OQf

AN

INTRODUCTORY

TEXT-BOOK

OF

LOGIC

BY

SYDNEY

HERBERT
M.A.

MELLONE
D.Sc.
PHILOSOPHICA ETC.

LOND.,
IN

EDIN.

AUTHOR

OF

'

STUDIES

AND

CONSTRUCTION,'

WILLIAM
EDINBURGH

BLACKVVOOD
AND MCMII

AND
LONDON

SONS

be

PREFACE.

IN

the

present
a

volume

the

author's

aim

has

been

to

provide phical.
first

text-book

at

once

elementary
he has

and

philoso
in

More

specifically,
give
an

endeavoured,
of the

the

place,
of
"

to

accurate

exposition
"

essen

tials
to

the the

Traditional traditional

Logic
doctrine
because

in

the

second
its

place,

connect

with
of the

Aristotelian
and clear

fountainhead,
ness

"

not

only
own

value

of

Aristotle's but

treatment

(as
to

compared
various

with

later and

accretions),
phrases

in

order
which

make the it

doctrines text-book
the the third

intelligible,
"

in
"

ordinary
were

are

simply
to

shot

from

pistol
door

as

in

place,
tional

show

the into

open the

leading
modern

from

tradi

doctrine

more

and

more

strictly
book in
Mr

philosophical
intended
to

treatment

of of

the

subject.
what is

The

is

stop

short

giving
Logic

supplied
mention that and

Bosanquet's

Essentials lead
"

of
on

(not

to

larger
to
a

works),
serious

but

to

naturally

to

study

of

Modern

Logic."

VI

PREFACE.

text-book

constructed

on

this

plan

seems

to

cor

to respond closely

the treatment

of the for the

required subject
in

by

the

course

of instruction

ordinaryDegree

many The
at

of

our

Universities and

Colleges.
he has these

author's

plan has certain difficultieswhich

to

least endeavoured

avoid.

The

chief
gap

of

is
the

the

danger
or

of

leaving an
and
extent

unbridged
the the

between

traditional book.
To

formal
some

philosophical parts
author found close is in
as

of the

that

this

was difficulty

diminished

by keeping as

possible

to

the

Aristotelian

which exposition,

itself thor

the oughly philosophical.By treating the

formal almost

part of
to

subjectin
For seemed
or

this way,
the
to

the gap
most

seemed

dis

appear.
course

rest, the be
to

convenient practically
the earlier

in indicate,

chapters,
more

by

footnotes

otherwise,those
and

points at
in
a

which

fundamental ter, to
The

questions arise ;
references

concludingchap develop them.

to

bringthese

togetherand

author
a

hopes
mistake
the
even

that he will at least be found

too
common

have
:

avoided of

in books the

of this kind

making

treatment

of

traditional

Logic
it de

per haut the

functoryor
en

inaccurate ; of

expounding
the student's
"

bas,

so

to

speak, leavingon
it is not from the worth

mind
a

that impression

his attention
and

mistake

equally serious phical point

ness

educational

the
some

philoso
fresh and

of view. found

It is in
as

hoped

also that of

will

be

the in

choice
other

examples
If

well as illustrations,
seems

respects.
fault is not

Logic

trivial

to

the

student,the

necessarily
of know-

in

Logic ;

it may

be because the student's range

PREFACE.

Vll

so ledge is trivial,

that he

is

preventedfrom

understand
material
of

ing
real

the

of logical to principles application

importance.
the of preparation this book and the author

In
many

received
two

valuable

criticisms

suggestions from
are

to whom friends,

his cordial

thanks

due"

Professor

A. Seth

and of Edinburgh University, Pringle-Pattison, both University, of the

Professor D. G. Ritchie, of St Andrews

of whom In
owes

read

the
on

manuscriptand
Immediate
a

most

proofs.
author

the

chapter

Inference, the

some

to paragraphs

treatment printed privately

of this part of the Pattison. have also The

subject, by Professor Pringleprepared

two

chapters dealing
made by suggestions

with

Induction
Miss his
some

benefited

by
Of
are

Mar

garet Drummond,
tions
to

M.A., of Edinburgh.
on

obliga
which
refer

previouswriters

Logic,there
He has made

mention. requirespecial
ence

constant

to

the works

of Rosanquet, Welton

Jevons, Mill,Creighton,
Most been of
set

Minto,
the

Stock, and

Logic}. (Inductive
Exercises
other have

contained questions
for

in the

in Examinations

Degrees and

purposes,

in the

Universities of Oxford, Cambridge, Edinburgh, Glasgow,

St Andrews, is indebted
or

London.
a

For

some

of these, the author in Logic, Questions

seems

to

little book

entitled
An

by

Holman for The

as

and

Irvine.

additional word

called

regards Jevons'sElementary
freshness and it force

Lessons

in

Logic.

with which
favour

this book of

is written and

have

kept

high

in the

teachers
and

its frequent looseness students, notwithstanding of

too

faults both

much

and

too

and little,

its occasional

PREFACE.

logical

mistakes.

Some

of

its

doctrines
are

freely

criti

cised

in

the

following
pages
;

but

the

writer present

fully

in
concurs

the

general

acknowledgment

of

its

real

suggestiveness

and

value.

S.

H.

MELLONE.

HOLYWOOD,

BELFAST,

Augiist

1902.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER

I.

THE

GENERAL

AIM

OF

LOGIC.

1.

Provisional

definition

of

Logic

2.

Scope Stages

of
in

Logic
its

.."""*'
..-"""

3. 4.

history

Logic

and

Language
. "

5.
6.

Judgment Judgment
Inference

as

the

fundamental

fact

of

Thought

and

Proposition

8.

The

process

of

Thought

is

continuous

10

CHAPTER

II.

THE

NAME,

THE

TERM,
LAWS OF

THE THOUGHT.

CONCEPT,

AND

THE

1.

Name Concrete

and and

Term

2.

Abstract
and

Names

3. 4.

Singular,
Positive Relative
The

Common,
and

Collective Names
.

Names
.

Negative
Absolute

5.
6.

and

Names
.

logical
notation

Concept
and of

connection

between

changes

of

Con

Denotation
.

7. 8

Limits

of
Term

Connotation
.

Every
Laws

has

both

Connotation

and

Denotation
.

9.

of

Thought

CONTENTS.

10. 11. 12.

Three Law Law Law Law

fundamental
of

Laws
......

"

"

"

"

"

39
.o

Identity
Middle

of Contradiction of Excluded

.....

4I
" " " "

13. 14.

"

43

of Sufficient Reason

....

46

CHAPTER
OPPOSITION
OF

III.

THE

PROPOSITION,
AND THE FORMS

THE

OF

PROPOSITIONS,
INFERENCE.

IMMEDIATE

Part i.
"

The

Logical Proposition.
of

i.

and Proposition

Sentence

; Kinds
*

Propositions; Quantity
50
as

2.

Modality
Compound

of

Propositions; Propositions
.....

Analytic and
-5 _8

Synthetic
3. 4.

Propositions

Expression in Logical Form

Part ii.
"

62
. .

Oppositionof Propositions.
of Propositions interpretation
.

5.
6. 7-

of the Possibility

class

69

Distribution of Terms
Four kinds
of

Opposition

^
. .

Part iii." Immediate

8.

Inference.

Elementary processes
...

....

9. Conversion
10. 11. 12.

Obversion

Contraposition
.

Inversion
Other forms
91

13.

CHAPTER
THE

IV.

IMPORT

OF

PROPOSITIONS

AND

JUDGMENTS.

1.
2.

Four

views
; class interpretation interpretation ; equational

Predicative
view
.

3. 4-

Attributive view

"Comprehensive "view; Quantification of

Compartmental Implication of Existence
"

the

Predicate

5.
6.

view

in

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER

V.

MEDIATE

INFERENCE

AND

THE

ARISTOTELIAN

SYLLOGISM.

1. 2.

Mediate
A

from distinguished

Immediate

Inference and

US

typicalSyllogism; its Premises,

Terms

Major, Minor,

Middle
II8
"

3. 4.

Rules

or

Canons Moods

of the

Figures and

of the

Syllogism Syllogism
Moods of

"

I23 I31

"

5. Determination
6. 7. 8. 9.
10. 11. 12.

of Valid

"

J35

Characteristics and

Examples

i. fig.

"

"

J38
142

Fig. ii Fig. iii. Fig. iv.

.

"

"44 J45

"

"

"

"

"

of fig. i. ; Reduction Superiority

i. to fig.
.

"

146
JS2

Abridged
Note.
A

and
in

conjoined Syllogisms
Form Syllogistic

Expression
new

"

I57

Notation
.

"

l64

CHAPTER

VI.

THE

PREDICABLES,

DEFINITION,

AND

CLASSIFICATION.

Part
1. 2.

i.
"

The

Predicables.

Aristotle's view

.....

-165
and

Genus,

Diiference, Proprium,
view
....

Accident
.
. "

167 l69

3. Traditional

Part
4.

ii.
"

Definition.
I7I J73
;
...

Object
Nominal

of Definition

....

5. Rules
6.

of Definition
and

Real
.

Definition

Genetic

Definition

Legal
.176

Definition Part
7.

iii.
"

Classification.
.

Definition

and

Classification

.181
.

8. Natural
9.
10.

and

Artificial Classification
.

.182
"

Logical Division
Dichotomy
Part
.

J""

.187
The

\v."

Categories or

Predicaments.

11.

Aristotle's view
Note. Real Kinds
...-""

J93

Xll

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER
CONDITIONAL ARGUMENTS
OF

VII.
AND

THE

VALIDITY

THE

SYLLOGISM.

1. 2.

Conditional Conditional

Propositions Arguments
in

.....

196 198 198

;

.....

3. 4.

Hypothetical Syllogisms Expression

Inference

.....

Categorical Form
.......

Mediate

character

of

the
2oo

5.

Disjunctive Syllogisms
.......

.....

204 206

6. Dilemmas
7.

Syllogisms involvingrelations
Attribute
.......

other

than

that of

Subjectand
213 .216
.

8.

Mill's view
Note Note

of the

A.
B.

On

Syllogism involvingNumerical Syllogisms

. .

Propositions
.

221 222

Aristotle's Defence

of the

Syllogism

CHAPTER
THE

VIII.
OF

GENERAL

NATURE
"

INDUCTION.
"
.
.

1. 2.

Induction Aristotelian
and

as
"

the

discovery of

major premises

224

Induction

"; Scholastic
......

Induction, "Perfect"
228

"Imperfect"

3. The 4. The

Aristotelian Aristotelian

Enthymeme Paradeigma

.....

234 241 in Mathematics

. . .

.....

5. Scientific aim
6. 7. 8.

of Induction

; Induction

245

Uniformityand
Mill's view of Plurality

of Causation Universality
......

.251 255
260

of Cause Causes

......

CHAPTER
THE

IX.
OR

THEORY

OF

INDUCTION

SCIENTIFIC

METHOD.

1.
2.

Observation Methods Method Method

and

Experiment
and

.....

264
268
. .
.

of Observation of

Experiment
.....

3. 4.

Single Agreement Single Difference

of the of

269
273
....

of

.....

5.
6. 7. 8. 9.

Importance
Double Double

Negative

Instance
....

277

Method Method

Agreement
.

278
. .

of Difference
.

.281

Quantitative Methods
Double Method
of

; Concomitant

Variations
so

Residues
far ;
"

283 2g9

Difference

is fundamental

Em

Laws" pirical

CONTENTS.

xiii

10. 11. 12.

Method

of of

Explanation ; Hypothesis
....

291 299 301

Hypotheses Suggestionby Analogy

Conditions
of
a

Origin

"

"

"

13.

good Hypothesis

"

3"4

CHAPTER
FALLACIES.

X.

1.

Aristotelian
I. Fallacies

Classification
. "

3*3

due

to

language
...

"

(1) Equivocation
(2) Amphiboly (3) Composition (4) Division (5) Accent (6) Figure
II. of

3Z4

3*5
.

3l6
3T7
"

3*7

Speech

318

Fallacies

due

to the

thought rather
.

than

the

language"
3l8 318
32"
. .

(1) Accident (2) (3)

A dicto

secundum

quid

and

converse

Elenchi Ignoratio
.

.....

(4) Consequent (6) Non

causa

322 322

(5) Petitio Principii

pro
causa

"

"

"

32S 32S

2.

(7) Many Questions Whately's Classification

Inductive Fallacies
.

.....

"

325

3.

...

326

CHAPTER

XI.

THE

PROBLEMS

WHICH

WE

HAVE

RAISED.

1. 2.

Modern

Logic; Logic
"

as

"formal"
...

....

329
"

Jevons'sTheory
Hamilton's
Reference of
to

of Inference

331 334

3. 4.

Comprehensive"
Reality in
Collective

view

of

Judgment

Judgment
...

....

336
.

5. Basis
6. 7. 8. 9.

Negation
and

34" 343

Generic

and Hypothetical Deductive and

Judgments Disjunctive Judgments

....

347

Inductive
...

Inference
.

"

35" 353

Logic
Note

and

Psychology

"

......

356

INDEX

....""""

357

CORRECTIONS

AND

NOTES.

PAGE

LINE

read
21 21

"

indefinite

name."

ovo^a.

aopioroj/,

51

add

that

this

meaning

of Kanryopew

is

post-Aristotelian.

51

add
10

that many

Logicians

prefer

to

identify

"conditional"

with

"hypothetical"

propositions

to

the

exclusion

of

dis

junctives.

53

6
1

for

Some
one

read

He.

56
19

add

that

the

assertion

of

Impossibility

forms
an

E propo

sition.

60

for

who

read

though

they.

145

from

bottom,

for

three

read

these.

146

for

simple

read
mere.

AN

INTRODUCTORY

TEXT-BOOK

OF

LOGIC.

CHAPTER

I.

THE

GENERAL

AIM

OF

LOGIC.

"

i.

WHEN
to

we

begin
a

the

exposition
of
can

of
But
a

any

science,
the

it is

usual is
not

frame

definition
which of the
to
we

it.

beginning
satis
or

the

point

at

give
to

completely
covered the

factory explanation
nature

ground
be asked. be student

be For

the in
not

of such

the
a

questions
definition

words would

which

would the

expressed
became
Hence
we

be with
for

fully intelligible until

the the

acquainted
shall of
to

study
present

which

it defines. any
to
to

not

attempt
that order

formal

definition

Logic,
think
cor

beyond
about
rect
we or

observing
thought,
valid
to

study

Logic

is

in

distinguish
invalid in

between

and think do

incorrect about
not

or

thoughts.
science
use
"

Thus,
and
com

have

that think

which,
about

mon

life, we

but

i.e., thought

itself.

" ing

2.

We

have

not

said for

that

Logic

aims

at

distinguish

true

thoughts,

this

would

suggest

"discovering

THE

GENERAL

AIM

OF

LOGIC.

truths

or

and facts,"

would

make

Logic

name

for all We

the various have said

sciences
correct
or

which collectively, valid

is absurd.
for these
to
a

thoughts;

terms,

the former, suggest especially

reference

type

or

pattern, regarded
followed.
to

as

rule

or

Hence,
new

far from

to be regulative principle giving us means by which

discover

the facts, (particular) It shows

same,

function

of

Logic

is

general. entirely
about. in

that the be

thinking process
the

is essentially the

whatever process of

particulars
may what be

thought

The

calculation

be
the
re

explained
numbers
duced ticular
to

Arithmetic

without

regard
the of

to

represent; and

similarly thinkingmay
are same

general types which

to

in all par
to

It applications.

is the aim
how
to

Logic

discover

these types, and

them
common

show

regulate thought by
a

hence
to

it

deals

with

reasoning as
sense sense

process
to

all the

sciences,without
in this in this
the

regard
is

their "the

subject-matter. Only
Science
of
"

Logic

sciences"; and
the form
manner

also, Logic
of

deals with

and in
more

"

3. The in

presented
find
that

the

1 thought." which the subject has been elementary works hitherto,

not

matter

depends partly on
a

its

history :

and of
some

the

student of

will

brief consideration

the

chief
of

will clear up stages in that history

the

his

generalidea

logical point of
Greeks
of the word

view.

The
sense

invented the very idea of Science,in that

in which
the

science
sake of

is

an

Ideal,
"

the

pursuit of knowledge for

the Greeks also
we owe

the

Logic. Aristotle considered

with the
1

knowing : and to originand development of that logical inquiries began

the Eleatic

of disputations

Zeno

(towardsthe
in

our

philosophical aspect concluding " i. chapter,

The

of this definition will be considered

THE

GENERAL

AIM

OF

LOGIC.

3
number and of

end

of the

fifth century

who B.C.),
common

found

difficultiesin the
then

beliefs of

sense,

in the
to

conceptions,as prevalent philosophical

space, and

the

of time, reality
to
a

motion
gave rise

the

discussions
to

which

these

arguments

began

awaken essential further

The

conscious

interest in methods

an of reasoning,

part of Logic. This

interest

was

carried of

much

by

the

work
met

of
a

the

Sophists and

Socrates.

of enlarg for means growing demand instruction ing and improving human nature, by giving in the arts and accomplishments useful to a citizen in attention to what may life. They gave special practical

Sophists

be called the Art involved the

of

Persuasion, in

wide

sense.

This

Logic, as
the
art

beginnings of Grammar, Thus distinct studies. Logic

of arguing.
verbal Some The

Rhetoric, and
first appears
more
as

Sophists
than such the in
as

were

inter

ested in

than persuasion

in true

in victories instruction, scientific

through

discussion of

investi

gation.
Socrates but he of the
was

them,

thorough Sceptics, denying

went

Protagoras, were of knowledge. possibility

with

them

in their interest in faith that His method

humanity ; knowledge
of arriv

ing

at

by an invincible truth is possible for us all. truth was so simple that

moved

its

deep significance
that in of the

is somewhat

hidden.
are
a

He much

observed
more sure

thought people objectsto which

in qualities the

ordinary particular
of the
name
"

name

belongs

than

they

are

account on objects, is given; thus, when we speak of

or
"
"

of which such
a

the
as

thing

an

oak-tree"

"a

rose"
more

"

or

"a
to
to

beautiful

object,""a
actual
mean

good

action

it is

easy

instances

of these
we

thingsthan
in
our

bring forward what we explain

we

(what
name.

idea
But

have

to

arrive at

minds) when with consistency

use

the and

ourselves

THE

GENERAL

AIM

OF

LOGIC.

agreement

with
the

others, we
we

must must

not

only be
the

able

to

point
sidered

to

things ;
the

know expresses.

meaning,
Socrates

the
con

thought,
to things,

which

name

that

this

could the

be
common
a

done

ascertain

by comparing the account on qualities

name.

of

which

they received
to

common

His
make

chief

contribution
see

Logic, therefore,was
a

to

people
of know
to

the

as importance of Definition,

means

ing things. Plato made of the methods of analysis

cedure
ness

further

contributions
and

the

discussion

scientific pro

; but

in

Aristotle, these questionsgain distinct

more suo
a

and

receive

separate
of

treatment.

Aristotle is the real founder he

worked

it
are

out

Logic as a science,for in all its parts. His systematically

in six small

doctrines

contained

but
of their

masterly

which treatises,
were

on afterwards,

account
as

affinity,
The the

referred collectively of
"

to

the

Organon.
consists
are

treatises

which

the

Organon
is

: following 1.

The

Categories. This
to

introduc philosophical

tion
2.

De
An

Logic. Interpretation(On Expression

account

of terms An

and
account

Words). propositions.
of

in

3. Prior

Analytics.

formal reasoning
of the processes truth may

(seebelow, ch. v.)

4.

Posterior

Analytics.

An

account
or

by

which

demonstrative

reasoned

be obtained 5.

Topics.
where able.

An

(asin Mathematics). account of reasoning in

demonstration
is

matters

complete

unattain

6.

Sophistical An Difficulties.
arguments.
founded tradition logical

account

of

fallacious

He

which

has

lasted

to

THE

GENERAL

AIM

OF

LOGIC.

tion and into

of explanation

Nature.

In this work
"

"

inquiry
Bacon much

of principles
a

scientific

method

Roger
of writers

was (1214-1294)

brilliant forerunner

later in date.
on

Francis
wrote

Bacon,
his

the

Chancellor,carried Organum
in

rivalry the Aristotelian system of Logic. with what he thought was to be a new natural that as this seemed It was beginning should be found for it ; and during in Logic,a new name Inductive as it is called, the nineteenth century, Logic,"
the

work, and

Novum

"

has received much in which it has

attention.

The
are

most

works important of

been

developed
Stuart Mill.
of

those

Herschel,

Whewell, and John

Hence the usual

subject in two Logicwriters of such which the mediaeval developed out acquaint called with Aristotle as they possessed. This is usually ance Formal second Deductive or Logic." The Logic Inductive division is the Logic" of which we have spoken, Material is often called which Logic." So far as the dis the two tinction implies a difference in principlebetween
treatment

Logic lays out

is founded

the

branches.

The

first of these

on

the

"

"

"

"

"

kinds

of
;

knowledge,

it has
are

no

foundation

in

the

facts

of

thought
from

otherwise,there

advantages in

not

departing

it.1

"
far

4.
as

Logic

has

to

consider

Language
in

; but

only
are

so

differences

of

expression

language
in the

the of in

embodiment

of differences The word

of type
a

process

thought.
Greek
:

had X6yo"s

double

meaning

the word (a) the thought^(/") (or rather,phrase which is the expressionof the thought, or sentence) ratio and oratio. Aristotle distinguished these, calling
"

the former the

"

TOV
"

lo-co, TOV
and

lv

and rfj i/o^??,

"

the latter

TOV

t"n" ;
am

inward

the
to
a

outward

"

logos.
to
of

This

has given rise biguity

1

disputeas

whether

Logic
be
re

The
to

recent

ferred

in

our

philosophical development concludingchapter, " I.

Logic

will

THE

GENERAL

AIM

OF

LOGIC.

7
has
true

has been that

to

do

with
to

thought or
as

with the

language. Whately
latter view. says that
It

referred when

holding

is

defining Logic
about of

he

it is

"entirely
he of

conversant

language";but
reasoning
"

elsewhere

speaks thought
can

of the processes
"as

i.e., processes

the

of Logic. subject-matter
; but

No which

other

view
on

be

taken seriously

the

stress

is laid

the

verbal works.

of expression

these

processes

varies in different

aspects of the entirely separate the two Aoyos; for,while thought is priorto language,thought
We
cannot

could

make

no

progress
soon
as

without
we

embodying
an

itself in is
an

language.

As

have

idea in

there
a

irresistibleimpulse
The the

to

giveit bodilyshape
and in
a

word. abstract ;
or

thought is purely inward

has
an

sense a

word

external

existence
a

as

sound of
sense

written the in
a

symbol, and
Hamilton

is therefore

thing
i. p.

but

thought would
word.

dissolve

again were

it not

stereotyped
has An illus army
con are

vol. (Logic,
as

138)
is

trated may

this
overrun

reciprocal dependence
a

follows.

country, but
establishment
"

the of And

country

only

quered by
the
a
"

the

fortresses; words
in

fortresses

of

thought.

through tunnelling
the

sandbank

it is made

to proceed until impossible

secure

present
; words

is position
are

by

an

arch

of masonry

such

"arches"
connected

for the
with

mind.
the

Questions
may
reason

foregoing,and
extent
to

deserving
language

of the student's be
a

attention, are, the

which

than that

hindrance, as well as a help,to thought ; and the universal rather why spoken language has become remark, in passing, we may gesture language. And of the thought structure Grammar, dealing with
-

language, lays
outward
"

stress

on

the

other Grammar

side

of has

the been

the \6yo";, called

a

expression.
Logic."

Hence

concrete

THE

GENERAL

AIM

OF

LOGIC.

"
to

5. We if

shall find
we

convenient

centre

from

which of

start

ask

"

"What

is the
true
a

simplesttype
or

'thought which may ; dently this cannot

I statement
a

be be

either
less than
or

false?"

Evior

of

fact, affirmative
this kind
a a

singleassertion negative. Let us

; and

call

thought of
of it in
term
"

Judgment

the

expres be well

sion

language

Proposition.
"

It would

if the

proposition
so as

could
to
a

be

kept
out

for its

"

the

Judgment
character"
"

expressed

bring

logical

i.e., expressed in

complete grammatically
common

sentence, with
usage is too

subject and
strong, and
we

predicate; but
must

take

the

term

as

which meaning "the sentence ing) a Judgment," whether

contains it is

as (or,

contain

properly

formulated

(seebelow) or
Not every

not.

judgment is naturally expressed in the form of a complete proposition : a singleword, e.g., " Fire ! " may The suffice to express a judgment. judgments of children
are

often

of this kind.

but Again, "every \6yos (sentence) is significant,

such
as can

only
Intcris
"

be

true

or

false

are

assertive'1'1(Ar. De
not
not
a

pretatione, iv.) In other words, proposition; thus,"go away !" is

the notion of truth
or

every

sentence

statement

of
to

fact,
Even
over

does falsity contains

not

belong

it.

the enunciative and above the

sentence
mere

emotional

elements

more express much "c., of the door.

judgment ; e.g., "there's the door" may than a judgment concerning the place, contains a Just as "Fire!" judgment,

but

great

deal besides.

The for all

ments

Judgment
our or

may

be called

the

Unit in
to

of Thought

deliberate

thinkingconsists
if
we a

making
have

state
or

and assertions,
must

are

truth

we falsity

have

at

least be

judgment.
resolved for the into
two
we

"

6.

Any

judgment

may

rela will

tively simpler elements, which

present

THE

GENERAL

AIM

OF

LOGIC.

9 be first. either
"An

vaguely
true
or

call ideas.

An

idea

by
a

itself

cannot

false ; it must of this

or

enter
'

into

judgment
'

example
but is
not

is, that
"

unicorn

means or

something,
denial of its
not
mean

true

false until affirmation De (Ar. built Int.

up

existence that that

is added
are

i.)
can

This does

judgments
were

by putting together ideas

we even

separate.

Whether

entertain

without such idea as judging,or at least significant framing possible judgments on the basis of that idea, In Logic we that ideas is very doubtful. assume may exist We A

only
have

as a

elements

in the

judgment.
in the

corresponding relation
or

proposition.
of something rarer."

proposition affirms
:
"

denies metals which

something
are

else The

e.g.,

Some that

useful about

becoming

Subject is

the

assertion is made
which

"some (i.e.,

useful

metals");

the

that Predicate,

is asserted

"are (i.e., becoming rarer"). It is a stand ing convention in elementaryLogic to express the state which is made, by the verb is or is not (are or ment the predicate of a propositionis always are not) ; and understood to be expressed in a form admittingof the is called the Copula (i.e., in our of this verb, which use

example,

"

Some

useful The

metals

arc

things

which

are

the are subjectand predicate of the proposition shall terms (termini, limits) ; and we understand by a "term," any word, phrase,or sentence is standing as the subject which or predicateof a pro

becoming rarer").

position. A we position
Just
word is
as

Term

which
a

is not "name."

in its

place

in

pro

shall call

every
a

sentence

is
term
or some

not

so proposition,

not
or

term.

will be

either

noun,
or

every ad an

participle, jective, to equivalent one of these.

a

word, phrase,
which
arc

sentence terms
are
are

Words

not

distinguishedas

"

syncategorematic," while

terms

called

10

THE

GENERAL

AIM

OF

LOGIC.

