Positive attitudes are not enough: Minority language survival in the Canadian Prairies

Jaya Nagpal & Elena Nicoladis University of Alberta - Canada Abstract We compared French speaking and South Asian (SA) immigrant families having preschool children in an nglish speaking region in Canada! "ith regard to the parents# attitudes to"ards minority language ($%) maintenance! $% use at home! and e&posure of children to $% media' (arents in both groups had positive attitudes about language maintenance! ho"ever! SA parents "ere less hopeful that their children "ould retain their $% and pass it on to their ne&t generations' SA parents made less effort to communicate "ith their children in the $% and provided less $% media for children at home! in comparison to their French counterparts' We discuss the results "ith respect to the relative position and utility of maintaining these minority languages in Canada and ho" these factors might influence parents# language choices' Key words) %anguage maintenance! %anguage shift! $inority languages' Introduction With a surge in immigrants from all parts of the "orld in recent decades! Canada has become an increasingly multicultural and multilingual nation (Statistics Canada! *++,)' -espite government policies that support the retention of their culture and language by minority groups ( d"ards! .//01 2oels 3 Cl4ment! .//0)! and positive attitudes to"ards multiculturalism in the population (5erry! .//*1 5erry 3 6alin! .//7)! minority groups have been sho"n to lose their language over the course of a fe" generations (Fishman! ./8*1 9eltman ./0:1 ;len 3 -e<ong! .//,)' =o"ever! a fe" minority groups have been more successful than others in maintaining their minority language ($%) across subse>uent generations' $a?ority language proficiency is essential for successful intercultural communication "ith the host nationals and "ith people from other ethnic groups in the host culture' $% proficiency facilitates contacts "ith the ethnic group members and aids psychological adaptation of immigrants (Ward! .//,)' (arents# attitudes to"ards $% survival! language of communication among family members! and language of the media for children! are some of the factors that are associated "ith $% survival in minority

group families' @n this study! "e compare $% retention in a native French-Canadian group to a South-Asian (SA) immigrant group in an nglish-speaking region of Canada' French and nglish "ere recogniAed as the official languages of Canada in ./0* "ith the adoption of Canadian Charter of Bights and Freedoms! "hich provided constitutional guarantee for language e>uality and $% education ($cBae! .//0)' Within the frame"ork of official bilingualism! Canada has a policy of official multiculturalism! "hich encourages ethnic groups to maintain their culture and develop as distinct groups and discourages assimilation' Che government of Canada (./8.) emphasiAed the importance of languages in achieving the ob?ective of a multicultural society through its commitment to preserve the use of languages other than French and nglish! and to strengthen the status and use of official languages of Canada (2oels 3 Cl4ment! .//0)' Besearch has sho"n that there is acceptance of multiculturalism and high tolerance for diverse cultural groups among the Canadian population as a "hole (see 5erry 3 6alin! .//71 6alin 3 5erry! .//7)' As a general rule! studies done "ith immigrant families have sho"n that parents hold positive attitudes to"ard maintaining their $% (Arnberg! ./081 %ao! *++D1 Stoessel! *++*1 Cannenbaum 3 =o"ie! *++:)' While parents in immigrant families realiAe the need to learn the ma?ority language by their children in order to adapt and succeed in the society! they also have positive affect to"ards their ethnic language "hich they "ant to pass on to their children (Stoessel! *++*1 Wyat-5ro"n! .//7)' -espite government policies that support the preservation of non-official languages! general positive attitudes to"ards multiculturalism in the population and positive attitudes for $% survival among parents in minority group families! most immigrant groups sho" a decline in the use of their ethnic language in the second and third generation (Castonguay! .//01 E#5ryan! BeitA! 3 6uplo"ska! ./8,)' Language shift %anguage shift has been defined as a shift from the habitual use of one language to another language and includes both intergenerational and intragenerational shift (-e9ries! .//D)' @mmigrant groups in 2orth America have typically follo"ed a threegeneration model of AngliciAation that "as formulated by <oshua Fishman (./8*) and Calvin 9eltman (./0:)' According to this model! first generation immigrants learn nglish but prefer to use their $% at home1 second generation immigrants gro" up as bilinguals! but they become more fluent in nglish and prefer to use nglish at home "ith their parents (%opeA! .//,)' As nglish becomes the main language spoken at home! third generation immigrants only have a fragmentary kno"ledge of their mother tongue (Fishman! ./8*1 9eltman! ./0:1 ;lenn 3 -e<ong! .//,)' $%#s are rapidly disappearing in subse>uent generations in the immigrant groups in the USA

