Testa ent! After the Ephrai ites had $een defeated in $attle $y the 9ileadite ar y# they tried to sneak $ack across the >iver Fordan! The 9ileadites# who wanted to ake sure that none of the escaped# stopped every an who was trying to cross the river and asked hi if he was an Ephrai ite! (f he said 'no'# he was asked to say 'shi$$oleth'# which was the 6e$rew word for 'river'! 9ileadites pronounced the wor d 'shi$$oleth'# $ut Ephrai ites said 'si$$oleth'! Anyone who pronounced the word with an initial 'sh' was sparedE those who used 's' were i ediately e&ecuted!

Tal Tells
There are other ways of identifying people's nationality#

1/A

T6E .OO< OF TE==S

usually with less $loody conse-uences! Europeans often have difficulty telling *anadians and A ericans apart! .ut there are so e giveaway pronunciations that ena$le the to spot a *anadian! *anadians# for e&a ple# tend to pro- nounce words like 'shout' and 'a$out' as 'shoot' and 'a$oot'# while A ericans are inclined to pronounce 3 'house' as 'hayouse'! A ericans are likely to greet you with '(t's a great day'! *anadians# on the other hand# are ore likely to say# '(t's a great day# eh%' ,hile the A ericans opt for an up$eat# declarative for # the *anadians prefer to phrase their state ents as -uestions! Although Australians and New Iealanders have no trou$le telling each other apart# outsiders often find it very difficult to distinguish the $ecause they sound so si ilar! 6owever there are differences $etween Australian and New Iealand English! So e of the differences are in voca$ulary - New Iealand English# for e&a ple# has $orrowed any ore words fro the indigenous 7aori people than Australian English has fro the A$origines! There are also differences in the pronunciation of certain vowels! Australians pronounce words such as 'air' and 'ear' differently# whereas New Iealanders pronounce $oth as 'ear'! There are also instances where the New Iealanders ake distinctions $ut the Australians don't -Australians# for e&a ple# pronounce ' oan' and ' own' the sa e# whereas New Iealanders distinguish the two $y pronouncing ' own' as ' ow-an'! .ut the $ig difference is in the way they pro- nounce ' i ' ! New Iealanders pronounce '$at' as '$et'# '$et' as '$it'# and '$it' as '$ut'! The English talk of 'fish and chips'! The Australians# on the other hand# elongate the vowel and talk a$out 'feesh and cheeps'# while the New

Iealanders# who like to turn 'i' into 'u' # talk a$out 'fush @ and chups'!
1/2

FO>E(9N TE==S

Act*on Tells
Shi$$oleths can also take the for of actions! To identify so eone's nationality it's so eti es enough to watch their ta$le anners! The English# for e&a ple# will nor ally eat with the fork in their left hand and the knife in their right# cutting the food with the knife and trans- ferring it to their outh with their fork! A ericans also hold the fork in their left hand and the knife in their right - $ut only while they're cutting up their food! As soon as the food has $een cut up# they put the knife to one side# shift the fork to their right hand# and use their right hand to transfer the food to their outh! (n *anada the con- vention is again -uite different! The *anadians only resort to their knife when the situation de ands itE otherwise they're happy to dispose of the knife and to use the fork to cut up the food and to transfer it to their outh! ,here people co e fro is also indicated $y tiny gestures# like the way they signal 'yes' and 'no' with their head! The ost co on head signals for 'yes' and 'no' are the nod and the head-shake respectively - in the nod the head is oved up and down# and in the shake it's rotated fro side to side! The 'nod-shake' code is found all round the world# $ut it's $y no eans the only one! The 9reeks and Turks# for e&a ple# use the 'dip-toss' code# where the head is dipped down for 'yes' and tossed sharply upward for 'no'! The 'head-toss'# as it is called# is often acco - panied $y closed eyes# raised eye$rows and a click of the tongue! The re nant of the 'dip-toss' code ay $e found in southern (taly and Sicily# having $een introduced to the region $y the ancient 9reeks when they set up trading )osts there during the

second

illenniu

.*!

309

T6E TE==S

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OF

(f you visit >o e today# you'll find that the >o ans use the 'nod-shake' code! 6owever# if you travel @// kilo- etres south# to Naples# you'll enter a region where the locals use the nod for 'yes' and either the + head-shake or the head-toss for 'no'! The head-toss consists of a single upward ove ent of the head# which could easily $e confused with a $rief nod that $egins with an upward ove ent! (n order to avoid this confusion# southern (talians initiate their head-nod with a downward ove- ent! (n this respect they're si ilar to the 9reeks# who use a single# downward ove ent of the head for 'yes'! .ecause their nod doesn't conflict with any other signals# northern (talians don't have to worry a$out whether to $egin their nods with an upward or a downward ove- ent! (n fact# when we look ore closely# we find that northerners 0 initiate their nods in either direction! So if you want to play the role of )rofessor 6enry 6iggins and identify where (talians co e fro # you can si ply watch how they signal 'yes' with their head! (f they start with a downward ove ent they could $e either fro the north or the south! .ut if they start with an upward ove- ent# they're al ost certainly fro the north!

.reet*n+ Tells
The way that people greet each other also provides clues to where they co e fro ! The handshake# for e&a ple# can differ cross-culturally in ter s of who uses it# the situ- ations where it's e ployed# how long the hands are clasped# how vigorously the hands are

pu ped# and in

any other ways! 6andshakes in Africa are often e&ecuted

13/

FO>E(9N TE==S

with a very light grip# and they can e&tend for several inutes while the participants e&change niceties and ake en-uiries a$out each other's relatives! ,est African handshakes often include e $ellish ents# like a B click of the fingers as the hands are released! (t's possi$le that the constant ela$oration of hand-shaking practices in African- A erican co unities owes so ething to the central role that hand-shaking plays in ,est African societies! Although the English have helped to e&port the handshake to other parts of the world# during the seventeenth century the handshake# or handclasp# A was used e&- clusively for sealing agree ents! (t was only later that it $eca e a greeting and started to spread to other countries! According to Theodore Ieldin# author of The Fren'h# the handshake was e&ported fro England to France# where it $eca e known as '=e 2 6andshake'! Today the French have a very strong attach ent to the handshake! ,hile .ritish colleagues ight shake hands when they arrive at work# their French counterparts are likely to shake each other's hand several ti es during the sa e day! The >ussians also shake hands with the sa e person several ti es a day# and so do the (talians and the Spaniards! The .ritish and the 9er ans# on the other hand# tend to confine the selves to one handshake on eeting and another on parting - if in fact they ever shake hands at all! There are also differences in the way that the handshake is e&ecuted! The French# for e&a ple# tend to produce a single# deter ined pu p of the hand# whereas the (talians are inclined to draw out the handshake $y holding on to the other person's hand! The social rules governing who should shake hands with who also differ fro one country to the ne&t!

,hile in France people shake hands

133

T6E .OO< OF TE==S

regardless of their se&# in .ritain hand-shaking is ore likely to occur $etween two en than $etween a an and a wo an or two wo en! The preponderance of ale- ale hand-shaking in .ritain could $e a hangover fro the days when en used the handshake to sea' agree ents! ,hen people perfor a non-contact greeting they often acco pany their ver$al salutations with a slight dip of the head! The .ritish have developed their own version# which is the 'head-cock'! This is perfor ed $y shifting the chin to one side while the top of the head is lowered - in other words# $y dipping and twisting the head at the sa e ti e! This greeting often ystifies visitors to .ritain# who wonder what it could conceiva$ly ean! (ts origins are rather o$scure! (t is possi$le that the head-cock e erged fro the practice of tugging the forelock# a su$ issive gesture used during edieval ti es! (t's also possi$le that the headcock originated fro the now defunct practice of doffing or touching the hat! ,inking is another possi$le source# $ecause it often involves an involuntary tilt of the head to one side! The collusive essage conveyed $y winking is also to $e found in the headcock! Finally# the head-cock ay $e a hy$rid gesture a cross $etween the head-dip and head-canting# $oth of which# as we saw earlier# are signals of su$ issiveness! Another for of greeting that varies cross-culturally is the kiss! The practice of kissing a lady's hand has all $ut disappeared# $ut $efore the Second ,orld ,ar it was used e&tensively throughout Europe# especially in countries like )oland and 6ungary# which once for ed part o the Austro-6ungarian E pire! (f you find a an kissing a wo an's hand nowadays# the chances are he's Hoking

13@

FO>E(9N TE==S

around! (f he's serious he pro$a$ly has so e connection w*t: Eastern Europe! *heek-kissing varies geographically in ter s of the nu $er of ti es people kiss each other on the cheek! Scandinavians tend to ake do with a single kiss# while the French go in for the dou$le kiss! The "utch and the .elgians often e ploy a ulti-kiss# with at least three separate kisses! (n all these countries kissing is a standard feature of the greeting ritual! As a result everyone knows how any kisses to e&pect and which cheek to kiss first! (n countries like .ritain# Australia# *anada and the 5nited States - where greeting practices are in the process of evolving - there is often a lot of fu $ling and $u ping of noses when people try to greet each other with a kiss! These pro$le s aren't so critical for the ,elsh or the (rish $ecause historically *eltic co unities have $een -uite unco forta$le 4 a$out social kissing! 6ugging is another practice that is on the increase partly $ecause the hug has shed its political connotations and $een accepted as so ething that en can do to e&press their affection towards each other! .ut there are still enor ous cultural differences in people's attitudes to hugging! Ed und 6illary tells the story that when he and TenJing Norgay reached the peak of Everest they stood there facing each other# elated at $eing the first people to have cli $ed the world's highest ountain! (n Anglo- Sa&on fashion# 6illary e&tended his hand to congratulate TenJing! TenJing ignored the hand# flung his ar s around 6illary 3/ and e $raced hi ! That was the proper way to cele$rate their achieve ent'

131

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OF

Face Tells
Nationality is so eti es revealed in facial e&pressions! >esearch $y )aul Ek an and his colleagues shows that facial e&pressions that depict the $asic e otions - like happiness# sadness# fear# surprise# disgust and anger are recogniJed throughout the world# suggesting that the relationship $etween these e otions and their 33 facial e&pressions is innate! There are cultural differences# however# in the conventions governing the e&pression of e otions# as well as differences in how fre-uently they are displayed# where and to who they are displayed# and the detailed e&pression of these e otions! >ay .irdwhistell has o$served that s iling in the 5nited States is uch ore fre-uent a$ove the 7ason-"i&on line than it is $elow the line# leading hi to conclude that s iling eans different things 3@ to people in the northern and southern states! Of course it doesn't follow that people who s ile ore are necessarily happier# or that s iling has a different eaning for the than it does for people who s ile less! ,hat it does suggest# however# is that the conventions governing s iling# or the e&pression of happiness# ay differ $etween co unities! This is $orne out $y 6enry Seaford's research on facial e&pressions in Virginia! Seaford studied historic portraits and photographs in year$ooks! ,hen he co pared his Virginia aterial with aterial fro )ennsylvania# he 31 found a 'facial dialect' in Virginia! This consisted of several e&pressions# including an 'or$icular cla p' and a 'purse-cla p'! (n $oth these e&pressions the uscles a$ove and $elow the outh are tightened and this cla ps the lips together! (n the 'purse-cla p' the

uscles at the
13+

FO>E(9N TE==S

side of the outh are also tightened# so that the lips $eco e cla ped and pursed together at the sa e ti e! Seaford o$served that# since people fro the .ritish (sles coloniJed Virginia# the facial e&pressions of Virginians ay have descended fro e&pressions that were once found in .ritain! The English have a long reputation for $eing cold and une otional! They are also reputed to have a 'stiff upper lip'! This is generally intended to refer to the stoical character of the English# $ut it could e-ually apply to their facial ha$its! ,hen they s ile the English are uch ore likely to keep their teeth hidden# and to pull the corners of their outh sideways rather than up! ,hen the face is in repose# there is also a tendency for the English to purse their lips! This goes $ack to the si&teenth century# when a s all outh was considered to $e desira$le! ,e can see this very clearly in 6ol$ein's portraits of 6enry V(7# and ore strikingly in his wedding portrait of Fane Sey our# where the <ing and 3+ his future Lueen are shown with tightly pursed lips! Facial ha$its too are shaped $y language! French# for e&a ple# is articulated very differently fro other languages! Visitors to France often re ark on the unusual way that the French ove their outh# and particularly the way they protrude their lips# when they are talking! According to Theodore Ieldin# this is $ecause the French language has ore sounds that re-uire the rounding of the lips than other languages! 'Nine out of the si&teen French vowels'# he tells us# 'involve strong lip-rounding# co - pared to only two out of the twenty English vowels! :9er ans have five lip-rounding vowels!; The degree of lip-rounding in French is oreover greater $ecause vowels
130

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.OO<

OF

following consonants often have to $e prepared $efore 30 the consonant is uttered!' >elated o$servations have $een ade a$out the 9er an language! >o$ert IaHonc and his colleagues were interested in the idea that different speech sounds differentially affect $lood flow to the $rain and that this ay affect people's ood! To test this they asked a group of 9er an-speakers to read out a story which either had a lot of 'S' sounds or very few 'S' 3B sounds! )articipants who read the story with lots of 'S' sounds were found to have hotter foreheadsE they also rated the protagonist in the story less positively! The authors of the study took these findings as support for the notion that 'S' sounds affect $lood flow to the $rain# which in turn affects ood! Although this particular effect has not $een replicated# psychologists have discovered that outh postures can affect people's oods in other ways! For e&a ple# people who are asked to hold a pencil $etween their teeth while they're looking at cartoons :and who therefore in- advertently replicate the e&tended outh posture of a s ile; are likely to rate the cartoons as funnier than people who hold the pencil either $etween their lips or in their hand! This study supports the 'facial feed$ack theory' - the idea that people's oods can $e 3A shaped $y the facial e&pressions that they adopt!

1onversation Tells
*ountries differ widely in their enthusias for conversation! The French have always struck the English as overly garrulous! 'A French an'# declared "r Fohnson# ' ust $e

316

FO>E(9N TE==S

always talking# whether he knows anything of the atter or notE an English an is content to say nothing# when he has nothing to say!' The (talians also have a reputation for $eing talkative# and so do the (rish! At the opposite e&tre e are the Finns and the northern Swedes# who are happy to enHoy the presence of others without saying a word! The Finnish attach ent to silence is also evident in the way they organiJe their conversations! Although the Finns have a wide range of vocal signals that they can use as $ack-channel when they're in the listener role# they prefer to use visual signals# like nods# to encourage the speaker and to show that they understand what the speaker is say- ing! This avoidance of audi$le $ackchannel ensures that the only person who's got anything to say is the person who's occupying the speaker role! (t also has the effect of aking Finnish conversations sound rather stilted and one-sided so ething that foreigners# who are used to giving and receiving audi$le $ack-channel# often find rather unco forta$le! This is reinforced $y the fact that Finnish conversations have very few interruptions! *onse-uently# when foreigners talk to a Finn they often get the i pression that the Finn doesn't really want the floor# that he's not $eing attentive# and that he's not 32 really interested! The sa e could hardly $e said of the foreigner's e&peri- ence in (taly# where conversation is ore of a free-for-all! (n (taly conversations often take on the appearance of a contest# especially where friends are concerned! (n these cases the speaker will often fi& his eyes on the listener while the listener looks away! This# of course# is the opposite of what we find in other countries# where

13A

T6E TE==S

.OO<

OF

the listener looks ore intently at the speaker than the speaker does at the listener! (n an (talian conversation it's not unusual to find the listener looking around# affecting an air of $oredo # while the speaker is constantly oving around so that he's in front of the listener and using his hands to try and capture the listener's attention! Turn-taking in (taly is $ased on the 'conch shell odel' - so called after the fa ous scene in ,illia 9olding's )ord o the Flies# where a group of English school$oys 34 are arooned on an island! At their first eeting on the island all the $oys start to talk at once# so they ake a rule that fro that point onwards only one person will $e allowed to speak at a ti e - the $oy who is holding the large conch shell that was found on the $each! (talian con- versations confor to the conch shell odel# not $ecause the (talians want to eli inate overlap talk - there's very little chance of that - $ut $ecause the person who has his hands in the air is @/ dee ed to $e the speaker! (n (taly a speaker who wants to retain her role needs to ensure that her hands are in the air# and that they are gesticulating and holding the other person's attention! The listener# on the other hand# does not produce a lot of $ack- channel# partly $ecause the speaker doesn't need that uch encourage ent to keep talking# and partly $ecause the listener is less keen a$out re aining in the role# and therefore is less interested in offering the speaker a lot of support! (n (talian conversations the listener often with- holds his approval $y looking away while the other person is talking! This can so eti es create a rather theatrical spectacle# where the speaker is in hot pursuit# trying to ensnare the listener with wild gesticulations# while the listener refuses to ratify

the speaker $y giving the speaker

132

FO>E(9N TE==S

Con,ersation Tells. (talians use their hands to hold the other person's attention and to retain the speaker role during conversations! 134

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OF

his undivided attention! To show that she intends to con- tinue# the speaker needs to keep her hands up and to ensure that the listener doesn't get his hands up and there$y lay clai to her role! ,hen ( first visited (taly ( was struck $y how often people would touch each other while they were talking! ,hen two people were talking and ( saw the speaker touch the listener on the ar ( assu ed that she was $eing affectionate! ,hat ( failed to notice at first was that these are 'controlling touches'! They're not intended to reassure the listener they're designed to hold the floor $y aking sure that the listener can't get his hands up' ,hen (talians want to relin-uish the speaker role# they si ply lower their hands! This shows that they no longer wish to continue talking! The other ter ination signal that speakers use is to shrug their shoulders# which is very si ilar in eaning to such e&pressions as '( don't know' that speakers elsewhere so eti es use to relin-uish the floor! =isteners who want to take the floor can do so either $y interrupting the speaker or $y gra$$ing the speaker's ar # pulling it down# and getting their own gesticulating hands into the air! The listener who wants to signal that he has no desire to take over the speaker's role can do so $y keeping his ar s folded or $y placing his hands $ehind his $ack! This serves as an 'unintention display' - it shows that the listener is not in a position to start talking! After all# how could he if his hands are hidden%

%and Tells

So eone's nationality can often $e identified at a

1@/

FO>E(9N TE==S

distance# si ply $y o$serving how they use their hands! That's partly $ecause so e nations gesticulate ore than others! (f there were a league ta$le for gesture# the (talians would win hands down! The identification of (taly with wild gesticulation goes $ack a long way! (n 3023 the author of A Treatise o Daun'es noted that 'The (talian in his ! ! ! speeche ! !! inter ingleth and useth so any gestures# that if an English an should see hi afar off# not hearing his words# PheQ would Hudge hi to $e out of his wit# or else playing so e co edy upon a scaffold!' .y contrast# the author o$served# a 9er an preaching fro a pulpit would look as though he was physically @3 paralysed! ,e tend to assu e that nations that gesticulate a lot have always $een ani ated# and that nations that gesticu- late very little# like the English# have always $een reticent and unde onstrative! This isn't entirely correct! (t is generally accepted# even $y the English the selves# that they are not a particularly e&pressive people and they don't go in for ela$orate displays of gesticulation! 6owever# there was a ti e when gesture played a uch ore pro inent role in their lives! A thorough knowledge of posture and gesture was a re-uire ent for all EliJa$ethan actors# and Shakespeare's plays are full of references to e&pressive postures and ove ents of the hands! 6ogarth's drawing of scenes fro English life show that gesticulation was also popular during the eighteenth century# and that it was not restricted to specific sectors of society! The 'grand anner' of oratory# which appeared in )arlia ent and the pulpit in the nineteenth century# also relied on e&travagant use of the hands! (t was during this period# however# that a ore de ure style of social

1@3

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$ehaviour started to $eco e fashiona$le# and the @@ English $egan to lose interest in gesture! 6istorically the French have oved in the opposite direction! The French are enthusiastic gesticulators# $ut this wasn't the case during the si&teenth century! .efore *atherine de 7edici of Florence arrived in France to arry 6enry ((# French courtiers ade very little use of gesture# regarding the spectacle of flailing ar s as rather co on and vulgar! .y the >estoration# however# the French had Hoined the ranks of the gesticulating nations# and they have re ained there ever since! (f you co pare an (talian with a French an# you'll notice that their e&pressive gestures differ in several ways! First of all# the (talian oves his hands around uch ore than the French an! ,hat's ore revealing# however# are the positions that the fingers assu e while the hands are gesticulating! As a rule the French tend to use ore open postures of the hand# while the (talians show a preference for 'precision grips'# where the thu $ and fore- finger# for e&a ple# are pressed against each other# or the tips of all five digits are Hoined together! Another clue to nationality is to $e found in the rhyth of gesticulation - French ove ents tend to $e ore languid and even- paced# whereas (talian gesticulation is ore staccato and varied in its pace! Then there's the geo etry of gesticu- lation - in other words# the space through which the hands ove when they're gesticulating! 6ere we find that the French tend to confine their ove ents to the hands and forear s# while the (talians enlist the upper ar s as well- As a result# (talian gestures are ore e&pansive and e&pressive! Another group that gesticulates a lot# $ut who don't use