"categorematic,"
"

from
"

the

Greek
may

I predicate. Kcn-nyoptw, become about

a

syncategorematic
makes
" "

word
some

term

in
use as

a a

propo
"

sition which of

statement

its

part
a

speech : e.g.) conjunctionalso."

The student in existence

When

is

an

adverb, and
that idea there is

sometimes

must

remember

no

separate
the exist

thought (no third

coming

between

subject and
ence

of the

corresponding to the separate predicate) S is P. proposition, copula in the typical

may is
not

"

7.

Judgments
What
a

be combined
an

into To

or reasonings

inferences.

inference?

infer

is to

arrive
as a

at

truth

through experience,but directly

some a

consequence ;
as

of I
see

truth,

or

truths

already

known

when

circle of stones, and

hands
a

inferthat
I believe

they were
that
can

arranged by

human

or

when moral

nothing proceeding from

be

pure that

intention deviations

utterlycondemned,
common

and of

some

from from

the

rules and
to

this source,
are

moralityhave proceeded infer that those de accordingly

J. S.
The Mill
to
"

viations
defines

not

be

condemned. altogether
:

inference others
we

thus

We

start

from

known

truths

arrive at from reach

out

distinct really
start
are

from

them."

truths
we

which is the that

"

the Both of
"

premises, that which

Mill and

conclusion. chief work

Whately point
is concerned

the

life practical
sense.

with

drawing inferences
we

in this

Hence

have

three of the

main

divisions of

Logic
"

I. The

doctrine

on Terms, leading

to

that of the
to

"ideas,"
which
II. The III. The the doctrine

element

in

the

Judgment

Term of the

corresponds. Judgment.
Ideas is
not

doctrine of Inferential
have
a

"
ments

8. We
;

seen

that

for

Judgment

Thought. not are priorto Judg built up by putting

are

separate

Ideas

together.

Ideas

distinguishable

THE

GENERAL

AIM

OF

LOGIC.

II

though
doctrine
Ideas

not

separate elements

in

Judgment.

If

we

considered of

only this fact,we

Ideas have
as
a

could

the hardly recognise But

are

separate part of Logic.

formed may be of
as

which of

been

by Judgment prior to
we this,

and

products
ments

Judgment,

further

Judg
the

; and

in consideration

must

admit

justiceof treatingideas dependently in

In

first

if they could
same

exist in Terms.

the

mind.

It is the the
sentence
"

with
is

the

originof language
the
we
"

word, and
tences ;

parts of speech
may

were

priorto the sen originally

to

but

treatment give separate logical

we as

Terms

apart from
the

if Propositions, Term

remember
a

that in
a

livingspeech

only

exists

part of

Pro

expressed or position
This sions"
statement

understood.
relation what
"

of the

between

the

three

"divi

of

Logic

differs from

Jevons speaks thus: of some the act of mind aware by which we merely become thing, or have a notion, idea, or impression of it brought
writers say.
into other mind. of
a

other Jevons and some Simple apprehension is

the

mind.

The

things ; and
Thus strong about is
a

adjectivesimple means, apart from apprehension, the taking- hold by the

or

the and

name

term

iron

'

makes does

the mind
not

think
any

very

useful

metal, but
of
or

tell
. . .

us

thing
ment

or it,

with compare'.it action

anything
and

else.

Jiidg-

different

mind,
ideas
to

ing together two notions simple apprehension,so

or

in compar of objects derived from whether

consists

as

ascertain

they
we

agree

differ,"

And

similarly, he
third them

continues, when
of activity mind of argument
or

have
come reason

already made
in and combine

judgments, a

may

into processes

ings. According to Jevons' account, the three "activities of mind," apprehension,judgment, reasoning, are three dif
ferent another. kinds
The

of

operation,which
use

simply
finished
to

come

after

one

later forms

the

products
a

of the

earlier ; but

knowledge
to

is made the

resemble
This

adding part

part from
of the

outside. of the

of process of the view

logicalprocesses

mind, and

growth of know-

12

THE

GENERAL

AIM

OF

LOGIC.

ledge,
pursues
see

is

fundamentally
the

mistake

the the

further

the

student
he

study
is the
so.

of
The

modern

logic
of view

more

clearly
in modern
in

will

that

it in
not

point
of

adopted
in

logic

is, that
we

formation three

ideas,
processes
same

judgment,
but
a

reasoning,
or

have

separate
and the

development
the later in full

expansion
cance

of this that

one

process

; at

and

signifi
We

of add
that

statement

will
statements

be

seen

stage.
this

may

the is

made

earlier

chapter

imply
as

there defines

no

such We

thing

as

"simple
or

apprehension" mentally
about
a

Jevons
of form
an

it.

"apprehend"
making through "c.,

take

hold

idea,
the idea

only
of
"

by
iron"

judgments
the and

thing;
it is

we

judgments
the idea of

that

"hard,"
is
a

"heavy,"
of such

"malleable,"

"iron"

product

judgments.

14 words
out term.

THE

NAME,

THE

TERM,

THE

CONCEPT,
with
a

which

can

serve

as

term, but is considered

use

reference special

to

its

in

propositionas

(8pos, a propositionis terminus) is not something out " built up, but that into which a propositionis analysed, its subject or predicate" (Prior Analytics, I. i).1 All as is to distinguish their do with terms to that Logic has various kinds, so far as these throw lighton the process of take the Aristotelian conception of if we thinking. Now the Term as always either subjector predicateof a proposi English logicians say about tion, a great deal of what ""and of them, especially the terms some Jevons, use " words word in a loose sense to as names or equivalent or phrases" falls outside Logic. It belongs to Grammar when Hence Rhetoric, or to specialsciences. or dwelling " distinctions shall the on usuallygiven,we speak of names
Aristotle had

already remarked

that

the

Term

"

of which

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

as

above

defined, and
is of

not

of

"

terms

"

; for

only
"

one

of these

distinctions
"

primary logicalimportance that between which is the only one that applies singular"and "general," to logical strictly terms, as parts of a proposition. We may
arrange

the various

distinctions

of

names

as

follows

"

ch. i.,Aristotle seems Interpretatione, to give countenance to the view that the judgment is a "combination (rwOeffis or Staipecns, of concepts, separation," as though it were

In

De

more or

built

AND

THE

LAWS

OF

THOUGHT.

15
and
"

Two
"

other
"

distinctions, of
"

"

positive
be

"

negative,"
some

relative

and

absolute,"will

mentioned

because

considerations and important logical interesting

them.

arise out

of

"
names.

2.

Our

first division

is into

abstract

and

concrete

explainsa object or "thing"

abstract name,
as

Mill

concrete

name
as

as

the

name

of

an

viewed the
name

an attributes; possessing

of

an

attribute

viewed apart from the action) it belongs. The ground of this distinction

property, or

(a quality, to which object

in the of
use

of

names

lies in the attributes

names
or
"

fact that

we

may

think

thingsas
them,

having
when

i.e.,qualities predicatedof

the

by
we

which

concrete;
from which
concerns

may

their attribution
we

the things are signify the think of qualities apart the names when to by things,
we are

them signify the

now use as

abstract.
;

The
some

distinction
names

of

names

for
as

may Hence

be

used
we

abstract, now
to

concrete.

before any

can

determine
must

which

of the
a

two

classes

term

belongs, we
in which

consider

or proposition

statement
are

it is contained.
an

Thus, all adjectives

concrete; for

only when
if it is not
a

be a logicalterm can adjective of a proposition, standing as the predicate be prefixed it must to of a noun predicated
"

noun.

This

will make share

the

noun

concrete

term, and
it :
"

the

adjectivewill
certain
names

this

character

with

the

lightof

stars
are

is coloured"

by a suffix : generallymarked A phrase or "whiteness," "manhood," "hospitality."

Abstract
of them the
or

up

out

; but

this is for the

only
truth

judgment, as
falsehood.

of urging that special purpose have from the concept, can distinguished

16

THE

NAME, be
on

THE

TERM,
term

THE

CONCEPT,

sentence

may

an

abstract

"

that this
names

rumour

is

falseis evident
butes
are

the face of it." used

to must

The

of attri of their
as con con

sometimes
and
"

instances signify be considered

occurrence,
crete
names

then

they

In is irritating." unpunctuality
to

this

Mill nection, in the scribed

in
so

refers but

the apparent
name

use

of abstract
can

names

plural ;
as as

the

of

an

attribute

be de

common

and

put in the pluralnumber, only

itself

far

it can

be

as regardedas varying, being

the
name. means

of subject
A

attributes ; and then

name
"
"

it becomes e.g., colour be

we

concrete

purely abstract
colouredness
we

when in the

it
the

simply
When
concrete

cannot

used
use or

plural.
as a

speak
has

of

"colours"

term

which

different

attributes
and may

varieties.
has from
no one

Hence

the distinction of abstract

names

concrete

as applied to fixity

name

pass

class to the other. Some

names

which
concrete

are

used

in

two
"

senses

may

be

abstract in one, tion"

in the other
a

e.g., "introduc

(the opening
is
an

of

discourse,
"

the

act

of

intro
or

ducing). This ambiguous term.

names

example
cannot

of

an a

"equivocal"
others
;

We

make and

separate class of

out
"

of

these, as
"

Jevons

do, calling
for each of

them them

equivocal
really two
immoral

or or

ambiguous
more

names

is

names.

Thus, "vice"
from

(meaning an
"

vice

"

"

3.

is a different name action) (themechanical instrument). Concrete divided names are ordinarily and

into
such

singular, common,
a

collective ; and

although
or singular

classification

really impliestwo
names

of division, principles
com

"

since collective
"

may

be either

mon,

there

is

some

convenience practical

in

follow

ing

it.

(a) A

singular

name

can

denote

object, only a single

AND

THE

LAWS

OF

THOUGHT.

I?

long as its meaning does not change. All proper is name names belong to this class. If the singular it is always indicated by a demon not a proper name, the object giving expression or by an equivalent strative,
as a

definite

in position

time

or

place.
which

The
names

followingare
"

singularnames
of the letters of "the

are
"

not

the

writer

Junius,"

the

proper in year

present Government," Queen Victoria died," "the earth,""the largestplanetof the solar system" ; and introduced adjectives, all names by singulardemonstrative " be described A proper as a "c. name may this," that,"
which
"

"

demonstrative." particularised
of
one distinguishing

It is

mark

used

for the

sake

and not (atfirst) object, particular have almost It may no meaning when it means. for what first applied(seebelow, " 8). in the explanation of sing is great vagueness There in logical text-books,through neglectto notice ular names is to specify the names that the characteristic of such

object by limitingit
time.

or

"individualising" it in space

and

(b) A common meaning to a

another in
to

name

is of

without change applicable which objects,

or

of

number

resemble

one

in

some

characteristic features
When
a name

aspects, called

Logic
every

attributes.
one

is thus

applicable
individuals
These

of

class in turn, it is said to be distribname

utively used.
because

The in

is

appliedto
means

the

they have
are

common
name

certain attributes.
;

attributes
what

what the

the

togetherthey form
the and
name,
or

is called
or

connotation of the

of

the

intension which
name,

content

idea;
the the
"

the

objects to
of

it is
or

applied constitute
extension
"

denotation Thus the

the de

the of

of
man

idea.

the

notation
group
or

the

name

consists of
this
name

whole
"

class of

beings which
B

denotes

that

THE

NAME,
it

THE

TERM,
and is

THE

CONCEPT,
other

is, which
groups of the

points
the
name

out

from distinguishes each

same

; and

applicable to
of the which

member
name

group.

The

connotation

consists of the
"

attributes

by

all these
"

beings are

the attributes constituting humanity." distinguished, of Or, to give a mathematical example, the connotation the
name

"circle"

may

be

accepted

in

the

form

in

which
of
"

Euclid

states
cases

it; while
of

its denotation

consists
are

all the

motion,

form, "c., which

such
"

circular."
It has been that objected in
names as

unicorn,"

but the attributes which "dragon,"we have connotation, do not and therefore have are exist, signified we no denotation. existence
world
course

But in the is

by

denotation

we

do

not

mean

only
kind of

real world

; existence

in

any

which

being spoken
"

of

as

the

subjectof
or

dis

is sufficient

e.g., the

ideal world,
every

the

world
name

of has the
name

heraldryor
both
name even

folklore.
and

Hence

common

connotation of
a

denotation,and
It is
none one

is in short less
to
a

class.

the

class which

if there for

is

only

instance

it is

applied;
"the

if it

certain characteristic signifies it denotes,it is potentially instance

need of

attributes of the
common; other

thingwhich
sun"

is

an

this. be

On

the

hand,
or

the

class denoted
; it is known

not

numerically
or an un

definite
any

limited
of

by
a

the known

and attributes,

instance

these, whether
a

known
At
a

constitutes instance,
later stage of the
our

member

of

the

class. shall

present
and

we discussion,

consider
names

connotation

denotation

of

singular

(" 8).
of
are

Names
names,

the materials, in
a

so-called

"homogeneous"
such
as

doubtful

position. Names
as singular

"water," "wood,"

"iron," are

used

of the

AND

THE

LAWS

OF

THOUGHT.

19
the

mass

as

whole, but
this
same

common

as

in applicable
mass.

same

sense

to

different

portionsof

the ch.

Aristotle
case case

had of of

already noticed
water

I. (Topics,

"The : vii.) the usual class the

from

the

well differs from of the

same

objectsbeing
the

members

only

in that

degree

of resemblance

between

objectsis higher
of
name one.

in the former."

(c)A
similar

collective

name

is the
a

name

group
not

of

thingsregarded as
the may
"

whole, the
one

being

to applicable
names

things taken
"the of

by

Collective
in South
common,

be

singular, as,
"a

British

Army
or
name

Africa,"
as

the present House

Commons";
a

"a

committee,"
in both
must

library." Where

may
mean

be

used

ways,

the collective and

distributive
the

ings
"

be
"

Thus distinguished. carefully is used

name

committee
one

as being applicable distributively

to each
manner,

of the with

many the

different groups

formed
name

in the

and

which object,
one particular

the

signifies.
groups, be group, its

But
use

as

appliedto
or

any

of these
; it cannot

is not each
to

distributive but collective

to

given
but

to

any

member

composing together.

the

only

all the

members

This it may
The
or men

distinction is of great importance ; and lead to serious fallacies or mistakes

"

for instance,may all," all men distributively may ;

word
" "

be
mean
as

used
"

neglect of in reasoning. either collectively

the

any
a

man,"
And

"

or

all

together

true

the human i.e., of "all" collectively may

"

"

race

whole.

what

is

not

be
to

true

of "all"

distribu

or tively,

vice-versa.

It is not
covers a

easy

give simple examples

mean

where

the distinction

reallydeep difference of

in the discussion of difficult usually occur ing,for such cases Kant's dictum, questionsin ethics or philosophy. Consider this in the sense We interpret "ought implies can." may he is ideal which is capable of realising that "man every distribuUnderstood capable of presenting to himself."

20

THE

NAME,

THE

TERM,

THE

CONCEPT,
of

is capable this means that each man tively, doing everythingwhich he sees that he ought that though it means Understood collectively, we not always be able to do everything which

being
and
or

and do.

to be

you
see

I may
we

that of

ought

to

do, yet the

human

race

can,

in the
man

course

time,
of

realise every

genuine

ideal

which

any

is

capable

conceiving.
Some Fowler
"

logicians
"

e.g.,

Hamilton,
as
"

treat
"

collective the

names

by always singular ;
"

followed

Dr

"

the
as

committee,"
the
"

library,"the regiment
"

are

treated
"

true

collective terms, while

"

committee,"
terms.

library,"

regiment
"
4.

are

common ordinary

Another

division

of

names

is into

positive and

negative.
Positive
names
a

imply the
to

presence,

names negative

the

absence, of
words
are

given attribute.
express the

Sometimes
two

two

different

used

times the
a

negative name

is formed

implications ; some from the positive by

prefix.
Positive
names.

Negative names.
Darkness.

Light.
Gratitude.

Ingratitude. Disagreeable. Unmanly.

Agreeable.

Manly.
The

negative
mere

name,

as

Mill the

points out,
of

does

not

imply

negation, but
each of the

presence

some

other

quality;in
name

above
of
an

instances
actual

the

negative
is

the implies

presence the
one

which quality
as a

the

opposite of negative

excluded.

Hence,

Jevons

says, it is often
or

"a

matter

of accident whether
to

name

is used

express

any

positive particular highest

notion."
This

leads

us

to

distinction which

is of the

22

THE

NAME,
them of
"

THE

TERM,

THE

CONCEPT,
the "white"
of

between universe
"

the

universe

of discourse, not
existence. in have
we

whole and

thought and
are

Thus,
the colour have
a

not

white

contradictories
may

world
must

colour;
names

and
the

only those things which

one or

be either

the

other. denote
to

Sometimes
a

pair of

which
"

themselves
"

particular sphere ;

"British"

and

Alien

are

limited

the

within

that
to

sphere would
which
we

sphere of human beings, and if be considered as contradictories,

referred the older is
to

the view it is

have
to

be and

accepted.
take the
"

But
con

to keep preferable
"

view

possible sense, as this brings out of pure logical We contradiction. in such a way that it the pure contradictory interpret may need involves no logicalabsurdity. We not, for instance, the name not-man as meaning all things together use that is,we need it collectively. not which not man, use are it distributively, We use as being applicable to any may what Aristotle : it is exactly therefore thing which is not man If we its called it name. an indefinite try to express
" "
" "

tradictory in the widest forciblythe nature more

denotation, we
most
or

must

think,
"

not

of "a

chaotic
"

mass

of the

different
or this,

things
and denoted

..."
not

either this, or this, together,but of so on indefinitely, through everything

which take

is the

narrower

contrary between

terms

as

them
"

the
;

Those who original term. view of contradictorynames, explain without exhausting representingopposites universe particular sphere of reference or

by the

"

of discourse the world

thus,

"

white

"

and

"

black

"

are

contraries

in

of colour.
to

According
between and The
"

our

view, contraries
universe of

do

not

exhaust

them

the

thought and
restricts
"

existence;
kinds.
of
name

the

which opposition
to

they express is of
Aristotle

various the

type

which
"

contrary opposition is the relation of

furthest

thingswhich
"

stand

apart among
"

those

of the

same

genus and

ch. vi.,and (Categories,

"

as elsewhere);
"

"white"
more

black,"
is

"

virtuous

and

vicious."

general
the

case

the i.e., incompatibility,

cannot

opposition of qualities

which

be

possessed by the^same

thing in

AND

THE

LAWS

OF

THOUGHT.

23
"one" "red"
are

same

way,

as

"round" and
"

and

"square,"

and and

"many,"
"

"red"
"

round,"

large

and

"green"; while square," "c.,

"

perfectly

of positive and negative compatible. The opposition names nearlyto that of contradictory approaches more
names.

In

those, the formation

of the

words

indicates

is one and absence of the presence opposition which indicate contrasted of a certain quality. Names "male" "British" and "female," and "foreign," classes, and negative and "c., arc analogous to positive names; these are a frequent type of contrary opposition. But

that

the

the different kinds

names

names,
on

our

of contrary which pairs opposition the things denoted by the express, depend on and our understandingof the opposition depends knowledge of the things. Logic can give no of of all the

general account

types of contrariety. Hence

or

contrary oppositionis real

material, while

contra

is formal, dictory opposition

"
A

5. Names

may

also

be

divided

into

relative

and

absolute. relative
name

has be
can

been

defined

as

denoting an
reference
as
are

object which
another

cannot

thought of
this

without

to
a

or object,

only be thought of
in
sense,

part of
no

larger whole.
relative other
or

But

there

non-

absolute
on

names.
a

Everything is

related

to

things, even
ourselves
as

imagine
and found further Hence

to

be

view; and if we superficial its knowing or investigating

"root possible,
to

connections
all in
to
our

completely as
increased had

and

all,
be

all,"its relations

other and

things would

have

in extent

the complexity,

knowledge
every

penetrated.
we

conception which
we

form

is relative

to

something

else ; whenever from

think

of

thing we
think

are

it distinguishing

other

things.

We

of

24

THE

NAME,
the
not
name
"

THE

TERM, is
at

THE

CONCEPT,
at

table,and
if vacuity,
sense,
to

table
to

once

opposed
It is
"

least In

to

other

articles of

furniture.

this

every

is relative.
names

however, possible,
narrower

distinguish relative
has the done.

in

sense,
over

as

Mill above
ence

"A

name

is it

when relative,

and exist from

"

object which
fact which

denotes,it impliesthe ground

terms

of another
same

objectderivingits denomination
is the of the first name

the
e.g.,

"father,child,"both
of government.

parentage;
modes

both "king, subject,"

Such

implyingthe implying one

names are

facts of of the called

pairs of

correlatives.

"

6.

Let

us

now we use

characterise
in

more

the precisely

kind

of idea which

Why

do

we

judgment. thoughts at express our

a

all? which
a

Because

thought
minds
mutual tion
;
can

forms

common

ground
which

in

different
means

meet,

and

affords them

of

understanding. Every judgment gives informa it points outwards of language to other by means
to
or whom, actually

minds,
form which

in

addressed.
of
a

Hence

when

we

it is always imagination, express a judgment in the

S is P, proposition,
must

there

are

two

conditions

the terms
term

fulfil:
to

"

(a) Each
the mind

ought at one using it,

it would

have

the

same

meaning

for

time,as
not

it has at every

other

time ; otherwise
tion

be

the

genuine identifica meaning

to

of a thought;
term

(b) Each
minds mation the
same

ought
one

to

have

for other
no

beside the
is

which
and for

otherwise judges, it

infor

conveyed;

ought

have

identically
minds,
for
or

meaning
the

all these

various

otherwise

information

conveyed

is confused

misunderstood.
Thus
we see

that

the

meaning of

term

in

judging,

AND

THE

LAWS

OF

THOUGHT.

25

is not mind.
to

and
But

cannot
so

be

the have

private possessionof
grasped only one

any

one
so

far,we

aspect,

speak,of the meaning. It is not only identical in meaning for each individual mind and identical in mean ing for different minds ; it is also the thought of the
same

object,whoever
means

may

think

it ; in other when I

words,

it of

always
"the

the

same

thing.
British
"

Thus

speak
in

earth," "the
on

Constitution," "English
each I

writers
case

Logic,"
to

"c., "c., library,"

am

refer

something real which

continues whether the the also
same

thinking
mean
or

about, but
what and it I
means

which

to
am

be

what

it is and it

thinkingabout
to

not

intend I
use

reference For

be

understood
the
"

whenever ical
term

words. been

this
as

reason,
an

log

has

described

identical

reference."
In is
to

the the is

case common

of

common

terms, the identical reference

the
terms

name

of qualities applicable.Common

objects to
and

which

the

a signify

universal

which

is formed

usuallyby comparison;
which
common

the

general
one an

idea of the other

points in by
the
two
"

the

thingsresemble
term.

is fixed

Consider, for
called

ex

ample, the
and that which Sirius.

well-known

heavenly bodies

Jupiter

into comparison, I observe them Bringing they agree in being small, bright, shiningbodies
rise and
set

and

move

round minute

the

heavens

with

apparentlyequal speed.
ever, I notice that Sirius

By

examination,how prolonged
not

intermittent or gives a twinkling

whereas light, observation

move

Jupitershines
shows that

steadily. More
do

Jupiter and Sirius

the heavens If the

really

with

equal and
very
to

regularspeed,but

that the former

changes night in
extended

its
no

position upon simple manner.

of the others

night to comparison be
shall find

from

heavenlybodies,I

26

THE

NAMK,

THE

TERM,
of

THE

CONCEPT,
which agree

that

there

are

multitude

stars

with

Sirius in

and a twinkling giving light

to position

in

remaining fixed
several other

in relative bodies may

each

other, whereas
resemble

be

seen

which also in

Jupiterin giving a
their

and steadylight,

changing
of of

positionfrom
now

nightto nightamong
in my mind the

the fixed stars.

I have

formed

generalidea
a

fixed stars
have

by bringing
agree ; the formed from
a

together mentally
while
from

number other

objects which example,

several of
a

objects I
This

general idea
illustrates in

planets"

Jevons,
universal

simplecase by comparison.
We may

the formation

of

of

the

illustrate the process also of bodies. general qualities

sense
an

by reference to a few the qualities Among

there
we

which nected of
"

our

of

sightreveals
resemblance
easy
to

to to

us,

is

by

obvious
It is not

which

group give the

con name

what is com explainprecisely all the different colours,unless we to mon are acquainted with the psychology and physiology of "visual sensation," and the physical theory of light nevertheless we are con ; vinced that they have something in common, and we refer to this "colour." Similar observa by the general idea named tions apply to the general idea of "brilliancy." Again, the universal different

colour."

property of

which Gravitation,

is

common
"

to
"

all the
;

degrees

of

heaviness,
Now
as

is named
to

weight
more

and

similarlywith
case.

"density."

take

Metals, such
one

gold, silver, copper,

or

complex lead, "c., re

of them
"

semble has
more

another of
one

in certain kind

colour in
one

definite ways another, each has of

; each
some

case,

less in another"
"

degree brilliancy, weight,and

universal, metal," includes the general kind of colour, some ideas, "some of degree of brilliancy, weight,and of density." If we pursue the subjectscientif have of we to include the ideas of other quali ically, course ties in the universal"^., that metal is an "element," is a
"good
observe conductor that
some

density:

hence

the

of heat

and

Once electricity."

more,
so on

we

animals

walk,

others

and fly,

; that

AND

THE

LAWS

OF

THOUGHT.

27

some

breathe

through lungs, others

through gills,others

alive, others through the skin; that some produce young Hence the form we lay eggs, others multiply by division. respiration," reproduction," universals, locomotion,"
" " "

which kind
When

fined

general idea "animal," "some and of respiration, of locomotion." of reproduction, the "general idea" or "universal meaning" is de it is called a concept. with precision,
are

included

in the

"

We

will

now

compare

the relation between

in

changes
terms

of

connotation
are

and

changes of denotation
denote
term
" "

which

related"/.^, which
connotation
an
"

related kinds

of

things. enough
"

The for

of

the

ship
made

is definite
to

illustration. Increase
;

the connotation
we
"

steam

ship

what

change
are

have fewer

in the denotation
"

Obviously
Increase

there

steam-ships
"

than

"

ships."
"

the

connotation

to

screw

steam-ship
may arrange

the

denotation
related
terms

is further decreased. in
a

We

such and

series of
or

increasingconnotation Ship,
SteamBritish steam-ship,

decreasing denotation,
Screw
screw

vice-versa:
screw

ship,
iron in

Iron steam-ship,

steam-ship.

Here

the

connotations
or

form

an

the creasingseries,

denotations
the

ishing series.
connotation tation

Hence

a dimin applications rule is given : As following

increases,

denotation

decreases

; as

deno
ap

increases, connotation
terms

decreases.

The
a

rule

pliesonly to
catory
the

which

can

be

arranged in
the
as

classifiof

series.
are

This

implies that

connotations

terms

fixed, and
7, ad

accepted

ade practically the in

terms
arc

quate

(see "
in
a

arranged
order times which it

finem); and that series, in ascending or

subdivisions.
is
so

descending
is
some

of divisions and

The

rule
to

wrongly stated, and

are

exposed
states

objections
as

irrelevant. really
the
same

Jevons

it

though
fail

appliesto

term.