(Fishman! .//.1 (ortes 3 Bumbaut! *++,1 Alba! %ogan! %utA 3 Stults! *++*1 WongFillmore! .//.) and urope ( &tra 3 9erhoeven! .///) and a similar trend has been sho"n for $%#s spoken by immigrant groups in Canada (Castonguay! .//0)' %anguage shift is not inevitable and can be buffered by a number of factors in the environment' Che language behavior of people can be placed on a continuum from e&clusive use of the $% to an e&clusive use of nglish! "here most people lie in bet"een (Stoessel! *++*)' @n the absence of ade>uate interaction opportunities in $% in the host culture! parents in immigrant families play a critical role in $% learning of their children (%ao! *++D1 %i! .///)' Speaking the $% to their children at home! providing $% media (Flege! Feni-6omshain 3 %iu! .///)! providing access to institutions that use $%! and enrolling children in $% programs are ?ust some of the "ays in "hich parents can prevent the language shift to nglish (6ondo! .//01 (ortes 3 =ao! .//01 Cse! *++.)' =aving opportunities to interact in the $% "ith family members! relatives and other people in the outside community can reduce language shift in immigrant communities (=ulsen! -e bot! 3 Weltans! *++*1 (ortes 3 =ao! .//0)' Fe"er opportunities for $% interaction and lack of media in $% have been sho"n to bring about rapid language shift (e'g' the -utch in 2e" Gealand) (=ulsen! -e bot! 3 Weltans! *++*)' Community organiAations like churches! clubs! and other ethnic group associations also play a significant role in language maintenance by motivating people to use the $% in various conte&ts (=inton! .///1 (ak! *++:)' Ene notable e&ception to the general rule of language shift is French in nglishma?ority parts of Canada! such as the (rairies' Across Canada! the French speaking population is concentrated in Huebec! parts of Entario and 2e" 5runs"ick! "hereas most of the other regions in Canada are primarily comprised of nglish-speaking population (Statistics Canada! *++,)' @n Anglophone regions in Canada! a large proportion of children in French speaking families are bilingual in French and nglish and French is the language commonly spoken in families (Aunger! .///)' French has survived in the (rairies for "ell over .++ years! due to the e&istence of Frenchlanguage institutions! a strong francophone identity and preference for bilingualism (Aunger! .///)' While studies have reported parents# positive attitudes about maintaining their $% in subse>uent generations! there is little research about "hat parents do to maintain their $%' @nformation about the language-use and behaviors in families can provide insight into "hat role the family plays in language maintenance in $% groups' Che purpose of this study "as to compare French-speaking parents living in Canada! "ith parents "ho immigrated from a South Asian country to Canada' We are interested in their attitudes to"ards maintaining their $%! use of $% at home as "ell as e&posure to $%

media at home' 5efore turning to the specific research >uestions! "e briefly describe the linguistic conte&t of the community in "hich the study "as carried out' The study Chis study "as carried out in the city of dmonton! Alberta! Canada! a city in the Canadian (rairies' dmonton is primarily an nglish-speaking region in Canada "here the mother tongue of 80I people is nglish! but //I of the population can speak nglish' French is the second most common language and is spoken by 8'8I people and *':I have French as their mother tongue' Ef the total population of dmonton! .'/I are of South Asian origin and are likely to have a South Asian language as their mother tongue' -ue to many languages spoken in South Asia! census data puts South Asian languages in the category of Jother languages#1 but .':I of people in dmonton reported (un?abi (language spoken in parts of @ndia and (akistan) as their mother tongue (all population statistics taken from Statistics Canada! *++,)' As mentioned earlier! French is an official language in Canada! and occupies a higher status than other $%s' 9arious provisions facilitate learning French outside of home' Chere are five elementary schools and t"o high school programs in dmonton aimed at teaching native French-speaking children' @n addition! dmonton has several French immersion programs! aimed at immersing nglish-speaking children in French' $ore than .7 schools in dmonton offer French immersion programs (http)KKdistrictsite'epsb'caKrootKSho"(rogram(rofile'cfmL(rogramM@-N7)' @n the nglish language schools! French is often taught as a core sub?ect for one period in a day or for several hours in a "eek' Chere are also facilities for preschool children in French (one day-care centre and several French day-homes1 as "ell as several parttime preschool programs)' Che University of Alberta also houses the Campus St' <ean! a French language university program (offering both undergraduate and graduate degrees)' dmonton is the capital of Alberta and many federal level departments are located in dmonton' Federal programs often re>uire functional bilingualism in French and nglish' @mmigrants from South Asia do not necessarily share a single common language' Some of the languages include =indi! Urdu! (un?abi! 5engali! Celugu and $arathi' Chere are no schools or preschools in South Asian languages that "e kno" about' =o"ever! due to a high number of immigrants from South Asia in dmonton! there is some support for learning South Asian languages in the community' Che public library stocks children#s books in =indi! 5engali! Urdu! and (un?abi (http)KK"""'epl'caK (%$aster'cfmL@-N5@%@2;UA%C=@+++.)' Chere are at least t"o $% Saturday schools for learning SA languages managed by South Asian community organiAations' @n addition! there are some informal activity classes for

children "here they can learn about their culture! traditions and religion and these are available in both nglish and South Asian languages' 5ilingualism is a part of life in South Asia and South Asians are likely to hold positive vie"s about bilingualism! ho"ever there are not many obvious economic benefits of kno"ing SA languages! compared to French in Canada' -ue to the distinctly different histories and status of French and South Asian languages in Canada! the benefits and thus the e&pectations for maintaining $%#s might be different' =o"ever! previous research has sho"n that parents in most immigrant groups e&pect and strive to maintain their $% in the ne&t generation' Research questions @n this study! "e "ill ask parents about language use in the day-to-day family interactions and e&posure to $% media for children at their homes' We compare t"o groups O French and SA immigrant groups in Canada! in order to understand some of the reasons for the success of French groups (relative to South Asians) in language maintenance in Canada' 5ecause there are French immersion schools but there are no schools for SA languages in dmonton! "e assumed that there "ould be differences in language attitudes and usage in families "ith school-aged children' For this reason! "e focused on the parents of preschoolers! bet"een * and 7 years of age' Che research >uestions for the study are as follo"s)