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e&pansive ove ents# are Eastern European Fews! "avid Efron# who co pleted a special study of gesture in New ?ork *ity during the Second ,orld ,ar# noticed that when people fro Eastern European Fewish co unities gesticu- late they tend to keep their el$ows tucked in and their ar s close to their chest the hands are always $usy $ut they are never far fro @1 the $ody! This is the gestural style of an oppressed people - they want to connect with each other# $ut they're worried a$out lowering their defences! The hands reach out# $ut the ar s and el$ows wait in reserve# protecting the $ody fro attack! (n contrast to the restricted# al ost apologetic circu ference of Fewish gesticulation# (talian gestures are wide-ranging! .ecause the el$ows aren't tucked in# the hands are free to ake long e&cursions away fro the $ody# and the perfor ance is therefore uch ore spectacular! There are also national differences in the eanings that people attach to certain gestures! The 'thu $s-up' gesture# which ost people recogniJe as a sign of approval or good luck# doesn't always have positive connotations! (n 9reece# and in parts of Australia# where there are large 9reek co unities# the thu $sup gesture is an insult! (t's an e asculatory gesture# rather si ilar in eaning to the iddle finger gesture# and it's often associated with the e&pression# 'Sit on this'' (t is worth re e $ering this if you're planning to @+ hitchhike in 9reece! ,hatever you do# don't present approaching cars with a raised thu $ or you'll never get a ride' Another gesture that is open to isinterpretation is the fa ous 9reek insult# the mout4a. This is perfor ed $y splaying the fingers and presenting the pal of the hand to the person who you want to insult! The outJa owes its

1@1

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.OO<

OF

origins to the ancient .yJantine practice of dragging chained cri inals through the streets# while the local populace picked up dirt and ru$$ish and thrust it into their faces! Fortunately this de eaning practice has long since disappeared# $ut the outJa lives on as a highly charged insult# often acco panied $y e&pressions like Take five'' or '9o to hell'' Of course to foreigners the outJa looks like an innocent presentation of five fingers# so it's lia$le to $e interpreted as a gesture for the nu $er '0'! This is reputed to have happened several years ago when the English foot$all clu$ Nottingha @0 Forest were playing a 9reek clu$ in Athens! The sports correspondent for a .ritish newspaper reported that young 9reek fans had approached the coach that was transporting the English players# and that they had indicated with their hands what they thought the final score for the atch was likely to $e - five-nil' ,hat the poor Hournalist had failed to realiJe was that this was a deep insult# not so e preatch prediction! A si ilar isunderstanding could occur with the fa ous V-for-Victory gesture! This# as ost of us know# is perfor ed $y separating the inde& and the iddle fingers# keeping the rest of the hand in the shape of a fist# and pre- senting the pal of the hand to the other person! (n ost countries the position of the pal doesn't atter# and the Victory gesture can $e perfor ed with the pal facing either forward or $ack! 6owever# in countries like 9reece and the 5nited <ingdo # the position of the pal is crucial! (n 9reece there is a iniature version of the outJa where Hust the inde& and iddle fingers are e&tended# with the pal facing forward! This insulting gesture is so eti es acco panied $y the

e&pression#
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FO>E(9N TE==S

'Take two'' or '9o half-way to hell'' Fust like the *hurchillian V-sign for Victory# the iniature outJa is perfor ed with the pal facing forward! That's why# in order to avoid any confusion# the 9reeks perfor their Victory gesture with the pal facing $ackward! This gesture# however# is identical to the fa ous insulting V-sign of the .ritish! ,hen the .ritish want to insult each other# they ake a V-sign with the pal facing $ackward! The fact that the .ritons and the 9reeks have chosen the sa e gestures to convey very different essages can very easily lead to international isunderstanding - when a 9reek perfor s a pal $ack V-sign he thinks he's signalling Victory# $ut the .ritish an thinks he's $eing insulting# whereas with the pal -front V-sign the situation is reversed! 6ere the .riton thinks he's signalling Victory# $ut the 9reek thinks @B that he's $eing insulting! So e gestures are confined to one country# others to a specific region within a country! There are also gestures that span several countries - like drinking gestures! ,hen people offer you a drink $y i ing the act of drinking# you can often tell where they co e fro # si ply $y looking at how they arrange their fingers! )eople fro $eer-drinking countries like .ritain# 9er any# 6olland and .elgiu tend to wrap their fingers round an i aginary $eer glass# with the four fingers curled and facing the thu $! )eople fro vodka-drinking countries like >ussia# 5kraine and )oland use a gesture that i ics the shape of a short vodka glass! 6ere the first and second fingers are placed opposite the thu $# and the hand is rapidly tilted once or twice to si ulate the act of pouring the contents down the throat! )eople fro wine-drinking countries like France# (taly and Spain usually i ic a wine

$ottle $y
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for ing their hand into a fist# e&tending the thu $# and pointing it towards their outh! This gesture is so eti es perfor ed $y raising the hand a$ove the outh so that the neck of the '$ottle' faces downwards! This# of course# i ics the old practice of drinking fro a leather $ottle# where the $ottle was held a$ove the head and the wine was s-uirted into the outh! (t is therefore very likely that the wine-drinking gesture is a 'relic tell' - in other words# a gesture that owes its origins to an ancient practice that has since $eco e e&tinct! A co parison of nationalities shows that so e gesticulate ore than others# and that they fall into three $road groups! (n the first group are the Nordic peoples - the Swedes# Finns# Norwegians and "anes - who ake very little use o gesticulation and who# co pared with other countries# are gesturally illiterate! This category also includes the Fapanese# <oreans and *hinese# all of who ake very little use of gesticulation! The second group includes the .ritish# 9er ans# "utch# .elgians and >ussians# who use gesture in oderation! )eople who fall into this category tend only to use their hands when they $eco e e&cited# when they need to co unicate over long distances# and when they feel the need to threaten or insult each other! The third group of nations includes the (talians# French# 9reeks# Spaniards and )ortuguese! (t also includes South A erican nations like the Argentinians and .raJilians# who have $een heavily influenced $y the (talians# the Spanish and the )ortuguese! These three groupings work fine for countries that are culturally unifor or have a do inant cultural group! The sche e works less well with ulti-ethnic countries like the 5nited States $ecause so e ethnic groups within the

country are
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ore gesturally e&pressive than others! This shows that culture often plays a uch $igger part than nationality in shaping people's $ehaviour! So e tells are universal# others are local! 5niversal tells spring fro the co on $iology that people share with each other - the wide-eyed facial e&pression of fear# for e&a ple# is an innate feature of our hu an ake-up# and that's why it's found on every continent! 6owever# so e tells are e&tre ely widespread# not $ecause they're innate# $ut $ecause they've $een copied and $orrowed $y people all round the world! The fact that in al ost every country young people wear $ase$all caps facing $ackwards has nothing to do with $iology - it's si ply part of fashion culture! Then there are local tells# which are confined to specific groups of people! These too owe their e&istence to cultural invention# and that's why they're uch ore suscepti$le to change than tells which are $iologically progra ed! (t's so eti es -uite difficult to distinguish universal fro local tells# and in the a$sence of evidence to the contrary we ay assu e that the eanings we attach to certain actions are si ilar to the eanings that people in other parts of the world attach to those actions! .ut# as we have seen# there are nu erous cases where people in different parts of the world attach -uite different eanings to the sa e actions! ,hen we ignore this fact it's very easy for international isunderstandings to occur! ,hile so e of these isunderstandings ay $e a using and insignificant# others ay have far-reaching conse-uences!

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A0*)

3@! S oking Tells

The way so eone s okes says a lot a$out who they are# what they feel# and how they want other people to see the ! S oking is full of tells a$out the s oker# their attitude to s oking# and their relationship to other people! .y learning to decipher these tells we can identify what s okers are saying a$out the selves where they co e fro # their personality# their state of ind# and what they're trying to achieve# even if they're not aware of it! (f you're a s oker# gaining an understanding of these tells will help you to see what kinds of essages you're send- ing out# and what your s oking style ight $e telling other people a$out you! Scientific investigations of s oking style - what's called 's oking topography' - have e&a ined the echanics 3 of s oking in so e detail! They've looked at how long it takes people to s oke a cigarette or cigar# how any puffs they take# how long each puff lasts# its volu e# how long the s oke is held in the outh $efore it's inhaled# how fast it's inhaled# how long it's held in the lungs# and the interval $etween successive puffs! The way these features vary tells

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us a great deal a$out the act of s oking and how s okers regulate their intake of nicotine! (n addition# the way people light their cigarette or cigar# how they hold it# how they position it in the outh# what they do $etween puffs Tall these features provide clues a$out the i pression that s okers are trying to convey! Scientific atte pts to understand the attraction of s oking are usually couched in purely che ical ter s! 7ost s oking# however# happens to $e enHoyed in the co pany of other people# and it's therefore heavily in- fluenced $y the social i pression that s okers are trying to convey!

Hold*n+ Tells
For ost of the ti e that a cigarette or cigar re ains lit# it's not actually $eing s oked - it's either left in the outh# placed in an ashtray# or held! The three ain ways of hold- ing are the 'pincer hold'# the 'dart hold' and the 'legs hold'! (n the 'pincer hold' the cigarette or cigar is held $etween the inde& finger and the thu $# while in the 'dart hold' it's held $etween the thu $# forefinger and iddle finger - Hust as you hold a dart that you're a$out to throw at the dart$oard! (n the 'legs hold' the cigarette or cigar is grasped $etween the forefinger and the iddle finger - in other words# $etween the two fingers we use when we i ic the act of walking with our hands! .asically# there are two ways of grasping with the hand @ -th e 'power grip' and the 'precision grip'! (n the 'power grip' the thu $ and all four fingers are wrapped round the o$Hect# whereas in the 'precision grip' Hust the

thu $ and
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forefinger are used! One of the things that sets hu ans apart fro chi panJees and other pri ates is the 'oppos- a$ility' of our thu $# and the fact that we can grasp with greater deftness than our non-hu an relatives! The 'power grip' doesn't play a part in s oking# $ut the 'precision grip' appears in the shape of the 'pincer hold' and the 'dart hold'! ,hat's interesting a$out the 'legs hold' is that it doesn't fit into the 'powerDprecision grip' sche e at all! (n fact it's uni-ue to s oking - the only ti e that people ever grip so ething $etween their forefinger and iddle finger is when they're holding a cigarette or a cigar! The attraction of the 'legs hold' is that it positions the cigarette or cigar where it doesn't interfere with other activities - it allows the s oker# if necessary# to hold so ething else with the sa e hand! This helps to give the i pression that s oking is a secondary activity! There are other ways of holding a cigarette or a cigar! For e&a ple# it can $e held $etween the thu $ and the ring finger# the iddle finger and the ring finger# or the ring finger and the little finger! These holds# however# are rare# and that is why they are so eti es used to identify villains or foreigners in fil s! The essage they convey is clear - so eone who can't $e trusted to s oke properly can't $e trusted at all!

.ender Tells
(n several respects# the s oking topography of en and wo en is very si ilar - on average they take the sa e nu $er of puffs# and the duration and interval $etween puffs is the sa e! 6owever there are ways that

the se&es
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differ - ost nota$ly in ter s of the delay $etween puffing and inhaling# with en holding the s oke in their outh uch longer# which is one of the reasons why they a$sor$ ore nicotine than wo en! The ost dra atic gender differences are to $e found not in s oking topography $ut in how en and wo en anipulate their cigarette - how they light it# hold it with their fingers# and position it in their outh! .oth en and wo en use the 'pincer hold'# $ut usually -uite differently! 7en tend to use an 'open' pincer hold $y for ing a circle $etween the thu $ and forefinger# while wo en are ore likely to use a 'closed' pincer hold $y flattening the space $etween the two fingers! The 'closed' pincer hold is widely used $y ariHuana s okers# largely $ecause it ena$les the to s oke the roach right up to the end! (n fact the association is so strong that the gesture alone is widely recogniJed as referring to ariHuana! There are several variants of the 'legs hold'! One is the '$ent-leg hold'# where the cigarette is positioned $etween the inde& and iddle finger and $oth are curledE in the 'straight-leg hold' the two fingers are kept straight! .ecause the curl of the fingers akes it easier to grip the cigarette# the '$ent-leg hold' is ore co forta$le# and that is why $oth en and wo en use it! The 'straight-leg hold' is arginally ore difficult to perfor # $ut it's also ore elegant# which is why wo en favour it! 7en and wo en tend to hold cigarettes at different )oints in the gap $etween the forefinger and the iddle finger! Each finger has three $ones! (f you i agine that the $ones at the end are feet# the iddle $ones are calves# the $ones near the pal are thighs# and the point where the fingers eet is the crotch#

then you'll notice that

ost
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The '$ent-leg hold'

people use a 'calf hold' - in other words# they use the iddle $ones of their fingers to hold the cigarette! ,o en are also fond of the 'foot hold'# with the fingers straight# and the sa e is true of en who wish to convey an i pression of sophistication! 7en who work with their hands# however# are inclined to use a 'thigh hold' or even a 'crotch hold'# with the fingers $ent! The ost dra atic gender differences in s oking style are to $e found in the location of the hand and the position of the wrist! 6ere we find that en are ore likely to keep the hand holding the cigarette close to their $ody# to keep the wrist straight# and to curl the fingers inwards towards the pal ! These conventional postures confor to a pri itive rule which re-uires en to re ain vigilant8 that's why the wrist is kept straight# the hands are kept down and the fingers are curled in preparation for attack or defence! There are occasions when en hold

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The 'straight-leg hold'

their cigarette in a rela&ed fashion with their wrist fle&ed :i!e! with the hand $ent towards the wrist;# $ut unless they're trying to appear ca p or effete# en don't usually hold their cigarette with their wrist e&tended :i!e! with the hand $ent away fro the wrist;! As >ichard <lein points out# the cigarette held $etween thu $ and inde& finger 'allows the tough guy to s oke and to show his knuckles! ,henever two en are engaged in a relation of co - petition or rivalry# whether se&ual or political# they are scrupulous to show each other the $ack of their 1 hands# usually $alled into a fist'! .ut even when there's no rivalry# en like to hold their cigarette with a 'knuckle dis- play'- 6aving an e&cuse to present their knuckles in this way appears to akes the feel ore anly!

For wo en# the arrange ent of the hand holding the

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The 'dart hold'

cigarette is -uite different! 6ere the fingers are likely to $e e&tended# so that the pal is e&posed# and the hand is likely to $e held up and away fro the $ody# rather than down and close to the $ody# there$y creating an overall i pression of defencelessness! ,hile the an's wrist is typically rigid# the wo an's wrist can $e either fle&ed or e&tended! ,hen a wo an has her wrist straight it's often part of an 'e&posed-wrist display'! 6ere the hand is held up and away fro the $ody# the pal is e&posed# and the inside of the wrist is presented for everyone to see! ,o en unconsciously use this posture to draw attention to their wrist $ecause it's a soft and vulnera$le part of their $ody! .y holding her cigarette with an 'e&posed wrist dis- play' a wo an shows su$ issiveness# and this supposedly akes her attractive to en! There are cases where en use the sa e display as a ca p gesture - $oth Oscar ,ilde and Noel *oward liked to hold their cigarette in this position!
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9ender is displayed in other ways! ,hen a wo an taps the ash off the end of her cigarette she tends to do so lightly with an e&tended forefinger# the an ore vigorously with his forefinger $ent! =ikewise# when e&tinguishing a cigarette8 a wo an is ore likely to stu$ it out lightly# while the an is ore likely to fold it + over and crush it under his thu $'

Back+round Tells
S oking can provide clues to so eone's occupation! )eople who work outdoors# for e&a ple# tend to use the '$unker gesture' when lighting a cigarette! This is done $y for ing the hands into a $owl# so that the fla e is shielded fro the wind and rain! Those who work out- doors also hold their cigarettes differently typically $y using a 'cup hold'# where the cigarette is clasped $etween the ends of the thu $# inde& and iddle finger# and where the lit end faces towards# instead of away fro # the pal of the hand! .oth the '$unker gesture' and the 'cup hold' have evolved as a defence against the ele ents# $ut s okers who e ploy the often use the indoors as well! )ractically# these gestures provide protectionE sy $olically they shield the act of s oking fro prying eyes! That's why they're also favoured $y schoolchildren who s oke $ehind the $icycle shed - the illicit nature of the act and the thrill it provides are reinforced $y the secretive way the cigarette is held!

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1o"rtshi, Tells
5p until a few years ago a wo an who took out a cigarette at a social gathering could reasona$ly e&pect a an to offer her a light! The ritual of lighting a wo an's cigarette still provides en and wo en with an oppor- tunity to e&change courtship signals - the an can position his $ody and the lighter to convey his interest# and he is a$le to check her out at close -uarters while she's $usy lighting her cigarette! For her part# the wo an can reciprocate $y lightly touching his hand# ostensi$ly to steady herself $ut really so that she can ake physical contact! She can also show her interest in the an $y disengaging slowly and looking hi in the eye for longer than nor al when she thanks hi ! The $eauty of this ritual is that it ena$les people to e&change suggestive signals very rapidly and with all the a $iguity that courtship re-uires! 9enerally speaking# the courtship signals that en and wo en e&change are $ased on the secondary se&ual characteristics that distinguish the ! (ndividuals who want to attract e $ers of the opposite se& do so $y e phasiJing and e&aggerating these differences# while people who wish to discourage attention do so $y down- playing and disguising the ! (t's the sa e with courtship and s oking! A wo an who wants to e phasiJe her fe ininity usually does so $y accentuating the s oking style of wo en - $y adopting a straight-leg hold# display- ing the wrist# using the ends of the fingers# and s oking slowly! 7en react unconsciously to these signals - they know there's so ething se&y a$out the wo an whos using the # $ut they can't e&plain why they find her so attractive!

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There are several reasons why s oking is seen as se&y! Firstly# $ecause s oking wasn't traditionally part of the fe ale role# wo en who s oked were regarded as se&ually li$erated! This was very noticea$le in the 34@/s# when young 'flappers' scandaliJed society $y taking up the s oking ha$its of en# and doing it in pu$lic' Although this association pro$a$ly no longer holds# lots of en $elieve that a wo an who s okes is se&ier than one who doesn't! Then there's the phallic sy $olis of cigarettes and cigars# and the strong connection $etween s oking and se&# with cigarettes playing a central role i ediately prior to se&ual foreplay and i ediately afterwards in the shape of the post-coital s oke! The act of s oking surreptitiously raises the issue of seduction! ',e ust not forget#' said Fean *octeau# 'that a pack of cigarettes# the cere ony of taking one out# igniting the lighter# and the strange cloud which surrounds us# have seduced and con-uered the world!' ,henever s okers light up they show the selves to $e seduced! .y s oking suggestively they can also $e seductive! The languid# unhurried way that the cigarette is raised to the outh and held $etween the lips# the way the s oke is savoured and dispelled fro the outh - all of these ove ents are re iniscent of the acts of love! Although )eople don't realiJe it# they often draw conclusions a$out how so eone is likely to $ehave in $ed fro the way they srnoke a cigarette! That's why flirtatious s oke signals are so successful - they suggestively shape people's i - pressions of each other without the knowing!