If so, the

rule

might

28

THE

NAME,
We

THE

TERM,

THE

CONCEPT,
of

in two

ways. the

might,through
of
we
a

increase

expand
to

connotation
;

term

without
new

knowledge, decreasing
individuals

its denotation which the

and

might
of

find

term
"

is

applicable without
of
to

the

connotation
the
meant

e.g., increase
man.

decreasing populationdoes not

But the rule
was

change
never

meaning
to

term

happens to a single num knowledge or increasing through increasing

apply
what of individuals.

ber

The

best illustrations of
of

the

law

are

found

in

the

sciences
tions of

classification.

Thus, the adequate defini

Ran

Ranunculacecz, Dicotyledon, Thalamiflorcc,

series ; increasing is a diminishingseries. of these terms the applicability illustra fond of the following older logicians The were historic has therefore acquired a certain tion, which

unculus, Ranunculus

ficariaform

an

importance:

"

Connotation

denotation least,

highest.

Beings

(i.e., anything existing, beings in general)

"

material matter (i.e.,

beings

in the widest
material

sense)

organic
the whole (i.e., Sentient world

beings
and

of

life, animal
"

vegetable)

organic

material

beings

(i.e., animals)
Rational sentient

organic

material

beings

(i.e., men)
This Man.

Connotation
In

denotation highest,
is

least. the

this

case

each

term

predicable of

following

3O

THE

NAME,

THE

TERM,
to

THE

CONCEPT, shall the

that of

being an
not

element is be

all metals.

As

we

see
new

(ch.VI. " 2),this qualitymust

must

equivalentto saying
a

that

Definition

or

Proprium ;
to

it

be

Differentia.
next

"

7. The

necessary

questionis

as

the limits

of

connotation. The of
a

traditional view definite perfectly

more nor

is that the
group of

connotation attributes

consists which off

a are

neither from in the tion

less than

sufficient to mark attributes

On
are

class

all other

classes.

These

expressed

of definition

the term.

this view of connota

some

between But that what

to

distinctions depend, as that importantlogical "verbal" III. " 2). and "real" predication (ch. the student has to notice is the implication
each
term

there
a

belongs a fixed

and
a

definite

meaning.
fact logical the

This
; and

is

ideal logical
reason

rather than many

"

psycho
rules
are

for this

of the

of
not

Aristotelian
to

Logic

seem

artificial, they
to

intended of many

have
our

reference

the

of
to

ordinary
the

terms.

connotations shifting it is our Logically,

business
and
to

advance time

meanings of our terms definite, keep them so, changing them only when a real in knowledge requires it. Thus, in Plato's
make connotation the of the
term

the

"sun"
move

was

"

"the the

of brightest earth."
to

heavenlybodies
definite
"

which

round

This
we

clear and
now

idea had
"

to

be

changed

what

of

in consequence by the sun advancing knowledge. The connotation of a term

mean

should fixed
as

be

made

clear
as

and

and distinct, revised

then

remain when

long

possible, being
is

only

revision is inevitable.
How in the

little attention

paid to

this

requirement logical
in Undera

affairs of life was shown ordinary by Locke Human vigorouspassage in his Essay concerning

AND

THE

LAWS

OF

THOUGHT.

31
well

standing (Bk. III.

sider the
errors
are

fusion,that
it has

that should He : xi.) the mistakes and obscurity, spread in the world by an
ch
"

con

and
ill
use

con

of

words, will find

as

some

reason

to

doubt

whether
more

language,
to
man

been
or

employed,
hindrance
are

has of

contributed

the

improvement
kind. think
on

knowledge amongst
that, when

How

many

there their

they
on

would

things, fix
who

thoughts only apply their

minds if the
"

words,
to

when especially
matters ; and

they would
then
can

moral of

wonder

results the

such

contemplations and
annex

reasonings,
very
at

whilst and
can

ideas
un

they

to

them

are none

confused
"

very

steady, or
say, that

perhaps
such

all, who

wonder,
end any in

I in

thoughts
?

and

reasoningsshould
mistake, without
inconvenience
own

nothing but
judgment
use
or

and obscurity

clear
an

knowledge
men

This

ill

of words how

suffer in much
more

their

privatemedita
are

tions ; but which

manifest

the

discords

follow

from

it in

conversation,discourse,and
For

arguments
conduit

with

others.
men

language being
their
one

the

great

whereby
ill

convey from

discoveries,reason
another
not ;

ings, and
makes
an

knowledge
use

to

he

that

of

it, though he does

which
are

corrupt the
;

fountains

of

knowledge
as

in

thingsthemselves
or

yet he does,

much

as

in him
to

break lies, the

stop the
use

pipes whereby
advantage
The

it is distributed

public
of

and

of mankind." for this condition

only remedy
what clearly take
care are

things is
words

to

realise
and the
to
same

the ideas for which

term

stand,

that for each

there

shall

always be

definite idea. have proposed logicians

to

Some
to

give a wider meaning by it,all

denotes
a

"connotation," and
the

to understand term

the known all class)

of qualities

the thing,or (if

32 the

THE

NAME,

THE

TERM,
to

THE

CONCEPT, members the

known
But

qualitiescommon
with the that
some

the

of

class.
we

growth
many
are

of of

usuallyfind view, and

and knowledge, experience these known are qualities every

and unessential, of
we

from insignificant them do

not out

point
in

simply leave
they

of account

forming our
connotation.
the

idea ; hence

form

part of the
includes
The idea
con

It is sufficient if the connotation

or

"important"
of "man"

"essential"
does
not

attributes. include
an

notation

of the

shape peculiar
and other
"

of the

ears, of the

for laughter, capacity

to the class." common qualities There is a third possible meaning of connotation, that it is all the qualities whether of the thing(orclass),

known

"

known

to

man

or

not.

The

word

is

not

employed
well-known express

in

this sense, into lines

for it would If
"

introduce
that the

fundamental

confusion

Logic.
on

we

assume

Tennyson's
wall"

the

flower
"

in

crannied
the

truth, philosophical

that

complete
involve
the

and

perfect

knowledge
of "what in the whole

of the and that

flower Man
we now

would
"

knowledge
and the

God
sense

is," then, using "connotation" speak of, God, Man,

part of the connotation
and

universe would
But far
"

be

of the
"

flower.
ideal
no

complete
our

perfectknowledge
would
not

is

an

so

beyond
say what

that present attainment,

or

we

have

to right

it would
as

imply.

Our

result is therefore

follows.
means

The for you

questionfor
or

Logic
mean

is

never

what it

name

me,

but
to

always

what

ought

to

mean.

And

what

it

ought

must

be

the something definitely fixed,

idea of the

this important qualities : or, expressing the qualities account on of which the name in the absence these

in other is

words,

given,and
idea of

of
on

which
our

it would

be denied.

Our

depends
name,

by

the

and

knowledge of the thingsreferred to will change as that knowledge grows ;

AND

THE

LAWS

OF

THOUGHT.

33 be
used
to

but

the

connotation

of the than
to

term

can we

never

anything more signify "

every We 8. We
term
saw

what

know. actually the whether question,

have

now

examine

has both in

connotation
some

and
terms

denotation.1
at

"2

that

least have consists is the of

both the

kinds

of

meaning.

The
to

denotation
the
term

instances particular The connotation

are

which

applicable.
attributes

is the

general idea of

in the particular instances. The exemplified connotation is logically the primarymeaning,the denota tion is the secondary ; for if we wish to refer to objects, otherwise than by pointing with the finger, do must we it by means of the connotation of their name ; the

which

connotation
are

determines
"

the
a

denotation
we

; and

when
we are

we

asked

to

define

"

term,
This

know

that

to

explainits connotation.
for

is

admitted fully
"

by

Mill ;

the subjects signifies the attributes indirectly," he [its denotation] directly, does not mean that the fact has any logical significance*
term

althoughhe

says that the

It is not
we

always a
no

fact ; and

when

it is so, it is because

have

exact sufficiently terms

ideas
use,
we

correspondingto
so a

many
to

of the

which

we

and have

find it easier

think in denotation. is

Here

psychological
thought.
some

which fact, Now

terms
a

a serious logically

defect of
not

from have

"6
two

we

see

that

only
:

but
name

all has

the

kinds of
the
;

meaning

every

primary meaning, content intension, or possibleinstances

This Mill.
He

the connotation, the universal, and it also refers

to

actual

or

of the

content.

been terminologyhas unfortunately

reversed
"

by

divides
"

terms

into
means

"

connotative
"

and
"

"

non-

connotative
1

but he

by

connotative
views, as

term,
set forth

This discussion has

reference special

to Mill's

in Book

I. ch. ii. " 5 of his

Logic.
C

34
"

THE

NAME,
denotes
terms

THE

TERM,
and subject,

THE

CONCEPT,

one

which
common

impliesan

attribute,"
term

as

all

do ; while

non-connotative

is "one

which He then

only."
abstract

a subject only, or an attribute signifies and proceedsto argue that proper names
"

names

are

since non-connotative,"

the

former

subjectsonly,the latter attributes only. But the signify thrown which is thus raised,has been whole question, "connotainto confusion by the ambiguityof the word whose it of terms tive ; for Mill uses primary meaning
"

is

denotative,in
a
"

our

sense

of
an

the

word;

terms

which
use

denote

subjectand
connotative
be

imply
"

attribute.
a

This

of

the word

is

revival of

scholastic use,1
avoided.
and Dr

which
Fowler
names

should

remembered view
as

only
to

to

be

adopts
;
we

Mill's

abstract consistent
He

proper
that
terms

but

his

terminology
both

is

with

which thus
:

have

already explained.
which which
"
"

divides
and

tive ; Mill which

"

(a)those (b) those

are
"
"

are are

connotative

denota

connotative
abstract i.e.,

by only (called
those terms) ; (c)
"

non-connotative denotative

by Mill only (called

non-conno

tative

i.e., proper
of attributes

names).
question
have
names

therefore,the Practically,
names
as

is this

whether without

such

connotation
have former

and denotation, without

whether

proper
Let
us

denotation
case

connotation.
a

take
as

the

first.

It is said that
mere

name
no

such

a "colour," signifying

has attribute,
a

denotation.

But

as

long
a

as

we

consider

term

in by itself,
see

detachment

from

proposi

tion,we

cannot

what

is
in

reallyinvolved
its

in its mean

ing.
the

When of
;

considered
an

place

in

proposition,

name

attribute

substantiation of the attribute expresses into the concrete the abstract is transformed
This

(cf. " 3).

1

is obvious point,see

when
Professor

the

term

occurs

in the

On

this historical

Minto's

Logic, pp. 46, 47.

AND

THE

LAWS

OF

THOUGHT.

35

plural:
be had."
a

"a

coat

of many it is
true

colours1''; "different sizes may

even

And

when

the

term

is used

in

purely
red

abstract

sense:

"colour

are extension,density, general),

"

in colouredness (i.e., of bodies"; properties

to

is the of

complementary
kind have and denotation

colour
no

green"
and

Abstract hence
the

terms

this

plural ;
coincide.
names concern
can

connotation It is

that proper said,again,

have

no

connota

tion.
in

This

question does
which
are

not

all of

the

two

sides

singular names, be distinguished.

"

Many

of them

able member

who

connotative the honour : specially brought forward the present motion."

not to

Setting these aside,it is

we

be denied

that

when

hear

proper
a

name

mentioned

in by itself,
no

detach informa
or

ment

from
as

then (a)it givesus proposition,

or qualities
we are

tion

to

the

characteristics of the person

with him
or

place,unless
names

acquainted

it

already;

like

Dartmouth, Oxford, which

signify particular
are

and situations,
to originally

personal

names

which

supposed
the in any have

have

the occupation of signified have when

dividual
such

bearing them,
individual
the
: 1

long
we

ceased know when

us

to

meaning, (b) And

is

the

qualities,
proper dif

"c., of the
name

denoted, then
new
we

the

changed,
the old

name

tells
contrast
name

nothing
a

ferent is

from

may
the

this with of

what
from

by changing signified "vegetable" to "animal."

proper
name

thing
fact

(c)Also
rule, not
case

it is the

that
to

the

is, as

given
of
a

in

order

signify any
not

attributes ; in the
to

child,it could

be

meant

developed
told
1

after the
of
a

attributes which are signify is given. Hence the name

comes

mostly
we are

that
case

name

to

suggest
name

number
on

of these
the

changing her only importantexception.

woman

The

marriage seems

36

THE

NAME,

THE

TERM,
who hears it.

THE

CONCEPT,
is

to qualities,

any

one

it and
But

acquainted
not to

with

the

person

who

bears

it is

given

the individual. but to identify the qualities signify Hence the question is,whether what is suggestedby proper
meant
name

does
common

or

does
term
or

not
an

correspond
that there is

to

what

is

by
a

a some

term. ordinary singular

Mill and there is

us

others

maintain

difference of function
proper
names

in

saying that
strict sense
that the

analogy; so complete as to justify have no signification

no
" "

in the tain but

an

of the word.
name

Against this, we
has When
no

main

proper

fixed or
used in
a

co?istant

proposi tion when used in the concrete the designation as i.e., the name of a definite individual acquires meaning in the strict sense, not merely "suggestions" "associa or tions." The whole peculiarity of proper names consists in having no meaning, but in the fact that their use not
" "

acquired connotation.

(asthe identification of a particular individual) prevents the meaning from becoming general.
The main
Mr

proof
"The
name

of

our

consists position

in the

fact

which

Bosanquet

has

pointed
of

out

of (Essentials
which
"

Logic, p. 92).
vents
a

convention from

usage,

pre

proper
cut

being
takes

always on

from becoming general i.e., loose and used simply for its meaning is the pointof breaking down." This actually
"

place

when

the

meaning
used
as

which

proper
a

name

while acquired^

it was

for designation the

name
a

par

ticular individual, is made

as a

and general,
"a

is used
second

type:

"A

Don

Quixote,"
matter

Daniel," Nero,"
are

Daniel," "a

Solon," "a
as a

Croesus,""a
which

"a

Caesar

Borgia." And exceptionsto

proper
ever name
an implies

of fact there
we

numerous
a

the has

statement
no

admitted, that

fixed

meaning.
some

Any

name

what
we

existence of

kind ; and

if

know

38
The

THE

NAME,

THE

TERM,

THE

CONCEPT,

result of this discussion of

is that the
; every
name

general con
has of both
mean

clusion

"

6 remains

unshaken

connotation

and
to

denotation.

The

two

kinds

ing belong "

9.

every

term. significant
we

The

subjectto which
with the the present
to
one

will
terms

now

pass

is

closely

connected

relation of

to

their concepts the relation of

of (thesubject the

and chapter), in
a

concepts
the
two

another

judgment (the sub

are

ject of
the Laws

What following chapters). have

a

called these

of Thought

reference

to

both

relations. The
on

word

law

Logic
sense are

have

ambiguity. Most writers chief meanings. In two distinguished

not

is

without

one

of the

word

we

speak
law

of

Laws

of

Nature,

which A

generalstatements
such In law of Nature.
or

of what
a

uniformly happens.
would
sense,

singleexceptionto
a

make
a
"

it

no a

longer
precept

another
some

law
an

is

rule

laid down

by
have
term

authority,
to

in
are

junction or
called
on

command

addressed

persons

who
to

to

obey
use

it but of the

it in their power is

dis
such The

obey.

This

exemplified in
of conscience." violation of

phrases as
dividuals.
use

"law

of the

land," "law

remains authority When

of its independently speaking of a Law in this second and the

so

by

in
we

Thought,
Men

the

term

mainly
errors
"

sense.

con

fall into stantly and rule

so
"

confusions
of

in their

thinking,

disobey
not

laws

they do
Laws

do

although as a thought, or consciously deliberately.

up
a

The lowed.
as

of

Logic,then, set
be

standard

to

be

fol

They

may

compared
to

with the laws of Grammar

regards correct
laws of

speaking and
rightconduct
life.

writing.
a are

The

science

of Ethics of sisting

also endeavours

formulate

standard,con
far from

which
Hence

being
been

constantlyrecognisedin

Logic

has

AND

THE

LAWS

OF

THOUGHT.

39
will
In

called the Ethics have observed the

of

Thought.

The

student title.

already

of this applicability

dealing
business in the
;

with logically is
not

for the concept, kind

a

instance,our
of Universals of lead and fact,
to

main
are

to

inquirewhat
mind,
of
as

formed
are

the average processes

we

matter

what

thought
formulate
" "

which and

their

formation
more

begin to
the

shall formulate the

fully ought

in
to

sequel
This

an

ideal

of what

Universal

be.

is the

characteristic of

logicaltreatment

throughout.
In this way
we

have

answered

the over-discussed

question,

be Art would Logic is a Science or an Art. A mere scientific connection rules,having no a body of practical themselves haphazard ; gathered, perhaps, from among as or gathered from very various object-matters, experience, But the art of music." Logic is first a Science, a system and then a science which atic body of doctrine,of " theory," of thought. Hence correct principles aims at distinguishing and Science it as both have described an a logicians many Art; e.g., Mill in his Examination of Sir W. Hamilton's " the art of thinking,which Philosophy,speaks of Logic as

whether

"

"

means
on as

correct

thinking, and better,as

a

the

science

of

the may
or

conditions be defined

which
a

correct

thinkingdepends." Logic
normative

or practical,

regulative,

science.

"
means

10.

In

wide

sense,

the

phrase
In

Laws

of

Thought

all the I.

or generalprinciples types we

of

Thought (see
sense,

ch. it the

" 2)

which

treat

of.

narrower

certain signifies basis of

fundamental

which principles

lie

at

inference.
of three such Aristotle, have principles The
It
was

Since the time

been these made
was

of
not

fundamental

importance.
him.
of

first of sub

stated by explicitly
as

sequentlyknown
the form The
:

the Law

Identity, and
with called the
Law

assumed is A."
of Con-

"a

thing is

identical

itself"; "A

second

afterwards principle,

40

THE

NAME,
thus and

THE

TERM,

THE

CONCEPT,
"

was tradiction,1

stated A

by
now

Aristotle
B
cannot

the both

proposi
be Law
"

tions

is B The

is not

true

together"
Excluded the be
two true

third
was

law,

known

as

the

of

Middle,
the

formulated
is B

by
A

Aristotle is not

thus
one

of

propositionsA
and
As

and

B,

must

other

false." Law of

"
does

ii.

it stands, the
any
as

Identity,"A
It may,

is A,"

not

give us
very have

information.
make it
a

however, be

so interpreted

to

on genuine principle

which

the

life of
seen

Thought depends.
in actual
we thinking

(a) We
terms to
"

that

require

identifies a thoughts. The Term has universal meaning (" 6). The Law of Identity to this relation. Let A denote an importantapplication
our identify
"

less defined or anything thought about, any more from which other ideas so far as is distinguished indicated by a single symbol in language,a name

idea
to

be
or

term, M.
must

Then

to

say for for

that the
one

"A
same

is A"

means

that M
same

always
must

stand and

A,
at

"

the

for

different minds
Terms

mind

different times. itself

term

meanings, each clear in and distinct from If the meaning of a others. is changed, it should be done and deliberately
fixed

have

for

sufficient

reason.

(V) In
true must

another

sense,

the

be

consistent
tests

means principle with itself; and

that what this is

one

is of

the down

necessary

of

truth. he

This does
not

was principle

laid
cast

by Aristotle, though
of
must
a

attempt

to

it

into the form

"All truth

Law be

of

i. 32) : Identity (An. Prior., with itself in

every the the

consistent
is here

direction."

Aristotle
a

of thinkingspecially
or

consistencyof
1

conclusion

consequence

with
Law

Sometimes

referred to, more

the as appropriately,

of Non^

contradiction,

AND

THE

LAWS

OF

THOUGHT.

41

premises ;
any

but the

principle may
or

be of

made

universal.

If

system
must

of doctrines be consistent
that

set

statements

is true,

they
The

among

themselves.

themselves burden only "little minds" with the effort of attainingto a rigid consistency, expresses and not a has truth which logicalbearing. We a practical dictum
must cannot not

sacrifice them

ideas

which

contain in
the

truth

because

we

precise form in to be assured It is possible before us. them have which we of "judging" (not logically judging) a -through power which is developed by life and experience that certain ideas
make self- consistent
"

are

exhibit their cannot fundamentally true, while yet we To sacrifice truth form. logical consistency in a satisfactory consistency,is for the sake of a rigid logical in such cases

simple or

rather far

complex folly.
as

Yet

this does
to

not

alter

the
are

fact that, so

the

ideas

are

true,

that extent

they

self-consistent.1

"

12.

The is B

Law
"

of

Contradiction,
"A

that

the both

proposi
be
true

tions "A

and

is

not

"

cannot

is together,

another

aspect of the Law

of

and Identity,

corresponds to it in meaning.
the principleof Identity secures to a meaning, so the prin identical reference of a term result by forbid the same cipleof Contradiction secures another to to be diverted meaning in the ding a term of While discussion or discourse. are we treating same

(a) Just

as

the

one

we subject,

must

fix the

meanings

of

our

terms, and

keep

to

the

same
as

meanings.
the declared that of Identity principle the principle be self-consistent, so must declares that the different parts of
one

(V) Just

all parts of truth

of non-contradiction truth cannot illustrate this

be

with incompatible

another. in which been

We

may

types of
1

to the manner by referring doctrine have philosophical

certain

maintained.
be further

The

philosophical aspects of
in ch. XI.
8 2.

the Law

of

Identitywill

considered

42
If

THE

NAME,
a

THE

TERM,

THE

CONCEPT,

maintaining as essential parts of his the know, with the following doctrines : (i) we system lies highest degree of certainty, that the Reality which is unknowable, and of mind matter the phenomena behind that it with the highestdegree of certainty know and (2) we and that it is infinite, eternal,the Cause of all things, exists, in all things: then, by mere manifested comparison of the is fundamentally that the system ideas employed, we see inconsistent. Realityis declared to be altogether unknow in certain important respects. able, and also to be knowable
we

find

thinker

Both

statements

cannot

be true. that among

are

If,again,we
Ideas"
the

find it maintained
of

the "Association the units

of

is

law

connection which

of which

mind

is

composed,
a

distinct
may
some

"sensations";
revive former when in the another

that, by this law,

one

present
in

sensation

with the

which

it

was

experienced at
the
second

time, we
we

find "What

doctrine

wrapt
to

inconsistencies
sensation

ask,
the

happened
its first

interval

between mind
of

experience
to be

and
a

its revival?" series of

to
a

Here

is first declared

only
such
a

sensations,each
next;

which

disappears to
to

give place
that

the

then when

the

mind

is declared
can come

be

sensation

it
trace

disappears
which
cannot
can

leave
up

effect or permanent into consciousness. these Both behind

views

be

true.

If,once

more, of of
a

scientific man

denounces

with

vigour the
in the himself

assumption
production to speak as
pose,

designing Power controlling

natural
were

at work

certain

events,
a

and

yet allows

if "Nature"

Power

and

is

unconsciously influenced

his

then we explanation of natural facts, natural that no it is maintained hand charge. On the one effects are produced by a superhuman designing Power; and the other hand, that some effects are so produced. on

acting with a pur by this very idea in bring the same may

The be
to

"

inconsistent
to

"

doctrine

or

statement

may

always
not

reduced make

the

one

fundamental
"

form, of attempting
"

the

propositions
this form

is B
the

and

"

is

"

true

together. In

Aristotle

is stated by principle IV. iii.) It is impossiblethat : (Metaphysics,

"

AND

THE

LAWS

OF

THOUGHT.

43
and
not
same

the

same
same

should predicate

both

belong

belong way"
times,
it may
it in
on

to the

thing at the
may have

same

time and

in the

A
as

thing
in

different
in
one a

at qualities

different
; and

the
a

changes
in the silver

person'scharacter
respect, and
shield
not

have

quality in
as

have
was

another,
one

celebrated
on

that

gold

side and

the

other ; but

these
as

facts do

not

conflict with the law

it. would Aristotle

of Contradiction
that

Aristotle of this

states

pointsout
law
"

the denial

be the denial
13.

of the very

principle of thinking. possibility

says
not

"
two

The

of Excluded is B
"

Middle
"

that
one

of the
must

propositions A
true

and

is

B,"
the

be
was

and

the

other

false.

In this form the student

principle

laid down

by

Aristotle ; and with the

will observe

its close

connection
as

of Identity and principles

and the the meanings of terms regards The of the application consistency of propositions. A and B are is plain in proportion as exactly principle

Contradiction

defined.

If

we

are

in

doubt

as

to

where

one

thing

begins and another ends, we are in doubt as to the of our precise application principle.This may happen
in
to
cases
an

where
event

we

do

not
or

find time
"

definite perfectly

limit is

in

space of

e.g., when
seem

something
unable
to

"in
"

the

act"

occurring, we
or

say, The
or

either it has
may
not

happened
risen."
to
mean
"

it has

not

happened." "having
risen" have

sun
"

be

just "rising"
But
as

without
soon as

having

we case

attached
sun,
"

meaning precise
we

in rising," that the

"

the

of the

e.g., if

make
true

it

actual the
are

globe is
of

visible

above middle

the is

horizon,

then
we

law

excluded natural

applicable.When
as

speakingof
have

such qualities

heat, which
say
"

always body
must

degrees,then
"

again we
"

cannot

that until

a we

either
that
some

be

hot

"

or

not

be

hot

know

definite

44

THE

NAME, is

THE

TERM,

THE

CONCEPT,
word. And which

degree
case

of heat

by signified
of
as

that

in the
seem

of the

great divisions
one

Nature,
"animal"

to

shade

off into

another,

into

"veget
we

able," and
may be excluded
one

"vegetable" into "inanimate

as

matter,"
the law

in doubt

to
an

the

applicationof
on

of

middle
these

to

individual
;
we
or

the borderline be
an

of say

of

divisions
an

may

not

able

to

either that it is
it may
seem

animal
be

that it is not

animal,

But something between the two. of what this results from our imperfectunderstanding animal life really is ; the greater the lightwhich is of the this problem, the smaller the extent thrown on which neither in the doubtful borderland,of things seem
to

class of

"

animal

life

"

nor

outside it.
of

Sometimes

the

law
a

excluded

middle
The

has

been

questioned through
which
the law of

mere

confusion.

contrast

thought makes, is between two pro of which simply denies or contradicts positions one affirmative and a negative the other, between an pro
"

position,"This
"

water

is
"

hot,
"

this

water

is
not

not

hot,"

This

paper line is

is

white,

this
"

paper

is

white," longer

"This than
out

longer than

that, this

line is not

true with opinion is simplytrue [i.e., this opinion is simply or qualification limitation],

that," "This
In

"

not

true."
one

each

of these
true

one pairsof propositions,

and But of

only must

be

; there
to

is

no

third alternative.
law
to
a

it is not

uncommon

apply

the

pair
an

propositionswhich
to

affirm

of contrary predicates last of the above

and object, that "either false." be

a

say

the (taking

this

opinion
may truth

is
a

simply true
third
error.

or

examples) it is simply
may

Here

there of

be
and

it alternative,"

mixture
and

between Similarly,

"white"

"black,"
"less

"hot"

and
case

"cold,"
there

"greater
are

than," and

than," in each

other

46

THE

NAME,
be
true.