-o parents in French and South Asian families consider it important for their children to speak the language as adults and pass it on to their childrenL 5ased on the results of previous studies! "e e&pect that parents in both groups "ill "ant to retain their $% in subse>uent generations' -o parents in French and South Asian families use! and encourage their children to use their $% at home "hen interacting "ith other family membersL Eur sample comprises of *-7 year old children and so their language choices might be less affected by the outside community' @n the absence of influence of the outside community in children#s language choices! "e "ill e&pect that parents from both groups "ill encourage the use of $% in the day-to-day family interactions' Since most South Asians reported to be fluent in their $%! "e e&pect that they "ill use their $% as the main language of communication at home' @s there a difference in French and South Asian groups in the choice of language of media! like C9! books and videos for childrenL $ore e&posure to $% at home is related to higher rate of $% survival in minority groups (Flege! Feni-6omshian 3 %iu! .///1 (atterson! *++*) and one of the reasons for the

failure of SA parents to maintain their $% could be the lack of e&posure to $% media at home' Methods Participants Che sample comprised of parents of *-7 years old children from :D French speaking and :. South Asian immigrant families' $ost >uestionnaires "ere completed by the mothers "ith the e&ception of 7 >uestionnaires that "ere completed by fathers in our French sample and : that "ere completed by fathers in our SA sample' @n the French group there "ere .0 boys and .8 girls and the average age of the children "as :'7 years (S- N +'0 years)! and the average age of parents "as :7'7 years (S- N D'+ years)' All e&cept for t"o mothers in the French sample "ere married and they "ere living "ith their spouses' All French participants "ere Canadian citiAens and "ere born in Canada' For the French group! the mother tongue of participants "as either French or nglish! but only D7'7I of parents had the same mother tongue as their spouse' =o"ever! at least one of them had French as hisKher mother tongue' @n the French group ,+'+ I of mothers and :,'DI of fathers "ere fluent in French! .D':I of mothers and 7.'7 I of fathers "ere more fluent in nglish and the remaining "ere fluent in both nglish and French' $ore mothers (7,I) than fathers (:*':I) used French more fre>uently and :0'*I of mothers and ,8'8I of fathers reported to use nglish more fre>uently for their daily interactions' Che South Asian group "as comprised of immigrants from @ndia (*7 participants) and from (akistan (, participants)' @n the SA immigrant group there "ere .: boys and .0 girls! the average age of children "as D': years (S- N +'/ years) and the average age of parents "as :*'7 years (S- N *', years)' All e&cept one mother in the SA sample "ere married and living "ith their spouses' @n the SA sample most participants "ere Canadian citiAens (,*':I) (though not born in Canada) or permanent residents (:7'7I)' Enly one participant "as in Canada on a student visa' En average! mothers had been living in Canada for ,'+ years (S- N *'7 years) and fathers had been living in Canada for ,', years (S- N :'. years)' Che SA participants reported 8 different languages as their mother tongue and none of them reported nglish as hisKher mother tongue' All parents in the SA sample had the same mother tongue as their spouse' $ost South Asian parents reported to be more fluent in their $% (88'D I of mothers and ,D'7I of fathers) and the remaining SA participants reported to be fluent in both nglish and their $%' $ost SA participants (88'DI of mothers and ,D'7I of fathers) reported to use their $% more fre>uently than nglish and only :'*I of mothers and .,'.I of fathers said that they used nglish more fre>uently'

(articipants "ere contacted through daycares and also through sno"ball sampling' We gave the >uestionnaires! "ith clear instructions about ho" to ans"er the >uestions! and a consent form ("ith our contact information) to parents' We also provided a prestamped envelope addressed to the researcher so that parents could return the completed >uestionnaire through mail' (arents received a five dollar honorarium for completing the >uestionnaire' We estimated that it "ould take appro&imately half an hour for parents to complete the >uestionnaire' For the French participants! the >uestionnaires "ere available in French as "ell as in nglish! but for South Asian participants the >uestionnaires "ere available in nglish only' We did not prepare >uestionnaires in $% for the South Asian groups as the participants speak many different languages and it "ould have been difficult to construct >uestionnaires in all the different South Asian languages' Furthermore! most participants in the SA immigrant group can easily understand! read! and "rite in nglish' Questionnaire @n the >uestionnaires! "e collected information about each parents# mother tongue! the fre>uency and fluency of $% use (or nglish) as "ell as the number of years they have lived in Canada' Co gain information about parents# e&pectations and hopes that their $% "ould be maintained in subse>uent generations! "e asked parents "hat language they "ould "ant their children to use "ith their children and "hich language they thought their children "ould use "ith their children' We also asked "hat language parents thought that their children "ould use as adults' For >uestions about language use in the family! "e asked the respondents to fill out a chart detailing "hich language is used by each family member to each one of the other family members' We provided parents "ith a list of activities for children and asked parents to report "hich activities their children "ere involved in as "ell as the language used for each activity' @n order to fully understand children#s e&posure to media in the $%! "e asked parents about the proportion of $% use in some common activities such as books! C9 programs! and videotapes (see Appendi& for the >uestionnaire)' Results Expectations We compared the e&pectations about language maintenance in the t"o groups using Chi-s>uare tests' Che results are presented in percentages to make it easier to compare the t"o groups' 5oth groups of parents ans"ered similarly in response to the >uestion concerning "hich language they "ould like their children to speak "ith their children) neither group chose Jonly nglish#' A higher number of French parents than SA parents "anted their children to speak both languages to their children! "hich sho"s a preference for bilingualism in the French group! but the difference "as not significant