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1o,ing Tells
*igarettes and cigars can $e used as a prop# supporting a totally artificial social perfor ance! For so eone who feels uneasy in the co pany of other people# s oking can provide a distraction# a disguise and a sense of security! *igarettes serve as 'transitional o$Hects'# ediating $etween the inner and the outer world and perfor ing the sa e role as a security $lanket 0 or a teddy $ear! They also help people to cope with life's pro$le s! )eople can $e divided into three groups on the $asis of their coping strategies - those who seek help fro their friends# those who seek advice fro e&perts# and those who prefer to solve pro$le s on their own! Of the three# the last group is ost likely to 'self- edicate' - faced with a pro$le they're ore likely to reach for a cigarette to help B the cope! A aHor concern of self-conscious individuals is what to do with their hands when they're with other people! S oking solves the pro$le $y occupying the hands and giving the so ething to do! As we have seen# an&ious people need to reassure the selves# and they often do so $y touching their face or covering part of their face with their hand! The pro$le with these 'self-co forting gestures' is that they can so eti es draw attention to the person who's feeling an&ious! S oking# however# provides self-conscious individuals with a perfectly legiti ate reason to touch their face and cover it with their hands! (t also gives the a chance to envelop the selves in s oke# creating a protective s okescreen against other people(nterestingly# s okescreens can also perfor the

opposite function! For e&a ple# when a wo an creates a veil of

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s oke around her face# she akes herself appear ore ysterious! 6ere the s okescreen is designed# not defensively# $ut as a se&ual lure! S oking also provides a defence against the world $ecause it is regressive - it takes s okers $ack to the oral phase of their psychose&ual develop ent# when co fort was ediated through the outh! ,hen Freud said# '=et there $e no dou$t that s oking is a for of oral pleasure'# he was referring# not only to his own attach ent to to$acco# $ut to the fact that oral pleasures are reassuring $ecause of their association with $reastfeeding! ,hen s okers place their lips round a cigar or a cigarette# they're not Hust s okingE they're connecting the selves to the security they once e&perienced at their other's $reast! Not only has it $een found that s okers who were denied the $reast early in infancy have greater difficulty giving up s oking in later life# $ut it has also $een discovered that heavy s okers have ore oral pre- occupations than light s okers - they're ore likely# for e&a ple# to suck the end of their pencil and A to $ite their nails!

3on;ersat*on Tells
S oking plays a role in conversation too! Take the case where two en are talking# and where one is s oking while the other isn't! ,hen the person who isn't s okingstops talking for a o ent# the s oker is likely to assu e that he's finished his turn# and that it's therefore all right for hi to take over! .ut when the person who's s oking hesitates for a

o ent# the non-s oker is likely

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to give hi the $enefit of the dou$t and allow hi to con- tinue holding the floor! The floor-holding role of s oking was recogniJed $y ,illia Thackeray in the nineteenth century! '6onest en with cigars in their ouths#' he o$served# 'have great physical advantages in conversation! ?ou ay stop talking if you like - $ut the $reaks of silence never see disagreea$le# $eing fuelled 2 up $y the puffing of s oke!' *igarettes also help to initiate conversations and consolidate relationships! .efore s oking started to $eco e unfashiona$le# cigarettes were often used to strike up a conversation - one person offered a cigarette and provided a light# the other accepted# and a $ond of friendship and trust was i ediately for ed! Nowhere is this process ore evident than in war# where cigarettes are the currency of co radeship and where s oking $inds soldiers powerfully together! The act of offering a cigarette# $oth in this situation and elsewhere# is a very pri itive gesture# not only $ecause it represents a gift# $ut $ecause it's )ro ethean - it's a gift of the distinctively hu an a$ility to ake fire! The other reason why cigarettes $ind people together is that they provide a way of odifying ood! As >ichard <lein has pointed out# the gift of a cigarette is always 4 a gift of co posure! (t offers the person a eans to rela&# to take stock# and to o$scure their worries in s oke!

'ersonal*t= Tells
*igarettes and cigars can $e used aggressively! ,atch a group of s okers and you'll often see a do inant

person
1+/

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waving his cigarette around like a sword! Notice the 'rapier hold'# where the cigarette is held $etween the thu $ and forefinger# with the lit end facing away and the pal facing up! The fact that this posture akes s oking difficult provides an essential clue to its latent aggressionE the fact that the cigarette is held like a rapier is another! ,hen so eone says so ething the s oker doesn't like# he can always 'parry' the re ark $y raising his cigarette - Hust as if he were physically $locking an attack! This can $e followed $y a 'thrust'# where the lit end of the cigarette is ai ed and then prodded at the head or chest of the other person! ,ith a good ai and careful ti ing a ver$al duel can often $e settled with a cigarette or a cigar! ,hen the other person isn't s oking it's usually no contest at all! The way people s oke is linked to other aspects of personality! Studies of s oking topography# for e&a ple# show that Type A individuals :people who are co petitive and i patient; don't necessarily differ fro Type . in- dividuals :people who are co-operative and patient; in ter s of the nu $er of puffs or puff volu e! .ut Type A individuals inhale the s oke for A/ 3/ per cent longer than Type .s! This ena$les Type As# who are ore an&ious# to cal the selves down! The way people e&hale when they're in the co pany of others also provides valua$le clues to their 33 personality! 'Fronters'# who $low the s oke forward# enclosing other people in it# tend to $e do inant and aggressive! Then there are 'uppers'# who e&hale the s oke upwards and who tend to $e considerate and confident! '"owners'# who $low the s oke downwards# are usually su$ issive and unassu ing# rather like 'siders'# who $low the s oke

1+3

T6E TE==S

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out of the side of their outh and tend to $e lacking in confidence! Then there are the 'nasals'# who $low s oke out of their nose! =ike 'fronters'# they tend to $e do inant and aggressive# rather like a $ull! 'Fronters' and 'uppers' like to announce their presence $y filling the at osphere with their s okeE 'downers' and 'siders' are ore con- siderate! They don't like to intrude on others $y enveloping the with their s oke# so they direct it away! (n addition to the way that people s oke cigarettes# the fact that they s oke - and how heavily they s oke can also provide clues to what kind of person they are! )sychologists have discovered that there are oderate $ut significant differences in personality $etween s okers and non-s okers - s okers# for e&a ple# tend to $e ore e&traverted# i pulsive and 3@ neurotic! E&traverts# it see s# are drawn to cigarettes $ecause they have lower levels of arousal than introverts# and need the $oost provided $y nicotine! (t has also $een suggested that the reason why so any e&traverts are s okers is that they find it harder to give up s oking - the idea $eing that the difference $etween the nu $ers of e&traverts and introverts who take up s oking is not that pronounced# $ut that $ecause the introverts find it relatively easy to give up# there are always ore e&travert than introvert 31 s okers! (t's also worth noting that the social pressure to confor to the s oking ha$its of one's friends and colleagues is uch greater for e&traverts# $ecause they spend ore ti e in co pany and are ore eager than introverts to please other people! The link $etween i pulsivity and s oking is fairly straightforward - people who are uninhi$ited and who seek out new e&periences are uch ore likely to take up

s oking! The
1+@

ood swings that occur $etween s oking

S7O<(N9 TE==S

cigarette and $eing without a cigarette ay also appeal# in a perverse fashion# to people who are high on i pulsivity! Finally# neurotics are attracted to cigarettes $ecause they pro ise to provide relief fro the heightened an&iety and worry that they e&perience! *igarettes offer the a social prop# a eans of appearing $usy# and a way of concealing the selves# $oth figuratively and literally# $ehind a cloud of s oke!

Mood Tells
The uni-ue feature of to$acco is its a$ility to produce totally opposite physiological states - on the one hand it can $e used as a eans of arousal# a way of waking one- self up# while on the other it can $e used to cal oneself down! This '$iphasic' property of to$acco is due entirely to the way that people actually s oke - when they want to rela& they try to a$sor$ lots of nicotine# and when they want to $e aroused they try to a$sor$ uch 3+ less! That's $ecause s all doses of nicotine act as a sti ulant# i icking the effect of acetylcholine# a neurotrans itter that sends essages fro the nerves to the uscles# while larger doses of nicotine act as a sedative! .y watching how )eople s oke we can see# therefore# which kind of ood they are trying to create - a state of rela&ation when they're drawing heavily or inhaling for longer# or a state of arousal when they're taking s aller puffs and inhaling less! S okers clai that s oking helps the to feel rela&ed# out there is increasing evidence that s okers are ore stressed and tense when they're not s oking# and that

1+1

T6E .OO< OF TE==S

!mo.e !ignals. The E1posed 0rist Display# as de onstrated $y Fane

Fonda :a$ove;# is an alluring sign of fe ininity and flirtation! The position of the cigarette in the outh also reveals the s oker's ood - as we can see :$elow; in the up$eat 'F">'# the enacing '*lint Eastwood' and the $rooding '.ogart'! 1++

S7O<(N9 TE==S

s oking si ply provides the with a te porary respite fro the stress that they e&perience $etween 30 cigarettes! The positive relationship $etween neuroticis and s oking ay $e due to the fact that an&ious people are ore likely to take up s oking# $ut it ay also have so e- thing to do with the fact that s oking actually induces a feeling of generaliJed an&iety $ecause of the disco fort associated with nicotine deprivation! ,ith the co $i- nation of these two effects# it's not surprising that s okers register higher neuroticis scores than non-s okers! (t's al ost as if s okers assu e a Fekylland-6yde personality - tense and potentially irrita$le $etween cigarettes# and rela&ed or energiJed when they're s oking! ,ith nons okers there's uch ore e-uani ity! Their oods ay vary# $ut the swings are less pronounced# and they're not connected to the presence or a$sence of nicotine in the $loodstrea ! ,atching how s okers hold the cigarette or cigar in their outh can provide ore clues to their ood and the i pression they're trying to create! ,ith en there are several revealing outh-hold postures! One is the '*lint Eastwood'# where the cigar or cigarette is located horiJontally $etween the lips or teeth! This is how *lint Eastwood held his cigar in his outh in his role as The 7an ,ith No Na e' in the spaghetti westerns - it's a outh-hold posture that conveys a strong i pression of asculinity! Then there's the 'F"> posture'# na ed after )resident Franklin "elano >oosevelt# where the cigar# cigarette# or in his case the cigarette holder# assu es an erect# up$eat position# rather like that of a New 9uinean )enis sheath! The underlying ood of the 'F"> posture' is confidence and opti is in the face of adversity!

345

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OF

Finally there's the '.ogart'# na ed after 6u phrey .ogart# where the cigarette hangs down fro the outh! 6ere the ood is preoccupied and $rooding# so eti es enacing! There was a ti e# several decades ago# when every ale who wanted to look cool had to e ploy the '.ogart'! This included several fa ous ovie stars# like Fa es "ean# Fohn ,ayne# and 6u phrey .ogart hi self! As a s oke signal of coolness# the '.ogart' has all $ut dis- appeared# e&cept in France# where it has $eco e a distinguishing feature of the way French en s oke their cigarettes - a sign# not so uch of coolness# $ut of 3galit3 and raternit3. (n their ti e ost of the French presidents - "e 9aulle# )o pidou# 7itterrand# *hirac - have $een photographed with a proletarian cigarette dangling fro their lower lip - so ething no self-respecting politician in .ritain or A erica would ever drea of doing! 7outh-hold s oking postures convey a variety of essages for en! .ut wo en seldo use the ! That's $ecause wo en don't usually leave cigarettes in their outh $etween puffs U unless# of course# they're trying to look like so e emme atale or like "ot *otton fro EastEnders. The essential difference $etween these two archetypes is that while "ot *otton always speaks with a cigarette in her outh# a convincing emme atale never does! (nstead# she allows the cigarette to speak on her $ehalf! After all# that's what cigarettes and cigars do all the ti e - they tell us a$out the people who s oke the !

1+B

31! tales

Tell-

?ou're going to work in the orning! ?ou walk out the front door# you get in your car# you drive through the traffic# you park the car and walk into the $uilding! The an in reception greets you as you enter and you say hello to hi ! ?ou go up to your office and sit down! ?our secretary co es in# says good orning and hands you your ail! ?ou say good orning and thank her# and then she leaves! ?ou're ready to start the day! ?ou're o$viously an o$servant person $ecause on your way to work you spotted things that very few people would have noticed! ?ou saw that the clock face on the railway station had $een changed# that the flag at *ity 6all was flying at half- ast# and that the lanes in the car park nave $een given a new coat of paint! .ut there are several things that you issed! ?ou didn't notice# for e&a ple# that the an in reception# whose face is nor ally $ea ing# could only anage a lopsided s ile this orning# or that your secretary# who's $een with you for twelve years# had a s udge of ascara under her right eye! 6ow were you to know that

the

an in reception had $een to the dentist

1+A

T6E TE==S

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OF

early this orning# and that your secretary had $een cry- ing $ecause her $oyfriend walked out on her last night% There are several reasons why you failed to spot these tell-tale signs! =ike ost other people# you're -uick to notice changes to your physical environ ent# $ut slow to spot changes in the people around you! (t's not that they're uni portant - in fact they ean a lot to you! (t's Hust that you've co e to take the for granted! ?ou're co forted $y the knowledge that they don't change# and that - like the characters in the fil Groundhog Day - they're always there# doing the sa e thing day after day! This is all linked to what psychologists call 'change $lindness'! *hange $lindness takes several for s# one of which is the ina$ility to notice how people have changed! (n a clever e&peri ent conducted $y "aniel Si ons and "an =evin at 6arvard# the e&peri enter approached strangers on the ca pus and innocently 3 asked the for directions! ( agine for a o ent that you're one of the unsuspecting su$Hects who took part in the e&peri ent! ?ou're walking across the ca pus when a stranger approaches you and asks you for directions! ,hile you're talking to hi # two work en walk $etween you and the stranger# carrying a large wooden door! Naturally you feel irritated $y this interruption# $ut after the work en have oved on you continue giving directions to the stranger! ,hen you've finished# the stranger thanks you and infor s you that you have Hust taken part in an e&peri ent! '"id you notice anything different after the two en passed $y with the door%' he asks! 'No#' you reply# '( didn't notice anything at all!' 6e then e&plains that he's not the sa e an who originally approached you for

directions! The original leaving the

1+2

an walked off $ehind the door#

TE==-TA=ES

present an $ehind in his place to continue the conver- sation' At this point the first an walks over and Hoins you! =ooking at the two of the # standing there together# you can see how very different they are! Not only do they differ in height and $uild# $ut they're also dressed differently and have very different voices! (f you had $ehaved in this way# you would not have $een alone# $ecause ore than half of the people who took part in the e&peri ent failed to notice the difference $etween the two en! After the work en had disappeared and the switch had taken place# the su$Hects continued to give directions as though nothing unusual had happened! This e&peri ent shows that while we think we notice what's happening around us# a lot of the ti e we don't! Not only are we o$livious to the changes that take place in people's appearance# $ut we're also insensitive to the words# gestures and e&pressions they use! (n addition to suffering fro 'change $lindness'# we're also afflicted with tellblindness. There are three reasons why we don't notice tells. The first is a 'failure of o$servation' - we si ply don't pay enough attention to what people say and do! The second is a 'failure of recognition' - we notice that people are $ehaving in certain ways# $ut we don't recogniJe their actions as $eing infor ative! The third is a 'failure of inter- pretation' - we recogniJe that there's so ething infor ative a$out so eone's $ehaviour# $ut we can't see what it reveals a$out the E in other words# we can't read the tells. These failures can $e re edied $y developing what *harles "arwin called the 'ha$it of inute o$servation' - watching people closely# paying attention to details# co paring people in different situations#

and
349

T6E .OO< OF TE==S

7as&#( !u" '!#'lus&!#s !# )%a )e !7se"2e a7!u 3e!3le5 "a %e" %a# )%a %e/ ell us a7!u %e.sel2es$ W%e# )e-"e l!!1&#( !u *!" tells, %e"e a"e se2e"al 3"&#'&3les %a )e #ee0 ! *!ll!)$ T%ese *!". %e 7as&s !* telleology.
0 #OOK FO4 M5#T/P#3 T3##S+ 4 -s !* e# e.3 &#( ! 0"a) &#*e"e#'es a7!u 3e!3le !# %e 7as&s !* a s&#(le tell 6 es3e'&all/ )%e# /!u-"e "/&#( ! 0e'&0e )%e %e" s!.e6 !#e &s l/&#( !" ell&#( %e "u %$ T%&s e.3 a &!# s%!ul0 al)a/s 7e "es&s e05 7e'ause %e s "e#( % !* tells &s al)a/s &# 0&"e' 3"!3!" &!# ! %e&" #u.7e" 6 %e .!"e tells s!.e!#e 0&s3la/s5 %e .!"e 'e" a&# /!u 'a# 7e a7!u )%a %e/-"e %&#1&#( !" *eel&#($ 0 2ON6T 75MP TO 1ON1#5S/ONS+ 4 -s als! e.3 &#( ! assu.e %a tells al)a/s "e2eal %e sa.e %&#(s a7!u 3e!3le$ U#*!" u#a el/5 %a -s #! al)a/s %e 'ase5 7e'ause a tell 'a# s!.e &.es '!#2e/ 8u& e 0&**e"e# .ea#&#(s$ ;!" exa.3le5 &* /!u )e"e ! .ee s!.e!#e )& % s)ea / 3al.s /!u-0 3"!7a7l/ '!#'lu0e %a %e/ )e"e #e"2!us a7!u s!.e %&#($ <u /!u '!ul0 7e )"!#( 6 %e 3e"s!# .&(% %a2e %/3e"%&0"!s&s5 a (e#e &' '!#6 0& &!# )%&'% %as #! %&#( ! 0! )& % a#x&e /$ T%e .!"al %e"e &s %a /!u s%!ul0 al)a/s .a1e /!u" &#*e"e#'es '!#6 0& &!#al u# &l /!u-2e %a0 a '%a#'e ! '%e'1 %e. !u $
0 1OMPA43 P3OP#3 8/T% T%3MS3#!3S+ 4# !"0e" !

&# e"3"e s!.e!#e-s tells & -s s!.e &.es #e'essa"/ ! '!.6 3a"e %a 3e"s!# &# se2e"al 0&**e"e# se &#(s5 "a %e" %a# ! '!.3a"e %&. !" %e" )& % l! s !* ! %e" 3e!3le &# !#e se &#($ ;!" exa.3le5 &* /!u a""&2e0 a a

3a" / a#0 /!u"

350

TE==-TA=ES host greeted you effusively# you'd want to know whether you'd $een singled out or if everyone was getting the sa e treat ent! To find out# you'd need to watch how he greeted the other guests - in other words# you'd have to co pare hi with hi self! That way you'd $e a$le to find out whether your host was especially pleased to see you# or whether he's e-ually enthusiastic with every$ody! One reason why we're so $lind to tells is that they see so s all and insignificant! ,e're so $usy concentrating on what people are saying to us that we fail to notice their choice of words# the inflection of their voice# and the way they ove their hands and feet! One of the ost i portant lessons to e erge fro telleology is the fact that# where tells are concerned# siJe doesn't atter! (n fact# it's often the tiny# al ost i percepti$le actions that provide clues to people's thoughts and personality! This is ost noticea$le in situations where people act unintentionally and where they aren't aware of their actions! As Arthur Schopenhauer pointed out# '(t is with trifles# and when he is off guard# that a an $est reveals his character!' (t was attention to detail that for ed the $asis of Sherlock 6ol es's legendary a$ility to understand people's otives and to solve ysteries! '?ou know y ethod'# said 6ol es8 'it is founded upon the o$servance of trifles!' 6is advice was 'Never to trust general i @ pressions - $ut concentrate upon the details'! (t's often in the tiny tells and in the details of their unintended actions that people are ost revealing a$out the selves in slips of the tongue# inute hand ove ents# and the fleeting# al ost tachistoscopic mi'ro&tells that flicker across their face when they're trying to conceal their true feelings!