THE

TERM,
second the

THE

CONCEPT,
third laws

only must "

has

The

and

give

unfolding of progressive
14.

been

of the first. implications Since the time of Leibniz an important principle in Logic and placed by the side introduced of which
we

of the three laws the law

or

have

spoken.

It is called

stated thus

of Sufficient Reason, and is usually principle For everything there is a sufficient reason :
"

why
two

it is

so

rather laws

than of

otherwise."

different
must

thought

are

principle brought together,

purposes of

In

this

which

be

and, distinguished,
states principle
to
"

for the

elementary Logic, carefully separated.

(a) The
tion which

first

that

for every
must

proposi
for

is held

be true, there

be may

reasons

it as regarding in support
as

true,

arguments
must

which

of it.

It

be

capable of

brought being shown

In other into

be

the

conclusion

from

certain

premises.

words, every judgment, when

an

questioned,expands

inference.
state

This
the
"

does laws of

not

apply to
"

the

propositions
cannot
"

which

thought

they

be

proved by argument, from premises to conclusion, be, in this sense, inferred they cannot ; for all argument
and
all inference

The

depends upon them. that every judgment principle

into
"

justifies itself
a so

by

expanding

an

inference, is really part of

all parts of
our
are

wider
far
as

principle,that
they
We
are

knowledge,
connected
once

true

knowledge,
any

to

gether.
to

know have

that
a

statement,

admitted any other

be true, may
our

modifying effect

upon

portion of
dant
every

knowledge. All the current scientific, and philosophical controversies afford abun theological,
illustrations of this fact
; and

it is

fact,because
with
every

judgment
one.

is at
cannot

bottom show

connected

other
cases

We
most

this connection, in many

alluded
to

but

of the

controversies

consist

AND

THE

LAWS

OF

THOUGHT.

47
between different "Man's nine in
re

in

the

endeavour

to

discover
"

the the

connection results of

different sciences.

parts of knowledge,
It has

been
has

said, for instance, that

been when the
we cause

place in
teenth

Nature

"

cclcbre of the succeeded

century.

And

have find

we conciling different results,

that

they mutually
under
event

support

one

another. second included principle

states

(b) The
real world
event

the in

Law

of Sufficient Reason there

not must

that
a

for every

the the
as

be

cause,

without

which

could

happen.

This

is

properlydescribed
we

the Law consider

of Universal it

Causation

; and

shall have

to

of Inductive later, along with other principles also

"

Logic.
on

These

are

Laws

of

Thought,"
the

"

principles
but

which which

knowledge depends,
is
to

and

trustworthiness

of

be
to

granted
be

if not

only knowledge

thought
We

itself is
stated
as

possible.
Contradiction and
ex

have

the

of principles
were

cluded had with

form
must

Middle view
two

they
Later

formulated

who by Aristotle,

in
one

contradictory
cannot
or

propositions
the A

contrasted
laws "a

another.

logiciansstated
be both
*

in the

"a

thing

and

not

A,"
of
two

thingcontra

be

either A

not

A."

Here,
a

instead of

we dictory propositions,

have

pair

contradictory

terms

the Aristotle did not another. use opposed to one of later statements These nomen indefinitum "not A." of course the true are they have not the principles ; but for they do of Aristotle's statements, logical significance contradiction is. formal what or not inconsistency express is a purely indefinite term A" Not though we call it ; and
"

the

contradictory term

to

A, the relation between

these

two

followingvariations are Contradiction, "a thing cannot "A be other than cannot itself,"
1

The

sometimes both
be

found
and be
not not

for the

Law

of

be";
And
not
or

"a

thing
for the

cannot

A."

Law

of Excluded

Middle

"

thing must

either be

be."

48
does

THE

NAME,

THE

TERM,

THE

CONCEPT,

not

give

us

the

meaning
takes

of the

logicalact

of contra

diction.

Contradiction
and

place only between

proposi

tions;
and

one propositionaffirms a predicate only when the other simply denies it of the same subject. And of

such
true

both propositions, and the other false.

cannot

be

true, while

one

must

be

EXERCISE

I.

dealt selected questionson the subjects are following with in this chapter : if any, between Sub is the logicaldifference, What 1. stantives and Adjectives? [L.] of Collective terms, examining in the nature Describe 2. in distinguishing these and General particular any difficulties The
"

terms.

[C.]
Explain
it any what is
meant

3. Has

by the Connotation
the

of

name.

connection

with

etymology of the name?

drawn
are or

[C]
4. Is there and
to

any

distinction
? What

to

be

between
may

Singular
be held
as

Proper Names
their

views

being mere unmeaning marks ? [L.] and Abstract Concrete 5. Explain the distinction between this distinction correspond to that between Does terms. ? Substantives and Adjectives May differences of quantity
be

recognised in the
6. Are

case

of Abstract

terms

?
or

there

any

terms

without
has

Connotation
on

without

Denotation? arisen from

How the

far

controversy
of the word

this

question

ambiguity

"connotation"?

[St A.]
7. Give
a

careful

explanation of
Positive in the

the

nature

of

Relative

Terms.
8.

What

[L.] Distinguish between ambiguity is there

and
use

Negative
a

names. as

of such

name

"not- white"?

[C]

to

of the usual divisions of terms do you consider 9. Which be of fundamental in logicaltheory? Give significance
reasons.

your
10.

[L.] Enunciate, in the

form

that

seems

to

you

most

suit-

AND

THE

LAWS

OF

THOUGHT.

49

able

from

the axioms
of

point
of

of

view
and

of

logical
discuss

theory,
their

the relation

primary
to

laws

or

thought,
[L.]
of value. been called laws

the

process
11.

reasoning.
the and have that such
Law

State

Sufficient

Reason,

and

discuss

its

logical
12.

place
What

the

Laws

of

Thought?
negative

Why
criterion

is of

it

held

supply

only

Truth?

[G.]

CHAPTER

III.

THE

PROPOSITION,
AND THE FORMS

THE

OPPOSITION

OF

PROPOSITIONS,

OF

IMMEDIATE

INFERENCES.

PART

I.

The
"

Logical

Proposition.

"

i.

GRAMMATICAL

sentences

may
or

express

commands,
In
some

wishes,
last
case

questions,
the and
must

exclamations,
makes its it
a

assertions.
about in
can

the

sentence

statement

thing,
mood. the

have when
as

principal
an

verb

the
we

indicative consider
The which Pro ad

Only
sentence

is

assertion truth
a or

expressing

falsity.
statement

position
mits
sense,

is

an

assertive
true
or

sentence,
false.
not
a

of the

being

But

in

the

strict until it

logical
is
ex

sentence

is form

proposition
P,
with
a

pressed
Predicate,
the stated
of

in

the and

is The
;

distinct about

Subject,
which is

Copula.
is it. S made The and the which
P

Subject

is that

statement

the

Predicate,
is
not

that

which
a

about

Copula
as

merely

means

connecting engine
with

the

coupling-gear
which
it

connects

an

carriages
the

draws,

nor

in

the
a

judgment,
separate

proposition
to

expresses, the

is

there and of

thought
between The the

corresponding
idea of the

Copula
and the S and that

coming
the
act

Subject
expresses think
of

Predicate.
of

Copula
the fact

simply
that I

mental
P
as

judgment,

"

THE

LOGICAL

PROPOSITION.

51
the
*

joined together in really

expresses. We

the

way

which

proposition
of pro

may

now

the distinguish

different

kinds

positions.
of Propositions the form S is P
are

said

to

be cate

gorical
are
so

I assert) or (fcarrj'yopeQ), called

to

unconditional. from
"

They
pro

them distinguish

conditional
a

positions,which
that

predicateP
certain

of S

under
are

condition," supposed
or

is, provided
be

circumstances

granted. They
metals which may
are

Conditional

of two kinds. are propositions "If as (i) hypothetical or conjunctive, the is

heated, they expand," where

be
money is that
an

condition

must

granted is

that

the

metal

heated;

or

"If again,

is scarce,

condition
metal is

pricesare low," where the insufficient quantity of the standard

The
"
"

thetical first

being coined. are propositions

;

general
is is

forms

of
as

hypo
in the in the

If A

B, it is C," D,"

example

and

"

If A

is B, C

as

second. is the

(2)The

other
"

class of conditional
Man

propositions
or

disjunctive, as

is either
man

immortal

in

his Ideals,"where capable of realising mortal

or

being merely

is the condition
"

of his Ideals

again,
"

Either

the

being unrealisable ; of Semitic Carthaginianswere

language is
of
not at
as no

or origin

the argument
"

from

value

in

ethnology

if the Carthaginians /'."., were from

of Semitic time be

the argument origin,

language
"

may
are,

any

untrustworthy. The
the
two

general forms
A

illustrated in
or

examples just given,

A

is either B

C," and
of

"either

is B

or

is D."

Further

consideration

conditional
We
now

propositions may
come

be set aside for the present. many

to

the

How question, there?

kinds

of

are categorical propositions

Aristotle that
we

pointed out

(An. Prior., I.
in
two

i, De

Int.,v, vi.)
When

may

them classify

distinct ways.

52
make
an

THE

LOGICAL

PROPOSITION.

we

assertion

we

must

either

thingof
of it.

the

subjectwe

speak of, or
or

(i) affirm some (2) deny something

may

Again, the
some one

affirmation

denial

be

made

or (b)of a whole class thing, particular or of a part of such a class, (d) kind of things, or (c) or without sayingwhether the proposition may be expressed called the Later logicians the whole or a part is meant. of quality, and negative) one former division (affirmative with the distinction and the latter (which is concerned of quantity. of a class) one of the part and the whole either are According to quality, then, propositions of saying Aristotle is fond affirmative or negative. that the affirmative unites or combines, the negative

(a)of

divides

or

separates.
the
a

What

kind

of

union,
The

or

separa

tion, does
expresses
sense

express? proposition
between attributes

affirmative
in the

union

Subject and Predicate

"

that the
to
are

long
stars
own

be by the predicate signified thus in the proposition Fixed the subject : of shining by their the quality self-luminous,"
to

is said light
stars.

belong to
the

the

heavenly bodies
a

called

fixed

The

negative expresses
sense

separationof
the the

subject and signified by

"

predicate in
the

that

attributes

do predicate

not

belong to belong
to

subject ;
The

gold

is not

declares fusible," easily

not

that the

qualityof

being easilyfusible does typicalforms, in Logic,

are
"

gold.
and

of The

affirmation student

negation
bear
in

S is

P, S is

not

P.

should the

mind

that in this formal word

"

expressionof
"

negative pro
:
"

the position,

not

belongsto

the

copula l

Subject
S
1

Copula
is not

Predicate P

The

philosophical aspects of Negation

" 5.

will be further considered

in ch. XI.

54
universal is affirmed

THE

LOGICAL

PROPOSITION.

proposition, so
or

called

because

the

predicate
"

denied is
to
"

of every the whole

instance of the
of

the reference in
"

All

planetsshine
of each of the
as

by

reflected
"

subject, the subject." Thus, this quality is light,"

in
"

affirmed
not
are

class of

planets," although it is
No
men

true strictly

scientific fact ; and

is quality

bad," utterly
"

this

denied
not

of each

one

of the

class
"

human
"

beings."
"

If it is is

All S is P

or

No be

P," the

alreadyin the form if it is proposition,

without

universal, can really

its meaning. altering The (":) of
to
a

expressed
denial may
case

in this form

affirmation
In Its
"

or

be

made

of

part
said
"

certain class.

this

the is

is proposition
"

be particular.
S is not
"

form logical

Some

S is P

or

"Some

:"

some

men

are
are

born
not

great

"

"some

statesmen

practical."

in ordinary proposition, particular language, is an about assertion these some two quantity between The

extremes,
whole the But

"

that in which and subject, it means i.e.,

the

predicateis

affirmed

of the
of

of the
"

that in which
"some

it is denied
a

whole in

excludes

part."1 its logical form the particular proposition only not exclude the possibility of none ; it does
only," "only
" "

the reference and

at

to

"

all." may

In other
not

words, it
or

means
"
"

"

some,

there may

or

be

more

all for

i.e.,
"

"

some
"

taking some in the former, the narrower, proposi sense, in a logical not tion,is our knowledge of its subject-matter, anything
in the formal

least."

The

only possible ground

expression of

the

: proposition

"

some

In

ordinary language this

"

convention

is

so

strict that the word

"All
men are are

"some"

is of itself sufficient to
may

bought bought.
"

be denied

by

the

deny "all" : simple statement

to be to

"some

be

THE

LOGICAL

PROPOSITION.

55
"

metals

decompose water,"
"

here
we

"

some

must

be

inter

preted
that metals. tion is
we are

as

"some
statement

only," for
far the

know
a

from

Chemistry
of

the

applies only to
as

class particular of the

But

as

logicalform
class

proposi
; and
or

concerned, the whole

told

is

not

excluded
of

nothing

as

to

how and of

much

it,a
to

great

small any

portion,is included,
or

nothing as
cases

whether
to.

case particular

group
or

is referred be
or

The (ct)

affirmation

denial

may

made
a

without

reference explicit class denoted by indefinite condition Such their

or

either to the whole the

to
case

part of the
we

subject.
"

In

this

have

an

indesignate

proposition, as

"Virtue

is

is not a good." happiness," Pleasure be dealt with in Logic until cannot propositions and true precisemeaning is made apparent. As of
"

Jevons
or

says,

The

predicatemust
the
if
we

be

true

of

the

whole

hence part of the subject,

as proposition

it stands this

is

incomplete ; clearly supply

the of marks

but of and

attempt

to

remedy
to

and

quantity, we
assume

overstep the
be

boundaries

Logic

ourselves

of science of which with the subject-matter acquainted treats." Indefinite propositions, therefore, the proposition have no place in Logic,unless they are merely abbrevia

tions,and

their real

quantityis obvious, as
their three interior
"

in the follow

ing :
On
forms

"

Triangleshave
two

anglestogether logical possible

equal to

or angles," right

Men have

are

"c. rational,"

the

we whole, therefore,
: proposition
"

four

of the

Universal

f affirmative
(

All

S is P. g ig p S is P. g [s
not

NQ

affirmative

Some gome denoted S is P

"

Particular

^ negatiye
The
"

form S is P

"All
"

S
E

is P"
"

is

by by

the

letter
"

A;

No

by

Some

I ; and

Some

56
S is not
P
"

THE

LOGICAL

PROPOSITION.

by

O. be
were

As

Mr

Keynes

has
:

the suggested,

propositions may
SoP.
The letters first two vowels vowels of nego,

abbreviated
chosen

thus

SaP, SeP, SiP,

and E I and
are

because

the the

of
I

I affirm, and affirmo^

deny.
also

"

2.

Propositionsare
is

classified
as

according to
be
may

modality, into (a) necessary,

"S assertorial,

"S

must

P";

(b)

P";

(c)problematic,"S
of any

be P."

Jevons says,
manner,

"

The

presence any

adverb

of

time, place,
an

degree,"c., or
use ordinary

to expressionequivalent
a

adverb, confers modality on

not

proposition
Most

"

but

this is

the

of the term.

writers take dis

tinctions of

as modalityin propositions referring only to

"

the difference between The

must

be,"

"

and is,"

"

may
are

be."
too

out questionsarising

of these
an

distinctions

difficultto
must

be
a

pursued in
on

add

note

the

work ; but we elementary expressionof these propositions

in the

forms typical assertion

"

A, E, I, O.
of course necessity must equilateral triangle every
to

(a) The
angular"

of

forms

an

proposition :
means

An

be

equi

that

example

of

an

equilateral simple

will triangle

be

found

be

equiangular.
makes
"

(b) The
can one

assertorial proposition, which

as a

statement unqualified

matter

of

fact,as

the Ameri

Indians
of the

are

will copper-coloured,"

fall naturally into

four

classes.

In

the

example given it is an

proposition.

merely problematicalproposition as "the weather be fine,""S be P"" may gives us no may information about S; it only says, "I do not know
"

(c) The

whether
such
a

is P

or

not."

The the

nearest

in

meaning

to

judgment, among

four

forms, is typical
or

the The
we

particularproposition,affirmative logical meaning of "some" comes

negative.
best when

out

THE

LOGICAL

PROPOSITION.

57
says
us

use

the

word
are

"may"
not

"

e.g., if

person tells

"Some that any

S
con

Irishmen
chance
are

he Nationalists,"
may
not

Irishman P"
means

be there
"

Nationalist.
is
no

"

Some

not

that S and

inseparable
are

nection there We is

between
no

P ;

some

"

means

that

incompatibility between
the distinguish and "S is

S and

P.
"

must

propositions
P" The
course

is

not

P," necessarily

not necessarily

"

it is i.e.,
an

impossiblethat
tion of

S should

be

P. of

latter is forms of
a an

asser

and impossibility, in
"

pro

position, as

The

circumference with of

circle is

neces

sarilynot
former does is
not

commensurable

its diameter."
in "A

The

merely
not

denial

as necessity,

republic
"

secure necessarily

good government," or
best."
not

Old

paths are
do
not not

the necessarily that "Some

The

sense

of these

is propositions
secure

S is

P," "Some
"Some old

republics paths
are

good government,"
division is that of

the best." The last here which propositions and

we

need
of

notice
as

of verbal

real, also spoken

and the

and ampliative, or analytic explicative

on

synthetic
assumed II. (ch.

respectively.This distinction depends

of definitions, to fixity and " 7), of the it is
not

which

we

referred

before

unless applicable
are

the fixed definitions The pro

or

terms

concerned is P is

known. actually
P

positionS
part of the
not

when analytic of S ; it is of S.

is the definition

definition

syntheticwhen
that of the

is

part of the definition

we we

It is evident

only
not.

when
can

have

an

accepted
the

definition

subject,

tell whether

is syntheticor proposition
amounts
a

And

owing

to

the

very various

of

knowledge
be
the of

possessed by different minds,

to analytic
one

proposition may
the definition who does
not

person,

who

knows

and subject,

syntheticto another,

know

58
it.

THE

LOGICAL

PROPOSITION.

Again,
in

the the

growth
definition

of of

knowledge
a

may
"

lead

to

changes

name,

compare,

for

system" as it would be defined in and in the Newtonian the Ptolemaic, in the Copernican, is which a theories of astronomy : hence proposition We be analytic time may at another. at one synthetic
instance, the "solar
may make
are
more

many
now we

statements

about
were

the
not

solar

system
so.

which
The
"

but analytic,

always

know, in the scientific sense

of the word

know," of
;

any

object,the deeper
be made about

our

definition of it
of may

becomes

hence, also,the greater the number

can

analytic
assume

assertions which
that to
a

it. We

to omniscience,all Intelligence, perfect

know

ledge must
"
3. We

be
now

analytical.1
come

to

what

is

one

of of the of

the

most

valuable

mental

out arising disciplines

study of

elementary Logic. ordinary or

It is the

exercise

paraphrasing

bringthem
sacrifice of
of this sort
"

to rhetorical assertions, as so or poetical form with the least possible into strict logical

meaning.
should stand
a

In

the

forefront stated
or

of all exercises

the axiom

by

Hamilton

Before

with dealing

Judgment
of

Reasoning expressed
should be

in

language, the import

in other
to state

its terms

fully
be is im

understood;
allowed

words, Logic postulates to

all that the
on thought" (Lectures

in language explicitly in

contained plicitly vol. iii.p. 114).

We may be

Logic,

shall first consider

compound
or more

which propositions

analysed

into

two

simple

ones

; and

subsequently the
the and
1

in of simple propositions expression strict form. Common speech abounds in condensed the logical analysisof expressions elliptical ; and

The

and

philosophical aspects of the distinction between Judgments will be further considered in ch. Synthetic

Analytic
XI.

" 3.

THE

LOGICAL

PROPOSITION.

59
and

such makes

expressions into Subject,Predicate,

us

Copula

familiar with what

exact
are

they imply,and
with
have
to

strengthens
combine

the habit of

interpretation.
frequentlymet
in the which

Statements
two
or more

which propositions,

be
to

distinguished
logicalform. by
the older is the

and Such

stated separately

reduction
were

compound

propositions
The
most

called

exponible. logicians
connection of

common

instance

junctions,such
"c. theless,"

propositions together by simple con as "and," "but," "although," "never

These and
are

easily analysed.
resolved
on

(1)

"France
"

Germany
resolved

war"1

is

equivalent to

J (a)France
(2)
"

on
on

war.

( (b)Germany
Gold and

resolved

war.

silver are

preciousmetals

"-

J (a)Gold is a preciousmetal. ( (b)Silver is a precious metal.

(3) "The
great is
not

good,
not

but

the

good
because

is

great"

"

j (a)The The ( (/"")

(4)
"

great is

good
"-

it is great.

good
but

is great.

He

is poor

dishonest

J (a)He ( (f)He
(5)
"

is poor. is dishonest. the merrier

"
"

The

more

(a)A

given number
merriment.
will

is

enough

for

some

(b)More (6)
be
are
"

Men

who

are

produce greater merriment. honest and pious will never fail to

poor
not

respected, though

and if

illiterate;

provided they
"

but self-supporting,
1

they are

paupers
it
and

(Venn).
collective,
two

The then

word

and

in the

makes Subject occasionally

not

and

the

propositionis

compound:

"two

make

four."

60
whole

THE

LOGICAL

PROPOSITION.

The

sense
"

of

this

can

be

expressed
honest and

in

two

: propositions who men (a) Self-supporting will be respected ;

are

pious

Paupers who are honest and pious will not be (l") respected. other propositions Two are emphasised in the original is a particular of (a), and (d) of (/') statement case : ; (c) who are self-supporting, (c)Poor and illiteratemen will be respected. honest, and pious, who honest, pious men are Poor, illiterate, (dT) paupers
"

will not The is

be for
not

respected.

best

test
or

decidingwhether
is to

givenproposition
it admits
of

compound
The

observe
than
one

whether way.

being contradicted
of analysis exclusive

in
the and

more

compound
exceptive

which propositions is less

are

called

simple. by

In

exclusive

propositions the
"

Subject is
none

limited
"

words

like
"none
"

"

alone,"
who

only,"
:

"

but,"

none
are

except,"

is not"

as, "Graduates

alone

eligible,"
ways
: or eligible,

S alone

is P."

This
some are

may

be

contradicted
are

in two

that by asserting that An

some

graduates
who eligible

not not

persons

are

graduates.
about the

assertion is in fact made

who
at
are

about

graduatesand
none

persons and the

some

not

graduates;
the

of

latter,

least of

former,

given proposition is : propositions

"

Hence eligible. equivalentto two simple

are

graduates {(a) (b) non-graduates

are

Some No

eligible. are eligible,

Some j"

S is P. not-S is P.
to applicable

( No
This

mode

of treatment

is

all exclusive

propositions.

62
orbit
first
"

THE

LOGICAL

PROPOSITION.

earth's of the

nearer (i.e.,

to

the

sun)."
the
"

The

excepted part
part
"

becomes proposition

exclusive

of

the

second

Mercury
of
"

except Venus Both alone."

and
are

Venus becomes Mercury analysable into the same

and

pair

propositions.
(2) Nothing is beautiful except Truth." is beautiful (A or I), ( (a) Truth
} (b) Nothing other than Truth
If in the is beautiful. of
of the

subject is
we

original statement not distinguishedby

to
as

the
name

excepted part
from

the

rest

it,

may

have

the

statement
"

sacrifice part of the meaning : a pair of I propositions

by expressing

(3)

On

the prisoner." judges but two condemned ( (a) Some judges voted for condemnation, \ (b)Some judges voted for acquittal. this point, see below, " 4, example 12.

All the

the translation of the investigate student The into logicalform. simpler propositions of service. will find the following suggestions is not (a) If the true subject of the proposition

"

4.

We

shall

now

obvious
statement
answer

at

glance, we
"

have is

to

ask, of

what

is this

made,
to

what

this

questionwill

The being spoken about? subject bringout the logical

of the

which proposition,

is not

always the
next

same

as

the

of the sentence. grammaticalsubject we (b) Having found the subject, stated about
answer

ask, what
of it ?

is

it,
"

what

is the assertion
out

made

The

to

this will

bring

the
or

show The

whether verb
must

it is affirmed be

and predicate, logical of the subject. denied

so as

changed,

if necessary,

to

admit of

of the the

predication being
to

made

by

the

present

tense

verb

be.
we

(c)Then
intended instance
to to

have
to

to

ask

whether of the

this

is predicate
"

apply it,
"

the whole the

subject,
"

to

every

of

or

whether
a

only intends proposition

about
some

commit

itself to

statement

only

"

or

THE

LOGICAL

PROPOSITION.

63
the
pro

"some

at

least."

In

either of these

last cases,

is particular; otherwise position

it is universal.

Some

verbal

expressions indicating universality may

such
as

be

(Each\ Any, He who (Whoever), The, and (sometimes) A, when joined to the A proposition, an just as No, None, signify Subject, signify E. A in the predicate, an Similarly signify Always, Never, and E respectively.I is indicated by Some, Certain, A few, Many, Most, "c., or by Generally,Often, standing in the predicate ; O by any of these words with a negative. Some signs of quantity are not free from ambiguity ; and this is a point requiringspecial attention, (i) All in a negative in common proposition means language, that is, some,
mentioned.
Words

All, Every

"

"some

only" ; and propositionsof this form must usually be treated as exclusives, and be analysed into two propositions. of these will be more One immediately implied, by the
than original proposition,
are

the other.
or

Thus

"

All

the metals
metals
are

not

denser than

than

water,"
is
are

"Not

all the

denser

water,"

equivalentto"
not

( (a) Some

metals

denser

than

water,

metals are denser, ( (b) Some where (") may be called the primary, (b)the secondary im receive this saying," is cannot plication. Similarly,"All equivalentto ( (a) Some not able to receive this saying. are
"

} (b) Some
A

are

able
"

to

receive
S
are

it.
not

proposition of the form

"

All

"

of

course

might

possibly mean
its

No

meaning without words or Few, Hardly any, Scarcely any, before the subject, in the predicate, require the Seldom proposition to be analysed into
that be the
some

P," but if so it should have stated ambiguity (see ex. 8, below). (2) The
are

two.

"

Few
do

men

know know
I

how how

to to

think think.

"

asserts

do and

others
an

not
an

It

must

analysed into
or

and

the proposition,

former
a

being
definite
the

primary implication. (3) When

group which
I

Certain in
a

means

individual

have

view, it makes
Greek

Subject
"A

singular term
man

(sometimes
him" of

: singularcollective)

certain

encountered

; "Certain

philo

sophers were

the founders

Logic."

In the latter statement

64
the

THE

LOGICAL

PROPOSITION.

reference

Logic ; the (4) The Subject is therefore a singular collective term. of any sign of quantity absence a universal generallysignifies This applies specially to proverbs and current proposition. sayings. But if there is reallyany doubt on this point the be made must particular. proposition We add of of which series a examples, the treatment
constitutes
we

definite group, of what the foundation

is
to
a

whose know

work
as

as

whole

should

be

carefully noticed
are

by the student.
about

(1) "Blessed
(a) The
is affirmed that

the

merciful." "merciful ones."

statement

is made
"

(") It

they
to
"

are

blessed."

(c)This
Hence
are

predicate is

intended

to

apply
SaP,

all of the class. All merciful ends in

an ones

the

proposition

is of the form

blessed."