(p N '.:)' Chere "as! ho"ever! a noticeable difference in the parents# ans"ers to "hich language they thought their children "ould speak' French-speaking parents "ere more likely to respond both French and nglish "hile SA immigrant parents "ere likely to respond nglish (p P '+.)' 2one of the SA parents and only fe" of the French parents "ere hopeful that their children "ould speak mainly $% as adults' =o"ever! most French parents thought that their children "ould speak both French and nglish "hile most SA parents thought that their children "ould speak only nglish (Cable .)' Cable . Parents expectations about language use of children as adults
French $% %anguage they "ould like %anguage they think Speak as adults :8'7 .8'/ *'/ ng + :', .8', 5oth 7,': 80', 8/'D $% 77'* .+'+ + South Asian ng + ,+'+ ,+'+ 5oth :.'+ :+'+ D+'+ D'. *.'.. .*'7, '.: '++Q '++*Q Chi S>uare (

2EC ) For the language they "ould like their children to speak! the percentages do not add up to .++I as a fe" of the parents in both groups said that it is not important for them "hat language their children speak to their children'

Language use at home We asked parents "hat language they use to speak to their parents and in "hat language their children speak to them' @f more than one child "as in the house! "e asked parents about "hich language they used to talk to each child and also about "hich language children used to talk to each other' We found that relatively more parents in French! than in SA families spoke to their children in nglish' =o"ever! across both groups! the trend "as similar and most parents spoke to their children in their $%' Chere "as a difference in parents# choice of language "hile speaking "ith their spouse in the t"o groups (Chi s>uare N *,'.*! p P '++.)' While all SA parents spoke to each other in their $%! many parents in French families spoke to each other in nglish or both in French and nglish e>ually (Cable *)' Cable * Language choice of parents with their children

French $% $other Father (arents 8*'8 7D'0 *,'8 nglish 5oth .7'* **', 7+'+ .*'. **', *:': $% ,D'7 ,:': 0/'8

South Asian nglish 5oth /'8 ,'8 + *7'0 :+'+ .+':

Chi S>uare

*'.D :'.* *,'.*

':: './ '++Q

A similar trend "as found for SA families' Children in both groups reported to use more $% than nglish to communicate "ith their parents' =o"ever! "hen asked about the choice of language for communicating "ith siblings! most French children communicated to their siblings in French "hile SA children communicated to their siblings in nglish (Chi s>uare N .+'081 p P '++.) (Cable :)' Children in SA families used more nglish "ith their parents! than their parents used for communicating "ith them (Cable * and :)' Chus! children from SA families had started to use nglish to communicate "ith their parents even though parents "ere using nglish to a lesser e&tend in their interactions' Cable : Language choice of children in family communication
French $% $other Father Siblings 8*'8 7D'0 8*'* nglish 5oth .*'. :*': 7', .7'* .*'/ **'* $% D7'* D.'/ :,'D South Asian nglish 5oth */'+ :*': 7D'7 *7'0 *7'0 /'. F 7'.* .'00 ( '+0 ':/

.+'08 '++Q

When parents "ere asked about the reasons for their choice of language of communication "ith their children the t"o most common reasons given "ere) concern of maintaining the $% (8*'*I SA and 8:':I French) and comfort (:/I SA and ::':I French)' Enly a fe" French parents said that they "anted their children to be bilingual and that is the reason for encouraging them to speak in French in addition to speaking in nglish'

Language of media for children at home We collected information about some of the activities at home that children engage in SA and French families' We asked parents about the language of the media present at home for children such as books! C9! videotapes! computer games and rhymes told to children' After comparing the responses of participants from the t"o groups! using chi-s>uare analysis! "e found that children in both groups engaged fre>uently in these activities but there "as a difference in the language of these activities in the t"o groups' @n French families! most of these activities "ere either in French or in both nglish and French' @n contrast! most of these activities "ere in nglish in SA families' Some activities like computer games are not available in SA languages and so none of the SA families in "hich children played computer games had these games in a SA language' We also asked parents about the percentage of books! videotapes and -9-#s for children that "ere in nglish' Chere "as a big difference in the language choice for these activities in French and SA families' For books! 08I SA parents and only *,I French parents said that more than half of the books for children at their home "ere in nglish' A similar trend "as found for videotapes and -9-#s and 8:I SA and only *:I French parents reported to have more than half of the videotapes and -9-#s for children in nglish (Cable D)' Chese findings are particularly striking as these activities are easily available in the $% and for themselves! parents in both groups! had these activities in both nglish and the $%' @n fact more French parents! than SA parents! had these activities only in nglish for themselves (Cable 7)' Cable D Language of media for children
French $% C9 9ideotapes 5ooks Bhymes *+'8 :+': :*'D 7,'8 nglish 5oth $% ,'/ :'+ + :': 8*'D ,,'8 ,8', D+'+ + :': + + South Asian nglish 5oth DD'0 ::': 8+'+ ,D'+ 77'* ,:': :+'+ :,'+ F value .D'8D .D'0D :0'+* :+'D, ( '++Q '++Q '++Q '++Q