103

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OF

Telleology pro ises to play an increasingly i portant role in forensic science! (n the old days the only tools availa$le to a detective were his keen senses! There have $een enor ous changes since Sherlock 6ol es looked out of his window# noticed how a wo an hesitated $efore cross- ing the road# and infor ed "r ,atson that 'oscillation upon the pave ent always 1 eans an a aire du 'oeur6. Although today's detectives recogniJe the need for a trained eye# their task is ade easier $y the opportunity to record people's actions# to view the repeatedly# and to su$Hect the to detailed analysis! A good e&a ple is Fohn Napier's analysis of the fa ous cinefil of '.igfoot'# where he was a$le to show that the + style of walking was entirely hu anoid! ,hether we like it or not# we're all involved with tells & there's no escaping the ! An enor ous nu $er of tells is produced whenever we interact with other people# and even when we re ain silent in their co pany! So e of these tells are under our control - they're the ones that we use to present a particular i age of ourselves! .ut there are also tells that we cannot control# like $lushing and pupil dilation# as well as tells that we can control# $ut don't# like preening# posture atching# and certain facial e&pressions! As we noticed earlier# there are differences in the way that we relate to unintended tells# $ecause while we ay $e painfully aware of the fact that we're $lushing# there's no way we could know that our pupils are dilatedE we are only ever aware of the treachery of our cheeks# never that of our eyes! E-ually# while we are -uite capa$le of positioning our li $s or oving our hands in ways that are likely to give a certain i pression# we often fail to consciously control these features of our $ehaviour#

10@

TE==-TA=ES

allowing the instead to reveal oods and thoughts that we wish to conceal fro other people! Although we're often $lind to other people's tells# this doesn't ean that we're unaffected $y the ! (n recent years psychologists have discovered that features of their social environ ent can unconsciously shape people's oods! For e&a ple# Sheila 7urphy and .o$ IaHonc found that people's oods are affected very differently# depending on whether they are e&posed to a s iling or a scowling face! (n $oth instances# their su$Hects were only e&posed to these faces for four illiseconds# which was too short for the to $e aware of what they had 0 seen! 5lf "i $erg and his colleagues at 5ppsala 5niversity have gone one step further $y showing that our facial responses are influenced $y other people's facial e&pressions# even when we're unaware of what they're doing with their face! "i $erg and his colleagues placed electrodes on their su$Hects' faces and then e&posed the to su$li inal i ages of B s iling# angry or neutral faces! They found that su$Hects were ore likely to frown when they were pre- sented with an angry face# and ore likely to raise the corners of their outh when they were e&posed to the s iling face# even though they were co pletely unaware that they'd seen a face! These studies suggest that other people's tells can affect us in ways of which we are entirely unaware! They also raise the possi$ility that the way we respond to other people has ore to do with the tiny# al ost su$li inal features of their de eanour than to the gross# ore o$vious aspects of their $ehaviour! ( was very struck $y this when ( watched .ill *linton address the =a$our )arty *onference in .lackpool in Octo$er @//@! At the ti e

101

T6E .OO< OF TE==S

Tony .lair was having trou$le persuading =a$our e $ers that it would $e necessary for .ritain to support the 5nited States if it decided to go to war against (ra-# and it was thought that .ill *linton would $e a$le to $ring the dou$ters into line $ehind .lair! The speech was vintage *linton - he flattered the delegates# e&posed $oth sides of the argu ent and showed that he was falli$le! .ut ore i portantly# he interspersed his re arks with *lintonian tells & that upward-looking s ile# the agisterial wave# the carefully ti ed hesitations to re ind everyone that politics was a$out aking tough decisions! ,hen he said that war is indiscri inate - '( do not care how precise your $o $s and your weapons are# when you set the off innocent people will die' - he did his trade ark lip&bite tell# re inding the gathering that he was a an of feeling! At the end of the speech there was thunderous applause! ,hen conference e $ers were interviewed on TV after- wards# they were all ecstatic - 7)s of every political hue said that *linton was on their side! There was of course no ention of the various oratorical devices that he'd used# even though it was these devices that had electrified the conference# rather than anything *linton had said! The delegates thought they were responding to his argu ents# $ut they weren't! They were reacting to the tells that he had produced# those little signals that he'd arshalled to show that he was thoughtful and sensitive# a an of political conviction with strong e otions! (t was the tells& the ediu # not the essage - that had won the day! (n *hapter 3 we saw that the word tell co es fro poker# where it is used to descri$e any action or speech anneris that reveals what kind of hand so eone is holding or what kind of strategy they're using! The ensuing

10+

TE==-TA=ES

chapters have shown that the notion of tells isn't e&clusive to the ga e of poker# and that it can profita$ly $e applied to a wide range of everyday pursuits! )oker is like life in so e respects# and different in others! )art of the si ilarity lies in the fact that we need to conceal our thoughts# feel- ings and intentions fro others# Hust as poker players need to keep their hand and their otives hidden! The other si ilarity lies in individuals' atte pts to understand each other# and to use their o$servations as a guide to what the other person is thinking! ,hen you're playing poker there are two sources of infor ation a$out the kind of hand another player is holding - one is the cards you're holding# and the other is the way he or she is $ehaving! The trou$le with the latter is that there's no way of knowing whether the inferences you draw a$out the other person's hand are $ased on what he or she is failing to conceal# or what they are doing in order to deceive you! (n any respects# life's the sa e - it's not always clear whether the conclusions we draw a$out other people are $ased on actions that they can't control or actions that they've deli$erately produced in order to islead us! (n poker this conundru is solved $y co paring the various hands that a player has with the way that he or she $ehaves during each round! Although life isn't neatly parcelled into discrete deals# it's still possi$le to link individuals' circu stances to the way they $ehave# and in this way to identify their tells. ,hen you're playing poker with so eone for the first ti e there's no way of knowing what their tells are the only thing you can do is assu e that the 'ommon tells apply to the as uch as they do to anyone else! After watching another player for several rounds# it

should $e
100

T6E .OO< OF TE==S

possi$le to identify their signature tells. The sa e thing applies outside the ga e of poker - it takes several occasions to recogniJe the distinctive features of so eone's $ehaviour and to link these to what they're feeling! (n the eanti e one can always resort to one's knowledge of 'ommon tells in order to work out what that person is thinking! The study of tells pro ises to enrich our lives in any ways! .y focusing our attention on the tiny details and fleeting aspects of other people's $ehaviour we are e&posed to the enor ous co ple&ity of our social world# and this can only encourage us to $e ore sensitive towards other people! O$serving other people's tells also turns our attention $ack on ourselves - it sensitiJes us to our own $ehaviour and helps us to recogniJe that while we are using other people's tells to draw inferences a$out their feelings and intentions# they're doing e&actly the sa e to us! (n addition# the study of tells is potentially li$erating $ecause it reveals how people try to anipulate others and how they give the selves awayE $eing ar ed with these insights helps to protect us fro the dangers of $eing anipulated ourselves! Finally# the study of tells invites us to see the world differently# and to recogniJe that people are constantly conveying infor ation a$out the selves in the for of tells. 5npacking these tells ena$les us to read their inds and to understand the ore fully!

Notes
#. Tells
3 *aro# 7! :344+; The Body )anguage o Po.er: Caro6s Boo. o Tells. Secaucus# NF8 *arol )u$lishing *roup ! @ 6aggard# E! A!# and (saacs# <! S! :34BB; '7icro o entary facial e&pressions as indicators of ego echanis s in psychotherapy'! (n =! A! *ottschalk and A! 6! Auer$ach :eds;# Methods o +esear'h in Psy'hotherapy. New ?ork8 Appleton-*entury-*rofts! 1 6ess# E! :34A0; The Telltale Eye. Ne w ?ork8 Van Nostrand >einhold! + Ek an# )!# and Friesen# ,! :34B4; 'Nonver$al leakage and clues to deception'! Psy'hiatry# 1@ # 22-3/B ! 0 Freud# S! :34/0; 'Frag ents of an analysis of a case of hysteria'! Colle'ted )apers# Vol! 1! New ?ork8 .asic .ooks :reprinted 3404;! B >o# <! 7!# *antor# >! 7!# =ange# <! =# and Ahn# S! S! :@//@; ')al ar hyper- hidrosis8 evidence of genetic trans ission'! "ournal o 7as'ular !urgery# 10:@;# 12@-2B!
A

"ryden# :.# and *lough# A! 6! :eds; :34/@; )i,es o 9oble Gre'ians and +omans# Vol! 1! .oston8 =ittle# .rown!
2

.ulwer# F! *and. =ondon!

:3B++; Chirologia- or the 9atural )anguage o the

7ahl# 9! F!# "anet# .!# and Norton# N! :3404; '>eflections of aHor )ersonality characteristics in gestures and $ody ove ents!
>e

>esearch )ort to A!)!A! Annual :34A@; Thus

eeting'! *ited in .! *hristiansen

10A

T6 E TE==S

.OO <

O F

!pea.s the Body. )ress!

New ?ork8 Arno

3/ =aFrance# 7! :3420; ')ostural irroring and intergroup relations'! Personality and !o'ial Psy'hology Bulletin# 33:@;# @/A-3AE .ernieri# F!# and >osenthal# >! :3443; '(nterpersonal coordination8 $ehavioural atching and interactional synchrony'! (n >! S! Feld an and .! >i e :eds;# Fundamentals o 9on,erbal Beha,ior. *a $ridge8 *a $ridge 5niversity )ress! 33 )rovine# >! >! :344B; '*ontagious yawning and laughter8 Significance for sensory feature detection# otor pattern generation# i itation# and the evolution of social $ehavior'! (n *! 7! 6eyes and .! 9! 9alef :eds;# !o'ial )earning in Animals: The +oots o Culture. New ?ork8 Acade ic )ress! 3@ <re$s# F! >! and "awkins# >! "! :342+; 'Ani al signals8 indreading and anipulation'! (n F! >! <re$s and N! .! "avies :eds;# Beha,ioral E'ology: An E,olutionary Approa'h. Sunderland# 7A8 Sinauer! 31 9ott an# F! 7!# and Silver# N! :3444; The !e,en Prin'iples or Ma.ing Marriage 0or.. New ?ork8 *rown )u$lishers!

&. Tells

(o<*nant

3 <al a# A! :3443; '6ierarchisation and do inance assess ent at first glance'! European "ournal o !o'ial Psy'hology# @ 3 # 3B0-23 ! @ *assidy# *! 7! :3443; 'The good $ody8 when $ig is $etter'! Medi'al Anthropology# 31# 323-@31E Ellis# =! :344+; 'The high and the ighty a ong an and $east8 how universal is the relationship $etween height :or $ody siJe; and social status%' (n =! Ellis :ed!;# !o'ial !trati i'ation and !o'ioe'onomi' 8ne;uality# Vol! @# ,estport# *T8 )raeger! 1 9unnell# "!# >ogers# F!# and "ieppe# )! :@//3; '6eight and health8 pre- dicting longevity fro $one length in archaeological re ains'! "ournal o Epidemiology and Community *ealth# 00# 0/0-A! + Ellis# .! F! :344@; 'The evolution of se&ual attraction8 evaluative echanis s in wo en'! (n F! 6! .arkow# =! *os ides and F! Too$y :eds;# The Adapted Mind: E,olutionary Psy'hology and the Generation o Culture. New ?ork8 O&ford 5niversity )ressE )ierce# *!

:344B; '.ody height and ro antic attraction8 a eta-analytic test of the ale-taller nor '- !o'ial Beha,ior and Personality# @+:@;# 3+1-0/E )awlowski# .!# "un$ar# >-# and =ipowicJ# A! :@///; 'Evolutionary fitness8 tall en have ore repro- ductive success'! 9ature# +/1 :BABB;# 30B!

102

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0 Tre $lay# >! E!# Schaal# .!# .oulerice# .!# Arseneault# =# Soussignan# >! 8 )a-uette# "!# and =aurent# "! :3442; 'Testosterone# physical aggression# do inance# and physical develop ent in early adolescence'! 8nternational 5ournal o Beha,ioral De,elopment @@:+;# A01-AA! B *assidy# *! 7! :3443; 'The good $ody8 when $ig is $etter'! Medi'al Anthropology# 31# 323-@31E )inker# S! :344A; *o( the Mind 0or.s. New ?ork8 ,! ,! Norton! A 6ensley# ,! E! :3441; '6eight as a easure of success in acade e'! Psy'hology: A "ournal o *uman Beha,ior# 1/:3;# +/-B ! 2 ,eisfeld# 9! E!# and .eresford# F! 7! :342@; 'Erectness of posture as an indicator of do inance or success in hu ans'! Moti,ation and Emotion# B:@;# 331-13E ,eisfeld# 9! E!# and =inkey# 6! E! :3420; '"o inance displays as indicators of a social success otive'! (n S! =! Ellyson and F! F! "ovidio :eds;# Po(er# Dominan'e# and 9on&,erbal Beha,ior. New ?ork8 Springer Verlag! 4 >iskind# F! 6! :3421; 'Nonver$al e&pressions and the accessi$ility of life e&perience e ories8 a congruence hypothesis'! !o'ial Cognition# @:3;# B@-2BE >iskind# F! 6! :342+; 'They stoop to con-uer8 guiding and self- regulatory functions of physical posture after success and failure'! "ournal o Personality and !o'ial Psy'hology# +A:1;# +A4-41! 3/ =ott# "! F!# and So er# >! :34BA; 'Seating arrange ent and status'# "ournal o Personality and !o'ial Psy'hology# A:3;# 4/-0 E So er# >! :34B4; Personal !pa'e. New ?ork8 )rentice 6all! 33 Schnurn$erger# =! :3443; <=#=== >ears o Fashion: )et There Be Clothes. New ?ork8 ,ork an )u$lishing! 3@ Spicer# F! :3443; 'The >enaissance el$ow'! (n F! .re er and 6! >ooden$urg :eds;# The Cultural *istory o Gesture. *a $ridge8 )olity )ress! 31 Fro the English edition of "esiderius Eras us' De Ci,ilitate Morum Puerilium :301@;# translated $y >o$ert ,hitinton :30+/; and cited $y Foaneath Spicer :3443;# i$id! 3 + 7ueller# 5!# and 7aJur# A! :344A; 'Facial do inance in 6o o Sapiens
a

s honest signalling of ale -uality'! Beha,ioural E'ology# 2# 0B4A4E 7aJur# A!# and .ooth# A! :3442; 'Testosterone and do inance in

en'! Beha,ioral and Brain !'ien'es# @ 3 # 101-42! <eating# *! F! :3420; '6u an do inance signals8 the pri ate in us'! (n
0

0- =! Ellyson and F! F! "ovidio :eds;# Po(er# Dominan'e# and 9on& ,erbal Beha,ior. New ?ork8 Springer Verlag!

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O F

3B <eating# *! F!# 7aJur# A!# and Segal (# 7! 6! :3423; 'A crosscultural e&ploration of physiogno ic traits of do inance and happiness'# Ethology and !o'iobiology# %# +3-2 ! 3A Tiedens# =! I! :@//3; 'Anger and advance ent versus sadness and su$- Hugation8 the effect of negative e otion e&pressions on social status conferral'! "ournal o Personality and !o'ial Psy'hology# 2/:3;# 2B4+! 32 "a$$s# F! 7! :344@; 'Testosterone# s iling and facial appearance'! "ournal o 9on,erbal Beha,ior# @ 3 # +0-00 ! See also 7aJur# A!# and .ooth# A! :3442; 'Testosterone and do inance in en'! Beha,ioral and Brain !'ien'es# @ 3 # 101-42! 34 Schniter# E! :@///; 'The evolution of yawning8 why do we yawn and why is it contagious%' 7A thesis# "epart ent of Anthropology# 5niversity of Oregon! @/ Schino# 9!# and Aureli# F! :3424; '"o wo en%' Ethology and !o'iobiology# 3/# 1A0-2 ! en yawn ore than

@3 >idgeway# *! =!# .erger# F!# and S ith# =! :3420; 'Nonver$al cues and status8 an e&pectation states approach'! Ameri'an "ournal o !o'iology# 4/:0;# 400-A2E SchwartJ# .!# Tesser# A!# and )owell# E! :342@; '"o inance cues in nonver$al $ehavior'! !o'ial Psy'hology ?uarterly# +0:@;# 33+-@/! @@ 9regory# S!# and ,e$ster# S! :344B; 'A nonver$al signal in the voices of interview partners effectively predicts co unication acco odation and social status'! "ournal o Personality and !o'ial Psy'hology# A/:B;# 3@13-+/! See also .ilous# F! >!# and <rauss# >! 7! :3422; '"o inance and acco odation in the conversational $ehaviors of sa e and i&ed- gender dyads'! )anguage and Communi'ation# 2:1D+;# 321-40! @1 Ohala# F! F! :344+; 'The fre-uency code underlies the sound-sy $olic use of voice pitch'! (n =! 6inton# F! Nichols and F! F! Ohala :eds;# !ound !ymbolism. *a $ridge8 *a $ridge 5niversity )ress! @+ <re$s# F! >!# and "awkins# >! "! :342+; 'Ani al signals8 indreading and anipulation'! (n F! >! <re$s and N! .! "avies :eds;# Beha,ioral E'ology: An E,olutionary Approa'h. Sunderland# 7A8 SinauerE *ollins# S! :@//3; '7en's voices and wo en's choices'! Animal Beha,ior# B/# AA1-2/@0 Elliot# A! F! :3423; Child )anguage. *a $ridge8 *a $ridge

5niversity )ress! @B )e $erton# *# 7c*or ack# )!# and >ussell# A! :3442; '6ave wo en's voices lowered across ti e% A cross-sectional study of Australian wo e
nS

voices'. "ournal o 7oi'e# 3@:@;# @/2-31!

1B/

NOTE S

@A 6enley# N! :@//3; '.ody polities'! (n A! .rana an :ed;# !el and !o'iety. 7aiden# 7A8 .lackwell! @2 *hance# 7! >! A! :34BA; 'Attention structure as the $asis of pri ate rank orders'! Man# @:+;# 0/1-32 :reprinted in 7! >! A! *hance and >! >! =arsen :eds; :34AB; The !o'ial !tru'ture o Attention. =ondon8 ,iley! @4 Strong an# <! 3# and *ha pness# .! 9! :34B2; '"o inance hierarchies and conflict in eye contact'! A'ta Psy'hologia# @2# 1AB-2BE Argyle# 7!# and *ook# 7! :34AB; Ga4e and Mutual Ga4e. *a $ridge8 *a $ridge 5niversity )ressE >osa# E!# and 7aJur# A! :34A4; '(ncipient status in s all groups'! !o'ial For'es# 02# 32-1AE ,e$$ink# )! :342B; The Po(er o the Eyes. New ?ork8 Springer Verlag! 1/ Ellyson# S! =# "ovidio# F! F! and Fehr# .! F! :3423; 'Visual $ehavior and do inance in wo en and en'! (n *! 7ayo and N! 7! 6enley :eds;# Gender and 9on,erbal Beha,ior. New ?ork8 Springer VerlagE "ovidio# F! F!# and Ellyson# S! = :342@; '"ecoding visual do inance8 attri$utions of power $ased on relative percentages of looking while speaking and looking while listening'! !o'ial Psy'hology ?uarterly# +0:@;# 3/B-31! 13 7ehra$ian# A! :34B4; 'Significance of posture and position in the co unication of attitude and status relationships'! Psy'hologi'al Bulletin# A3:0;# 104-A@!

3+ Tells
3

S"-&issive

"arwin# *! :32A@; The E1pression o the Emotions in Man and Animals. =ondon8 Fohn 7urray!
@

Efron# "! :34+@; Gesture and En,ironment. New ?ork8 *rown )ress!
1

<ings

.rault# 9! F! :34B1; '<inesics and the classroo 8 so e typical French gestures'! The Fren'h +e,ie(# 1B# 1A+-2@! 9il$ert# )! :@///; 'Varieties of su$ issive $ehavior as for s of social defense8 their evolution and role in depression'! (n =! Slo an and )! 9il$ert kds;# !ubordination and De eat: An E,olutionary Approa'h

to Mood borders and Their Therapy. 7ahwah# NF8 Erl$au ! 0! *ollett# )!# and *ontarello# A! :342A; '9esti di assenso e di dissenso'! (n )! >icci .itti :ed!;# Communi'a4ione e Gestualita. 7ilano8 Franco AngeliE *ollett# )! :3441; Foreign Bodies: A Guide to European Mannerisms.