(2) "Democracy
This

despotism."
assertion
"

makes proposition that this

about

"

Democratic
in des

affirms governments,"

they
to

are

things ending

potism,"and
democratic democratic

intends

apply

to

government. governments
will out."

Hence
are

the

instance of every form is SaP, "All in

things ending
"

despotism."

(3)
The
are

"

Murder

proposition speaks of
or

"sooner
every

later

to

instance.
sooner
or

murders," affirms that they discovered," and intends this to apply Hence dis SaP, "All murders are
is
a

covered

later."

(4) "A
This of

little knowledge is put in the

dangerous

thing."

quantity to

ment

is intended the

logicalform simply by attaching a sign that the state Subject. We may assume " of to apply to every littleknow case a
form is SaP.
a

ledge"; hence (5) "Amongst

found." Henceforth
we

Englishmen
shall
a

few

great
three

generals

are

distinguishthe
statement

logical analysis of

in

the

(a)

What

is the about
In

statement

made the
we

about? assertion
"

serted whole?

it? this

(c)

Does

points in the following order" What is as (ff) apply to part or

example

have

(a) Great generals ; found amongst (fr) Englishmen

(c)affirmed

of part of

subject;

THE

LOGICAL

PROPOSITION.

65
amongst

hence

SiP, "Some
"

great generals
not

are

found

Eng

lishmen."

(6)
cause reasons.

Old
means

thingsare
that
are

This

old
;

the therefore things are not may

on

best." the best

merely be
for
other
not

they

old

they

be

undesirable other

This

last statement,

the

hand, need

apply to all "old things." (") Old things

simply because they are (c)denied of part of the subject.

Hence

(6)the

best

old

SoP, "Some
"

old

things are

not

the best
.

."

general is better than two good ones." (a)one bad general acting alone better than two good ones ("") to act together ; failing (c)affirmed of every instance of the subject. In every Hence bad is SaP, instance, one general better than two ." good ones
"
...
. .

(7)

One

bad

honourably shall not be forgotten." This be considered cannot ambiguous ; it is evidently those who SeP, None who act honourably are among shall be forgotten."
act
"

(8)"All

that

"Not
serves

all rather

your
to

endeavours

will

succeed." than
"

Here
to

"all" indicate
en

quantity,and
deavours UA11 the that

emphasise "endeavours" the proposition is SeP,

not

None

of your

will succeed." is glitters

of have referred. ambiguous use we The of the proposition primary implication is, some things that glitter not and the are gold," secondary, some things that glitter are gold." The consist of a name (9) logicalsubject may qualified In the following, sentences. or the logical more by one
" "

gold." This "all," to which

is

an

instance

of

subject includes
who
who
zs

all the

italicised words desires"

are

"No
;

one

is free

enslaved

are

by his own quartered here

feathers
do

(SeP)
in

skilled

officers peaceful pursuits"

Here
the
"

"all

the

(SaP). (io)"Fine
contrast

not
"

make

fine birds."
"

is between
"

having

fine feathers the

two

and

being
are neces

fine bird

what

is denied

is that

facts

connected sarily

(sec p. 57).
E

66

THE

LOGICAL

PROPOSITION.

(a] To

have

fine feathers
of

(b]the sign
(c] denied
Hence

being

fine bird

of

some

instances

of the

subject.
is sometimes
not

fine feathers have SoP, "To sign of being a fine bird."

the

(ii)
In
some

"

Some
to

of the deal

English kings
to turn

have

been

worthless."

order

with

propositionsreferringto
them into

past time,
of

logicians propose
"

propositions
are

thus classification, constituted

Some

English kings
of worthlessness
to

in the
at

class

by

the
not

attribute
necessary
act

the

given
It

time."
is
true

But

it is

be

so

very
a

cumbrous.
one

that
a or

"every
present
that

of

judgment
But in
a

is

present

and

expresses
to

belief."

past

future
to

time, the truth

of the

proposition referring proposition lies in its

the point of time ; and we may express meaning formally by putting ourselves at that point of time, therefore and copula is in the using a proposition whose Simi Some : English kings are worthless." present tense be expressed, "all are persons larly, "all had fled" may reference
"

who

have
"

fled."
Half
"

(12) many,"

of his

answers

are

wrong."
and
means

Here, if
the

half"

is

merely
is

indefinite

"a

good

it as If we take obviously SiP. it has to be treated definite, strictly a numerical statement, a as compound proposition,and part of the meaning sacri ficed by analysing it into a pair of I propositions,

proposition

(
(

(a) Some (b] Some

definite

of his of his

answers answers

are are

wrong.

not-wrong.1
cannot

But

numerical

statements

be

fully dealt

with of

in

elementary

Logic.
those
we

Finding
do
not

the

formal
u

expression
and
12

propositionslike meaning.

given in examples
succeed

is

an

unprofitable puzzle, for

their

in

expressing

all

It is worth

noting that
it looks. be

the

phrase

"half

of his answers"

is not

so
"

preciseas
this half"

It is

only abstractlyprecise.
would
be
a

If it meant

it would

and reallyprecise,

singular(an

A) proposition.

THE

LOGICAL

PROPOSITION.

67

EXERCISE

II.

The

are following-

examples illustrating ""

3 and

4.
:

in logical form Express the followingpropositions is not strained. (1) (a) The qualityof mercy

(b) Some
(c) What

have is
not

greatness

thrust upon them. is not desirable. practicable

sublime (d) Hypocrisy delightsin the most specula tions. [St A.] absent. (2) (a) Many were will not suffice. (b) Any excuse (c) All knowledge is but remembrance. is the' oldest university (d} St Andrews in Scotland [St A.] late to mend. too (3) (a) It is never (b) They also serve who only stand and wait. hold such opinions. (c) Only ignorant persons

(d} Few

books

in

Logic
here
are

are

easy

reading.

[St A.]

(4) (a) No (b) The (c) Luck

(5) (a)
(b)
For Not

admittance
old

except for officials.

to

paths
are

best. desert
a man.

has been

known
not

(d) Trespassers
every every

wrong

always prosecuted. [St A.] there is a legal remedy.

is
a

advice
war

safe

one.

(c) The

object of

is durable

peace.

(d) Improbable

events

happen
an

almost

every

day.

[St A.]
(6) (a) The longest road comes to (b) Only Protestant princes can England.
(c) Unasked
advice
no

end. sit upon the throne

of

is seldom

acceptable.

(d) Where

oxen

are, the crib is clean.

[E.]

(7)(a) Knowledge
(b} (c)
Two

wrongs Custom blunts

is power. do not make

right.

sensibility.
lucky.
few.
on

(d) More

(8)(a) It (b) Those

(c} No (d) It

haste, less speed. is only the bold who are

who
one

escape is admitted be that

are

very

except
none

business.

cannot

will fail.

[C.]

68

THE

LOGICAL

PROPOSITION.

(9)(a) Nobody undertook of pursuing them

(b) Honesty
is
not

these

studies

but

was

incapable

successfully.

always the easiest policy.

is as good as another. (c) One man (d) Nothing succeeds like success. (10) (a) Life is change. is the guide of life. (b) Probability (c) Plants are devoid of the power of movement. There is no limit to the amount of meaning (cT)
a

which

term

may

have,
to

(ii)(a) To

think

is

be full of

sorrow.

righteous,no, not one. (b) There is none if ill-taught (c) No child ever fails to be troublesome and spoilt. be rich and can (d) No one happy unless he is also prudent and temperate, and not always then. [G.] (12) Express in a single propositionof the simplestlogical
form

the

sense

of each

of the

following sentences

"

should catch to fall, we (1) If the sky were rains but it pours. (2) It never (3) Many are called,but few are chosen. (4) Unless help arrives, we are beaten.

larks.

(5)

You

cannot

eat
man

your

cake

and

have

it.
who

(6) Use

every

after his
?

deserts,and

should

'scape whipping

[O.]
a

(13) Express
of position the

in adequately as you can form the sense simplestlogical

as
:"
"

single pro
of the

of each

following sentences

(1) A

man men

may

smile

and

smile
have

and

be

villain.

(2) Few

think, but all

opinions.

clouds appear, wise men (3) When put on their cloaks. (4) Oblige her, and she'll hate you while you live. fell. [O.] (5) Angels are bright still, though the brightest (14) Analyse the following into a group of simple logical The of arriving at general know propositions : possibility of experience which is the aim of all ledge by means science involves the assumption that the world is a rational
"
"

"

world, and, therefore,not

but
one

world

where

events
are

are

casual,

where with

they
what

are

causal, and
before and

hence follows

intelligibly

connected

goes

after them."

70

OPPOSITION

OF

PROPOSITIONS. Then

Logic on which we A expresses position

of

are

now

entering.
the

the
or

pro class

the

fact that

thing

things denoted part

"

by the
class
are

subject is included
denoted elements

in

and

forms

of

the

by the
"

predicate.
on

(a) all metals that the interpretation,

Thus the

means,

this
in

class

"metals"

is included

wider

class

"elements," and

means are equiangular" triangles is in the class lateral triangles

(b) "all equilateral that the class equi triangles, equiangular

matter

and

here

we

know from

also,from
These

the

of

the

pro is

not position,

its form, that

two

the

former

class

identical with the latter. arise in

an

always possibilities
mathematician
Euler of
a

proposition. The
a
a

invented century) (eighteenth

the extent is of the denotation of all

method
term

indicating

by

which circle,

supposed to include and nothing else. In by one of represented

things denoted
case

this the

two

by the term A is the proposition following diagrams:

"

/-" I
S

and

Fig. i.

Fig. 2.

Fig.
and S and
not

of which represents propositions those of which The

(a) is

type,

2 fig.

coincide.
us

(b)is a type, where the classes does form of this proposition

or

tell
us

whether

they coincide

not

; it does

not

tell But

anything of that part of P which is outside S. is always represented formallythe proposition by

case

its lowest tion

hence

in

in Immediate (e.g., it. fig.i represented

operatingon an A proposi we Inference) always act as if

OPPOSITION

OF

PROPOSITIONS.

71
class

The denoted denoted

E proposition

expresses

the

fact that the

the

by the subject is altogether outside by

the
means

class
are

predicate.
that all the

Thus,

"no

metals

compounds,"
side of the

class "metals" The

is out

class

"compounds."
the

is proposition
:
"

fullyrepresentedby

diagram following

Fig. 3Hence this

propositiondoes
as predicate

tell well of

us as

something about
the whole
P
must

the whole
: subject

of the if S is

of the

wholly outside

P,

be

wholly
of the
two

outside The class

S

of S.
I tells us proposition is included in the

that class

some

at

least

P.

There

are

principalcases
metals
are

of

its

possiblemeaning.
"

(a)

"

Some

brittle," means
in the other class

that part of the class "metals"

is included cludes also is

"

brittle
than

but things," metals.

this in the

things

Hence

diagram

Fig. 4.
Here

part of S
are

coincides
"

with
means

part of P.

(I))
"

Some

Europeans

Frenchmen

that part of the ckiss

72
"

OPPOSITION

OF

PROPOSITIONS.

Europeans
the

"

coincides

with

the

class

"

Frenchmen,

and

diagram

Fig. 5where We whether of P.

part of S coincides with the whole

do
not

of P.

know

from

the

form

of the whole
"

proposition only a part

"

the And do

the signifies predicate

or

further, since
not

"

some

means

some

at

least," we
whether
to.
"

know
or

from

the form

of the

proposition
and
"

the whole the

"

part of the Subject itselfis referred

5,

In

examples represented by figs.4

only
a

some

means

part, and

the

are propositions

(a) part of (b) part of

But
as

S coincides S coincides
mere

with part of P, with all of P.

of the
not

far

as

the

form

proposition goes,
excluded
:

the two

are following possibilities

(c)all of (d) all of

These On
are

S coincides with part of S coincides

P,

with all of P.
and
2

represented by figs,i hand,

the
can

respectively.
nearly all
I, will
form

the other

student be

will find

that

which propositions, be of the type The class

two

brought to
that
some

the

(a) or (b).
tells the
us

0 proposition
S

at

least

of the
are

fall outside

class P.

Here, again, there

chief
not

of meaning, although the possibilities

distinction

does
may

depend
a

on

that of part and

whole S

of P.

(a) P

be

wider

class than

S, and
are

partlyoutside it,

within partly

it : "Some

metals

brittle," represented

OPPOSITION

OF

PROPOSITIONS.

73
class than

by fig. 4.
fall

(b) P

may
it

be
"

narrower

S, and
are

entirelywithin

Some

Europeans

not

Frenchmen,"
actual instance

type

as

one

of

Although any representedby fig. 5. will be of the same of an O proposition form the mere these examples (a) or ("),
not

of the O We

propositiondoes
of the whole P
must

exclude

fig. 3.
"

see,

O, like E, tells therefore,that the proposition

something
at

predicate ;
fall

for if

some

"

falls

wholly outside P,
least of S.

wholly outside

that part

"

6. A

term

is said the it is form

to

be

distributed,when
in proposition
every

we

know it

merely
occurs

from that Which

of the

which

to applicable

individual
to

of the

class.

terms, then, are

?

known

be

distributed

in the four

forms propositional

(1) In
tells taken
us.

A,
But

the
we

subjectis distributed,as
do
not extent

the

"all"

know

whether 5,

the

is predicate

in its whole it

(asin "
the

fig. 2), or

only
not

in

part of

i); (fig.

hence

predicate is

dis

tributed.1

(2)
be
that whole

In

E, both

for distributed, the whole

must

to subjectand predicateare known the proposition tells us 3) (" 5, fig.

of

S be

is outside outside
not

P, and

therefore

the

of P

S. known and tell

us

(3) In I, the subjectis

as

to

be distributed not,

the word

"some"

tells us;
not

the

predicateis

for the

propositiondoes
extent

whether

it is taken

in its whole

(fig. 5) or
subjectis
so,
us

in part known
we

4). only (fig.

to
saw

(4)
but the
1

In

the

not

be distributed

the

predicate is

for, as
that
is

(" 5
of
P

ad

finem\
fall

proposition tells
The word "distributed"
"known

the

whole

must

always nothing but

of the

an

abbreviation
be dis

of the

phrase

from

the form

to proposition

tributed."

74 outside
refers. There which
are

OPPOSITION

OF

PROPOSITIONS.

that

part of S

to

which

the

Subject"some
the
cases

S"

is

no

in remembering difficulty distributed

" "

in

the

Subject is

or

the reverse,
As

for these the

indicated

by

"

all

or

some." that

regards

predicate, the above

tribute, affirmatives

table do
not.

shows

negatives

dis

"
the
on same

7.

By

the
to

opposition of
which
or

two
or

is propositions of falsity when

term to
"

meant

extent

the

truth the

one

depends
the
"

the

truth

of falsity

other The
as

they have

Subjectand
in
a

Predicate.
sense so

opposition
cases

is

used the nned

technical do

include

where be de

statements
as

not

reallyconflict.
of the four

It may

each to propositions when other, as regards truth or falsity, they have the same two subject and predicate. Now propositions having the same subject and predicate may differ in both in quality only ; or in qualityand quantity ;

the

relation

quantity only.

(a) If they differ in

(i) (2)
one

both

and quality, then, quantity the affirmative, other

must

be

universal

particular negative;
or one

must

be

universal

negative,the

other

affirmative. particular These between

are

the two
two

cases

of the

most

importantrelation
cases,

propositions. It
Of be

is

called,in both

contradictory opposition.

contradictory proposi
other

tions,one
be false.

must
cannot

true, and
both

the

false ; in other

words, they SeP, (/;)

the least vice
"

be

true, and
are

they

cannot

both SoP
;

For

the If SaP

contradictories
is

(a) SaP,
that
"some

SiP.

false,this

means

not

all
at

circle S

is inside the be

circle P, therefore
; that

of it must

outside P
may

SoP is, that

is true, and
one

versa.

Similarly we

show

if any

of

OPPOSITION

OF

PROPOSITIONS.

75

the
is

four

is true, propositions

or

its contradictory false,

or false, true, accordingly.1

(b) If
(i)

the
one

differ propositions
must

in

qualityonly,then,
the affirmative, other

be

universal

universal
or

negative ;
be the affirmative, particular other

(2)

one

must

particular negative.

(i) In
cannot be

the first case

the Of

traries,i.e., SaP, SeP.

called con are propositions both contrary propositions, circle S it. But
cannot

true, for the whole

outside be

be at
may

once

in the

circle P and
may

both

be false,

for the circle S SeP is

partly in
the

the

circle

P,

so

that

false,and
the second
"

partly outside
case

it,so that SaP

is false.

(2)In
both

are propositions

called sub-

contraries
may

SiP, SoP. i.e.,

be
so

Of

sub-contrary propositions,
circle S may be in
so it,

true

; for

part of the
is true, and
cannot

the circle P, that SoP the is

that

SiP

part outside
be false ; 2

true.

But

both

for if so, SoP is

circle S must
at

be
same

all in the time

circle

P, since
must

and false,

the

the circle S

be all out

side the circle

P, since SiP is false.

differ in quantityonly, then, (c) If the propositions be universal the other must affirmative, (i) one

affirmative, particular
or

(2) one

must

be universal

the negative,

other

par

negative. In each the propositions are case i.e., (i) SaP, SiPj (2) SeP, SoP.
tions,both
may

ticular

called Of

subalterns

"

subaltern

proposi

be

true

; for

the

truth

of the universal

Hence

other.
2

The

are contradictory propositions justsufficient to deny each See ch. II. " 13 (end of section). student should notice the contrast between "contrary"

and

"sub-contrary" opposition,as of the propositions. falsity

regards

the

relative

truth

or

70
includes know
"

OPPOSITION

OF

PROPOSITIONS.

the

truth

of

the

the least
we

truth
some

of the S is know

if we But particular. only know particularsi.e.,

"

only
that
not

at
"
"

P,"

or

that

"

at

least

some

S is

P
are

do
or

not not.

whether

the

universals respective

true

The
in
a

six relations which

we

have

are explained

shown

diagram
be
more

called

the

square

of the
"

opposition, which
square of relation."

would

called accurately

sub-contraries

Fig. 6.
The results of this section
:
"

may

be summed

up

in the

table following

EXERCISE Give Exercise the

III. in

contradictory of each proposition contained and 14. II.,questions i to n inclusive,

[Before the
it must of
course

contradictoryof
be

expressed in

propositioncan be given, strict logical form.]

78
of

IMMEDIATE

INFERENCE.

I, the

of falsity
A. But
to

and
term

from

the

truth

of

O, the
is
of

of falsity

the

Immediate
formal

Inference

usually restricted
which fessor
a

certain

transformations
to
"

proposition is capable, and

has

which

Pro

Bain

given
The

the
name

name

of

equivalentprohas also

forms." positional been proposed. There

are

"eductions"

two

fundamental which S and the

"

processes
an

of

eduction
pro

conversion, by

we

obtain
P

equivalent
for

positionin

which

have

changed places; and

the predicate All other of of P.1 the proper

obversion, in which
term contradictory

has equivalent
"

not-P

instead

processes the
two

of Immediate of
an

in Inference, alternate

sense

term, consist

performance

of these

elementary

operations.
did
as

Aristotle admit the

recognisedonly
use

Conversion definite
name

; for he
"

not
a

of the

"

in

not-P

Subject or Predicate.
used
in

"
a

9. The

term

conversion, though sometimes

the signify infer another

wider sense,
from
a

is best restricted to

process

by

which the

given propositionwe
the

having

for its predicate proposition original for its and the predicateof the original proposition infer of the type SP we a proposition subject. From

subjectof

an
as

equivalentone
S'
The rules for

of the

type PS

no

new

term,

such

(not-S)or P' (not-P) is

conversion of the
asserts

introduced. follow
we

at

once

from

the

meaning
it. It

as proposition a

have

agreed to accept
two

relation

between that
two

classes.
are
a

An

affirmative
or

states proposition

classes
4,

wholly

partly coincident

("

5,

figs, i,

2,

5);

negative
of
Mr

that they proposition,

1

are

wholly or
follow
a

partlyexclusive
by
P

For

the

future indicate P'.

we

shall the

suggestionmade
any
term

Keynes, and the symbol

of logicalcontradictory

by

IMMEDIATE

INFERENCE.

79

each

other the of

(figs. 3,
in the

4,

5).

In

the

original proposition,
from

called side

convertend, this relation is stated

converted relation

the the of

S ; the the

called proposition, is stated from

or

converse, P. the side the Now

same

same

the

side

relation

(of coincidence
at

exclusion)is
of S
or

whether If P
extent

looked

from with

the S
to

side any

the
to

of P.
same

coincides
S
must

extent,
if P

coincide

with

P ; and

is
to

excluded the
same

from
extent

to

any

extent, S
P.
A

is also
at

excluded the

from

glance
And
as

diagrams
in

will make the

these

facts obvious.

coincidence

diagram corresponds to affirmation in the proposi have the first rule tion, and exclusion to negation, we
of conversion
the
:

the

quality (affirmative or
in the

negative) of
converse.

original proposition is unchanged

we Again, obviously

cannot

state

in the
to

converse

any

more

than

the convertend

declares

be known.

Apply this,

this

to the four forms. principle When we (1) "All S is P."

come

to

convert

and

change places,and
of S.
on

has

the

instead This the do

we

What what

quantity must
we

sign of quantity be given to P ?

quantityof
A P

depends

know Now

of the
in P
an

in

originalproposition.
not

know, from
know

the

form,
at
we

that

is
of

we proposition distributed (" 6) ;

only
is

that

some

least
must

P
"

is referred
some

to.

Hence
P

in

convertingA,
in the of
"

say
"some

at

least of

S,"

or

logicalform,
all
men are

is S."
"

Thus,
fallible

the

converse
are

fallible " may be

"

is

some

beings
which

men."
not to
men

There
; the

fallible "

beings
us

are as

originalproposition tells
Here

nothing

this. S is P."
P

(2)
from is
"

"Some

again

we

do

not

know,
extent,

the

form, whether
not

is taken
we

in its whole

or distributed,"

; hence

cannot

distribute it in

80

IMMEDIATE

INFERENCE.

the of
are
"

converse,
some
men

which
are

is

"

some
"

is S."
"

The learned

converse

learned
A

is have

some

beings

men."

Thus

and This
must

the that

same

converse.

(3) "No
P, and
are

S is P." all P

means

all S is outside Both is S."

terms

therefore

be

outside S.
is "no
"no P

and distributed,
men
are

the

converse

Con

verting"no
are

we perfect," get

perfectbeings

men."

(4)
sented

"

Some these

S is not

P."

We

saw

that this it does

was

repre

by

and diagrams,

that

not

exclude

Fig. 7 (a).
the the

Fig. 7
Now if

diagram

for E.

we

transpose S and

P, in

and is the O, so that P is quantified proposition is the predicate, and S is unqualified and it subject, will be found that no negative logicalproposition of the both the above diagrams. For PoS type P S will satisfy does not satisfy (b\ and PeS does not satisfy (a). Hence there is
no

formal [necessary] metals

not
are
"

converse

of O.

The

pro

positions "some
brittle thingsare

not
are

brittle"
both
true

and
as a

"some
matter

metals

of fact;
conversion

but

the

latter is not

known

by

mere our

logical
know is

of the metals and

former,
"

it is reached
are

by
are
"

ledge of
no

thingswhich
of
"

brittle. There
not
some

converse logical Taking examples

some

metals

brittle."
Euro that
case

of another
"

kind,
"

from

peans
"

are

not

Frenchmen
are

we

cannot
"

infer logically
; and

some

Frenchmen

not

Europeans

in this

IMMEDIATE

INFERENCE.

the

attempted
do who the

converse
"

is
some

not

even

true

as

matter

of
an

fact.

from Similarly,
not

candidates
cannot

who

sit for
"

examination
candidates From second
in

pass
an

we it,"

infer that do
not

some

pass

examination

sit for it." derive the

four

examples just given,we

term not must known
was

rule of
converse

conversion, no
which

be distributed
to be

the
in

distrib

uted

the
are

convertend.
some

There conversion

further
must not

aspects of the
escape E
we

process

of

which

the

student's atten

tion.
nor tity

In

I and converting quality ; the converse

of

change neither quan SiP is PiS, and of SeP

in A. converting

is PeS. it from

This
the

is called simple which

not

conversion, to distinguish
the
we quality,

process
we

is necessary

Here, though
the

do

change
of SaP

change
is called

quantity ;

the

converse

is PiS.

This

conversion telian The

by limitation, the equivalentof the Aristo

Kara phrase avrio-rpocf)}] /Jbepo^ (An. Prior.,i. 2).

mediaeval

called logicians of
an

it conversio per acridens.

The ation is
are

conversion
a

propositionwithout fallacy. From

" "

limit

frequentsource
"

of

ill-doers easy to
arc

ill-dreaders the

(understood as
converse,

it is universal) ill-dreaders

slip into
beautiful
not

unlimited
understood

ill-

doers," also

universally. Similarly,"all
"

thingsare
"

agreeable

may

be

true, but it does

We and

follow that know from

all the

may
P P
or are
"

things are beautiful. agreeable of the proposition that S matter

But the

coextensive.
not

singleproposition
P ; to

"

all S is

does

logically express
between
S and

the relation of coincidence do

we this,

coextension

require

the two

propositions together,
(

(a)All
is thus
F

S is P.
P

\ (b)All
The
converse logical

is S.
to

be

from distinguished

82

IMMEDIATE

INFERENCE.

the the

converse. geometrical

The
an

converse geometrical

is
not

simple converse

of

and proposition,

it is

but has to be proved inferrible from the latter, logically of all converse independently. Thus the geometrical are triangles equiangular is all equiangular equilateral
" "

"

are triangles

In equilateral."

every

case

it will be found for the geomet indirect

that rical

an

independent proof is
Euclid
absurdum the truth

necessary

converse.

usuallyadopts the

proof,
the

by

reductio ad of which

(as in

I.

in Prop, vi., "c.),

course

of the

is original proposition

appealed to.
We
now

conversion. reduced
to

of the process examples illustrating first be must to be converted Every proposition strict logical form.

add

some

(1) "There
strangeness

is

no

excellent

beauty that hath

not

some

in the

proportion."
strangeness
in the

(a) Excellent

beauty

proportion ; of instance the denied of (c) subject.1 every No Hence excellent beauty is a thing without SeP, strangeness in the proportion." Converse PeS, Nothing without strangeness in the pro portionis excellent beauty." (2) It is a poor centre of a man's actions,himself." (a) A man's self (b) a poor centre of his actions ; (c) affirmed of every case of the subject.
" " "

(b) [a thing]without

Hence

SaP,

"A

man's

self in every

case

is

poor

centre

of his actions." Converse man's

PiS, "Something
is himself."
but

which

is

poor

centre

of

actions

(3) "Mercy
those

murders, pardoning [/".,if it pardons] pardons those that kill thing ;

instance
of the

that kill."

(a) Mercy which

(b) a

murderous

affirmed ("r)

of every

subject.

For

the proper

order of

see logical " analysis

4.

IMMEDIATE

INFERENCE.

83
those that

Hence

SaP,

"All

mercy

which

pardons
murderous

kill is

murderous." Converse
. .