Cable 7) Language of the media for adults

French $% C9 9ideotapes 5ooks + :'. .D'8 nglish 5oth :7'7 D,'/ .8', ,D'7 7+'+ ,8', $% + .+'8 D'*

South Asian nglish 5oth :'D + D.'8 /,', 0/': 7D'* F value /', .8'8/ D'08 ( '++Q '++Q '+/

Language of activities outside home We collected information about chidren#s language use in activities outside their homes' We found that! French children "ere involved in more activities outside of home than SA children' Chis "as despite the fact that the average age of SA children is slightly higher than that of the French children in this sample' When asked about the language choice for these activities! for SA families (e&cept for a fe" classes and sports activities)! the activities "ere in nglish' A fe" parents in SA families reported that their child participated in sports and classes "ith their $% friends' 5esides the reported activities mentioned in this study the SA kids "ere not involved in any other activity in $%' $ost of the French children! on the other hand "ere involved in one or more activities in French outside of home' Discussion Chis study compared the motivation for and efforts made to"ards maintaining $% in both French and SA immigrant families in Canada' We investigated attitudes to"ards maintaining $% by studying parents# choice of language for communication and choice of language of media for children' Che results sho"ed that "hile both groups held positive attitudes about teaching their $% to their children! and "anted it to survive even in the ne&t generation! South Asians "ere less hopeful than French Canadians of their success in maintaining their $%' We also found that despite their positive attitudes to"ards $% maintenance! SA parents provided less $% e&posure to their children through media and activities outside of home! compared to their French counterparts' We discuss some of the probable reasons for the above results based on previous research findings and the relative status and utility of learning French and SA languages in Canada' As for the finding regarding parents# e&pectations about $% survival! "e found that similar to previous research in the area of language maintenance (Cse! *+++1 (ark 3 Sarkar! *++8)! parents in both groups "anted their children to learn their $%' $ost of them said that they "anted their children to pass on the language to subse>uent

generations and speak to their o"n children in their $% in future' Similar to other findings in this area (Stoesell! *++*)! participants in this study also mentioned the benefits of speaking $% for maintaining contact "ith relatives in their home country as an important motivator for maintaining their $%' French parents also held positive vie"s about maintaining their $% in subse>uent generations' =o"ever! the t"o groups differed in their e&pectations about "hether or not their children "ould be able to successfully learn their $% and "hether it "ould be maintained in subse>uent generations' $ost French parents in our study "ere hopeful that their children "ould be proficient French speakers as adults and "ould use French for communicating "ith their children' En the other hand! the SA parents thought that their children "ould mainly speak nglish as adults and "ould communicate primarily in nglish to their children! "hen they became parents in future' SA parents# e&pectations are in tune "ith the finding that $% is typically lost in subse>uent generations (Fishman! ./8*1 9eltman! ./0:)' Since our sample comprised of parents of pre-school children! parents "ould not have e&perienced the language shift to nglish "hen children start to attend nglish language schools (Stoessel! *++*) and therefore this e&pectation is due to other factors' Ene reason for SA parents# pessimistic vie" on $% maintenance in their children can be that these parents have "itnessed the shift to the ma?ority language that occurs in other children' Chis language shift is particularly seen "hen these children attend school and as a result engage in more activities outside of home' ven "hen the parents did not have any school-aged child! they are in contact "ith other $% families "ho are e&periencing this phenomenon of language shift' A second reason can be found in the lack of language support programs for children in dmonton' Che French participants! on the other hand are hopeful that they "ill be able to maintain their $% "ith support of learning resources provided in the outside community' Che t"o groups differ in their efforts provided for maintaining the $% in their children' (arents in both groups generally talk to their children in the $%! "hich corresponds "ith their motivation to teach their $% to their children' =o"ever! many parents in both groups use nglish to communicate "ith their children' French participants use nglish to communicate "ith their spouse! either because their spouse doesn#t speak French or because heKshe is more proficient in nglish than in French' All SA participants! on the other hand! had a $% as their mother tongue and this "as the common language for the mother and the father and all of them used the $% to communicate "ith each other' Chis demonstrates that many parents in SA families are making an effort to s"itch to nglish "hen communicating "ith their children even though they prefer to talk in their $%! as they "ould "ith their spouse even "hen they are fluent nglish speakers' En the contrary! many French parents are making an effort to s"itch to French! even "hen it is not the language they choose "hen talking