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=ondon8 Si on G Schuster! B 9off an# E! :34AB; '9ender advertise ents'! !tudies in the Anthropology o 7isual Communi'ation# 1# B4-30+ :reprinted as 9off an E! :34A4; Gender Ad,ertisements. New ?ork8 6arper G >owE 7orris# " :34A4; Man(at'hing: A Field Guide to *uman Beha,iour. =ondon- Fonathan *apeE >egan# F! 7! :342@; '9ender displays in portrait photo- graphs'! Se& +oles# 2# 11-+1E 6al$erstadt# A! 9! and Saitta# 7! .! :342A; '9ender# nonver$al $ehavior# and perceived do inance8 a test of a theory'! "ournal o Personality and !o'ial Psy'hology# 01# @0A-A@ E ,ilson# A!# and =loyd# .! :344/; '9ender vs! powerE self-posed $ehavior revisited'! Se& +oles# @1# 43-2! A *osta# 7!# 7enJani# 7!# and >icci .itti# )! E! :@//3; '6ead canting in paintings8 an historical study'! "ournal o 9on,erbal Beha,ior# @0:3;# B1-A1! 2 *hance# 7! >! A! :34B@; 'An interpretation of so e agonistic postures8 the role of Ncut-offN acts and postures'! !ymposium o the @oologi'al !o'iety o )ondon# 2# A3-24! 4 Ie$rowitJ# =!A! :344A; .oulder# *O8 ,estview )ress! +eading Fa'es: 0indo( to the !oulA

3/ 6all# F! A!# S ith =e.eau# =!# 9ordon >einoso# F!# andThayer# F! :@//3; 'Status# gender# and nonver$al $ehavior in candid and posed photographs8 a study of conversations $etween university e ployees'! Se& +oles# ++# BA A- 43 E 6all# F! A!# *arter# F! "!# Fi eneJ# 7! *# Frost# N! A!# and S ith =e.eau# =! :@//@; 'S iling and relative status in news photographs'! "ournal o !o'ial Psy'hology# 3+@# 0//-3/! 33 Van 6ooff# F! A! >! A! 7! :34A@; 'A co parative approach to the phy- logeny of laughter and s iling'! (n >! A! 6inde :ed!;# 9on,erbal Communi'ation. *a $ridge8 *a $ridge 5niversity )ress! 3@ 6echt# 7!# and =aFrance# 7! :3422; '=icense or o$ligation to s ile8 the effect of power and gender on a ount and type of s iling'! Personality and !o'ial Psy'hology Bulletin# @+# 31@B-1BE =aFrance# 7!# and 6echt# 7- A! :3444; 'Option or o$ligation to s ile8 the effects of power and gender on facial e&pression'! (n )! )hilippot# >! S! Feld an and E! F! *oats :eds;# The !o'ial Conte1t o 9on,erbal Beha,ior. *a $ridge8 *a $ridge 5niversity )ress! 31 "uchenne de .oulogne# 9! :32B@; Me'anisme de la

physionomie humaine. )aris8 Fules >enard :reprinted in English as The Me'hanism B6

1B@

NOTE S

*uman Fa'ial E1pression# edited and translated $y >! A! *uth$ertson# *a $ridge# *a $ridge 5niversity )ress# 344/;! 3+ *ashdan# E! :3442; 'S iles# speech and $ody posture8 how wo en and en display socio etric status and power'! "ournal o 9on,erbal Beha,ior# @@:+; @/4-@2E =aFrance# 7!# and 6echt# 7! :@///; '9ender and s iling8 a eta-analysis of se& differences in s iling'! (n A! 6! Fisher :ed!;# Gender and Emotion. *a $ridge# *a $ridge 5niversity )ress# 344/E 6all# F! A!# *arney# "! >!# and 7urphy# N! 7! :@//@; '9ender differences in s iling'! (n 7! 6! A$el :ed!;# An Empiri'al +e le'tion on the !mile. New ?ork8 Edwin 7ellen )ress! 30 "a$$s# F! 7! :344@; 'Testosterone# appearance'! 5ournal o 9on,erbal Beha,ior# @ 3 # +0-00 ! s iling and facial

3B "arwin# *! :32A@; The E1pression o the Emotions in Man and Animals. =ondon8 Fohn 7urray! 3A >icks# *! :34A+; $eats and Embarrassment. O&ford8 *larendon )ress! 32 =eary# 7! >!# .ritt# T ,!# *utlip# ,! "!# and Te pleton# F! =! :344@; 'Social $lushing'! "ournal o Personality and !o'ial Py'hology# 33@:1;# ++B-B/! 34 6al$erstadt# A!# and 9reen# =! >! :3441; 'Social attention and placation theories of $lushing'! Moti,ation and Emotion# 3A:3;# 01-B+E "e Fong# )! F! :3444; '*o unicative and re edial effects of social $lushing'! "ournal o 9on,erbal Beha,ior# @1:1;# 34A-@3A! @/ S ith# ,! F!# *hase# F!# and =ie$lich# A! <! :34A+; 'Tongue showing8 a facial display'! !emioti'a# 33 # @/3-@+B! @3 "olgin# <! 7!# and Sa$ini# F! :342@; 'E&peri ental anipulation of a hu an nonver$al display8 the tongue show affects an o$server's willing- ness to interact'! Animal Beha,iour# 1/# 410-BE Fones# N!# <earins# F!# and ,atson# F! :342A; 'The hu an tongue show and o$servers' willingness to teract8 replication and e&tensions'! Psy'hologi'al +eports# B/# A04-B+! @@ <endon# A! :34A0; 'So e functions of the face in a kissing round'! !emioti'a# 30#@44-11+ ! @1 Festinger# =# and *arls ith# 7! :3404; '*ognitive conse-uences of
lrV

forced co pliance'! 02# @/1-3/!

@+

"ournal

Abnormal

and !o'ial

Psy'hology#

Fones# E! E! :34B+; 8ngratiation. New ?ork8 Appleton-*entury*roftsE cordon# >! A! :344B; '( pact of ingratiation on Hudge ents and Valuations8 a eta-analytic investigation'! "ournal o Personality and

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!o'ial Psy'hology# A3:3;# 0+-A/ E Stengel# >! :@///; >ou6reToo $ind: A Brie *istory o Flattery. New ?ork8 Si on G Schuster! @0 Fudge# T! A!# and .retJ# >! "! :344+; ')olitical influence $ehavior and career success'! "ournal o Management# @/:3;# +1-B0 ! @B *ol an# A!# and Olver# <! >! :34A2; '>eactions to flattery as a function of self-estee 8 self-enhance ent and cognitive consistency theories'! British "ournal o !o'ial and Clini'al Psy'hology# 3A:3;# @0-4 !

$. Tells

3on;ersat*on

3 ,alker# 7! :342@; 'S ooth transitions in conversational turntaking8 i plications for theory'! "ournal o Psy'hology# 33/# 13-A ! @ Sacks# 6!# Schegloff# E!# and Fefferson# 9! :34A+; 'A si plest syste atics for the organiJation of turn-taking in conversation'! )anguage# 0/# B4B-A10E .eattie# 9! :3421; Tal.: An Analysis o !pee'h and 9on& ,erbal Beha,iour in Con,ersation. 7ilton <eynes8 Open 5niversity )ress! 1 ?ngve# V! F! :34A/; 'On getting a word in edgewise'! Papers rom the Cth +egional Meeting o the Chi'ago )inguisti' !o'iety# *hicago8 *hicago =inguistic Society! + 7eltJer# =!# 7orris# ,! N!# and 6ayes# "! :34A3; '(nterruption outco es and vocal a plitude8 e&plorations in social psychophysics'! "ournal o Personality and !o'ial Psy'hology# 32# 14@-+/@! 0 Anderson# <! F!# and =eaper# *! :3442; '7eta-analyses of gender effects on conversational interruptions8 who# what# when# where and how'! !e1 +oles# 14:1D+;# @@0-0@! B Tannen# "! :3423; 'New ?ork Fewish conversational 8nternational "ournal o the !o'iology o )anguage# 1/# 311+4! style'!

A <endon# A! :34BA; 'So e functions of gaJe-direction in social inter- action'! A'ta Psy'hologia# @B# @-B1 E Argyle# 7!# and *ook# 7! :34AB; Ga4e and Mutual Ga4e. *a $ridge8 *a $ridge 5niversity

)ressE .eattie# C :34A2; 'Se-uential te poral patterns of speech and gaJe in dialogue'- !emioti'a# @1:3D@;# @4-0@ ! 2 6arrigan# F! A!# and Steffen# F! F! :3421; '9aJe as a turn-e&change signal in group conversations'! British "ournal o !o'ial Psy'hology# @@:@;# 3BA-2E <al a# A! :344@; '9aJing in triads8 a powerful signal in floor apportion- ent'! British "ournal o !o'ial Psy'hology# 1 3 # @3-14 !

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4 "uncan# S! :34A@; 'So e signals and rules for taking speaking turns in conversations'! "ournal o Personality and !o'ial Psy'hology# @1:@;# @21-4@! 3/ *aspers# F! :@///; '=ooking for elodic turn-holding configurations in "utch'! )inguisti's in the 9etherlands %===# A sterda 8 Fohn .enHa insE ,ich ann# A!# and *aspers# F! :@//3; '7elodic cues to turn-taking in English8 evidence fro perception'! (n F! van <uppeveldt and >! S ith :eds;# Pro'eedings o the %nd !8Gdial 0or.shop on Dis'ourse and Dialogue. Aal$org# "en ark! 33 ,alker# 7!# and Tri $oli# *! :3421; 'The e&pressive function of the eye flash'! "ournal o 9on,erbal Beha,ior# 2:3;# 1-31! 3@ Scheflen# A! E!# and Scheflen# A! :34A@; Body )anguage and !o'ial Order. Englewood *liffs# NF8 )rentice-6allE Scheflen# A! :34A1; *o( Beha,ior Means. New ?ork8 9ordon G .reach! 31 Se$$a# 7!# and Tate# S! :342B; '?ou know what ( ean% Agree ent arking in .ritish .lack English'! "ournal o Pragmati's# 3/# 3B1-A@! 3+ *o ins# S! :3410; The Complete 0or.s and )etters o Charles )amb. New ?ork8 7odern =i$rary! 30 Feld an# S! :3404; Mannerisms o !pee'h and Gestures in E,eryday )i e. New ?ork8 (nternational 5niversities )ressE ,eintrau$# ,! :3424; 7erbal Beha,ior in E,eryday )i e. New ?ork8 Springer Verlag! 3B ,einstein# E! A! :34BB; 'Toward a theory of interpersonal tactics'! (n *! .ack an and )! Second :eds;# Problems in !o'ial Psy'hology: !ele'ted +eadings. New ?ork8 7c9raw-6ill! 3A =akoff# 9! :34A1; '6edges8 a study in eaning criteria and the logic of fuJJy concepts'! "ournal o Philosophi'al )ogi'# @# +02-0/2E Schiffrin# "! :3422; Dis'ourse Mar.ers. *a $ridge8 *a $ridge 5niversity )ressE 6ol es# F! :344/; '6edges and $oosters in wo en's and en's speech'! )anguage and Communi'ation# 3/:1;# 320-@/0! 32 7al stro # F! :34B/; 6$ind o and its congeners'! English "ournal# ++# @22-4/! 34 6ol es# F! :342B; 'Functions of you .no( in wo en's and en's speech'! )anguage in !o'iety# 30# 3-@@! @/ =ockard# F! S!# Allen# "! F!# Schiele# .! F!# and ,ie er# 7! F! :34A2; '6u an postural signals8 stance# weight-shifts and social distance as

intention ove ents to depart'! Animal Beha,iour# @B# @34-@+! @3 ,ilde$lood# Q ! # and .rinson# )! :34B0; The Polite =ondon8

0orld.

1B0

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O&ford 5niversity )ressE >ockwood# F! :344@; The Cra tsmen o Dionysus& An Approa'h to A'ting. New ?ork8 Applause .ooks!

. Tells

'ol*t*cal

3 9regg# 9! =! :3442; '=i$erals# conservatives and the presidency'! The 8nter'ollegiate +e,ie(# Spring# @ B - 1 3 ! @ .lu # 7! "! :3422; The !ilent !pee'h o Politi'ians. San "iego8 .renner (nfor ation 9roup! 1 6enton# *! 9!# and .ladon# >! A! ,!# :3420; '.reathiness in nor al fe ale speech8 inefficiency versus desira$ility'! )anguage and Communi'ation# 0# @@3-A E ,! 6ardcastle and F! =aver :eds; :3440; The *andboo. o Phoneti' !'ien'es. O&ford8 .lackwell! + 9regory# S! ,!# and 9allagher# T! F! :@//@; 'Spectral analysis of candi- dates' nonver$al vocal co unication8 predicting 5!S! presidential election outco es'! !o'ial Psy'hology ?uarterly# B0:1;# @421/2! 0 7asters# >! "! :3422; 'Nice guys don't finish last8 aggressive and appease- ent gestures in edia i ages of politicians'! (n 7! >! A! *hance and "! >! O ark :eds;# !o'ial Fabri's o the Mind. 6ove8 =awrence Erl$au ! B *hance# 7! >! A! :34B@; 'An interpretation of so e agonistic postures8 the role of Ncut-offN acts and postures'! !ymposium o the @oologi'al !o'iety o )ondon# 2# A3-24! A Atkinson# 7! :342B; Our Masters6 7oi'es: The )anguage and Body )anguage o Politi's. =ondon8 7ethuen! 2 6arris# S! :3443; 'Evasive action8 how politicians respond to -uestions in political interviews'! (n )! Scanned :ed!;# Broad'ast Tal.. =ondon8 Sage! 4 .ull# )!# and 7ayer# <! :3441; '6o w not to answer -uestions in political interviews'! Politi'al Psy'hology# 3+:+;# B03-BBE .ull# )! :3442; ')olitical interviews8 television interviews in 9reat .ritain'! (n O! Feld an and *! "e =andtsheer :eds;# Politi'ally !pea.ing. ,estport# *T8 )raeger!

3/ .ull# )!# and 7ayer# <! :3422; '(nterruptions in political interviews8 a study of 7argaret Thatcher and Neil <innock'! "ournal o )anguage and !o'ial Psy'hology# A:3;# 10-+0! 33 .eattie# 9! :342@; 'Turn-taking and interruption in political interviews8 7argaret Thatcher and Fi *allaghan co pared and contrasted K !emioti'a# 14:3D@;# 41-33+!

1BB

NOTE S

3@ Schegloff# E! A! :3424; 'Fro interview to confrontaton8 o$servations on the .ushD>ather encounter'! +esear'h on )anguage and !o'ial 8ntera'tion#

@@#@30W/!

,. Tells

.reet*n+

3 <endon# A!# and Fer$er# A! :34A1; 'A description of so e hu an greet- ings'! (n >! )! 7ichael and F! 6! *rook :eds;# Comparati,e Ethology and Beha,ior o Primates. New ?ork8 Acade ic )ress! @ ,ilde$lood# D.# and .rinson# )! :34B0; The Polite 0orld. =ondon8 O&ford 5niversity )ressE >ockwood# ;! :344@; The Cra tsmen o Dionysus: An Approa'h to A'ting. New ?ork8 Applause .ooks! 1 .ulwer# F! *and. =ondon! :3B++; Chirologia- or the 9atural )anguage o the

+ "oran# 9! "! :3442; 'Shake on it'! Entrepreneur Maga4ine# Fuly! 0 9ivens# "! :34AA; '9reeting a stranger8 so e co only used nonver$al signals of aversiveness'! !emioti'a# 34:3D@;# 31-@2E 6all# )! 7!# and 6all# "! A! S! :3421; 'The handshake as interaction'! !emioti'a# +0:1D+;# @+4-B+! B *ollett# )! :3421; '7ossi salutations'! !emioti'a# +0:1D+;# 343-@+2! A *haplin# ,! F!# )hillips# F! .!# .rown# F! "!# and *lanton# N! >! :@//3; '6andshaking# gender# personality# and first i pressions'! "ournal o Personality and !o'ial Psy'hology# A4:3;# 33/3A! 2 Stephanopoulos# 9! :3444; All Too *uman: A Politi'al Edu'ation. New ?ork8 =ittle# .rown! 4 9off an# E! :34A3; +elations in Publi'. 6ar ondsworth8 )enguinE 9reen$au # )! E!# and >osenfeld# 6! 7! :342/; 'Varieties of touch in greet- ings8 se-uential structure and se&-related differences'! "ournal o 9on,erbal Beha,ior# 0:3;# 31-@0!
3

/ *ollett# Mannerisms.

)!

:3441;

Foreign Bodies: A

Guide to

European

=ondon8 Si on G Schuster!

Eras us# "! :30+/; Opera Omnia# 4 vols! .asle! '@ .akken# "! :34AA; 'Saying good$ye8 an o$servational study of parting Ntuals'! Man&En,ironment !ystems# E# 40-3//E Su erfield# A!# and =ake# ( A! :34AA; 'Nonver$al and ver$al $ehaviours associated with parting'!
Br

33

Ftish "ournal o Psy'hology# B2# 311-BE Al$ert# S!# and :34A2;

<essler# S!

1BA

T6E TE==S

.OO<

OF

'Ending social encounters'! "ournal o E1perimental !o'ial Psy'hology# 3+ 0+3-01! 31 <napp# 7! =# 6art# >! )!# Friedrich# 9! ,!# and Shul an# 9! 7! :34A1; 'The rhetoric of good$ye8 ver$al and nonver$al correlates of hu an leavetaking'! !pee'h Monographs# +/# 32@-42!

$+ 4o*al Tells
3 Nicolson# 6! :34B2; Diaries and )etters# GH<I&GHC%# edited $y N! Nicolson# =ondon8 *ollins! @ =acey# >! :34AA; Ma5esty: Eli4abeth 88 and the *ouse o 0indsor. =ondon8 6utchinson! 1 )rovine# >! >! :@///; )aughter: A !'ienti i' 8n,estigation. =ondon8 )enguin! + *astiglione# .! :30@2; )ibro del Cortegiano. Venice :translated $y Sir Tho as 6o$y as The Boo. o the Courtier. =ondon# 30B3;! 0 Naunton# >! :3B+3; Fragmenta +egalia :reprinted in 6! ,alpole :ed!;# Paul *ent4ner6s Tra,els in England. =ondon# 3A4A;! B 6oggart# S! :342B; '*ari$$ean Lueen'! (n T! 9rove :ed!; ?ueen Obser,ed. =ondon8 )avilion .ooks! The

A Tooley# S! A! :324B; The Personal )i e o ?ueen 7i'toria. =ondon8 S! 6! .ousefield! 2 ,indsor# E! :342A; 0allis and Ed(ard: )etters GHJG&GHJE: The 8ntimate Corresponden'e o the Du.e and Du'hess o 0indsor# edited $y 7! .loch! .ath8 *hivers! 4 6enley# N! :@//3; '.ody polities'! (n A! .rana an :ed!;# !el and !o'iety. 7aiden# 7A8 .lackwell! 3/ ,indsor# E! :3403; A $ing6s !tory: The Memoirs o *.+.*. theDu.eo 0indsor. =ondon8 *assell! 33 .loch# 7! :34A1; The +oyal Tou'h: !a'red Monar'hy and !'ro ula in England and Fran'e# translated $y F! E! Anderson! =ondon8

>outledge G <egan )aul! 3@ 6olden# A! :34A4; Charles: Prin'e o 0ales: A Biography. =ondon8 =ittle# .rown! 31 7ehra$ian# A! :34B4; '7ethods and designs8 so e referents and easures of nonver$al co unication'! Beha,ioral +esear'h Methods and

36:

NOTE S 8nstrumentation# 3# @/1-AE .ee$e# S! S!# .ee$e# S! F!# and >ed ond# 7! V! :@//@; 8nterpersonal Communi'ation: +elating to Others. .oston8 Allyn G .acon! 3+ 7ontagu# A! :34A3; Tou'hing: The *uman !igni i'an'e o the !.in. New ?ork8 *olu $ia 5niversity )ress! 30 "arwin# *! :32A@; The E1pression o the Emotions in Man and Animals. =ondon8 Fohn 7urray!

". AnB*et= Tells

3 7arks# (! 7!# and Nesse# >! 7! :344+; 'Fear and fitness8 an evolutionary analysis of an&iety disorders'! Ethology and !o'iobiology# 30# @+A-BA! @ *hristiansen# .! :34A@; Thus !pea.s the Body. New ?ork8 Arno )ressE Fried# >!# and 9ri aldi# F! :3441; The Psy'hology and Physiology o Breathing: 8n Beha,ioral Medi'ine# Clini'al Psy'hology and Psy'hiatry. New ?ork8 )lenu ! 1 Fa es# ,! :342/; The Prin'iples o Psy'hology# % vols! New ?ork8 6enry 6olt! + )erera# F! :3422; 'The haJards of heavy $reathing'! 9e( !'ientist# 1 "ece $er# +B2! 0 >eich# ,! :34+4; Chara'ter Analysis. New ?ork8 Farrar# Strauss G 9irou&E =owen# A! :3402; Physi'al Dynami's o Chara'ter !tru'ture. New ?ork8 9rune G Stratton! B =owen# A! :3402; Physi'al Dynami's o Chara'ter !tru'ture. New ?ork8 9rune G Stratton! A 7iddle ist# >! "!# <nowles# E! S!# and 7atter# *! F! :34AB; ')ersonal space invasion in the lavatory8 suggestive evidence for arousal'! "ournal o Personality and !o'ial Psy'hology# 11# 0+3-B! 2 6inde# >! :342@; Ethology: 8ts 9ature and +elations to Other !'ien'es. O&ford8 O&ford 5niversity )ress!