PiS,

"

Something

is mercy

which

"

." pardons ["I shall not all die "]. (4) Non omnis mortar (a) Myself; (b) immortality ; (c) affirmed of part of the subject. is immortal." Hence SiP, Some part of me is part of me." Converse PiS, Something immortal has The secondary implication, a originalproposition is formally is not Some immortal," which part of me
"
"

inconvertible
of
me

unless

we

express

it in the form,

"

Some

part

is mortal."

man." (5) "Tis crueltyto load a falling To load a falling man (rt) ; (b) a cruel thing ; (c} affirmed of every instance of the subject. load a falling man Hence In every to SaP, case
"

is

cruel

thing."
PiS, "Something
cannot

Converse

cruel

is

to

load
. .

."

(6)

"

We

all command

success."

(a) We; (b) able to denied (":)

Hence

command
of the
"

success

;
some cases.
. .

subject in

." Formally able not Some' of us are SoP, of us are un unless we inconvertible, change it into, Some able." The has a secondary implication originalproposition of us are able to command SiP, "Some success,"with con ourselves." Some success are beings able to command verse, there is nothing great but mind." (7) In man and be This is a compound proposition(exclusive), may
" " "

resolved
(

into, (i) nothing

that

is

not
man.

mind

is great

in

man

( (2) mind In the

is great in

first proposition,

(a) what is not mind ; (b) a thing great in man (c) denied of the whole Hence SeP, with converse
is other than mind."

subject. nothing great PeS,

"

in

man

84
In the

IMMEDIATE

INFERENCE.

second
;

proposition,
in
man

(a) mind

(b)
Hence

thing great SiP,

with
case

(c) affirmed

of part of the
converse

subject. PiS, by simple

the

conversion.
who

(8)
Here "he

"

In any

he

was

not

only

one

said so."

the said
;

phrase "in
so" is

any

case"

indicates

that the fact that

waived

the

questionable,but that this question is that others beside him emphatic assertion is,
"

said so."

(a) others

beside
who

him said

;
so

(b) persons
(c) affirmed
Hence

of part of the others

"

subject.
beside Some him who
are

SiP,

"Some
converse

persons
so

who

said than

so," with
he."

PiS,

said

are

others

EXERCISE

IV.

Give,

where

possible,the logical converse

to

of each

of the

referred propositions

in Ex.

III.

"
from

10. an

The

process

called obversion
to proposition
a

consists in

passing

affirmative
same

statement negative

of the the

truth,and

vice

versa.

The

rule

is,change
for
the

quality of the

proposition and

substitute Thus
:
"

predicate its logical contradictory.

OriginalPropositions.
All No
men
men men

Obverses. No All Some

men

are are

fallible.

are are men

"not-fallible."

perfect.
are

men

"not-perfect."
are

Some

learned.

not

"

not-

learned." Some
men

are

not

trust-

Some

men

are

"not

-trust

worthy,
In

worthy."
we

general terms,

obvert

the

proposition
"

S is P

"

86
In

IMMEDIATE

INFERENCE.

we obverting propositions,

must

try

to

make

the

logical
com

forms
mon

as

neat"

or

at

least
as

as

little removed

from
to
a

the

usages

of

speech"
the
same

possible; and
when there

avoid
more

using
familiar

terms

of the

form

"not-P"

is

expressionwith
"

meaning.
used with cumbrous be

Frequently
advantage.
and uncouth avoided.

the

phrase
but

other

than

"

may

be

Obversion

may

produce exceedingly
a

forms,

with

little care of

this result may

our

(1) "Some

muscles
; act

are

without

volition."

(a)

our

muscles

(b) things which

(c) affirmed
Hence

without

volition

SiP,

"

of part of the subject. muscles of our are Some

To

things which
"are

act

without
"

volition." take

obvert

we

substitute

not"

for
For

are," and

the

contradictory of the predicate.

"

without act mally, this contradictory is, not things which volition"; and this is exactly equivalent to "things which
act

with
"

volition."
of
our

Hence

the
are

neatest
not

form

of the obverse
act

is,

Some

muscles

things which

with

volition." (2) "Every

mistake
; ;

is

not

proof of ignorance."

(a) mistakes

(b)
Hence

proof of ignorance
of
"

(c) denied

some

of the

subject.
are

proofs of ignorance.' and taking the for not are Obvert other than proofs is which contradictory of the predicate, than other mistakes proofs of are of ignorance,"" some
mistakes Some SoP, by substituting are
"

not

"

"

"

"

"

ignorance."
The
"some
"

original proposition has

mistakes mistakes
"

secondary

implication,
obverse,

are are

proofs of ignorance," with

not

some

other

than

proofs of ignorance."
command
himself."
;

(3)

No

one

is free who
who
cannot

cannot

(a)

those

command

themselves

(b} free; (c) denied Hence SeP,

selves
are

of the
"None

whole

of the who

subject.
cannot

of those Here the

command

them

free." is the
cannot

most

convenient

contradictory
the
obverse

of "free" is "all who

negative term
command

"unfree";
themselves
are

and

unfree," SaP'.

IMMEDIATE

INFERENCE.

8/

(4) "A man's (a) a human (b) a being

(c) affirmed
Hence

man."

being
with of every
"

the

and rights of manhood capacities instance of the subject.

SaP,

All

human

beings
manhood
"

are

and capacities
human

rights of

beings with obverse SeP',

the
"

no

beings are other than and rights of manhood." (5) Britain is an island."
"

beings having the capacities

This

is

singular proposition,and
"

therefore than
an

SaP.

The

obverse

is SeP' Romulus Romulus twins

;

Britain
Remus Remus

is

not
were

other

island."

(6)

"

and and

twins."
;

(a) (b}
Hence obverse twins.'

(a singular collective term)

subject.
and and
Remus Remus
are are

(c) affirmed

of the

whole

SaP,

"Romulus
"

twins," with
other than

SeP',

Romulus
4, Ex.

not

(Cp. "

II.)

EXERCISE

V.

Give in Ex.

the
III.

obverse

of each

of the

propositionsreferred

to

Before
on

the

passingfrom this subjectwe must so-called "geometrical obverse."

of "All S is P
"

add
The

note

geomet

rical obverse is
not

is "No the

not-S

is

P," which

inferrible logically

from
true

former, and
the

requires
classes of
as

independentproof. It is by S and thingssignified

2. fig.

whenever

are

coextensive,

in

"

5,

"
ence,

ii.

Other

processes,

of

genuine
Conversion
processes,

Immediate and
"

Infer

consist in
shall examine

combining
two

Obversion.

We and

such

Contraposition
from
a

Inversion.
is the

Contraposition

process

by

which

given
the

propositionwe

infer

another

propositionhaving

88

IMMEDIATE

INFERENCE.

of the original predicate for its subject, contradictory and the original subject for its predicate. In other of the type S P to words, we pass from a proposition another
us

of the

type Not-P
about

S,

to

proposition giving
a

direct information
As before

Not-P.

indicated, Contraposition is
two

compound

the operation,involving

described.
first obvert the

To the

reach

the

simple operations already the rule is, contrapositive

then
convert

original proposition,and
thus obtained. indicates
:
"

proposition

The the

followingtable
in the
case

exhibits the
of the four

steps and

result

forms prepositional

OriginalProposition.
A. E. I. O. All S is P. No S is P. S is P. S is
not

Obverse. No
All

S is P'. S is P'. S is not S is P'.

E.
A.

Some
Some

Some
P.

P'.

O. I.

Some

Converse

of
No

Obverse

Contrapositive.
E. I.

P' is S.
P' is S.

Some None. Some If

are

P' is S.

I. be

the

previous
" " "

real

examples

taken,
" "

"All

men

fallible

yieldsas
;

its

contrapositive No
are
" "

not-fallible
"

beingsare
yields no
and
cannot
"

men

No
men

men

perfect yields Some

Some
men are

not-perfect beingsare
be

learned

"

because result,

its obverse "Some

is
men

an

O
are

proposition
not trust

converted;
"

worthy

yields

Some

not-trustworthy beingsare
of it is

men." ap the
same

Jevons describes parently

A supposes

this method that

inference,but preciselythe

only applicableto

proposition.

But

he

describes

IMMEDIATE

INFERENCE.

89

process in

as

applied

to

the

proposition,calling it by Negation. variety of

and
as

this case,

however, Conversion
is not
;
a

Con

version
as

by Negation
for

Conversion
an un

denned accurately
name

it is

simply another

desirable in the able

not

Contraposition. And
a

is

seen

above

table, Contrapositionis
to

process

applic
to

only

the the

A I

and

the

O, but

also it

the

proposition ;
result.
The
converse

in

alone proposition

yields no

process

of obversion
to

may

of

course
a

be

applied

to

the
the

and will

the

of contrapositive

: proposition

student

positive
P'oS'.
The

find, for example, that the obverted is P'aS', of SeP of SaP is P'oS',and

contra-

of

SoP

is

following are examples of contraposition. is not gold." (1) "All that glitters Some Primary implication, SoP, glittering things
"

are

not

golden."
"

Obverse, SiP',

Some

glittering things

are

not-

golden." P'iS, "Some Contrapositive, things which are not golden are glittering things." The has a proposition secondary implication, SiP, Some glitteringthings are golden." Obverse, SoP', Some glittering things are not
" "

other

than

golden."

none. Contrapositive,

stand the climates of Africa." alone can (2) "Natives None other than natives Primary implication, SeP,
"

are

able

to

stand

."
.

Obverse,
unable
.

SaP', "All,
."
.

other

than

natives,
unable
.

are

P'iS, Some, Contrapositive,

are

"

who

are

.,

other

than

natives."
"

Secondary
able
. .

implication, SiP,
."

Some

natives

are

Obverse,

SoP',

"

No

natives

are

unable

."
.

Contrapositive,none.

90

IMMEDIATE

INFERENCE.

(3)

jestsat This is SaP,

"

"

He

scars

who who

never never

felt

wound."
are

All

felt

wound

jesters
felt
a

at

scars."

Obverse wound

SeP',
are

"

None than
"

of those
at jesters

who

never

other

scars."

P'eS, None, Contrapositive, people who never scars, are

EXERCISE VI.

other felt
a

than

jestersat

wound."

Give, where

of possible,the contrapositive
to

each

of the

propositionsreferred

in Ex.
name
a

III.

"

12.

Inversion

is the from

given by

Mr

Keynes

to

the process
an

by

which
one

we given proposition same

infer
for

equivalent

having

the

predicate but

its

subject the contradictory

In

of the

original subject.
a

Conversion

we

have
we

asked, given
can

proposition
it about
same

SP, what
in

information

derive

from

P ;
case,

we Contraposition

have

asked, in the
about
not-P

what
we

information
now

is derivable
to

; in Inversion

proceed
a

ask

what

information
not-S. and

is

derivable,
the the

from The

such

about proposition, of obversion

at
our

processes instruments

conversion

are

only
reach

command.

with Starting
tillwe alternately

we given proposition, apply them

either

result (a proposition with not-S in the required or are subject place), brought to a standstill by a proposi

the

tion which

cannot

be

converted.
or

In

doing

so,

we

may

begin
found

either with
that
an

Obversion

Conversion.

It will be the

inverse is obtainable From

A

only when

is universal. proposition

(AllS

original is P),by apply

Obversion, Conversion,Obversion, Con ing successively version, Obversion, we

(Some not-S is not P). From E (No S is P), by applying Conversion, Obver sion, Conversion, we obtain I (Some not-S is P). The student should verify these results.
obtain

IMMEDIATE

INFERENCE.

91 summed
in the

The

results

of
:
"

""

to

12

are

up

followingtable

A.

E. SeP

O. SoP.
none.

OriginalProposition
.

SaP PiS

SiP
PiS

Converse
.

PiS SaP' P'iS S'iP

Obverse
. .

SeP' P'eS
. .

SoP'
none
none

SiP'.
P'iS.
none.

Contrapositive
Inverse
.

S'oP
.
.

"

13.
"

note

may

be added

on

the

subjectsof

"

Immediate

Inference Inference

by

added

determinants,"

"

Immediate
"

by complex conception," by
converse

and The
"

Immediate

Inference process
or

relation."
in

first-mentioned determinant the

"

consists

adding
it be
"

the

same

to qualification

the

subjectand
true

the

predicateof
is

proposition.If original
it follows
"a
a

that "S

P," then

that "AS is
a

is AP

; or, in

Jevons's example, if
"

comet

material

body," then
Provided
in

visible comet the

is

visible material
to

body."

that

added qualification
same
as

the
to

predicateis
the subject,

all

respects the
of the
new

that added

the

truth

of
on

the

from the truth follows necessarily proposition quantity introduced just as the same original, sides of
an

both

algebraic equationdoes
But

not

affect

the
terms

relation of it is

equality.
to

in

dealing with significant

the in the
two

necessary

guard carefullyagainst
is
seen

ambiguity of language,as given by Jevons

"All
:
"

instances

kings
are

are

men,"

therefore

"All

incompetent huge cottage

kings
"A

incompetent
a

men."
"A

cottage is

therefore building,"

is

huge building."
is due, fallacy which
in

The

such

cases,
to

to

the

fact that

determinant

is intended

specifythe subject(S)

92

IMMEDIATE

INFERENCE.

alone, is applied
class

in

the

predicateto
not

the

whole
a

of

the The
two

(P) of

which

the

subject forms
the
or

only
same

part.
in the

determinant
cases,
ent.

is, therefore,
as

inasmuch If the

its reference
so

is application
as

differ

phraseology is challenged,
The

guarded

to

maintain inference
of
two

the
cannot

of reference, the validity of identity be whatever may be

the

thought
the

its usefulness.

inferred then
men

in propositions,

examples given, would

require
who
are

to

be

read, "All
as

incompetent kings kings

for
a
"

are

incompetent
is

"A

huge cottage
Inference

is

buildingwhich

huge
is
same

cottage." by Complex
is

Immediate
process

Conception
to

similar; it essentially
from verbal

subject
consists

the under

danger
same

ambiguity,and
process the

is valid in

the

precautions. The subjectand

a more

employing
horse is

the

of predicate

as proposition original
"

parts of
a

complex conception
therefore "The But head from
" "

e.g., "A of
a

quadruped,"
of
a
"

horse

is the
are

head

quadruped."
we a a

All

Protestants

Christians
tants
are

cannot

infer that

majority of

Protes

majorityof Christians,"but only

majority of
Inference Mr the Protestant

that

they
the

constitute

Christians.
Relation is

Immediate
name
a

by Converse
to
a

given by
of

Keynes
relation of the
P.

process
P

by which,
stands which
to

from
we

statement
to
a

in which relation from

"

Q,
conse

pass

statement to

in
P

Q
P
A
"

quently
Q
" "

stands infer

Thus,
"

is greater than
than than
; from
; from ; from
so on.

we

immediately, Q
than

is less

is older

B,"
of

"

B "B

is younger is the

"

"A
"

is the
is
two

father
to

B,"
"

child
to

of A
; and

"

equal
terms

Y,"

is

equal

"

The

of the

are original proposition

transposed,

94
not

IMMEDIATE

INFERENCE.

not -fallible "No -fallible" ; its contrapositivc, by beings." The classes represented beingsare human
are

the

italicised

terms

must

be and

just
be

as

real

as

the

other
other of
are

"human classes,

beings"
would

"fallible invalid. both S not-S

nor

beings";
In the and

wise these

inferences

case

Inversion,it is assumed
real with classes
"

that neither

not-P

that i.e.,

is coextensive of "All human

not

"existence."

Thus, the
"

Inverse not-human

beings are

fallible" is "Some
"

beings are
if
"

fallible beings

; and

if

human with

being,"or
all

fallible
inverse

beings,"were
This result classes.
tween two

coextensive
not
as

beings,the
not-P

could proposition

be
to

made. intelligibly not-S and is the direct about be

assumption
of If the

as reading propositions

statements
a

proposition expresses
two

relation
classes

it implies that the classes, the classes formed

them each

and selves, of And

by
"

what
are

is outside all

them,
so,

"

S, P, not-S, not-P, i.e.,

in the of the

equallyreal.
actual of these

diagram,
space

there

is

an necessarily

portion

corresponding

to

each

four terms.

EXERCISE

VII.

must

which (1) State explicitly be assigned to the mark

of

the

following meanings
in the
some,

of

Aristotelian
it may be
out

system
all
or

some

none

only; some certainly,and

arise from

quantity "some" some, perhaps none;

it may
erroneous an

be all. in

Point

the difficultieswhich this word.

of terpretation

[L.]
?

(2) What
of

is

Opposition
Which

What has

are

the

various

forms

Opposition?

of them

the

greatest value, and

? Do

why?

[O.]
do
ever

(3) Why
Affirmatives

Negatives distribute their Predicates

distribute theirs ?
means

(4) Express by

of

[O.] ordinary categorical proposi-

IMMEDIATE

INEERENCE.

95

tions,

the

relation

between

and

represented by the

diagram. following

Fig. 8.
how to get the Converse of the Contrary of the (5) Show Contradictory of the proposition Some crystalsare cubes." How is it related ? to the originalproposition [L.]
"

(6) All crystalsare

Some Some No

solids.
not

solids

are

crystals.

solids. not are not-crystals crystalsare not solids. solids

are

crystals. Some not-solids are not crystals. All solids are crystals. each Assign the logical relation,if any, between
and propositions

Some

of

these

(7)

How

tradicted?

(8) Take
determine what
"

[L.] must a Singular Propositionbe logicallycon (Cf.ch. II. " 13 adfinem) the proposition "All sciences are useful,"and it affirms, what it denies, and preciselywhat
doubtful,concerning the relations useful thing." [L.]
"

the first of them.

it leaves
"

of the terms

science

and

(9) Give

the obverted

converse

of

"

is trusted. (a) Every truthful man No cultivated district is uninhabited. (/;) British subjects are dishonest.1 (c) Some Give of contrapositive (d) Every poison is capable of destroyinglife.
"

the

obverted

(c)

No

idle person

is

deserving
are

of

success.

Some (_/")

unjustlaws
be

not

repealed.

1
"

The

term

"alien"

may

taken

as

the

of logicalcontradictory

British

subject."

96

IMMEDIATE

INFERENCE.

Give

the

obverted

inverse truthful

of
"

(g) (h) (10)

St Bernard "A

Every
No

man

is

trusted.
of

unjust
St Bernard is the
not

act

is

worthy
is

praise.
a

[Welton.]
dog
;
on

dog
a

certainly dog."

but

small

dog
What

small

Comment if between

this. each of

(11)
the

is

logical
of
statements

relation,
:

any,

following (a) (b)

Heat
"

pairs

expands
false balance

bodies is

cold

contracts

them.
to

A but

an

abomination His

the

Lord

just
is is well
not

weight

is

delight."
is for
us

(c)

He

that for

against
us.

us

he

that

is

not

us

against
is better

(12)
is better

"To than "Some

live

than Examine

to

live

hence

not

to

live

to

live

badly."

this.

[L.]
to

(13)
demned."
"

political
Can you upon

organisations
any

ought
draw
to

be

con

principle
ought

the

inference ?
"

Some

political

organisations

be

commended

[".]
(14) ginning beginning." "Everything
;

which what this

has

has

come

into into

being being

has
has

be

therefore
Is

not

come

not

valid

Immediate

Inference?

[St

A.]

97

CHAPTER

IV.

THE

IMPORT

OF

PROPOSITIONS

AND

JUDGMENTS.

"

i. :

THE

question of
kind

the

import

of

propositions is

this
cate
one

what do

of relation between

subject and
when
?

predi
in

propositions logical express,

four forms last

stated

of the

A, E, I, O

Throughout
with

the

chapter

we

have

been

dealing

Predicate as representingclasses, Subject and which is the simplest studying way to regard them when the syllogistic Inference, and Opposition, Immediate forms to be described in the following chapter. There
are,

since both however, four possibilities,1 may

Subject and
Extension. This may be

Predicate
Take the

be

read
"

in
Man

Intension is mortal."

or

proposition
four ways in

in interpreted

"

(1) Subject
"All

extension, predicate
class
"

in

intension,
attributes of

the

men

have

the

mortality.

(2) Subject
"

and

predicate in extension,
man

The

class

is included

in the class mortal

beings."

(3) Subject
"

and

predicate in intension,

The

by humanity are signified always accompanied by those of mortality}'

attributes
cases numericallypossible are

These

four

arrived at in
case was

purely
by

arithmetical Dr

and

external

way.

The

fourth

added

Keynes.
G

98

IMPORT

OF

PROPOSITIONS

AND

JUDGMENTS.

(4) Subject
"

in intension,

predicate in extension,

The

attributes

the presence class mortal The In

not

by humanity indicate signified of an objectbelongingto the beings"

of much

fourth
a

such

is not interpretation "Some as proposition have

an

importance.
are

things glittering
which the

golden,"we

instance
that

falls naturally

into this

as division,

it

means

attribute

"glit

of a tering" does not always indicate the presence we interpret No plants may golden object. Similarly it is most But with opposite leaves are orchids." into this unnatural to force our ordinary propositions
"

form.

The
and
we
2.

first three

of are interpretations them in turn.

great importance,
which

will examine
The

"
the

oldest view is the first, according to

the relation of subject and proposition expresses attribute,or, in grammatical terms, of substantive and is read prim of the proposition adjective.The subject call a what it signifies in extension,because we arily is read real thing or a group of such ; 1 the predicate which certain qualities in intension, because it signifies
"
"

are

predicated of the thing. On this interpretation the sign have of the proposition, only the subjectcan of quantity, all or some," for only the subject this gives refers to a "thing" or "things." Hence
"
"

"

This A, E, I, O. propositions classification fits the diagrams so badly (see ch. III. " 5) because they naturallyrequirethe predicatealso to be quantified. This first interpretation is called the of propositions the fourfold

division of

predicative view.
1

The

second, which

we

have

already
must to.

Notice

that the

certain signify

it also impliesintension, because subject the thingreferred qualities by which we identify

IMPORT

OF

PROPOSITIONS

AND

JUDGMENTS.
the class view. of classes
or

99
Both groups

(ch.III. " 5),is explained P are S and regarded as

of
one individuals, or

called
names

of which the

is

wholly or partlyincluded

in

excluded
to

from

order should for

represent these
for quantified
are

by the proposition. In the predicate relations properly,

other the
same reason
as

be

the

subject,

both S

taken
P

in

extension. find

classes

and

we by circles,

Representing the that the possible

them
are

relations

(ofinclusion

and

between exclusion)

five in number.

Fig.9.

Fig. 10.

Fig.

ii.

Fig. 12.

Fig. 13.

Now

if

we

assume

that

"

"

some

shall

limited to its
but
not

meaning colloquial
each without of these

of

"

some

strictly only," some

"

be

all,"then

diagrams
a

may

be

ex

and pressed fully

tion,if we
1

quantifythe
called

ambiguityby predicate.1

singleproposi

The

doctrine
will

by Hamilton

"Quantification of

the

Predicate"

be

explainedand

criticised below.

100

IMPORT

OF

PROPOSITIONS

AND

JUDGMENTS.

(1) "All S (2) "All S (3) "SomeS (4) "Some (5) "No S
In the

is all P"

represents fig. 9.
P"
..

is some

10. fig. u. fig. 12. fig.

is all P" S is
some

"

P"

,.

is any

P"

.,

fig. 13.

will
some

see now

the student and (4), as (3), (2), propositions since secondary implications," (" 4),there are
"

means

some

only.

ordinary fourfold division the predicate is not forbidden to treat some and we as are expressly quantified, reconversion is of This the the all. reason why excluding A an propositionleads to a sacrifice of part of what we
In

the

know

"

(a] All S is P.

In

(b) the
when of S

(b] Some (c] Some predicate S

we

is S,

converse converse

of of

(a).

S is

P,

(b}.
we

is in fact indicate

distributed, as by
does
any

know

from And form

(a\ but

cannot

this

sign of quantity.
more

converting(b\ we cannot this and the proposition,

in its whole
extent.

consider
not

than
us

the in

warrant

taking
We

have

seen

that the class view

is

possible way
not

of

but regardingany proposition, natural interpretation ; for it

that it is is

always the
are
ex

only

in
we

what think

judgments pressly

of classification that

of the

think of In most we a class. as propositions predicate the predicate as accordingto the predicative adjectival, class -interpretation of pro view. Moreover, no mere could positions intension way of
cannot

be

entirely true, because

be

extension The

and

completely

separated.

only

class in thought or a distinguishing identifying which is by some of its qualities, must therefore enter into the signification of the terms standingas subject be taken in these terms and predicate. Hence cannot

102

IMPORT

OF

PROPOSITIONS

AND

JUDGMENTS.
make
"

extension
into
The
are

without of words

their intension,is which

which from the

to

S is P

"

form
five

says
the

nothing.1
view of
even our

forms,

to

class

naturally leads,

further removed than also

meaning
forms,

ordinaryjudg
when in the latter
common

ments
are

the traditional four

For interpretedby the class view. whether frequently do not know thought we of the predicate is to be referred to or extent

the
not
case

whole the

; but

fivefold division all when

as or

in

predicate is referred to. Hence, adopting the class view, we adapt it to the four forms, the previouschapter.
only
attributive that and view is
to

supposes part of the

us

to

know

in every

whether

"
He

3. The

supportedby J. S.
construe

Mill.

admits

it is natural the

the

subjectin

extension

predicatein
he the

intension

(as
a

in

the
we

interpretation) predicative ; but

have class the

points out,
of

what

already seen, that denoted by it,can

A class

extension

term,

the

be is

attributes.
a

only through distinguished made not by drawing a line

of the
to

round

given number
which
a

of individuals ; it consists
found
name.

individuals

are

have
we

the say

attributes
"All
men

by signified
are

given
we
a

When
mean

mortal,"

do

not

that

this attribute is
that
we

possessed by
have

particular group
we mean

of individuals

in view ;

that the

attribute is
other

possessed
"

by
on

any

individual
of

certain possessing
All

attributes,
But pro

those

"humanity." ground
may Mill

this is
that in

this

holds the

quite sound. the interpreting

to

we position

drop
the

reference

side

of

and extension),

regardthe
"

"things" (the as proposition giving

"

evidence
"

only about
has the
"

concomitance

of attributes

Whatever

attribute

humanity

has the

attribute
the

or mortality,"
1

Mortality always
"
2.

accompanies
Inference

The

philosophical theoryof aspects of Jevons's

in ch. XI.

will be

further considered

IMPORT

OF

PROPOSITIONS

AND

JUDGMENTS.
of Science

103

attribute
it

humanity." Mill's theory certain consists in findingwhen

of certain is the

is, that
become

attributes

evidence
ances

others ; to establish such

concomit

objectof Science. thus so regarded,must be interpreted Propositions, in A, The attributes signified by S are always companied by those signified by P ;
" "

ac

in

E, for I, O,

"

always
ii

"

substitute
ii

"

"

never

; ;

in in On

"sometimes"
"

ii

sometimes that

not."

this scheme
to

we

must

observe
to

though
is words
to

Mill

proposes
to

drop

the reference other

he "things," The
once

obliged
"

introduce
"

it again in

words.
us

al

ways,"
to

sometimes," "c., take

the
name

at

instances
which

which

is

to applicable,
"

the

in objects

the intension is realised

to the side of extension. i.e.,

cannot Just as propositions

be read

in extension

merely,
be
to

without read in

any

reference

to

so attributes,

they

cannot

intension
In

merely,
is

without
not

any
to
our

reference

objects.
the

it particular,

true

to thinking

the subject in interpret

intension

only.
of

Nevertheless

attributive view

is

possible way
have

regardingpro

for positions,

certain purposes. the predicative justified

"

On view
as

the
an
'

whole, then, we

of ordinarypropositions. interpretation
are

In of

saying,
word
a
'

birds

warm-blooded,'
of attribute
'

we

neither

think

class within

nor class,

with
us

attribute.
no

The

warm-blooded
;

presents
but
us a

to
a

conceptionof
The
;
as

genus
'

it is
'

not

name,
to

mere

attributive.
such
term

word
not
a

bird

expresses

no name.

attribute The

it is

mere

but attributive,

in the in

the mind acts by its connotation, or predicate upon in the subject, its comprehension ; 1 the term by
1

its

This

term

is

used occasionally

for "intension."