to their spouse' Che trend to"ards language shift in SA families is also obvious in the choice of language children use "hen talking to their siblings! "hich is usually nglish' Children in French families seem to be retaining the $% and choose to talk in French to their siblings' Chus despite a great amount of $% e&posure in both French and SA families! a subtle indication of the e&pected language shift in SA families can be found in children#s language preference in their interactions "ith family members' (arents give in to their language choice and further bring about this language shift by speaking in nglish to them' 5esides differences in the choice of language of communication in French and SA families! "e also found differences in the t"o groups in the e&posure to $% media such as C'9'! books! rhymes! and videotapes' (arents in SA families select nglish language books! videotapes etc' even though they are available in SA languages in dmonton' ven for simple activities such as nursery rhymes! "hich are available in the $%! most parents in SA families still use nglish' =o"ever! for themselves! SA parents use more $% media (such as videotapes! C'9')! "hich reiterates the fact that the choice of nglish language media for children is not because of the lack of availability of $% media' French parents provide $% media to their children much more than the SA families' Che use of nglish alongside their $% is understandable! due to the easier access to nglish language media! but the effort to provide e&posure to $% media in French families marks a clear difference in the strategy to retain the $% in the t"o groups' Community and social net"orks affect language choices in $% families ($ilroy! ./081 Stoessel! *++*)' %anguage retention can be an arduous task for families "hen there is the absence of community support for learning a language' Chere is formidable community support for learning French for children in dmonton and most parents in this study presented opportunities to their children for e&posure to activities in French outside of home' Che choice of nglish for outdoor activities by SA families is understandable due to lack of availability of outdoor activities in SA languages' From these data "e are unable to ans"er the >uestion "hether SA parents "ill select nglish even if these activities are available in SA languages' We are also not a"are of "hether parents in SA families are making efforts to provide facility for learning $% in schools in Alberta as there are provisions in place "hereby school boards can contract a person or agency for $% education as is needed in the community (Canadian ducational Association! .//.)' @t is likely that if there is enough interest for providing learning in SA languages outside of home! community resources for this purpose can be generated' We also collected data on a fe" Chinese families' Chinese is the largest minority group in dmonton and the number of Chinese speakers in dmonton is t"ice that of native French speakers' Chere are three Chinese and five elementary schools in dmonton' Similar to SA participants "e

found that most Chinese parents e&pected to send their children to nglish schools and "ere less hopeful that they "ould be able to prevent language shift in subse>uent generations' Che results from this study sho" that despite positive attitudes to"ards language maintenance! the SA families e&ert less effort! compared to their French counterparts to pass the $% to their children' Ene reason "hich gives French an edge over other $% in Canada is the utility of French as a result of its official status in the country' En the other hand! due to high linguistic diversity in South Asia! any South Asian language provides facility to communicate only "ith a select group of people! "ho are likely to be bilingual in nglish' With the spread of nglish in South Asia and the lessening of contact "ith the home country in subse>uent generations for immigrants! parents might perceive learning a SA language for their children as something that is not as useful' =o"ever! "e "ould e&pect that the lack of incentive for learning a $% "ould influence the motivation of parents to pass it on to their children! "hich "as not the case for the SA parents in our study' (erhaps the responses are influenced by the value of maintaining one#s $% but the motivation of parents to help their children ad?ust and succeed in the ma?ority culture becomes a primary concern for parents in SA immigrant families (;ros?ean! ./0*)' As parents e&pect their children to become successfully ad?usted adults in an nglish speaking society! they are less confident that their child "ill be able to retain the $% as an adult' French parents on the other hand! see the value of bilingualism in French and nglish for success in the ma?ority culture even "ithin a primarily nglish speaking region in Canada and thus are confident of retention of French by their children (Aunger! .///)' Che findings from this study indicate that one of the reasons for a higher rate of language shift in SA families! compared to French families! can be due to the day-today language behaviors at home' While both groups held positive attitudes about $% retention! French parents made efforts to retain their language by providing $% media' Chis study highlights the need to collect information about the day-to-day behaviors in addition to information about attitudes related to $% maintenance since attitudes might not be clearly reflected in language behaviors and language choices' While efforts to provide community support for $% learning are re>uired to ensure opportunities for learning language outside of home! a useful first step "ould be to create a"areness among parents about the benefits of bilingualism for their children'