4 Ek an# )!# and Friesen# ,! A! :34B4; 'The repertoire of nonver$al $ehavior8 categories# origins# usage# and coding'! !emioti'a# 3# +4-42! 3/ ,a&er# )! :34AA; 'Nonver$al cues for an&iety8 an e&a ination of e otional leakage'! "ournal o Abnormal Psy'hology# 2B# 1/B-3+E A "aly# F! - 6ogg# E!# Sacks# "!# S ith# 7!# and Ii ring# =! :3421; 'Se&and relation- ship affect social self-groo ing'! "ournal o 9on,erbal Beha,ior# E# 321-4E Shreve# E! 9!# 6arrigan# F! A!# <ues# F! >!# and <agas# "! <! :3422; 'Nonver$al e&pressions of an&iety in physician-patient interactions'! 369

T6 E TE==S

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O F

Psy'hiatry# 03 :+;# 1A2-2+E <enner# A! N! :3441; 'A cross-cultural study of $ody-focused hand ove ent'! "ournal o 9on,erbal Beha,ior# 3A:+; @B1-A4 E 7orris# "! :344+; Bodytal. The Meaning o *uman Gestures. New ?ork8 *rown )u$lishers! 33 6arrigan# F! A!# and O'*onnell# "! 7! :344B; '6o w do you look when feeling an&ious%' Personality and 8ndi,idual Di eren'es# @3:@;# @/0-3@! See also =eventhal# 6!# and Sharp# E! :34B0; 'Facial e&pressions as indi- cators of distress'! (n S! To kins and *! (Jard :eds;# A e't# Cognition and Personality. New ?ork8 Springer Verlag! 3@ 7ilgra # S! :34A+; Obedien'e to Authority. New ?ork8 6arper G >ow! 31 Fara$ee# "! F!# 6olco # 7! =!# >a sey# S! =!# and *ole# S! 9! :3441; 'Social an&iety and speaker gaJe in a persuasive at osphere'! "ournal o +esear'h in Personality# @A:+;# 1B0-AB! 3+ Stern# F! A! :344@; 'The eye $link8 affective and cognitive influences'! (n "! *! Forgays# T! Sosnowski and <! ,rJesniewski :eds;# An1iety: +e'ent De,elopments in Cogniti,e# Psy'hophysiologi'al and *ealth +esear'h. ,ashington8 6e isphere! 30 .ell# *! :32+A; The Anatomy and Philosophy o E1pression# as Conne'ted (ith the Fine Arts. =ondon8 Fohn 7urray! 3B Fackson# "! "! :3420; 'Fro the lungs to laryn& to lip# it's Hitter# shi er and $lip'! !mithsonian# B :Fuly;# A2! 3A Ellgring# 6!# and Scherer# <! >! :344B; 'Vocal indicators of ood change in depression'! "ournal o 9on,erbal Beha,ior# @/:@;# 21-33/! 32 Sieg an# A! ,! :342A; 'The telltale voice8 nonver$al essages of ver$al co unication'! (n A! ,! Sieg an and S! Feldstein :eds;# 9on,erbal Beha,ior and Communi'ation. 6illsdale# NF8 Erl$au E Sieg an# A! ,!# and .oyle# S! :3441; 'Voices of fear and an&iety and depression8 the effects of speech rate and loudness on fear and an&iety and depression'! "ournal o Abnormal Psy'hology# 3/@:1;# +1/-A ! 34 7urray# "! *! :34A3; 'Talk# silence and an&iety'! Psy'hologi'al Bulletin# A0# @++-B/E >ochester# S! >! :34A1; 'The significance of pauses in spon- taneous speech'! "ournal o Psy'holinguisti' +esear'h# %# 0 3 - 2 3 !

9+ Se9"al Tells

3 Ei$l-Ei$esfeldt# (! :34A3; )o,e and *ate: The 9atural *istory o Beha,ior Patterns. New ?ork8 6olt# >inehart G ,instonE 7orris# "! :34A3; 8ntimate Beha,iour. =ondon8 Fonathan *apeE Singh# "!# and ?oung# >! <! :3440; '.ody weight# waist-to-hip ratio# $reasts# and hips8 role in Hudg ents of

1A/

N OT E S

fe ale attractiveness and desira$ility for relationships'! Ethology and !o'iobiology# 3B# +21-0/AE Furnha # A!# "ias# 7!# and 7c*lelland# A! :3442; 'The role of $ody weight# waist-to-hip ratio# and $reast siJe in Hudg- ents of fe ale attractiveness'! Se& +oles# 1D+# 133-@B! @ =loyd-Elliott# 7! :3440; !e'rets o !e1ual Body )anguage. =ondon8 6a lyn! 1 .uss# "! :344+; The E,olution o Desire. New ?ork8 .asic .ooks! + )erper#T! :3420; !e1 !ignals: The Biology o )o,e. )hiladelphia8 (S3 )ressE )erper# T! :3424; 'Theories and o$servations on se&ual selection and fe ale choice in hu an $eings'! Medi'al Anthropology# 33:+;# +/4-0+! 0 .urton# >! :3B@3; The Anatomy o Melan'holy. O&ford8 6enry *ripps! B .irdwhistell# >! :34A/; $inesi's and Conte1t. New ?ork8 .allantine! A 7oore# 7! 7! :3420; 'Nonver$al courtship patterns in wo en8 conte&t and conse-uences'! Ethology and !o'iobiology# B# @1A-+A! 2 ,iley# >! 6! :3443; '=ekking in $irds and a alsE $ehavioral and evolutionary issues'! Advances in the !tudy o Beha,ior# @/# @/ 3 -4 3 ! 4 <re$s# F! >!# and "awkins# >! "! :342+; 'Ani al signals8 indreading and anipulation'! (n F! >! <re$s and N! .! "avies :eds;# Beha,ioral E'ology: An E,olutionary Approa'h. Sunderland# 7A8 Sinauer! 3/ 9ra er# <!# Futte# A!# and Fisch ann# .! :344A; '"er <a pf der 9eschlecter und der <rieg der Signale'! (n .! <anitscheider :ed!;# )iebe# )ust und )eidens'ha t: !e1ualitat im !piegel der 0issens'ha t. Stuttgart8 6irJelE )enton-Voak# (! S!# )errett# "! (!# *astles# "! =!# <o$ayashi# T# .urt# "! 7!# 7urray# =! <!# and 7ina isawa# >! :3444; '7enstrual cycle alters face preferences'! 9ature# 144# A+3-@! 33 ,alsh# "! *# and 6ewitt# F! :3420; '9iving en the co e-on8 effect of eye contact and s iling in a $ar environ ent'! Per'eptual and Motor !.ills# B3# 2A1-+! 3@ 7oore# 7! 7! :3420; 'Nonver$al courtship patterns in wo en8 conte&t and conse-uences'! Ethology and !o'iobiology# B# @1A-+A! 3 1 <leinke# *! =! :342B; '9aJe and eye contact8 a research review'! Psy'hologi'al Bulletin# 3//:3;# A2-3//E =iJuka# ?! :344@; 'Eye contact in dating couples and unac-uainted couples'! Per'eptual and Motor !.ills# A0# +0A-B3 ! 3 + ,alsh# "! 9!# and 6ewitt# F! :3420; '9iving en the co e-on8 effect of e ye contact and s iling in a $ar environ ent'! Per'eptual and Motor !.ills#

3#

2A1-

+! 9ivens# "! .! :34A2; 'The nonver$al $asis of attraction8 flirtation# courtship# and seduction'! Psy'hiatry# + 3 # 1+B-04E 9ivens# "! .! :3421; )o,e !ignals: *o( to Attra't a Mate. New ?ork8 *rown!
30

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3B 9ra er# <!# <riick# <!# Fuette# A!# and Fink# .! :@///; 'Nonver$al $ehavior as courtship signals8 the role of control and choice in selecting partners'! E,olution and *uman Beha,iour# @ 3 # 1A3-4/! 3A A$$ey# A! :342A; '7isperceptions of friendly $ehavior as se&ual interest8 a survey of naturally occurring incidents'! Psy'hology o 0omen ?uarterly# 33:@;# 3A1-4+E Shotland# >! =!# and *raig# F! 7! :3422; '*an en and wo en differentiate $etween platonic and se&ually interested $ehavior%' !o'ial Psy'hology ?uarterly# 03:3;# BB-A1! 32 7orris# "! :34AA; Man(at'hing: A Field Guide to *uman Beha,iour. =ondon8 Fonathan *ape! 34 *aro# T! 7! :342B; 'The function of stotting8 a review of the hypotheses'! Animal Beha,iour# 1+# B+4-B@E Iahavi# A!# and Iahavi# A! :344A; The *andi'ap Prin'iple: A Missing Pie'e o Dar(in6s Pu44le. O&ford8 O&ford 5niversity )ress! @/ .urton# >! :3B@3; The Anatomy o Melan'holy. O&ford8 6enry *ripps! @3 A $ady# N!# 6allahan# 7!# and *onner# .! :3444; 'Accuracy of Hudgents of se&ual orientation fro thin slices of $ehavior'! "ournal o Personality and !o'ial Psy'hology# EE# 012-+AE A $ady# N!# =a)lante# "!# and Fohnson# E! :@//3; 'Thin slice Hudg ents as a easure of interpersonal sensitivity'! (n F! 6all and F! .ernieri :eds;# 8nterpersonal !ensiti,ity: Measurement and Appli'ations. 6illsdale# NF8 =awrence Erl$au ! @@ .erry# "! S!# and 7cArthur# =! A! :3420; 'So e co ponents and con- se-uences of a $a$yface'! "ournal o Personality and !o'ial Psy'hology# +2# 13@-@1E 7cArthur# =! I!# and .erry# "! S! :342A; '*ross-cultural consensus in perceptions of $a$yfaced adults'! "ournal o Cross Cultural Psy'hology# 32# 3B04@! @1 Ei$i-Ei$esfeldt# (! :34A3; )o,e and *ate: The 9atural *istory o Beha,ior Patterns. New ?ork8 6olt# >inehart G ,inston! @+ *a p$ell# >!# ,allace# S!# and .enson# )! F! :344B; '>eal en don't look down8 direction of gaJe affects se& decisions on faces'! 7isual Cognition# 1:+;# 141-+3@! @0 6ess# E! :34A0; The Telltale Eye. New ?ork8 Van Nostrand >einholdE A$oyoun# "! *# and "a$$s# F! 7! :3442; 'The 6ess pupil dilation findings8 se& or novelty%' !o'ial Beha,iour and Personality# @B:+;# +30-34! @B )aul Ek an# personal co unication!

@A 7ontagu# A! :34A3; Tou'hing: The *uman !igni i'an'e o the !.in. New ?ork8 *olu $ia 5niversity )ressE =ockard# F! S!# and Ada s# >- 7- :342/; '*ourtship $ehaviors in pu$lic8 different ageDse& roles'! Ethology and !o'iobiology# 3# @+0-01E 7c*or ick# N! .!# and Fones# A! F! :3424; '9ender differences in nonver$al flirtation'! "ournal o !e1 Edu'ation and

1A@

N OT E S Therapy# 30:+;# @A3-2@ ! @2 )erper# T! :3420; Se& !ignals: The Biology o )o,e. )hiladelphia8 (S( )ressE 7urray# T! E! :3420; 'The language of singles $ars'! Ameri'an !pee'h# B/:3;# 3A-1/! @4 <re$s# F! >!# and "awkins# >! "! :342+; 'Ani al signals8 indreading and anipulation'! (n F! >! <re$s and N! .! "avies :eds;# Beha,ioral E'ology: An E,olutionary Approa'h. Sunderland# 7A8 SinauerE "a$$s# F! 7!# and 7allinger# A! :3444; '6igher testosterone levels predict lower voice pitch a ong en'! Personality and 8ndi,idual Di eren'es# %E# 2/3-+E *ollins# S! :@//3; '7en's voices and wo en's choices'! Animal Beha,iour# B/# AA1-2/! 1/ 7anes# F!# and ,olfson# N! :342/; 'The co pli ent for ula'! (n F! *oul as :ed!;# Con,ersational +outine. The 6ague8 7outon! See also 6er$ert# >! <! :344/; 'Se&-$ased differences in co pli ent $ehaviour'! )anguage in !o'iety# 34# @/3-@+E 6ol es# F! :3440; 0omen# Men and Politeness. =ondon8 =ong an! 13 "india# <!# and Allen# 7! :344@; 'Se& differences in self-disclosure8 a eta-analysis'! Psy'hologi'al Bulletin# 33@# 3/B-@+! 1@ 9ra er# <! :344/; 'Strangers eet8 laughter and non-ver$al signs of interest in opposite-se& encounters'! "ournal o 9on,erbal Beha,ior# 3+:+;# @/4-1B! 11 )rovine# >! >! :@///; )aughter: A !'ienti i' 8n,estigation. =ondon8 )enguin! 1+ 9ra er# <!# and Ei$l-Ei$esfeldt# (! :344/; 'The ritualiJation of laughter'! (n ,! A! <och :ed!;# 9aturli'h.eit der !pra'he und der $ultur. .ochu 8 .rock eyer! 10 )rovine# >! >! :@///; )aughter: A !'ienti i' 8n,estigation. =ondon8 )enguin! 1B 7oore# 7! 7! :3442; 'Nonver$al courtship patterns in wo en8 reHection signalling an e pirical investigation'! !emioti'a# 332:1D+;# @/3-6 ! A 9ra er# <!# <riick# <! .!# and 7agnusson# 7! S! :3442; 'The courtship dance8 patterns of nonver$al synchroniJation in opposite-se& encounters'! "ournal o 9on,erbal Beha,ior# @@:3;# 1-@A! 12 .ernieri# F! F!# and >osenthal# >! :3443; '(nterpersonal coordination8 $ehavior atching and interactional synchrony'! (n >! S! Feld an and .! >i e :eds;# Fundamentals o 9on,erbal Beha,ior. *a $ridge8 *a $ridge 5niversity )ress!

=aFrance# 7! :34A4; 'Nonver$al synchrony and rapport8 analysis $y the coss-lag panel techni-ue'! 0ocDaD Psy'hology ?uarterly# +@# BB-A/E

14

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.avelas# F! .!# .lack# A!# =e ery# *! >!# and 7ullett# F! :342A; '7otor i icry as pri itive e pathy'! (n N! Eisen$erg and F! Strayer :eds; Empathy and its De,elopment. *a $ridge8 *a $ridge 5niversity )ressE .ernieri# F! :3422; '*oordinated ove ent and rapport in teacher-student interactions'! "ournal o 9on,erbal Beha,ior# 3@# 3@/12E "iHksterhuis# A! :@///; 'Auto atic social influence8 the perception$ehavior link as an e&planatory echanis for $ehavior atching'! (n F! Forgas and <! "! , illia s :eds;# !o'ial 8n luen'e: Dire't and 8ndire't Pro'esses. )hiladelphia8 )sychology )ress! +/ .eattie# 9! :3422; The Candarel Guide to Bea'h 0at'hing. 6ove8 >a $letree! +3 .uss# "! 7!# and Shackelford# T! <! :344A; 'Fro vigilance to violence8 ate retention tactics in arried couples'! "ournal o Personality and !o'ial Psy'hology# A@# 1+B -B 3 E .uss# "! :@///; The Dangerous Passion: 0hy "ealousy 8s as 9e'essary as )o,e and !e1. =ondon8 .loo s$ury! +@ 9off an# E! :34A3; +elations in Publi'. 6ar ondsworth8 )enguin! +1 9ivens# "! .! :3421; )o,e !ignals: *o( to Attra't a Mate. New ?ork8 *rownE )erper# T! :3420; !e1 !ignals: The Biology o )o,e. )hiladelphia8 (S( )ress!

#0 . Tells

L=*n+

3 Feld an# >! S!# Forrest# F! A!# and 6app# .! >! :@//@; 'Selfpresentation and ver$al deception8 do self-presenters lie ore%' Basi' and Applied !o'ial Psy'hology# @+:@;# 3B1-A/! @ "e)aulo# .! 7!# Epstein# F! A!# and ,yer# 7! 7! :3441; 'Se& differences in lying8 how wo en and en deal with the dile a of deceit'! (n 7! =ewis and *! Sarrni :eds;# )ying and De'eption in E,eryday )i e. New ?ork8 9uilford )ressE "e)aulo# .! 7!# <ashy# "!# <irkendol# S! E!# ,yer# 7! 7!# and Epstein# F! A! :344B; '=ying in everyday life'! "ournal o Personality and !o'ial Psy'hology# A/:0;# 4A4-40E Feld an# >! S!# Forrest# F! A!# and 6app# .! >! :@//@; 'Self-presentation and ver$al deception8 do self-presenters lie ore%' Basi' and Applied !o'ial Psy'hology# @+:@;# 3B1-A/! 1 Feld an# >! S!# To asian# F! *# and *oats# E! F! :3444; 'Nonver$al deception a$ilities and adolescents' social co petence8 adolescents with higher social skills are $etter liars'! "ournal o 9on,erbal Beha,ior# @1:1;#

@1A-+4E <ashy# "!# and "e)aulo# .! 7! :344B; ',ho lies%' "ournal o Personality and !o'ial Psy'hology# A/:0;# 3/1A-03 ! + "e)aulo# )! F!# and "e)aulo# .! 7! :3424; '*an atte pted deception $y

1A+

N OT E S salespersons and custo ers $e detected through nonver$al $ehavioral cues%' 5ournal o Applied !o'ial Psy'hology# 34# 300@-AA! 0 Ek an# )! :@//3; Telling )ies. New ?ork8 ,! ,! Norton! B Ek an# )! :@//3; ($id! A 7c*or ack# S! A!# and )arks# 7! >! :344/; ',hat wo en know that en don't8 se& differences in deter ining the truth $ehind deceptive essages'! "ournal o !o'ial and Personal +elationships# E# 3/A32E 7illar# 7! *# and 7illar# <! :3440; '"etection of deception in fa iliar and un- fa iliar persons8 the effects of infor ation restriction'! "ournal o 9on,erbal Beha,ior# 34:@;# B4-2+! 2 .urton# S! :@///; 8mpostors: !i1 $inds o )iar. =ondon8 Viking! 4 Ek an# )! :@//3; Telling )ies. New ?ork8 ,! ,! Norton! 3/ VriH# A! :@//3; Dete'ting )ies and De'eit. *hichester8 Fohn ,iley! 33 Seager# )! :@//3; '( proving the a$ility of individuals to detect lies'! 5npu$lished )h!"! thesis# 5niversity of 6ertfordshire! 3@ <rauss# >! 7! :3423; '( pression for ation# i pression anage ent# and nonver$al $ehaviors'! (n E! T! 6iggins# *! )! 6er an and 7! Ianna :eds;# !o'ial Cognition: The Ontario !ymposium# Vol! 3! 6illsdale# NF8 Erl$au ! See also8 VriH# A!# and Se in# 9! >! :344B; '=ie e&perts' $eliefs a$out nonver$al indicators of deception'! "ournal o 9on,erbal Beha,ior# @/# B0-2/E Anderson# "! E!# "e)aulo# .! 7!# Ansfield# 7! E!# Tickle# F!F!# and 9reen# E! :3444; '.eliefs a$out cues to deception8 indless stereotypes or untapped wisdo '# 5ournal o 9on,erbal Beha,ior# @1# BA-24E VriH# A! :@//3; Dete'ting )ies and De'eit. *hichester8 Fohn ,iley! 31 VriH# A! :@//3; Dete'ting )ies and De'eit. *hichester8 Fohn ,iley! 3+ Ek an# )!# and Friesen# ,! V! :34B4; 'Nonver$al leakage and clues to deception'! Psy'hiatry# 1@# 22-3/B! 30 6irsch# A! >!# and ,olf# *! F! :3444; 'A case e&a ple utiliJing practical rnethods for detecting endacity'! A7A Annual 7eeting# ,ashington# "* PA$stractQ# N>0/08 @/2E 6irsch# A! >!# and ,olf# *! F!# :@//3; ')ractical ethods for detecting endacity8 a case study'! "ournal o the Ameri'an A'ademy o Psy'hiatri' )a(# @4:+;# +12-++! 3B "avis# <! :3444; '*linton and the truth8 on the nose%' /!A Today# 34 7ay# +E "ri$$en# 7! :@//@; '(n your face'! The Philadelphia 8n;uirer# 34 Octo$er! 3A .irdwhistell# >! :3400; '" o gestures speak louder than words%'

Collier6s# + 7arch# 0B-A ! 32 Ek an# )! Norton! 3 4 Ek an# )!# when 'ying'! "ournal o )! :@//3; Telling and

:@//3; Telling )ies. New ?ork8 ,! ,! Friesen# ,! V# and O'Sullivan# 7! :3422; 'S iles Personality and !o'ial Psy'hology# 0+# +3+-@/E Ek an# )ies. New ?ork8 ,! ,! NortonE Frank# 7!# Ek an# )!#

375

T6 E TE==S

.OO <

O F

Friesen# ,! :3441; '.ehavioral arkers and recogniJa$ility of the s ile of enHoy ent'! "ournal o Personality and !o'ial Psy'hology# B+:3;# 2141! @/ 6aggard# E! A!# and (saacs# <! S! :34BB; '7icro o entary facial e&pressions as indicators of ego echanis s in psychotherapy'! (n =! A! 9ottschalk and A! 6! Auer$ach :eds;# Methods o +esear'h in Psy'hotherapy. New ?ork8 Appleton-*entury-*roftsE Ek an# )!# and O'Sullivan# 7! :3443; ',ho can catch a liar%' Ameri'an Psy'hologist# +B# 431-@/! @3 Frank# 7! 9!# and Ek an# )! :344A; 'The a$ility to detect deceit gener- aliJes across different types of high-stake lies'! "ournal o Personality and !o'ial Psy'hology# A@# 3+@4-14! @@ 6r*C, A. D&00#E 2b*d. @1 Anoli# =!# and *iceri# >! :344A; 'The voice of deception8 vocal strategies of naive and a$le liars'! "ournal o 9on,erbal Beha,ior# @3:+;# @04-2+! @+ Ek an# )! :@//3; Telling )ies. New ?ork8 ,! ,! Norton! @0 "e)aulo# .! 7! :344+; '"eception'! (n T! 7anstead and 7! 6ewstone :eds;# Bla'.(ell En'y'lopaedia o !o'ial Psy'hology# pp 3B+2! O&ford8 .lackwell!