104

IMPORT

OF

PROPOSITIONS

AND

JUDGMENTS.
the
we

denotation,
sentence

or

in

its

extension in the

;
"

and that of

foregoing
refer
'

has
'

its

import
'

this,
class

the

attribute
Hence

warm-blood

to
a

objects birds.'
word

it is

that, while
that is

purely connotative
the the

(an
deno
'

is all adjective)

required in
'

a predicate,

tative
horse

term

is

in indispensable you
can

subject.
'

For

the

is

quadruped
'

substitute
to
cut

the horse

is

four-footed tion
to
a

; but

the attempt of

down
not

the

proposi
"

coexistence

attributes does
The mind

succeed,

'equine
except

is four-footed.'

predicates nothing
and of under
"

about

substantive

objects of thought;
attributes
as

them, in the class of propositions now ation, it predicates nothing but

consider

(Martineau,
shows,
are

Essays,
our

vol.

iii. p.

435).

But,

Dr

Martineau

sometimes propositions

express

relations which
and which
cannot

not

attributive in the
form

strict sense, much add

to

be

put in that
He therefore

without
to

artificial manipulation.
the

proposes

predicativeform it,other
"

of the

as proposition,

co-ordinate

with

forms

embodying
ruled Ben after

relations of time and his

"

space,

as,

King John
lies west
causes

brother," or
cause

"

Fort

William
"

of

Nevis

; of

and and

effect, as,

Friction "This

heat";

of resemblance

difference, as,

doc

trine is like that of Herbert like thunder."

Spencer,"
as on

"

That

sound

is

"

4.

Certain

views

of

Hamilton examined

to

the

import of
of

propositions must
traditional Hamilton
as

be

account

their

importance.
held that every
two

propositionmay
relations
one

be

read

so

to

express
"

either of
"

between
or

its subject
not
con ex

and

predicate viz.,
a

that the

does

does

stitute

part of the
the

other, either in the

quantityof

tension,or

quantity of comprehension [intension]."

IMPORT

OF

PROPOSITIONS

AND

JUDGMENTS.
is smaller

105
in

The

term

which

is and For

larger in
vice
versa

extension
;

comprehension,
two

hence

the

copula
"

is has is is

meanings.
in the
means

instance, the

proposition
that the read in

Man
man

read fallible,"

extension, means
class

class

included

in

beings; fallible
the

compre
man

hension, it
cludes former view
as
as

that

complex
of of

concept

in

part of itself the

the
two

attribute

The fallibility.
course

of

is interpretations
we

the class

with the
"

which

are
"

familiar.
view of

The the

latter,known
re proposition,

comprehensive
found
term

quires careful
We tension have of any

consideration.
it necessary is
to
assume

that

the

in it is
an

fixed (ch.II. " 7) ; relatively

of III. the

expressed in
hensive

the

Definition

term,

giving us
"compre

analytic proposition (ch. view," if taken

to
or

" 2).

The

and strictly

without the

qualification, subject-term.
about
con
a

only applies
the

propositions where gives

predicatestates

meaning

part of the meaning of the

us

In any

proposition which
idea idea of of the the of in the

information
not

subject, the
tained
Hamilton's Predicate is

predicate is

simply
of of

subject.1
the of

doctrine
a

Quantification
the
class

the the

development
it four is
an

view

proposition, but
He
on

inconsistent

development. depend
them

adopts
the

the

forms

A, E, I, O, which
and then
to

predicative view,
"some" the
a

doubles

by
the
we

attaching
is
to

and

"all"

the

predicate. This
and
treat

abandon

predicative view
and of if
we

predicate as
do
1

class ;

do

this

(see " 2)
but

not

get eight forms

the

the
Hamilton

proposition
raises is
a

only
import
will be

Nevertheless
one

point which
of

very

ant

; further

consideration
8 i.

its

philosophical aspects

found

in ch.

XI.

IO6

IMPORT

OF

PROPOSITIONS

AND

JUDGMENTS.
as :

five. the

Hamilton's

eight

forms
Dr

are

follows, with
"

symbols suggested by
A. U. All S is
some

Thomson

All S is all P S is
some

I affirmative
P

I. Some Y. E. Some No

C propositions.

S is all P S is any S is
some no

77. No

P
P
some

/ negative
C propositions.
P
/

O.
a).

Some Some

S is

S is not

(e) is employed to denote the proposition formed by making the universal predicate of E and the Greek the particular, w (6) denotes formed from O. proposition similarly Hamilton says that it is a postulateof logicto state whatever is thought implicitly; and that the explicitly is always quantified in thought. If so, Logic predicate should state the point explicitly. Mill and others have maintained that we do not usuallythink the predicate in quantity at all (cp. " 2 ad fine?n) it does not ; and of the ordinary judgment, true seem psychologically unless in classificatory sciences or in cases of enumera alone tion,or in propositions introducingonly or ; "Virtue is the only nobility is all that is Virtue noble" (i.e., virtue at least;a Y proposition). In some
The letter 77
" "

Greek

"

"

"

"

the

main, then, the

rests

assumption
true to

on

which

Hamilton's

scheme Even

is not

Thought.
has

formally, the
best be
seen

scheme

obvious

defects

this may
of
some.

the meaning by investigating

(a) Assume
only.
Then

that each

some

means,

as

in

"

above,

some con-

affirmative

propositionwhich

IMPORT

OF

PROPOSITIONS

AND

JUDGMENTS.

1O7

tains

some

has

implication. For
men are some

negativepropositionas its secondary example, take the proposition all

"

animals," representedin fig.14.

are

It im

that plies "c. tigers,

there
; in

other

animals
"

than
men

men

"

e.g.,

lions,

other

words

no

are

some

animals
A

lions, tigers, "c.)." (i.e., position implies rj ; they

In
a

That
are

is, Hamilton's
not

pro forms.
Y

independent
that
are no

similar
"

way
"

we some

may

show

Hamilton's
all metals
"

proposition e.g., O, "some 15) implies

also
are

elements elements forms.

are

(fig.

metals."

These

not

independent
each

The

propositionw

is

peculiarlyuseless, for

it is

compatiblewith

of the five

diagrams already given;

equilateral
Tnarujles
ami

equiangular
iriancjks
Fig. it is thus
names

14.

Fig. 15unless S and

Fig. i 6.
P
are

compatible with U,
an

the

of

individual
This

(and
seems

object. divisible)
must
names

in logically we paradoxical ; hence therefore S and

P

show

it

in

detail. The

Let

be

both "all S

of classes.

U proposition

says that all

"

is all

P,"
"

"

all

are equilateral triangles

equiangular
"

1 6). triangles (fig.

Now

"

"

some

means

only a part

and

hence,

if

we

divide the into

any

circle which
two

represents the

coincident
mark off
two

classes

separate portions, or
"

separate smaller
call
one

parts within it by smaller

"

we circles,

may

part,

some

triangles equilateral
it will
some

and

the
true

other, "some
that
"

and equiangular triangles";

are equilateral triangles

be

some

not

108

IMPORT

OF

PROPOSITIONS

AND

JUDGMENTS.
co

U and ; that is, triangles equiangular is also compatiblewith each That a)

"

are

compatible.

of the

diagrams of
described

"
in
are

2,

10 figs. are

to

13, is obvious.

We

therefore
as :

reduced

to

the five forms

"

2,

which,
follows

indicated

by

the

Hamiltonian

symbols,

as

"

Fig. 9 Fig. i o Fig. 1 1 Fig. 12 Fig. 13

U. A
Y
or

77.

or or

O.

1 E.

O.

(") If
not

"

"

"

some

means

some

at

not least,"

excluding

"all," then
It has do

it is obvious

that the

are eightpropositions

independent forms.
been said that

Detailed
in
our

proof is

unnecessary.

ordinary thinking we
It is worth
77,
new

quantifythe occasionally
therefore
""

predicate.
of the

while
and who

to

see

which

forms Dr

U, Y,

are

found the

in

ordinary speech.
scheme
w are

Thomson, of
we

adopted

Hamiltonian
that 77 and is also used

in his Laws

Thought, admitted
have
i] is
seen

never

used, and
The

that

co

useless. entirely
; but
a

form
occur are

never certainly can

proposition may
"Men what

which

be

expressed in

that form.

not

the
"

only
men

rational
are
are
"

beings" expresses
rationals."
"

is

meant
"

by
some

no

some

It is equivalent to

rationals

not
some

men men

to (the primary implication)

are

gether
in say the

with

rational."

But

no

pro

position ever
form Dr with

made
"".

could With "It

be
to

adequately expressed
U and

regard
must

Y,

we

may these We

Keynes,
met

be

admitted

that

are propositions

with

in

ordinarydiscourse.
are we

may

not

indeed

find
all

propositionswhich
S
is all P
;

actually
to

written in the form

but

have

all

IIO

IMPORT

OF

PROPOSITIONS

AND

JUDGMENTS.

viceable in
are

"

Symbolic Logic
formulae
"

"
"

where i.e.,
can

propositions

representedby
others.

which been

algebraic manipulation
Venn, and
is found The

has

to subjected developed by Boole,

be

real reference

of the

judgment

in its

denies the
also y mined
or

thus, "All x is yn negativeimplication; existence of things which without being x are

there
are

whether the

any

or

y
to

is left undeter

; what

compartment
xy
x

does proposition xy.1 Similarly no

" "

is
x

empty
"

the class

is y

empties the
and
are
"

compartment

;
or

all y is x"
"

thing is

either

emptiesxy emptiesxy. There

of two
xy, xy,
terms
as
x

every

only four
and

possible combinations
contradictories tions which
we
:

and

their

xy, xy, have

in the The

examined.
to
zero

proposi are propositions

four class
or

expressed by making equal

which
"All
"

the

classes

are
x

ruled

out

"

isjv" is representedby
is either
x

xy"
"

o.

Everything
xy
=

or

is

representedby

o.

Three
xyz,

terms

give eightpossiblecombinations, namely,

xyz,

xyz,

xyz,

xyz,

xyz,

xyz, xyz.
y

Each
z

universal

x proposition involving

and

these
"

compartments;

thus and is

or
=

empties xyz,
By

o.

this method,

of empties one "everythingis either.* or y therefore represented by xyz intro complex propositions and
terms
can

ducing a great number with,provided they are

venient ticular methods and

of

easilybe

dealt

Specialand incon devices have to be employed to represent par this symbolic method. Other on propositions, have been developedby De Morgan, by Jevons,
universal.

by

various
that
"

Continental
these

writers.

Prof.
are

Minto
not
; and
x

has of the

observed
1

elaborate
x

systems by

of a term contradictory denote the as xy" joined together,

The

is denoted

symbols
y.

class which

is both

and

IMPORT

OF

PROPOSITIONS

AND

JUDGMENTS.
reason
an

Ill

use slightest

in

helpingmen
to

to

correctly. The
illustration of the

value

attached

them

is

merely

'bias of

happy exercise'" (Logic, p. 134).

the
to

Although
does
not
a

of propositions negativeinterpretation be
more

claim

than
we

mere

convention, it is
to

less of
we

convention
a

than

are

apt

think ; for when S of S is

make

universal

All proposition, all the instances

P,

as

the

result of that passes

enumerating

and

finding

"without its

exception" they are P, the proposition meaning, so to speak, through a double ne

denies proposition
the formula
nemo

gation.
in the such

The
cases

the
non

exception;
or

and

nullus

non

is

As the primitiveformula, not a circumlocution. words without exception imply, the primary meaning
" "

of the universal

affirmative
to

is

"

No

S is other of of

than

P."

Nevertheless,

adopt this convention

Dr

Symbolic
the inter
to

Logic

as

the

ordinary logicaldoctrine Keynes

to

as pretation of propositions,

proposes

do, would
usages.

be

depart

far from

ordinaryforms proceed
the
to to

and

"
has

6.

The

been
2

question which we now in answered by implication

it is of such

raise of

discussions

""

and

3 ; but

importance as

require

Is the relation, expressed in independent treatment. words the proposition, relation between a only, or be tween ideas, or between things? the first. If the proposi is likely to No assert one

tion

were

said

to

express be

"relation is that

between

two

names," all that could

relation
between
must
never

meant

it

expressed a
the
names.

the stand

ideas
for

signified by
some

Every

name

kind

of

meaning, or
like Ham
"

it would

be

used.

But

writers who,
of
"

take the ilton,

conceptualist view
a
"

Logic

i.e., try to
any
out-

keep Logic

within

world

of ideas

without

112

IMPORT

OF

PROPOSITIONS

AND

JUDGMENTS.

look
a

upon

the

facts
"

"

insist that the ideas

"

asserts proposition

relation between Now every

"

only.
a

proposition expresses
of
a

judgment

which

is

an

idea

"

mine, in
mental that what my

the of

sense

of

being a
But
a

function
it is per

of my

mind,

act

thought.
P ; what

fectlyobvious
between
an

is asserted

is not

relation is

my

idea S and

idea

is asserted

relation objective

among

a relation which facts,

does sub

not

depend

upon

my

ideas for its existence.

The

of ject-matter
some

proposition belongs to intelligent or world," so to speak ; and the sphere, region,

every
"

refers proposition

to

this the

"

world
"

"

and
"

assumes

its real

ity.
sense,

It is

not

always
of
men

real

world

in the

ordinary
our

the world

and

thingsoutside
be
even
an

us, that
matter

refer to ; it may propositions or thought, something unreal

"

mere

of

"

impossible. And
"

the

speaker
as

may

know is
a

that

it is

unreal

"

world

but

long as it

concerningany
eray
to
a

world, true judgments systematic part of it are possible e.g.t In Ivan"

"

hoe, the hero does

makes falsely world
"

not

reallymarry
do." Here

Rebecca,
we

as

Thack reference

him is all

have

a
an

which

and fictitious, it is
a

yet is

objective

system parts ;
manent

:
"

system,"because because objective,"

as

world

of inter-related

it is my

compared

with

independent and per fluctuatingthoughts

about
There
real

it.
are

world,
on

in fact many kinds of common and sense

of

"

worlds."

There there

is the is the

practicallife;

world ises

of scientific

knowledge,
"

the world

described there

in treat
are

worlds worlds dividual

Physics, Chemistry, Astronomy, "c. ; of philosophical, ethical or religious,

of deliberate
romance
or

the

theories ; the worlds the

"

fiction ; the between

be
"

of in first of
ex

opinion.

The which

great difference
we

these, the world

and cellence,

consider

to

real
comes

par
home

all the rest,

is, that the former

to

IMPORT

OF

PROPOSITIONS

AND

JUDGMENTS.
" "

113
come

us
us

in
as

and feeling. The worlds other perception works of thought or works of imagination.

to

Owing meant by
will quote

to

the
"

great importance of graspingwhat

to

is

the

reference Minto's have

realityin
of
"

"

judgment, we
same
a

Prof.
we
'

statement

the

con

clusion which
: propositions

set

forth.
are

Take
"

number

of

The

streets

wet

'

George

has blue and

eyes';
two

'The

Earth

goes

round

the

Sun';

'Two

Obviously,in any of these proposi tions,there is a reference beyond the conceptions in the speaker's mind. They express beliefs about natura : things in rerum thingsand relations among when them and giveshis assent understands any one
make

four.'

to

them, mind,

he

never

stops

to

think

of the

speaker'sstate
When
our

of

but of what
are

the words when

represent.
we

states

of mind
are ences

spoken of, as
that
a

say that

ideas

confused,or
his

man's

conception of duty influ

of mind
are

conduct, those

states

viewed

as

of realities. Even facts in the world when objective we speak of thingswhich have, in a sense, no reality,
as

when

we

say that that

centaur

is
were

combination fabled
at

of

man

and

horse, or
of

centaurs
...

to

live in the
to

vales

Thessaly,

we

pass

once

the

ob

reference jective
l mythology]."

of the

words

[to the

world

of Greek

EXERCISE
The

VIII. the present the

refer to the subjects of following questions chapter. (i) State and discuss the different theories Import of a Proposition. [O.] Or,"

as

to

The

philosophical aspects
will be

of the "reference in
our

ment

further

considered

in Judg reality" concluding chapter (ch.

to

114
What

IMPORT

OF

PROPOSITIONS

AND

JUDGMENTS.
to

different views
?

have

been

held

as

the

nature

of

Predication

[O.]
discuss the followingtheories carefully of
"

(2) Explain and the judgment : (a) "Judgment (fy "Judgment

(c)
"

is the is the

comparison
statement

of of

two
a

ideas." relation between

attributes."

Judgment

is the

reference

of

idea significant

to

Reality." [St A.] (3) Explain and discuss the view that the itltimate subject of every judgment is reality. [StA.] lie against the view that the predicate (4) What objections should be written as a quantity ? [O.] of a logical proposition (5) Bring out the meaning of each of the following of the proposition All men accounts are mortal,"and say which is logically to be preferred: have the attribute mortality. (a) All men
"
"

(b) Men

"

mortal

men.

(c) Men form part of the class mortals. it also has (d) If a subjecthas the attributes of a man, the attribute mortality. [L.] the case for expressing propositionsin the (6) Examine form of Equations (a) from the theoretic, (b) from the [L.] practical point of view. (7) State the chief theories of the Import of Propositions. On what theory does the adoption of A, E, I, and O, as the
"

fundamental which arise

forms,
when

rest

Criticise

the

additional the

forms is

the

of quantification

Predicate

adopted. [C.] " Some (8) Explain the precisemeaning of the proposition X's are not some of Thomson). What Y's w (theproposition is its contradictory ? Give your opinionof its importance. [L.] of the the view that the significance (9) Examine critically and best given in the form proposition All S is P is fully
" " " "

There

is

no

S which do
you

is not-P." consider and the

to

[L.]
be the essential distinction of
a

(10) What
between the
your
"

Subject
to

Predicate

Judgment?

Apply

answer

following:
"

From

*'

That

is thy sword." thy warrant is exactly what I wanted." [C.]

hence

CHAPTER

V.

MEDIATE

INFERENCE

AND

THE

ARISTOTELIAN

SYLLOGISM.

"

i.

WE

have in

dealt which

with
from

the
a

forms

of

Immediate
we

Inference,
derived
and in

single proposition
relation of find between
as

another, statingthe
a

same

S
;

P, but from

different

point

view,
what
to

it
the

were

Conversion,

for
us

instance, we
of the
so

given

propositiontells
sion, of S
The in
ence.
a

relation of P
forth.

S ; in Obver-

to

not-P, and
has

question
We

been

raised whether
a

these

changes
Infer process

given proposition have

defined from
a new
or

right to be

called
as a

Inference

(ch.I. " 7)
distinct from

in pass
a
new

which
to

given facts, or
proposition
This
a

we given propositions,

them
an

"

to i.e.,

new

fact

truth.

does

not

mean

absolutely
be
uncon

proposition. Such
with the

propositionwould
would i.e., be

nected

premises
"

dis absolutely It would

a

continuous
contradiction
was

with
in

previous knowledge.
terms
to

be

say

that

such of

proposition
an

inferredat
a

all.

But

the

conclusion
stated form the pass
sense

inference
one

states

relation

which
those

is not which
we

in

any

pro

positionamong
in Immediate

premises.
to
a

Now

Inference
"

do

not

proposition
word the
not ;

which
for other

is

"

new

even

in this second
states
no
new

of the On have

the

conclusion

relation.
we

hand,

in

Immediate

Inference

Il6

MEDIATE

INFERENCE

merely a
the

verbal

change
We

"

the i.e., have

same

relation stated side

or

in different words.

another the

aspect of
of pro

fact stated. original this is evident ; positions,

true
on

On
and

class -view
to

it appears

be

equally
with "All
a

any

other

We interpretation.
two

begin

given relation
S is P
""

between

classes

or

as spheres,

Fig. 1 8.
The

Fig. 19.
it

diagrams make
P here

evident visibly

that

the

relation'

of S and the

spoken
Another

of has several aspects, of which

"

states only one given proposition

that all S is viz.,

some

included
P

in P.

that aspect is,

at least of

S is (the converse) ; another, that no outside of P (the obverse) ; another, that nothing out side of P is in S (thecontrapositive) ; another, that some is outside S is outside P (the inverse). at least of what is included in S

Hence, in Immediate
relation between
we

Inference, we
S and P
not

have

not

the

same

restated
a new

(a merely

verbal
S

change); and
and P stated another

have

relation between

aspect

but we (a complete inference); of the original relation stated. is not

a

have

Immediate
real

Inference

trivial matter.

It is of

practical importance.
made

In the

documents, rules,"c., the real

ments

of legal interpretation of the state implications

will be much

more

evident if we
In

remember

these
we
are

elementary logical processes. constantlymaking mistakes

ordinary thought

through neglect of

Il8 relation
S and in
to

MEDIATE

INFERENCE

The
terms

expressedin
P, is obtained
with
other
reason

the

conclusion, between
S and
M.
means

the
com

because
same

are

pared

turns

the

term

Thus

their
com

relation

each

is found the

by

of
"

this
"

parison ;
An

for this

process

is called

mediate

inference,"and argument

the conclusion of this

is said to be
was
"

mediated."
Aristotle
"
"

type

called

by

syllogism (o-v\\oy tcryito9, a

thinking two
be of
two

thinkingtogether i.e., Syllogism may together).1 propositions

,

defined

as

Jevons
"The

has
act

done, almost
of

in

the

words

Aristotle:

we given propositions

I from thought by which proceed to a third proposij

from

tion, the
truth

truth

of

which

follows necessarily

the'

of these
2.

given propositions."
to

"

In

the

reasoning is
case.

In

order

the object of the typicalsyllogism, decide something about a particular look for a generalrule to do we this, under which the
case comes.

which
The both

is

accepted, and
in
one

rule is stated the

premise (thefirst premise in is case particular foregoingexamples) ; the

it in the other. Aristotle maintained

brought
that and form in

under

all true

reasoning can
the

be

expressed in this form,

the

that particular

syllogism is
But he

appropriate
also
a

for scientific in

reasoning.
out

had

prac

tical aim
to teach

working
of such

the

doctrine
"

of the of

syllogism ;
presenting
assent to

the art

reasoning,
a

the
to

means

in propositions
them. The
to

lightas
had of
"

compel

Sophists

attempted this ;
a

but

in

order
on
1

gain acceptance
on persuasion,
can

proposition, they
-

relied

mere

rule
that

of

thumb
went

"

methods,
back
on

There

be

little doubt verb did.

Aristotle

the word Plato

etymology of the he a-v\\oyia-/j.6s as

when "Tv\\oyi"ea6ai,
But

he noted

used
that

the in

it should

be

of conclude, infer, is often used in the sense reckon, ffv\\oyiCeo-9ai and calculate (both in the English the American sense).

AND

THE

ARISTOTELIAN

SYLLOGISM.

119
The

on

questionablerhetorical devices
Aristotle is
establishes it with
a

or

verbal tricks.
process fact of
or

of syllogism

a essentially some

strict
state

demonstration, which
ment
or

by connecting
law which

rule a general principle,

we

is admitted.
a

As
common

have
term.

seen,

they are
truth of of the

connected the

by having
must not

The

premises

be

granted;
us

the
means

doctrine
of

syllogism does
that

give

any how
to

examining
their inter
It

question;
method

it shows

us

estimate
as

dependence when
affords
we
a

they
of the

are

accepted
in

reliable.

given arguments testing

statements

; for when

have

expressed
them whether

form logical

and
see

compared
at
once

rules, we according to syllogistic

they

are

reallyconnected
or

in the

way

which
In

the
the

argument

asserts,
of

not.

that in a chapter I. we saw Names sense are priorto Propositions, although the Names are an expressionin language of Concepts which have been formed by Judgments, and the Propositionsare an expres sion of the Judgments themselves. The Proposition uses distinct similar order
to

concluding section

Names
sense

which

have

been

fixed

by language.
the

In

the Propositionis
a

prior to

have syllogismwe must tions ; and the name Syllogism is used to inner thought or reasoning and the formal in language. Regarded from the side of language, the | of two proposi-\ syllogismmaybe defined as the combination tions in order to reach a truth not contained in either singly; j
construct
or as

Syllogism. logicalproposi both the signify expressionof it

In

the

comparison
their mutual

of

two

terms

with
When

third
we

term

in order behind find its that the

to

find

relation. the

look

formal

expression to
We
a

thoughts expressed, we
of Inference
one

the universal

characteristic
can

is

exemplifiedin
another
when
"

Syllogism.
when is

infer

judgment
In

from

only

they have
common

real bond

of

connection,

something
which

identical
to

in both.

there only inference,the syllogistic

term

the two

element

makes

propositions represents the identical possiblethe connection of thought.

I2O

MEDIATE

INFERENCE

We

shall

first examine thus

instances particular
at

of

the
com

and syllogism,

arrive
sum

the up

rules the

of

their
a

bination.
in which

We

shall then may

results in

form all

they

easily be
the

remembered. Aristotelian
of

In

we essentials,

shall follow

The

syllogism is composed
can

exposition. logicalpropositions,
E, I, O.
these may We be

which have
to

only

have

four

forms, A,
in which
correct

find the
so

different ways
to
no

combined
to

as

lead other

to

conclusions,and

show

that

combinations

yield

correct

conclusions.

Suppose

that
"

we

have S ?
to

to
"

prove
;

universal affirmative
may this prove
most
com

conclusion,
of whole

All done
"

is P

how

pendiouslybe
a

It is prove

requiredto
that Is
to

something
is pos
to

class,
a

the
P

qualityP
admitted S

sessed

by

whole

class

S.

be

qualityof belongs?
a

any

higher
the

class M

which

undoubtedly
to

Suppose
that i.e., that the
at
:
"

that

is

admitted
M
are

be

such

class

"

of qualities is the

predicated
all M.
must

of all Then

S, and

qualityP
once

predicated of

it follows

that

qualityP

be

predicatedof

all S

;P
M P .'.

is

predicatedof predicatedof
of predicated

all M. all S. all S.

is

is

This
cative

statement

of the of

is syllogism is

based

view

and propositions,

predi usually adopted by

on

the

Aristotle.

Expressed according to
is
:
"

the

Class

view, the

argument

( All of M

is in P.

I All

of S is in M.

/. All of S is in P.

AND

THE

ARISTOTELIAN

SYLLOGISM.