References

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;overnment of Canada' (./8.)' Statement to the =ouse by the (rime $inister! 0 Ectober ./8.! in response to the recommendations of the Boyal Commission on 5ilingualism and 5iculturalism! 5ook @9! The !ultural !ontribution of the 1ther Ethnic 2roups& =ulsen! $'! -e 5ot! 6'! 3 Weltens! 5' (*++*)' S5et"een t"o "orlds'S Social net"orks! language shift! and language processing in three generations of -utch migrants in 2e" Gealand' ,nternational *ournal of the (ociology of Language .7:! *8 O 7*' 6alin! B' 3 5erry! <'W' (.//7)' thnic and civic self-identity in Canada) analysis of the ./8D and .//. 2ational Surveys' !anadian Ethnic (tudies *0! . O .,' 6ondo! 6' (.//0)' Social-psychological factors affecting language maintenance) @ntervie"s "ith (hin 2isei university students in =a"aii' Linguistics and Education /! :,/ O D+0' %ao! C' (*++D)' (arents# attitudes to"ard Chinese- nglish bilingual education and Chinese-language use' "ilingual Research *ournal *0 (.)! // O .*.' %i! T' (.///)' =o" can language minority parents help their children become bilingual in family conte&tL A case study of a language minority mother and her daughter' "ilingual Research *ournal *: (*K:)! ..: O .*D' %opeA! -' ' (.//,)' %anguage! diversity and assimilation' @n B' Waldinger! and $' 5oAorgmehr ( ds') Ethnic Los /ngeles& 2e" Fork) Bussell Sage Foundation' $cBae! 6' (.//0)' Efficial bilingualism) From the ./,+s to the .//+' @n <' d"ards ( d') %anguage in Canada' 2F) Cambridge University (ress' $ilroy! %' (./08)' Language and (ocial 0etwor3s& *nd dition' Worcester) 5illing 3 Sons' 2oels! 6'A'! 3 Cl4ment! B' (.//0)' %anguage in education) 5ridging educational policy and social-psychological research' @n <' d"ards ( d') %anguage in Canada' 2F) Cambridge University (ress' E#5ryan! 6'! BeitA! <'! 3 6uplo"ska! E' (./8,)' 0on$official Languages# / (tudy of !anadian 'ulticulturalism& Etta"a) Supply and Services' (ark! S'$'! 3 Sarkar! $' (*++8)' (arents# attitudes to"ard heritage language maintenance for their children and their efforts to help their children maintain the

heritage language) A case study of 6orean-Canadian immigrants' Language !ulture and !urriculum *+ (:)! **: O *:7' (atterson! <'%' (*++*)' Belationships of e&pressive vocabulary to fre>uency of reading and television e&perience among bilingual toddlers' /pplied Psycholinguistics *:! D/: O 7+0' (ortes! A'! 3 Bumbaut' B' (*++,)' ,mmigrant /merica# / Potrait *nd dition' 5erkley) University of California (ress' (ortes! A'! 3 =ao! %' (.//0)' 5ilingualism and loss of language in the second generation' (ociology of Education 8.! *,/ O */D' Stoessel! S' (*++*)' @nvestigating the role of social net"orks in language maintenance and shift' ,nternational *ournal of (ociology of Language .45 /: O .:.' Statistics Canada' (*++,)' http)KK"""'statcan'gc'caKstart-debut-eng'html' Betrieved on February! .! *++/' Cannenbaum! $'! 3 =o"ie! (' (*++*)' Che association bet"een language maintenance and family relations) Chinese immigrant children in Australia' *ournal of 'ultilingual and 'ulticultural Development *: (*)! D+0 O D*D' Cse! %' (*++.)' Besisting and reversing language shift) =eritage-language resilience among U'S' native biliterates' +avard Educational Review 8. (D)! ,8, O 8+,' 9eltman! C' (./0:)' Language (hift in the 6nited (tates& 5erlin) $outon' Ward! C' (.//,)' Acculturation' +andboo3 of intercultural training (pp' .*D O .D8)' Chousand Eaks! CA) Sage' Wong Fillmore! %' (.//.)' When learning a second language means losing the first' Early !hildhood Research Quarterly ,! :*: O :D,' Wyatt-5ro"n! A'$' (.//7)' Che psychological tasks of the immigrant) (sychoanalytic! linguistic! and literacy perspectives' The Psychohistory Review *:! *:7 O *78'

Appendix anguage! Culture and "elf I#age $uestionnaire

%ac&ground Infor#ation
Age (in years) MMMMMMMMMMM ;ender) $ale MMM Female MMMM $arital status (check one)) @mmigration status in Canada (check one)) MMM Single MMM Canadian citiAen MMM $arried MMM %anded immigrant MMM Common-la" MMM 9isa student MMM -ivorced MMM Befugee MMM Wido"ed MMM Ether (lease "rite do"n the ages and check off the gender of your children) Age) MMMMMM $ale MMMM Female MMMM Age) MMMMMM $ale MMMM Female MMMM Age) MMMMMM $ale MMMM Female MMMM Age) MMMMMM $ale MMMM Female MMMM Age) MMMMMM $ale MMMM Female MMMM Age) MMMMMM $ale MMMM Female MMMM ,f your spouse has regular contact with your children please answer the following questions for both you and your spouse& ,f he7she does not please answer the questions only for yourself& What isKare the mother tongue(s)L What other languages are spokenL What is the most fluent languageL What language do you use most oftenL What is the country of birthL @f you "ere born outside of Canada! ho" long have you lived in CanadaL @f you "ere born outside of Canada! ho" long have you lived outside of your country of birthL Where "as your mother bornL Fou Four spouse

=o" long has your mother lived in CanadaL Where "as your father bornL =o" long has your father lived in CanadaL (lease check off all the people "ho live in the same house "ith you) MMMM Four spouse or spousal e>uivalent MMMM All of your children MMMM Some of your children MMMM Four mother or stepmother MMMM Four father or stepfather MMMM Four maternal aunt or aunts MMMM Four paternal aunt or aunts MMMM Four maternal uncle or uncles MMMM Four paternal uncle or uncles MMMM Four maternal grandmother MMMM Four paternal grandmother MMMM Four maternal grandfather MMMM Four paternal grandfather MMMM Four sister(s)! half-sister(s) or stepsister(s) MMMM Four brother(s)! half-brother(s) or stepbrother(s) For each person "ho lives in the house! please fill up the table about the choice of language in the table' &ample S ( Father $other Child Father =indi nglish $other =indi nglish lder child =indi =indi Child =indi =indi nglish Ethers -