## . Tells

Fore*+n

3 *ha $ers# F! :34A1; '*anadian rising'! Canadian "ournal o )inguisti's# 32# 331-10E )enner# )!# and 7c*onnell# >! :342/; )earning English. Toronto8 9age )u$lishing! @ .ell# A! :344A; 'The phonetics of fish and chips in New Iealand8 ark- ing national and ethnic identities'! English 0orld&0ide# 32:@;# @+1-A/E Scott# A! ,# and Starks# "! :@///;' NNo-one sounds like us%N A co parison of New Iealand and other southern he isphere Englishes'! (n A! .ell and <! <uiper :eds;# 9e( @ealand English. ,ellington8 Victoria 5niversity )ress! 1 *ollett# )!# and *ontarello# A! :342A; '9esti di assenso e di dissenso'! (n )! >icci .itti :ed!;# Communi'a4ione e Gestualita. 7ilano8 Franco AngeliE *ollett# )! :3441; Foreign Bodies: A Guide to European Mannerisms& )ondon: Si on G Schuster! + 7orris# "!# *ollett# )!# 7arsh# )!# and O'Shaughnessy# 7! :34A4;

Gestures: Their Origins and Distribution. =ondon8 Fonathan *ape! 0 *ollett# )! :3441; Foreign Bodies: A Guide to European Mannerisms& =ondon8 Si on G Schuster! B *ollett# )! :3421; '7ossi salutations'! !emioti'a# +0:1D+;# 343-@+2! A .ulwer# F! :3B++; Chirologia: or the 9atural )anguage o the *and. =ondon!

1AB

N OT E S 2 Ieldin# T! :3422; The Fren'h. =ondon8 *ollins 6arvill! 4 *ollett# )! :3441; Foreign Bodies: A Guide to European Mannerisms. =ondon8 Si on G Schuster! 3/ 6illary# E! :3444; 7ie( rom the !ummit. =ondon8 "ou$leday! 33 Ek an# )! :342@; Emotion in the *uman Fa'e. *a $ridge8 *a $ridge 5niversity )ress! 3@ .irdwhistell# >! :34A/; $inesi's and Conte1t. New ?ork8 .allantine! 31 Seaford# 6! ,! :3423; '7a&i iJing replica$ility in descri$ing facial $ehavior'! (n A! <endon :ed!;# 9on,erbal Communi'ation# 8ntera'tion# and Gesture. The 6ague8 7outon! 3+ *ollett# )! :3441; Foreign Bodies: A Guide to European Mannerisms. =ondon8 Si on G Schuster! 30 Ieldin# T! :3422; The Fren'h. =ondon8 *ollins 6arvill! 3B IaHonc# >! .!# 7urphy# S! T# and (nglehart# 7! :3424; 'Feeling and facial efference8 i plications of the vascular theory of e otions'! Psy'hologi'al +e,ie(# 4B# 140-+3B! 3A Strack# F!# 7artin# =!# and Stepper# S! :3422; '(nhi$iting and facial con- ditions of the hu an s ile8 a nono$trusive test of the facial feed$ack hypothesis'! "ournal o Personality and !o'ial Psy'hology# 0+# AB2-AA! See also *appella# F! N! :3441; 'The facial feed$ack hypothesis in hu an inter- action8 review and speculation'! "ournal o )anguage and !o'ial Psy'hology# 3@# 31-@4 E 7clntosh# "! N! :344B; 'Facial feed$ack hypothesis8 evidence# i plications# and directions'! Moti,ation and Emotion# @/# 3 @ 3 W A ! 32 =ehtonen# F!# and SaHavaara# <! :3420; 'The silent Finn'! (n "! Tannen and 7! Saville-Troike :eds;# Perspe'ti,es on !ilen'e. Norwood# NF8 A$le&! 34 9olding# ,! :340+; )ord o the Flies. =ondon8 Fa$er G Fa$er! @/ *ollett# )! :3441; Foreign Bodies: A Guide to European Mannerisms. =ondon8 Si on G Schuster! @3 Anon! :3023; A Treatise o Daun'es. =ondon! @ Efron# "! :34+@; Gesture and En,ironment. New ?ork8 <ings *rown )ress! @1 Efron# "! :34+@; ($id!

@+ 7orris# "!# *ollett# )!# 7arsh# )!# and O'Shaughnessy# 7! :34A4; Gestures: Their Origins and Distribution. =ondon8 Fonathan *ape! @0 *ollett# )! :342@; '7eetings and isunderstandings'! (n S! .ochner fed!;# Cultures in Conta't. O&ford8 )erga on! @B *ollett# )! :3441; Foreign Bodies: A Guide to European Mannerisms. =ondon8 Si on G Schuster!

1AA

THE .OO< OF TE==S

#& . Tells

S<ok*n+

3 6atsuka i# "!# 7organ# S! F# )ickens# >! ,!# and 6ughes# F! >! :342A; 'S oking topography in a nonla$oratory environ ent'! 8nternational "ournal o the Addi'tions# @@:2;# A34-@0E 7iller# )! 7!# Fredrickson# =! ,!# and 6artford# >! =! :34A4; 'Social interaction and s oking topography in heavy and light s okers'! Addi'ti,e Beha,ior# +# 3+A-01! @ Napier# F! >! :34B@; 'The evolution of the hand'! !'ienti i' Ameri'an# @/A:B;# 0BB@! 1 <lein# >! :3440; Cigarettes Are !ublime. =ondon8 )icador! See also Starr# 7! E! :342+; 'The 7arl$oro an8 cigarette s oking and asculinity in A erica'! "ournal o Popular Culture# 3A:+; +0-0A! + "anesi# 7! :3444; O Cigarettes# *igh *eels# and Other 8nteresting Things. =ondon8 7ac illan! 0 6yllien ark# 9! :342B; 'S oking as a transitional o$Hect'! British "ournal o Medi'al Psy'hology# 04# @B1-A ! B >evell# A! "!# ,ar$urton# "! 7!# and ,esnes# <! :3420; 'S oking as a coping strategy'! Addi'ti,e Beha,iors# 3/# @/4-@+! A 7cArthur# *# ,aldron# E!# and "ickinson# F! :3402; 'The psychology of s oking'! "ournal o Abnormal and !o'ial Psy'hology# 0B# @BA-A0E 6owe# 7!# and Su erfield# A! :34A4; 'Orality and s oking'! British "ournal o Medi'al Psy'hology# 0@# 20-4/! 2 Thackeray# ,! 7! :320B; !.et'hes and Tra,els in )ondon. =ondon8 .rad$ury G Evans! 4 <lein# >! :3440; Cigarettes Are !ublime. =ondon8 )icador! 3/ =o $ardo# T# and *arreno# =! :342A; '>elationship of Type A $ehavior pattern in s okers to car$on ono&ide e&posure and s oking topography'! *ealth Psy'hology# B:0;# ++0-0@ ! 33 )ease# A! :344A; Body )anguage. =ondon8 Sheldon )ress! 3@ 9il$ert# "! 9! :3440; !mo.ing: 8ndi,idual Di eren'es# Psy'hopathology# and Emotion. =ondon8 Taylor G FrancisE *anals# an F!# .lade# F-# N "o enech# E! :344A; 'S oking and personality predictors a ong young Swedish people'! Personality and 8ndi,idual Di eren'es# @1:0;# 4/0-2E Acton# 9! S! :@//1; '7easure ent of i pulsivity in a hierarchical odel of personality traits8 i plications for su$stance use'! !ubstan'e /se and Abuse# in press! 31 6elgason# A! >!# Fredrikson# 7!# "y$a# T# and Stein$eck# 9!

:3440; '(ntroverts give up s oking ore often than e&traverts'! Personality a N N 8ndi,idual Di eren'es# 32# 004B/! 3+ 9olding# F! F! and 7angan# 9! F! :342@; 'Arousing and dearousing

1A2

N OT E S effects of cigarette s oking under conditions of stress and ild sensory isolation'! Psy'hophysiology# 34# ++4-0BE 7angan# 9! ># and 9olding# F! F! :342+; The Psy'hopharma'ology o !mo.ing. *a $ridge8 *a $ridge 5niversity )ress! 30 )arrott# A! *! :3442; 'Nes$itt's )arado& resolved% Stress and arousal odulation during cigarette s oking'! Addi'tion# 41# @A-14 E )arrott# A! *! :3444; '"oes cigarette s oking 'ause stress%' Ameri'an Psy'hologist# 0+:3/;# 23A-@/!

#!. Telltales
3 Si ons# "!# and =evin "! :3442; 'Failure to detect changes to people during a real-world interaction'! Psy'honomi' Bulletin K +e,ie(# 0# B++-4! @ TruJJi# 7! :34A1; 'Sherlock 6ol es8 applied social psychologisf! (n 7! TruJJi :ed!;# The *umanities as !o'iology. *olu $us# O 6 8 *harles E! 7errill! 1 "oyle# A! *! :3243; 'A case of identity'! (n ,! S! .aring-9ould :ed!; :34BA;# The Annotated !herlo'. *olmes. New ?ork8 *larkson N! )otter! + Napier# F! >! :34A1; Big oot: The >eti and !as;uat'h in Myth and +eality. =ondon8 E! )! "utton! 0 7urphy# S! T!# and IaHonc# >! .! :3441; 'Affect# cognition# and awareness8 affective pri ing with opti al and su$opti al sti ulus e&posures'! "ournal o Personality and !o'ial Psy'hology# B+# A@1-14! B "i $erg# 5!# Thun$erg# 7!# and El ehed# <! :@///; '5nconscious facial reactions to e otional facial e&pressions'! Psy'hologi'al !'ien'e# 3 3 # 2B-4!

(nde&
A$origines 1/2 acco odation B3-@ action :sending se&ual essages; @+2-4 actions# and nationality 1/4-3/ activity tells 04 adaptors @@2# @@4-13#@B4 # @43 'adoring wife' role 3++A adulation 3++-A affection# pu$lic displays of @/A-2 Africa 13/-33 African A ericans B+# 133 aggression 3+A-0+# @1+ agonistic stare 0B agree ent arker 330 A("S sufferers @/4 Ala$a a# 5niversity of 3B4 alerting signals 3/A Allen# ,oody 2A A ericans 1/2# 1/4# 131 13+-0 Andrew# )rince 342 anger 1//-3 Anne# )rincess >oyal 342# 344 Anne# Lueen @/A Annie *all 2A anthropo orphic insults 301 antithesis# principle of A3-1 anvil posture +0 an&iety tells @2# @3@# @34-+1 #

2935 345
appease ent BA# 3+3-@ applause 3++-0 approach tells @01-B Arafat# ?asser 3AA-2 Argentinians 1@B ar s aki $o posture +A-03 ar grip A4 $andoleer posture A4 crossing A4# @AB in handshaking 3A+-B raised A+ splayed @+2 swinging 31@-1# @B@ used in gesticulation 1@@ waving 3B+ asides @31 123

T6E .OO< OF TE==S Atkinson# 7a&# Our Masters6 7oi'es 3++ attached tells 3@ attack# responses to @@/ atte pt-suppressing strategies 33+ attentiveness display 3/B Attlee# *le ent 301 attractors 33A-2 Australians B0# 1/2# 131# 1@1 auto-contact EE autono ous tells 33-3@ availa$ility @+4-01 $a$ies A2-4 $a$oons 14# +@# 04-B/# 3+@-1 $a$y face @B0 $ack# arching @B/ $ack of $ody# attention to 34+-0 $ack-channel signals and $ackcalling 3/0# 3/A# 33+-30# 3@3# 3B@# 343#13A#13 2 negative $ack-channel 3/2# 3B3-@ .alJac# 6onore de +B .ar$ie "oll strategies @04 Basi' 8nstin't @02 .eattie# 9eoffrey @A2 $eauty# notions of @+0-B .elgians 131# 1@0# 1@B Belgrano 1// .ell# *harles @14 .enn# Tony 30/ $ent-leg hold 113 # 11@ $ent $lade stance AB# 3@+-0 '.igfoot' 10@ .irdwhistell# >ay @+2# @4+# 13+ .is arck# Otto von 1/1 .lair# *herie 3+0# A+B .lair# Tony 310# 31B# 3+0# A+B# 3A0#@3@#@@3#1 0 + $lood# flow to $rain 13B $lushing @3 # @@# @0# 1+# 41B# @3+#@@3#10 @ $ody @++-2 orientation 03-1# 3+@# @2@ $ody ar our @@+ $ody-$uilders 311 .ogart# 6u phrey J<<# 1+B $oredo signals 02 .osan-uet# >eginald 3B/ $ows and curtseys 3BB .raJilians 1@B $reathing heavy or shallow @2# @@@+ rate @24 .ritish 1@0# 1@B and cheek-kissing 131 and gesture 1@3-@# 1@B and handshake 133 and s iling 130 and V-sign 1@+-0 $roadcasting @0@1 .runo# Frank 330 .ull# )eter 300 .ulwer# Fohn @4# 3BB .urkina Faso B4-A/ .urton# >o$ert @B0 Anatomy o Melan'holy @+A .ush# 9eorge# Sr 11# 3@2# 3B/ .ush# 9eorge ,! 3@2# 3@4# 31+-0# 31B# 3B3# 3B@# 3A0# 32@-1#@2@ .uss# "avid @+0-B $uttonholing 33B-3A $uttress stance 3@+# 3@0-B

12@

(N"EO *aesar# Fulius @B *alifornia State 5niversity# Fullerton @10 *alifornia# 5niversity of# San Francisco @1 calling 3B+ *a p "avid eeting 310 *a p$ell# >uth @BB *anadians 1/2# 1/4# 131 *aro# 7ike 31-3+ carrying angle 31@ *arter# Fi y 3@4# 31A *aspers# Fohanneke 33@ *astiglione# .aldassare# The Boo. o the Courtier @/3 *astro# Fidel 31/-3 # 3AA catapult posture @1+ *atherine de 7edici# Lueen 1@@ *ha $erlain# Neville @2A-2 *hance# 7ichael 2+ change $lindness 1+2-4 *haplin# ,illia 3B4 *harles# )rince of ,ales LG# 342# 344-@//#@/@-1#@/0 # @/2#@3/-31#@3A#@32#@ A 2 chest# e&panding @+4 *hesterfield# Earl of 3/1 chi panJees 1B-A # BA# B4# 22-4# 312 chin uscles 31B shape 01 stroking @@A# @@2 *hina @BB *hinese 1@B *hirac# Fac-ues 1+B chopping 30/ *hurchill# ,inston 30@# 301 *(A 31/-3 cigarettes e&haling 1+3-@ lighting ritual 11B as props 112-4# 1+1 ways of holding 1@4-10# 1+3 see also s oking circu locution 1/@ *linton# .ill %HI de$ate with .ush 11 denial 1/1 handshake 3AA-4 health 3@2 and 6illary 3+0# @2@ at =a$our )arty conference 101-+ lip-$iting @0# 10+ nose-touching @41-+ oratorical devices 10+ 'o&$ow' outh 31B s ile 31A# 3A2# 10+ s okescreens 1/1 swallowing @12 walking style 31+ waving 3+A# 10+ *linton# 6illary 3+0# @2@ closure signals 343 *octeau# Fean 11A codpieces +@ cold insults 30@ *oleridge# Sa uel Taylor 33B-3A *oloureds :South Africa; B+ *olu $ia 5niversity# New ?ork @24-4/ co e-ons @0A# @AB co on tells @0-B # 100-B *o ons# 6ouse of# Luestion Ti e 3+3-@# 30/-3 co parisons 10/-3
121

T6E .OO< OF TE==S co pati$ility @AB-4 co pli ents @A1 co prehension arker 330 conch shell odel 132 conclusions# Hu ping to 10/ continuity talk 34@ contrastors 332-34 conversation 3/+-3@B and nationality 13B@/ and s oking 114-+ / coping strategies 112-4 *osta# 7!# 7enJani# 7! and >icci .itti# )! 21 coughing @12 counterfeit tells @10 courtship signals @+B-2# @2@1 see also lovers# signals $etween *oward# Noel 11+ cradle posture @1/+ crane posture @/+ crotch-yank ++ crying @+-0 *u$a 3AA cuff-link fiddle @3/-3@# @31 *urtis# Tony @+A cut-off 2+# 3+1 "anes 1@B "arwin# *harles 2/# @30# @01# 1+4 and $lushing 41-+# 40 The E1pression o the Emotions in Man and Animals A3-@ "avid# Fac-ues-=ouis @A "ay# >o$in 3B/-3 "e 9aulle# *harles 1+B "ean# Fa es 1+B defensive tells A0A deflectors 332 "e)aulo# .ella @2B# 1/0 "iana# )rincess of ,ales @A# @/2-3/#@31-3B#@ A 2 "i $erg# 5lf 101 di orphis # se&ual @03 "inkins# "avid 1/1 disclai ers 1/+ displace ent activities 04# 3B0# @3/-31#@@A - 2 "israeli# .enHa in 30@# 324 distance signals 3B+-0# @//1 dogs $ody orientation of 0@# 3+@ do inance and su$ ission in A3-@ do inance 1B-A/# A3 # 302# 3 A@# 34B# 344# @+4# 1+/-3 drinking gestures 1@0-B "uchenne de .oulogne# 9uillau e# Me'anisme de la physionomie humaine 4/-3 "uncan S ith# lain 31/ "uncan# Starkey 333 "utch 131# 1@B earlo$e ru$ @3@-31# @@A EastEnders 1+B Eastern Europe 3A4 Eastwood# *lint 00# J<<# 1+0 Eden# Anthony 304 Edward the *onfessor# <ing @/A Edward# )rince 342 Edward V(((# <ing :later "uke of ,indsor; 34A#@/@#@/ B Efron# "avid A+# 1@1 Eisenhower# "wight "! 3A+ Ek an# )aul @1# @B2# @4B# 1//#1/0#13 +

12+

(N"EO el$ows +B-03 tucking in A+# 1@1 EliJa$eth (# Lueen @/3 EliJa$eth ((# Lueen BB# 342# 344#@/3-@#@/1#@/+#@/ B # @/2 EliJa$eth# Lueen# the Lueen 7other 34A-2# @/4 e asculating insults 30@ e $arrass ent @@# 41-B e otions 01 English see .ritish Eras us# "esiderius +2# 321 European *ha pionship :344B;@1/-3 evaluation talk 34@ e&posed wrist display @B+# 11+# J<< e&traverts and introverts 1+@ eye-flicker @0+-0 eye-lock @0+ eye-shuttle 20 eye$rows plucked 0+ raising or lowering 0+# A1-A+# 2B-2# 3B+# @// eyes 21-B averting @4 /- 3 # 1/0 $linking @1A# @24# @4/-3 eye-cover @@4 eye-dip 2+-0 eye-flash @A# 33+# 3B3 eye-puff or narrowing 0+# 00#20 # 3B3# 3B+# 342# @//#@3+#@B0 #@BA- 2 gaJing intently @4/ glancing fro side to side :shuttle; 20 hooded @BA-2 looking sideways @1B# @BA and lying @24# @4/ pupil dilation @3-@ # @BB-A# 10@ and se&ual signals @0+-0# @B+-2 shifty @24# @4/ and s iling 4/-3 winking 314# @+0 wiping 33 # @/

*a'e ells 53675 23467

actions 01- + attri$utes 01- + e&pressions 1+# 01# @+2-4# 101 face-cover @@4# 112 facial decoy @A3 and nationality 13+-3B straight @4B touching @@2 Falklands war 1// false tells @ 3 # @1-0 farewells 324# 340 ausse sortie 341- + F"> J<< fear AB# 4@# 1// feet 3@@-B adHusting @4@ e&tended @+2 tapping @A-2 # @@0 Feld an# >o$ert @2+ Ferguson# Ale& @+/ fight or flight @@1 fight# flight and freeJe @@/# @@+-A figure four posture +0 fillers# ver$al 3@3-@ fingers 3+4 Finns 13A# 1@B flanking 3+@
120

T6E .OO< OF TE==S

*la e"/ 996103 *la e"/ "a3 996100

flight refle& 30/ flirting @0A-2 Flockhart# *alista @+0 Fonda# Fane J<< foot$all @ 1 / W # %J%&J# @+/ Ford# 9erald 301 foreign tells 331# 1/A@A foretells 3A+ for ality 1/+ Frank# 7ark @41-+ # 1// freeJing AB French A0# 32B# 133-3@# 131# 130-3A#1@@ # 1@0-B Freud# Sig und @1# 114 friendliness 31A-4# 34A@// frowning @AB 9allagher# Ti othy 3+/-3 9ar$o# 9reta @B2 gaJe# patterns of BA-2 gender differences ar ove ent 31@-1# @B@ $reathing @@@-1 choice of partner @+0-B conversations 3/A# 33/ handshakes 3B2-4 interruptions 33/# 304 lying @2+-0 sensitivity to touch @A3 s iling 4@-1 s oking 11/-0# 11B use of 'you know' 3@3 see also enE wo en genitals

9eorge V(# <ing 34A#@/A 9er ans 133 # 130#13B# 1@3# 1@0# 1@B gestures see hands# gestures of Gimme !helter concert 0/ glasses playing with @@4 worn on head 20-B 9off an# Erving @23 9olding# ,illia 132 The Good# the Bad and the

Ugly 55
9ore# Al 32@-1 9ore# Tipper 32@ 9ra er# <arl and Ei$lEi$esfeldt# (renaus @A+0 9rant# 6ugh @A3 gratitude escalation 34@-1 9reeks 1/4# 13/# 1@1-0 greetings 3B1-40 in $usiness fir s B2 and nationality 13/-31 of respect 3B0-B of solidarity 3B0-B 9regory# Stanford B@# 3+/3 gripping 3+4 groo ing 42 groo ing talk 44-3/1 Groundhog Day 1+2 gu -chewing @+/ gut feelings @22 6ague# ,illia 31/ 6aile Selassie# E peror 3@2 hair

0&s3la/ !* 77
protecting @B# @@B genuine tells @3-1# B1 9eorge V# <ing 34A

*l&'1&#( 2555 263

lack of 31/ pulling @2 stroking A2# @@2# @43

3:6

(N"EO touching 3B0# @@A# @B4# @A3#@2@ 6all# Ferry LG hand$ags @/+ hands @@A-1+ cla y 3A/ clasping @/1# @@A dovetail A4 fidgeting with @24# @43 fra ing face @B4 gestures of @4# 331# 3+A-03 # 343#@@0# 132-@A on hips +B-03 holding @23-@ kissing 32+# 13@-31 pal press A4 pal s e&posed A+# 3B+ in pockets @/0# @32# @AB royal fa ily's ways of holding @/1-0 ru$$ing @43 steepling A4 sweating @24# 10/ in waistcoat @B- A and ways of holding cigarettes 1@4-10 see also handshakes handshakes 3B0# 3BBA@ huddled 3A0 and nationality 13/3@ open 3AB and personality 3B4 in politics 3A@4 position of hands 3A30 relocated 3A3#3A0- B royal @/B# @/A-2 secret 32 types 3B2-A@ hang-ons @0A# @AB 6arrigan# Finni# and O'*onnell# "ennis @10 6arris# Sandra 30+-0 6arry# )rince @/4# @3/ 6arvard 5niversity 1+24 head canting @A# A1# LG# 2@-1# @30# @B1-+#13@ clasp @1/ dip-toss 1/4-3/ head-cock 13@ kissing on 32+ lowering :dipping; 2/-@# 3B+#@BB# 13@ icro-nod 3B3 nodding 2@# 3/0-B# 3B+# 343#@B1# 1/4-3/ shaking 3/B# @AB# 1/4-3/ tossing1/4-3/ touching @@2 twisting @A# 312-4 6ealey# "enis 301 health tells 3@A-4 heart rate# increase in @@@# @24 6echt# 7! and =aFrance# 7!

:9690

hedges 3@/-@ height# physical 3@A-2# @3B helplessness A@# A+ 6enley# Nancy @/0-B 6enry ((# <ing of France 1@@ 6enry V(((# <ing <H# @3B# 130 6ep$urn# Audrey 314 hesitation 30# 10+ 6eston# *harlton 0A 6illary# Ed und 131 hind-hide tell 340 hips hands on +B-03 rolling @B@ 6irsch# Alan and ,olf# *harles

293
12A

T6E .OO< OF TE==S 6itler# Adolf @B# @2A 6ogarth# ,illia 1@3 6oggart# Si on @/3 6ol$ein# 6ans +2# +4# 130 hor ones @0B *ouse o Games 3+ 6oward# 7ichael 3B/ 6owe# Sir 9eoffrey 301# 30+ hugging @3# A4# 3B0# 3A42@# 34+#@3/ types of 3A4-2@ hu our 342-4 hy$rid e&pressions @30 hyperhidrosis 3A/# 10/ hyperventilation @@1-+ iconic hand gestures 3+A# 745 illu inations @+A-2# @+4 i patience @A-2 inactivity A0-B (ndia 2/ indignation A@ infidelity @A4-2/ ingratiation 3//-1# 322 strategies 3/3-1 insults# political 303-+ intention displays 13-@# 3/B# 343 intention ove ents 13-1 interactional synchrony @AB-A interpretation# failure of 1+4 interruptions 3/2-3/# 331-3+# 302-4#1@/ interviews# political 30+-B@ inti idation 3B3-@ introductions 32B-4 involuntary tells 1+ (rish 131# 13A (talians +1# A+# 32B#@BA# 1/4-3/#133#13A-@/#1@3# 1@1# 1@0-B Fackson# 7ichael ++ Fagger# 7ick 0/# LG# 33+ Fa es# ,illia @@1 Fapanese +2# 1@B Haws 0+# 00 dropping 3B+ Fews A+-0# 33/#1@@-1 Fohnson# =yndon .! 3+1# 301 Fohnson# Sa uel 13B-3A Fudges# .ook of 1/A Hustification talk 343-@ <eating# )aul BB# @/B <endon# Ada 4A <ennedy# .o$$y 3@4 <ennedy# Fac-ueline 3+0-A <ennedy# Fohn F! 3@4# 313# 3+A# GEJ# 3A+# 3A0-B <hrushchev# Nikita 3A0-B <innock# Neil 31/# 30B# 302 kissing 32@-B# @3/ in 30th-century England 321-+ at parting 34+ of $a$ies 3+@-1 on cheek 3@# 321# 32+-0# 131 feigned 320 as greeting 3B0# 3BB# 34+ hand 32+#13@-31 on head 32+ on lips 321-+ social 321-B# 131 types of 32+-B vacuu 320 vocalised 32B

122

(N"EO <issinger# 6enry 3B3 <lein# >ichard 111# 1+/ kneeling 3BB knuckles# displayed 111 <onopacki# Allen 3BA <oreans 1@B <rauss# >o$ert @24-4/ =a$our )arty 30@ =acey# >o$ert 344 =a $# *harles 33B-3A )arry $ing )i,e B@ laughter 22-4# 312# 3B+# 342# =loyd 9eorge# "avid 30@ local tells @B# 1@A looking tells BA-A/# @1B-A )ord o the Flies :9olding; 132 lordosis @B/ love# sy pto s of @A4 lovers signals $etween 3A# @AB-4 see also courtship signals =owen# Ale&ander @@+-0 =u ley# Foanna 314 lying @/# @@# @2+-1/B how to detect 1/0-B reasons for non-detection of @2B-4/ 7acArthur# 9eneral "ouglas +2# 3A@- + 7achiavelli# Niccolo# The Prin'e 310# @20 acho essages +@ -+ # +0 7ac illan# 6arold 30@# 3B/ acro-tells 3A 7ahl# 9eorge 1/ 7aHor# Fohn 30/-3 7anchester 5nited @+/ 7anes# Foan and ,olfson# Nessa @A1 7aoTse-tung# *hair an 3B2# 3AB 7aori people 1/2 7argaret# )rincess @/A 7ar&# 9roucho 2A2 asking @4B# @44 7assachusetts# 5niversity of @2+ ate-guarding# ate-retention @2/-3 eetings 3B+ e ories# locked-up @4

19962005235665249

in courtship @A+-B leaving tells 13 left-side advantage 3A+0 legs 3@@-B# 343 adHusting @4@ crossing AB-A# @@B-A# @02 e phasiJing length @04B/ spread apart @+2 lekking @03-@ =e on# Fack @+A =ewinsky# 7onica 31B# @12# @41# @4+# 1/1 =ewis# *arl @14 =incoln# A$raha 12# 3@2# 31+ lips $iting @+-0# @14# 10+ parted @B2# %E= pouting @00-B pursed 13+-30 and s iling 0B-A thin 0B touching @/ see also outhE s iling listening 3/0-2# 33@# 33+3B# 13A-@/

3:9

T6E .OO< OF TE==S en se&ual signals $y @+2 see also gender differences enstrual cycle @0@-1 icro-tells 3A-@/# @44-1/3 # 103 icro o entary e&pressions 32#11 7iddlese& 6ospital# A("S clinic @/4 7ilgra # Stanley @10-B irroring 13-@ 7itchell# =eslie 304 7itterrand# Francois 1+B i&ed essages +0- B 7onroe# 7arilyn @+A# @B2#

270

7oore# 7onika @0+# @AB 7oore# >oger 22 7ossi# E peror of B4-A/ outh 00# @1A-+ / cla ped 13+-30

narrow-casting @0@ nasal fold wipe @3@ Naunton# Sir >o$ert @/3 neck-show @B1# @B+# %E= negative e otions @4B negative state ents 1/1 New 9uinea +@# 303 New Iealanders 1/2 Nicolson# 6arold 342 NietJsche# Friedrich A/ Ni&on# >ichard 3@2-4# 313# 301# GEJ# 3A+# 3AB#@1A# 1/1 Norwegians 1@B nose# touching @24# @41-+ # 1/0 Nott# Fohn 3B/-3 Nottingha Forest foot$all clu$ 1@+ o$edience e&peri ents @10-B o$servation# failure of 1+4 O$sessive *o pulsive "isorder @A4 offensive tells 3+A-0+ Oprah 0in rey !ho( 32@1 oral phase 114 orbi'ularis o'uli uscles 43 # @1+ other-pro otion 44 outlining 1/@ overlap talk 3/+-0# 3/2-3/# 132 overlook tell 0B ownership signals @23 parallel stance + 3 # 3@1 paralysis# hysterical @2 )arker# .onnie 03 parting 324-40

'!2e" 2295 2925 295 dry @12 !u'%&#( 29263

opening when s iling 312 'o&$ow' 31B see also lipsE s iling mout4a 1@1- + ultiple tells 10/ 7urphy# Sheila 101 uscles# tension @@+-0 usculature 4 / - 3 # 311 7ussolini# .enito 3@2 nail-$iting @2# @14-+ / na e-dropping 33A-32 na es 32B-4 Napier# Fohn 10@ Napoleon (# E peror @B-A# 3@2

390

(N"EO party insults 30@ patting on $ack @ 3 # B0# 323@ )a& an# Fere y 3B/# 3B3 pecking order 1A )eel# >o$ert 30@ phallic displays +@ - + phallic sy $olis 11A phanto friends 3+A )hilip# )rince# "uke of Edin$urgh 34B# 342# 344# @/+#@/2#@ 3 2 pho$ias @2-4 phoney insults 301 )inocchio syndro e @41 pitch# vocal B@-0 play @+4 play face 22-4# 312 )lutarch @B poker 31-3+# 10+B politics 3@A-3B@ and handshakes 3A@4 insults 303-+ interviews 30+-B@ polygraph lie detector @24 )o pidou# 9eorges 1+B )orts outh 5niversity 1/@ )ortuguese 1@B possessiveness @2/-3 post-interpretations 3@/ posture 12-4# 3@@-B# @@+-A changing @@0# @+2# @02 atching @AB-2# 10@ is atching @A2 pouch posture @/0 pouting @00-B power 3A@-4 power grips 1@41/ pre-apologies 3@/ pre-interpretations 334-@/ precision grips 1@@# 1@4-1/

predictive tells 13-1 )resley# Elvis 3AB pretJel posture @@BA prodding 3+4 pro enading @03-1 pro otion tells @0A pronouns 33A )rovine# >o$ert 344# @A+# @A0 pu$lic speaking @+@ see also politics punching 3+4 put-downs @2/ put-offs @0A# @AB )utin# Vladi ir 0B-A Luayle# "an B@ -uestions 3/A closed and open 30+-0 ethods of dodging 300A -uick-step @B/-3 >a$in# ?itJhak 3AA-4 >ath$one# .asil 22 >ather# "an 3B/ >eagan# Nancy 3+0# 3+A >eagan# >onald Ford on 301 head-twist @A# 3124 health 3@2# 3@4 and Nancy 3+0 popularity 31+ s iles 31A# 3+A voice 314# 3+/ walking style 31@# 311 waving 3+A recognition 3B+-0# 324 failure of 1+4 >eich# ,ilhel @@+ reHection signals @AB# @A2# @4+ relationship signals 343

143

T6E .OO < OF TE==S rela&ation +B# B4 release pat @ 3 # 323@ relic tells B/# 1@B retreat tells 11 >icks# *hristopher 4+ ring# playing with 1/ ritual iJation 0@ >o$inson# Anne 0B >oosevelt# Franklin "! 3@2# J<<# 1+0 +ounders 3+ royalty 34B-@32 >u$ens# )eter >aul @+0 >ussians 133 # 1@B >utgers 5niversity @41 Sa uel# 6er$ert 30@ Scandinavians 131 scanning @03 Scheflen# Al$ert 33+ Schopenhauer# Arthur 103 scissors stance AB# 3@+-0# @@B scowling 101 scratching 3+4-0/ scrotch +1 Seaford# 6enry 13+-30 secret societies 3A-32 self-co forting tells AA-4# do inant faces and 0+ Sey our# Fane 130 Shakespeare# ,illia 1@3 Shaw# 9eorge .ernard @@A Sherlock 6ol es stories 103-@ shi$$oleths 1/A-4 shoulders l&* 270 lowering 1/3 raising A1# A+-0# @B+ shrugging @0# A@-0#21 # 333# 1@/ signature tells @0-A # 2A-2# 312-4# 3B3#@//#@30-3 B # 100-B see also trade ark tells Si ons# "aniel and =evin# "an 1+2-4 Si pson# ,allis :later "uchess of ,indsor; @/@ sitting 12# + / - 3 # ++-B # ABA siJe 3B-3A s aller# looking A0-B s iling @0-B# 00-A# 22-41# 31A-4# 3B+# 101 an&iously @1+-0 cla ped s iles 0A closed- outh 3A2 "iana's s iles @30 dipped @3+-30 drop-Haw s iles 31A-2 "uchenne s iles 4/-3

226695 33:
self-deprecation 44-3// self-directed $ehaviour @@2 self-disclosure @A1 sensory odalities 01 sentence# end of 33@ separation 324-4/ se&ual characteristics secondary @++-2# @0B# 11B tertiary @+2 se&uality @30# @++-21

*alse 91635 2976:5 300

gender differences 4@-1 and nationality 13+-30 open- outhed 3B+ pursed @3+# @3A sealed and cla ped 0A# 312

a2a&la7&l& / 249653

as sexual a33"!a'% 256 as s&(# !* l/&#( 2:95 2976:

392

(N"EO Spencer s ile @3+# @3A sy etry @42 turn-away s iles @30-3B# @BA types of 31A-2# @3+30 upward 10+ s oking @+/# 1@2+B $ackground 100 and $reast-feeding 114 and courtship signals 11B-A and ood 1+1-B and personality 1+/-1 topography of 1@2-4# 1+3@ see also cigarettes s ooth transitions 3/+# 333 s ugglers 1/3 softeners 334-@/ !ome )i.e 8t *ot @+A South Africa B+ Southgate# 9areth @1/-3 space# use of @B/-3 Spaniards 133 # 1@0B speech elody 33@ Spencer# Earl @3A standing tells +3-+ # AB# @+4 Stanford 5niversity# *alifornia 00 startle response A1 state an&iety @34 stealth tells @ / - 3 # 32@#@41 step postures ++0 Stephanopoulos# 9eorge 3AA-2 Stern# Fohn @1A Stevenson# Adlai 301 Stone# Sharon @02 stotting @B@ straddle stance +3-@ # <H# 3@+ straight-leg postures ++-0 stro$e glance @0+ stupidity insults 301 stuttering @+3@ Stylistics B+ su$ ission 1B-A# +B# A3-3/1# 3A@#@+4 supernor al sti uli 2B su$stitution tells AA-2 swallowing @12-4 sweating @ 3 # @1# @2# @@3-@# @24# 10/ Swedes 13A# 1@B ta$le# sitting around +/-3 ta$le anners 1/4 talk B3-@# 3/+-@B#@+/- 1 and $lood flow to $rain 13B in courtship @A@- + and lying 1/@-B and nationality 1/A-3/ pausing @+3 # @24# 1/+0 speed @+3 # @24#1/ + tall tells 1A-4 Taylor# EliJa$eth B@ teasing @2/ teeth 0+# B/ tell $lindness 1+4-03 telleology 10/-@ tell-suppressing tells @0# @+@1 tell-tales 1+A-0B tells# defined 3+-3A# 10+-0 tense# past 1/+ tension release tells 1/3 TenJing Norgay 131 ter ination signals 32@# 1@/ territorial tells 14-+3 Te&as# 5niversity of @+0 Thackeray# ,!7! 1+/ Thatcher# 7argaret @A# 33+# 33A# 3+/# 3+1# G<L# 30B# 302-4# 3B3# 1//-3 393

T6E .OO< OF TE==S thighs# pressed together @@B threat displays 1@# 04-B/# @2/3 threshold settings @22 threshold tells @3A-32 thu $# sucking @@4 thu $s-up gesture 1@1 tics @2 tie signs @23 tie tidy @3A-32 tie tuck @3@# @31# @32 Tiedens# =arissa 00 Tyson# 7ike 3B4 5krainians 1@0 undiscovered tells 3B unintention display 3/BA# 3@0#@@A 5nited Nations 3EE 5nited States of A erica 3@3# 3AA#1@B-A#10 + see also A ericans universal tells 1@A 5niversity *ollege# =ondon

&.e6l!'1e0 ells 2:69 ti e-shifted tells @4-1/ tongue flick 4A-2 tongue show 4B-A torso 3@1 touching @B4-A@ controlling 1@/ o$Hects @@2-4# @A3-@ others B0-B# AA-2# 42-4# @/0-3/#@@2#@A3#@23 sel* 77695 2276:5 2695 2:95

266
unprincipled insults 301 un-ualified insults 301 5ppsala 5niversity 101 urination @@A V-signs 1@+-0 Van *leef# =ee 00 vasoconstriction @41 Victoria# Lueen @/@ Victorians# and $lushing 4+-0 Virginia 13+-30 5niversity of @2B visual do inance B2-A/ voice B@-0# 314-+ 3 # @+/1 $reathiness 314-+/ pitch @+# @+ /- 3 # @A@-1# 1/0 volu e @+3 # @0@# @A@ VriH# Aldert 1/@ waistcoat# hand in @B- A ,ake (sland 3A@ walking 313-0# @04-B/# @B@-1 physical contact while @23 ,ashington# 9eorge @A# 31+# @20 ,ashington 5niversity# St =ouis @1A

112 Townsend# 9roup *aptain )eter @/A trade ark tells @B-A # 0B# @@A#

239
see also signature tells trait an&iety @34-@/ transfi& 33+ transitional o$Hects 112 transition tells 3B+-B transposed tells @A-1/ A Treatise o Daun'es 1@3 Tru an# .ess 3+0 Tru an# 6arry S 3+0# 3A@-+ tucked postures ++U0 Turks 1/4 turn-taking in conversation 3/+-3A# 304#132-@ /

394

(N"EO ,atergate affair 31B# @1A# 1/1 waving 3+A# 3B+#10+ ,ayne# Fohn B+# 1+B The 0ea.est )in. 0B ,e$ster# Stephen B@ ,einstein# Eugene 334-@/ ,elsh 131 whispering 3+/ ,ilde# Oscar 11+ ,illia # )rince @/4# @3/# @DA#@3B-3 2 ,ilson# 6arold 313-@ ,infrey# Oprah 32@-1 withdrawal 324-4/# 34+0 wo en and enstrual cycle @0@-1 se&ual signals $y @+B-21 see also gender differences word choice 1/1 ?ale 5niversity# o$edience e&peri ents @10-B yawning 1@# 02-B/# @AB types of 02-4 yo-yo pheno enon 341-+ ?ork 5niversity 300 youth displays @00 IaHonc# >o$ert 13B# 101 Ieldin# Theodore# The Fren'h 133#130 Jygo atic aHor uscles 4/-3#@1 0