Child Ethers A 6 -

nglish

=indi -

nglish

Father S ( Father $other Child A 6 Child

$other

lder child

Child

B Why do your family members speak the language(s) they do "ith each otherL =o" do you feel about your family members# language choiceL

Children's proficiency
)or any questions on this questionnaire involving children please answer them with respect to your oldest child between the ages of two and five years& That child is 88888888 years old& -oes your child attend any of the follo"ing childcare facilities or activities outside the homeL @f yes! please give the appro&imate number of hours per "eek and the language(s) spoken there' Fes or noL -aycare (reschool @f yes! appro&imate number of hours per "eek %anguage(s) spoken

(lay group 5abysitter ;randparents or other relatives After school care Sports (e'g'! soccer team! s"imming lessons) Classes (e'g'! dancing! art) Ether ) MMMMMMMMMMMMMMM @n your opinion! "hich language does your child speak betterL =indi MMMMM nglish MMMMMM 5oth about e>ually "ell MMMMMM @n your opinion! "hich language does your child understand betterL =indi MMMMM nglish MMMMMM 5oth about e>ually "ell MMMMMM @f your child already kno"s ho" to read! "hich language does heKshe read better inL =indi MMMMM nglish MMMMMM 5oth about e>ually "ell MMMMMM -oesn#t read yet MMMMMM @f your child already kno"s ho" to "rite! "hich language does heKshe "rite better inL =indi MMMMM nglish MMMMMM 5oth about e>ually "ell MMMMMM -oesn#t "rite yet MMMMMM When your child is an adult! in your opinion "hich language do you think heKshe "ill speak betterL =indi MMMMM nglish MMMMMM 5oth about e>ually "ell MMMMMM

anguage and #edia

@f the follo"ing activities take place in your home! "hat language(s) isKare usedL @f the activities do not take place! put an T in the bo&' Children C9 Badio Adults

5ooks 9ideotapes! -9-s $usic (cassettes! C-s) Songs sung to children 2ursery rhymesKpoetry ComputerK2intendo games Ether media About ho" often do you read to your childL a' b' c' d' e' my child already kno"s ho" to read at least once a day a fe" times a "eek at least once a "eek less than once a "eek

What are three of your child#s favourite booksL What language are they inL 5ook title) %anguage) .' MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM *' MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM :' MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM Eut of the children#s books in your home! appro&imately "hat percentage are "ritten in nglishL a' b' c' d' e' f' g' +I .-*7I *7-7+I 7+-87I 87-//I .++I there are no children#s books in our home

-o you have rules for your children#s television "atchingL MMM Fes MMMM 2o MMMM 2ot relevant (heKshe does not "atch C9)

@f yes! "hat are the rulesL

@f your child "atches C9! please name hisKher : favourite C9 sho"s) .' *' :' MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM

What do you think of C9 programming available for children in =indiL

-o you have rules for your children playing computer gamesL MMM Fes MMMM 2o MMMM 2ot relevant (heKshe does not play computer games) @f yes! "hat are the rulesL @f your child plays computer games! please name hisKher : favourite computer games and the language the games are in) .' *' :' MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM

-oes your child listen to musicL MMM Fes MMMM 2o MMMM 2ot relevant @f so! "hat language(s) is the music inL

@f your child "atches children#s videotapes or -9-s! "hat are three of your child#s favouriteL .' MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM *' MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM :' MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM

MMMM $y child does not "atch videotapes or -9-s Eut of the children#s videotapes or -9-s in your home! appro&imately "hat percentage are in nglishL a' b' c' d' e' f' +I .-*7I *7-7+I 7+-87I 87-//I .++I

g' there are no children#s videotapes or -9-s in our home About the Authors <aya 2agpal is a phd student in developmental psychology at the university of Alberta' She is interested in studying language socialiAation of children in immigrant families' -r' lena 2icoladis is an associate professor in developmental psychology at the University of Alberta' She interested in studying ho" bilingualKbicultural children learn appropriate norms for their community as seen through their language use! particularly in the conte&t of their family' Authors( Addresses )aya *agpal (;raduate Student) -epartment of (sychology University of Alberta (-*.8 5iological Sciences 5uilding dmonton! A5C, ; * / CA2A-A (hone) (80+) D/*-800/ Fa&) (80+) D/*-.8,0 ?nagpalUualberta'ca +lena *icoladis (Associate (rofessor) -epartment of (sychology! (-*.8 5iological Sciences 5uilding dmonton! A5C, ; * /

Canada (hone) (80+) D/*-+.*D Fa&) (80+) D/*-.8,0 elenanUualberta'ca <ournal of @ntercultural Communication! @SS2 .D+D-.,:D! issue *D! Ectober *+.+' UB%) http)KK"""'immi'seKinterculturalK'