121

We of

have

here

three A
to

propositions ; hence
as

this form shall see, be

syllogismis

referred
way

AAA.
an

As
A

we

this is the

only

in which We

propositioncan
the

syllogistically proved.
thus
:
"

shall

denote

syllogism

MaP,

SaM;
/.SaP.
As SaP

MaP, alreadyindicated,
the conclusion. We

SaM,

are

the

premises, and
an

shall
use

from (apart S
to

occasional the

exceptionalcase)always
term

denote the

subjectabout for clear and

to

of

the

conclusion
is
a

(hence
to

also

matter

which
ness,

the
we

conclusion shall draw The

be

proved) ; and,
the which is
term
means

line between
term

premises
common

the the the the

terms

conclusion.
two

M,
the

premises,is
For
one

called

middle it is the

(TO

/j,ecrov,

mean).
two

reason,

by which
other and
two
are

propositionsare compared.
The

connected,
other
two

or

the

terms, S

P,

the extremes the in

see

Comparing (a/cpa).
of the
terms

extent
our

S, M, P,
we

AAA, given syllogism

the of
extent

that that

of S and the

is less
extent

than of M

M,

less than
states

that of P ; for the that S is in

argument
and
M

M,

in P. S

Hence

in the

syllo
F2Q

gism AAA,
term

is called the minor

TO

(TO eXarrov,
P

and have
1

the major another

case, terms

term

eo-^arov}, TO (TO fjuelfrv, ; and Trpcorov)

for
M calling
in the

we

reason

the

"

middle

"

term.1
or

The

which

might

occur

AAA. syllogism
set

of two

all of the
purposes

is S, M, P, being co-extensive,

aside, for the

of this definition.

122

MEDIATE

INFERENCE

The which

relation

of

the

three
most

terms

is evident form of the

in

represents the

usual

fig. 20, syllogism

"

AAA.
The

conclusion

was

often

called

the

"

problem

the quastio) i.e., (TrpoySA/^a.,

"

question

in

dispute.
before

What hand also

terms

the
; the

conclusion

is to it is

be, is usually known always known,

of the and

subject of
we

usually
Now the in the

what which

desire to prove
are

subject.
and

in their
stand
Hence

extent

major

minor

AAA, syllogism
the conclusion. the
"

as

the

subject and
in any

of predicate

by analogy
predicate as
or

Aristotle

speaks of
the

subjectof
they
when
mean

the

conclusion the less

as syllogism

minor

term," and
are

the

"

major term,"
or

whether Hence

greater in

extent

not.

always
is the This

in general, shall we speaking of syllogisms the subject, and by the major term by
the

the minor

term

predicate, of the conclusion.

definition the of the
names

This

only
term

proper

in

question.
the

being understood,
is called contains the minor
It must

premise
major

which

contains

major
which ise.

the

premise, the premise

prem

term

is called the minor that whether

be
or

remembered carefully
the minor stands

the

major premise
different. The

is logically in first, the

same :
"

two

are syllogisms following

(i)MaP,
SaM;
,'.

(2) SaM,
MaP;
.'. SaP.

SaP.
an

It

is, however,

invariable

custom

to

place
of the

the pre

as major premise first,

vious
names

examples.
"

All and

(i),and over difficulty

"

in

in the

each

use right

of the
we

major
that

"

minor from

"

disappears

when

remember the

we

start

the

conclusion, which

is

at question

issue.

AND

THE

ARISTOTELIAN

SYLLOGISM.

123

In

Aristotle's

treatment,
to

are propositions

usually formu
ex

lated

according
"

the

view, expresslyand predicative

: plicitly

A B

predicatedof B, is predicatedof T.
is the
to
we
Kara

This

with expression,
one

predicatebefore
the

the

is the subject,
not

natural
or

according
In

Greek

idiom, but
B

in Latin
rb
A

English.
B
or

Greek
rb
A.

should
Travrbs
TOV

naturally say
all B

TTCU/T!

T"

or virdpxet,

KarTiyopf'iTai ; but
is A. And when

in the

Latin

English, omnis

est

A,

written as Aristotle are propositions then also with the major premise first, first term, and
the

expresses the major

"

them, and
term

is the

minor

term

the Hence

last

is

predicatedof
irpwrov

B,

is

predicated of
e^arrov,

r."

in Aristotle

and

eo-xarof,

first and
is with

last,are
him the

far

more

prominent expressions
minor, which
or

than
to

psi"v and

major
rarer

and

only apply
"class" in

what

"extension"

terpretation.

" 3.
of in the
us
a a

The

conditions

on

which for the

the

formal

validity
drawn Canons up of

depends, syllogism
group of

have
as

long been
Rules
or

rules, known
The
most

Syllogism. eightrules.
I.

convenient

arrangement

gives

Relating to

the structure

of the

: syllogism
"

(1) A (2) A

must syllogism

contain

three, and three, and

only only

three, terms.
contain syllogismmust three,propositions. to quantity : Relating
"

II.

(3) The
at

middle

term

must

be distributed in one,

of the premises. least,

term must

(4)

No

be it

distributed
was

in the
in

con

clusion

unless

distributed it.

the

premise which

contains

124
III.

MEDIATE

INFERENCE

: Relatingto quality (5) From two negativepremises

"

there words

can
:

be

no

conclusion.

In

other

One,
affirm

at

least,of the

premises must

be

ative.

(6) If
IV. Corollaries

one

the premise is negative, be and negative, vice

versa.

conclusion

must
:
"

(7) From
no

two

there particular premises,

can

be

conclusion.
the premise be particular, be particular.

(8) If

one

conclusion

must

The

first two of of in
a a

rules

tell

us

what of
two

consists
means

the
common

comparison
term

is. It syllogism propositions by

statement

; and

the

of the
must

result

be

three

three, we
we three,

proposition.Hence (i) there more only. If there are propositions have than one more syllogism ; if less
third have
or
a no

than than

syllogism,but
"

either

an

Immediate
as
a

Inference
reason

mere

assertion, givinga
I know three it because
terms

statement

for itself :
must
a

I know the
are

it."
two

Also prem

(2) there
ises have

be
common

only,for
If there

term.
no

less than
are
:

three terms,
we no

we

have
no

syllogism ;

if there
one no

more,

have

than or more syllogism the premises have because syllogism, contain four

either

usually
link of

connection, and
them. the These

different
are

terms

between
of
am

absurd

mistakes

possiblebecause
is used the

ambiguity of language. If any term it is reallytwo hence terms biguously, ; it has at least four terms, and containing it may at all, syllogism though at first sight
one.

syllogism
a

is not appear

true to

be in

If there

is

it is most ambiguity,

to likely

occur

126
there is

MEDIATE

INFERENCE

hence

no

real middle

term

at

but practically all,

four terms. Consider

all brave
men

the

premises, "All
are

rash These

men

are

confident;
us
" "

confident."

tell propositions of

nothing about
to

the relation

the rash
us
"

"the

brave";
are a

they only tell

brave The and
are

that
con

the rash fident

part of the class of

and the persons," fig.21 shows. part, as allow

of the

also

premises
"brave"

circles "rash"

being placed anywhere within the circle " either overlapping confident," or outside
of each in while the argument
'

other.

Jevons adds
middle.

an

example
true,
two

which
an

all the

propositionsare
"The

has

undistributed
are us we

propositions,All Frenchmen are Europeans,'do not enable

are

Europeans
to

; all Parisians

infer that all Parisians

Frenchmen.
are

Parisians would

allow

know, of course, that all included the premises Frenchmen, among of their being placed anywhere within the though

For

circle of

Europeans."
fourth is
a

The
must

double

rule, the in
an

(a) The
conclusion which it

minor
unless
occurs

term

not

be distributed in in the

it is
;

distributed breach
minor,

premise
is called
term

the

of this rule The (fr)

illicit process
not

of the

major
unless
; the

must

be distributed in
in the

the conclusion which it

occurs

it is distributed breach

premise in
is called
an con

of this rule The

illicit process

of the
"

major.
if
an

proofof
is not

the rules made

sists in
the whole

seeingthat
of
a

assertion

about

term

in the

it cannot premises, in the

be made without

about

the whole

of that term what has

conclusion

going beyond
must

been

be

no

more

definite
an
'

given." The conclusion than the premiseswarrant.

"

We
were

take
to

again

example given by Jevons.

because many nations
are

If

we

argue

that

capable

AND

THE

ARISTOTELIAN

SYLLOGISM.

127
self-

of

self-government,
should therefore

and
not
no

that receive nation

nations
laws

capable of
from
a

government government,
a

despotic
laws
from

should be

receive

should despotic government,1 we of our the contents premises. The nations, was particularin the minor
not

clearly exceeding
minor

term,
and
The

many
must

premise,

be
not

made
warrant

universal

do many
cess

nations of the

premises statement a concerning anything but the capable of self-government" An illicit pro
in the is

conclusion.

minor

generally easy

to

detect

in the

case

less apparent. following major, it is much example, given by Professor Creighton, might pass for a be correct syllogism,especiallyas the conclusion may accepted as true: "All rational beings are responsible for rational beings ; therefore not their actions ; brutes are form brutes not responsiblefor their actions." The are of the is
"

The

MaP,
SeM;

.\~SeP.
Here the
"

major
when

term

P-

"beings responsiblefor their "i.e.,

in the

actions"

is distributed it

conclusion, but

was

not

appeared as the predicate of an A in the major premise. Hence have an illicit we proposition rational major. The major premise only tells us that " at least of beings responsiblefor their beings are some this proposition is concerned, there actions." As far as rational. be Hence not are responsiblebeings who may from the class "rational of brutes the exclusion beings" from the class exclude them does not necessarily respon sible beings."
distributed
" "
"

The

rule forbids than

of the

us

to

take
to stated

more

of

term

in the but it

conclusion
1

is referred
as syllogism,

in the

premise;
"

The

form

by Jevons, is this :

SiM,

MePj
.

'.

SePT
that S is distributed in

with

the minor

premise
and not

first. It is evident

the conclusion

in the minor

premise.

128

MEDIATE

INFERENCE

does

not

forbid
when
a

us

to

take

less.

There in
as

is

no

illicit
and

process

term

is distributed conclusion
is
;

the in

premise

undistributed in the
"All The M

the is P."

: following

is

P,

all S
states

M;
that

.-. some one

fifth rule

be

affirmative ; or, which

two

is the

must at least, premise, same thing in different

words, from
conclusion.
a

negative premises
between

there

can

be

no

to negativemajor premise is equivalent

denial of any middle

;
a

connection

the

major

term

and

the
a

negative minor
connection there is
:

premise is equivalentto
the minor of
no

denial of any

between
no means

term

and

the middle.

Hence

comparing the
term, and exist.

major

and

minor
of
a

terms

there

is

middle
not

the condition

valid

does syllogism

in Logic, has given Jevons, in his Elementary Lessons of uncommon the following explanation of the case, not
"

from where two apparently negative prem occurrence, ises we "It must obtain a valid conclusion. not, how
"

supposed that the " (" not or particle no ") in

ever,
"

be

mere
a

occurrence

of

negative
it nega Thus the

tive

in the
"

manner

propositionrenders contemplated by this rule. compound compound

is
an

argument

'

What Gold

is not is not

is
;

an

element,

Therefore contains

gold

element,'

negatives in both premises, but is nevertheless affects the middle the negative in both cases because valid, is really the negative term 'not-compound.'" term, which this Now explanationapplies to an example which Jevons himself gives, in his Principles of Science, as a case where The two reallynegative premises give a valid conclusion.
example is
"

"Whatever

is

not

metallic

is not

capable

of

powerful

magnetic influence,
Carbon Therefore is
not

metallic is

;
not

carbon

capable

of

powerful magnetic

influence."

AND

THE

ARISTOTELIAN

SYLLOGISM.

129

The

form

of this argument
No

appears
is P
M P
~

to be

"

not-M

(E),

S is not .'. S is not The

same

(E) ; (E).
minor from

explanationholds
of metallic is the of

; the

premise
carbon.
"

asserts

the other

absence

characteristics

In

words, the middle

M'.
The

form logical

negative term the syllogismis

"

not-metallic," or

M'eP, SaM';
.'.SeP.

The
the if one

sixth rule says

must

that

if

one

premise is negative,

conclusion

premise is
rule

and vice versti. For, negative, be affirmative the other must negative, be affirmative

(by
amount

5).
of

The

premise
one

asserts

some

coincidence
"

between
or

extreme

and

the

middle
term

term,
the

that

all

part of it is in the
says that all
or

middle

negativepremise
is outside
can

part of
Hence

the other the

extreme

the

middle
all of
or

term.

only

conclusion

be, that
the
area

part of this
of is
a

second the

extreme

is outside
and the

coincidence This

first extreme

middle

term.

Further, a negative conclusion. implies a negative premise. For

extreme

negative conclusion
it asserts the that
one

is

wholly
term.
or

or

partly outside by comparing

other; and
with
must
"

this result is reached

the middle

both

extremes extremes

Hence

one

of the the be middle

be

wholly
The

partly outside

term,

that

is, one

of the seventh

premises must
rule is
no

negative.
from
two

says

that

particular
be

premises there
from tions the
are or

conclusion.
The each

This

may

deduced

preceding rules.
I and

proposi only particular

of them
are

O ; and

as

may

be

either

major

minor

premise, there

four

possiblecases,

I3O

MEDIATE

INFERENCE

II, IO, OI, and

OO.

(a) Of
term

these, OO
is
and

is excluded

by
rule

rule 3

5. is

(b)In II, no broken, (c)In

the

hence distributed,

IO

OI, only
O.
If
nor

one

term

is
not

distributed, namely
the

predicateof
3 is broken. the the its the
a

If this

is

middle term,

term, rule
then

it is the

middle
term

neither
But

minor

the
must

major
be

is

distributed.

conclusion

(rule negative 6),and term) is

The the

therefore And
as

predicate (the major

major
breach
term
was

distributed.

not

distributed in its

we premise,

have
one

of rule 4.

eighthrule
must

says that if be
one

premise is particular,
proof
one

conclusion

particular. The
universal and

of this

lies in

seeing that

particular
warrant

to only distribute enough terms premise can conclusion by the previousrules. a particular and IA, : AI are possible eightcombinations

There

AO

and

OA,

El

and

IE, EO
rule

and

OE.

(a) The

last

pair are

(^) In AI and I A, only one term therefore is distributed (the subjectof A); this must be the middle term 3). That is to say, the minor (rule it is not distributed in its premise. Therefore term be distributed in the conclusion not must (rule4) ; be particular, (c]In AO the conclusion that is, must
excluded

by

5.

and

OA,

and

in

El

and

IE,

two

terms

are

distributed

(the subject of A and the predicateof O ; or the be subject and predicateof E). One of these must the middle term (rule3); hence there is only one of distributed in the premises. Now the extremes one therefore the conclusion is negative premise is negative, is distrib (rule6),and the major term (its predicate)
uted; hence
term, the
uted.
The the other the

extreme,

which

is the be

minor distrib

subjectof
conclusion

cannot conclusion, must

therefore

conclusion is

from possible

the

No particular. " 4). premisesIE (see be

AND

THE

ARISTOTELIAN

SYLLOGISM.

131
be solved

We

shall

now

work

few

examples which
rules.
term

may

by

of the above direct application

(1) Prove
It is

that

when

the
cannot

minor

is

predicate in its
is either neg that the

premise, the conclusion

be A.

[L.]
it is

required to
term

show

that the
not

conclusion Now

ative,or,
minor

is if affirmative, is
or

A.

given
term

predicate in

its

premise.
If the

It must

be

either
is dis there
term

distributed
tributed

undistributed.

minor

premise, this premise is negative,and is negative (rule6). If the minor fore the conclusion in its premise, it is undistributed is undistributed
in its conclusion
"

in

the

(rule4) z".,the conclusion is particular. of a syllogism be predicate in (2) If the major term do know about the major premise, what the minor we

premise ? [L.] be either distributed or undis must The major term If distributed, tributed in the major premise. the major is affirmative premise is negative,and therefore the minor
(rule 5).
conclusion
If

undistributed,it is undistributed also in the (rule 4) ; and as it is the predicate of the con
must
"

clusion,the conclusion

be

affirmative
minor
a

therefore both

premises are affirmative1 we can (3) (") What

know that If neither the conclusion be
an

z".,the
term

is

affirmative.

tell about

valid

syllogism if
is

we

only the middle

the
can

is distributed? minor
term

major
I

nor

the
no

distributed,
and
must

contain

distributed

term,

therefore

proposition.
can we

(6) How
we

much
that

tell about

valid minor

syllogism if
terms
are

know

only the
is
not

middle

and

distributed ?
The

major
cannot

term

therefore distributed,

the

conclu

sion

be

negative.
divided

"

4.

are Syllogisms

into three
the

called classes,
the

figures(a-^fiara), according to
middle In
1

positionof
is the

term.

the first figure the

if

middle

term

of subject
must

For,

one

premise

were

negative, the

conclusion

be

negative(rule6), which

it is not.

132
one

MEDIATE

INFERENCE

premise and
is
"

predicateof
M S

the

other; the

general

form

P,
M

We

leave

the

quantityand
as

of quality

the

undetermined,
of M
as

we

have with

only to
that has the of
a

indicate S and

propositions the position

P.
In

compared
more

this

arrangement
appears

of the terms, M when clearly

middle

this : position

Aristotle
M the is

usually writes
S."
"

premises are written as is predicated of M, them, "P

This
was

of predicated

Aristotle's the

reason

for

name

middle

term."

All

syllogismsgiven in
term

"

of this In the

chapterare

of the first figure. is

second
"

figure the middle

in predicate

both

premises:
P

M,

M;

In the third

figure the middle

term

is

in subject

both

premises:
"

M M
.-.

P, S;

P7
is very

This

was

Aristotle's in

of division, and principle is middle both

not

simple:
in both.

i. M fig.

in ii.it is predicate fig. Aristotle did

the made

position) (its proper ; in iii. premises subject ; in fig.

make
a

requireto

distinction distinc

between tion
was

major

and

minor

premises. This

taken and was to be by later logicians, writers on the of great importance by the mediaeval subject. Hence Aristotle's first figurewas divided into
two

parts,

one

of which

was

afterwards

made

into

134
universal

MEDIATE

INFERENCE

are

affirmative ; minor the the

IA, that the major is particular

affirmative ; and
two
so on.

the affirmative, In each

case

universal
the

first of the

letters denotes

the

major,
We
"

and
cannot

second for

minor, premise.
all of these
"

take
to

grantedthat
will

are or

valid any in

that

is,lead

correct

conclusions
have

in
to

each

figure. The
another way.

valid

moods

be

found moods

Aristotle discovered

the valid in he

by
or

one testing by one the possiblecases But the principal methods by which

each

figure.
and

examined
up,

tested known

them
as

were

afterwards
or

formally drawn
of the

the

Rules

Canons

as Syllogism,

explainedin
There Seven of
are,

the

previoussection. then, sixteen possiblemoods

lead
to
no

to

examine.

these

valid

by the rules: EE, EO, figure, and IO, II, OI by by the rule againsttwo negatives, that against two This leaves us with nine particulars. moods" AA, AE, AI, AO, EA, El, IA, IE, OA. possible
But the it may

conclusions, in any excluded OO, OE are

be further

proved
that the
"

from mood

the IE

general rules
can

of
no

syllogismalone
in any

yield

conclusion

: figure

If

let possible,

there be

conclusion

then

it

must

be
And

negative. distributes proposition every negative

its predicate

(themajor term); the major premise But nor predicate;

Therefore
there would

I distributes neither

subject

be

an

IllicitMajor.

We

are

thus

left with

eight moods,
of the four

and

we

shall

examine

each

of these

in each

testing figures,

the results

by

the rules.

AND

THE

ARISTOTELIAN

SYLLOGISM.

135

"

5. The

form

of the first figure is : M S

"

P,

M;
P.

.'.S
The

major premise
custom;

stands

first, according to

the

in

variable

P, the
and

being the major term,

the minor. clusion,

predicateof the conclusion, S, the subjectof the con

(1) The

mood

AA

in

i. is : fig. is P.

"

All M
All

S is M.
or

When is

the

distribution

non-distribution that the

:
"

of each

term

it is easily considered, seen

only conclusions

about

S, valid by all the rules,are

(a) All S (b) Some

The second

is P.
S is P.
"

of these is called

weakened

conclusion,"

because
the
term

it infers less than S

the

is distributed in
But

premises warrant; for its premise and undis

this is not

tributed in the conclusion.

a

technically

fault. logical

(2) The

mood

AE

in

i. would fig. is

be

"

All M No from which there is

no

P,

S is

M,
about
S ; for

valid conclusion
a

if there were,

it must

be
and in

distrib negative conclusion,

utingits predicateP,

thus

givingan
"

IllicitMajor.

(3) The

mood

AI

i.is : fig. is P,
S is

All M Some from which the

M,
about
S is :
"

only valid
Some

conclusion S is P.

136

MEDIATE

INFERENCE

(4) The

mood

AO

in

i. would fig. is

be

:
"

All M Some from

as

P, M,
same

S is not

which
"

there is it would mood EA

no

conclusion, for the

to
an

reason

(2) (5) The

in

lead in No

IllicitMajor.
"

i. is : fig.
M

is

P,

All S is from which the

M,
S
are
:
"

only valid conclusions about

(a) No S (")Some
the second

is P,
S is not

P,

being the
mood El

weakened in No Some

conclusion.
"

(6) The

i. is : fig.
M

is P,
S is

M,
about
S is
:
"

from

which

the

only

valid conclusion Some S is not P.

(7) The

mood

IA

in
Some

i. would fig.
M is

be

:
"

P,

All S is from which

an

M,
the

there

is

no

conclusion, for
Middle. i. would fig. M

premises

involve

Undistributed
mood

(8) The

OA

in Some

be

"

is

not

P,

All S is from which there

M,
of

is

no

conclusion, because
in
two

the

Undistributed
We have

Middle.
six moods

thus found about

i., givingvalid fig.

are
"

conclusions moods"

S, of

which

weakened
shall

have (i.e.,

weakened

We conclusions).

AND

THE

ARISTOTELIAN

SYLLOGISM.

137

name

each

of them
are :
"

by

the

symbols of

its three

proposi

tions.

They

AAA,

EAE,
weakened

All, EIO,
moods
:
"

togetherwith

the two

AAI,

EAO. the rules the student will

By

similar
to

of applications
at

be able

arrive
the

the

results. following is

In the second

figure,where
the these mood third

middle

predicatein
two

both

premises,
moods,
are

valid
:

moods,

including

weakened

weakened with the corresponding (together In the (and AEO), EIO, AOO. EAO), AEE is subjectin both the middle where pre figure, EAE moods the
are

mises, the valid

OAO,
is EIO.

these

AAI, IAI, All, EAO,

the

In

fourth

figure, where
and

middle
the

predicate in
valid
:

the

major premise

subject in

minor, the
are

one moods, including

weakened

mood,
EIO.
fourth

these
It is
an

AAI,
to

AEE
say

(and AEO), IAI, EAO,

that Aristotle attention
to to

error

overlooked

the

figure;

but

he

paid no

it

beyond recognisingits
it
an

possibility.He seems and useless varietyof

phrastus and
and have these fourth The of
An.

have

considered

awkward

the

first

figure. His
out
"

Eudemus,
"

worked

its five
to
was

pupils,Theomoods principal
Some

added

them

as

indirect moods Claudius Galenus

i. fig.

writers make the

supposed
moods has
been

that
a

the first to hence

into

separate "fourth
the
"

called

Galenian
as a

figure"; figure."

formation
be

of the five moods based ii. i. which

on

subordinate

variety

fig.i. may
of

Prior.,i. 7 and
:
"

by Aristotle, suggestionsmade take the eight possible We com

we

binations

premises
MaP

have

examined

in

fig. i.,

namely

MaP

MaP

MaP SoM
MoP

SaM MeP
SaM

SeM MeP SiM

SiM MiP SaM

SaM

138
and

MEDIATE

INFERENCE

ask,
P?
a new

not

(as before) which

S, but which
involves This

of

them

yield valid

con

clusions about

about

of them

making

yieldvalid conclusions the old major premise

minor, and vice versa, so that the middle term becomes predicateof the major premise and subject of the minor. moods by the rules, as before, Testing the new find that five of them lead to valid conclusions, namely, we indicated above those which have been as belonging to this result. the "fourth figure." The student should verify
into
The third
same

process figures ; but

may

be

gone

through in the second

that
no new

and
are

it will be

found

-moods

thus obtained.

" 6.
which

Aristotle held all true

that there

is

one

canon

or

rule to

reasoningconforms,
expression, or,
direct concise

either

and directly
a

in visibly

its very

if not, in such

way

that

it can
The

be

expressedin
is
a

with conformity
statement

the rule.

canon or

of

what

mediate

is. Syllogistic inference is really syllogism the application of a general principle or (affirmative to a whole to some case cases or or particular negative) the In the syllogism which class of cases. expresses of reasoning, is the the general principle true nature major premise; the assertion that something falls under it is the minor premise. Such a syllogismshows the it must rule of reasoningby the way in which naturally called be expressed, and hence was by Aristotle a

inference

perfect syllogism. In

the perfect syllogism,

major

premise must
it
states

the

for or negative), (affirmative which is to be applied, generalprinciple

be universal

and

therefore
must

it

naturally
affirmative

comes

first ;
may under be

the

minor

premise
Hence

be
a

(and

for it states

that

givencase

comes

universal), this principle.

no

all the

others, are
rules special

and of the first figure, syllogisms to perfect; for they alone conform
"

the

AND

THE

ARISTOTELIAN

SYLLOGISM.

139

(a) The (b) The

are

major premise must

minor

be universal. be
canons

premise
from

must
or

affirmative.
of the first

These

called the special rules them distinguish

to applicable

figure,

to
are

the

general rules (" 4) which

the
et

all the

figures.
of Aristotelian nullo.
canon come

The called down

usual the
to
us

statement

is

dictum from

de

omni

de

It has

the

mediaeval
or

1 : logicians

Whatever
a

is predicated, affirmatively

negatively, of
or

whole

class, must
of

be

predicated, affirmatively
contained
under

negatively,
The the affir

everything

that

class.

mative
de

of the class is de omni, predication of this to the nullo. The application

negative
of the
a

rules

first

figureis

obvious.
a

The

major premise
that minor it the

makes
must

statement

about may
comes

whole

class, so
that

be
that

and universal,
a

be

negative ;
under

asserts

given

case

class, so
with

that the

it must

be the

affirmative ;

and, in
makes

accordance the

dictum,
of the

conclusion

statement original

given case.
The is of the first figure

greatest importanceboth
Whenever
we we

in

life. practical knowledge to a given case, science and

of

apply previous
of the moods
even no

employ
before

one

this

figure, although
"

no

syllogism and
our

distinct times

propositions may
an an

be

minds.

Some

even

ordinary "judgment object, may

be

of

or perception,"

of recognition The

analysed in

this form.

premise being our perceptionof the general be placed first. of the particular fact, may qualities
minor
1

Aristotle

did

not

state

it in terms

of the

"

class

"

view

of pro

: positions

'6TO.V tTepov

Kad' erepou

ws KaTTiyoprJTai Kara

Ka6'
TOV

uTro/cei/xeVou,
vTroK"i/j.ei"ov

tt"a Kara

TOV

KaT7]yopovfj.evov
"

Aeyercu, irdvTa Kal

(Cat.," 3) p7/07)(reTcu
of the

whatever i.e.,

is said of the

Predicate

is said

Subject.

140 Crusoe's it may

"

MEDIATE

INFERENCE

affords footprint

an

example ;
is
a

his

of perception

be

analysed thus
mark in the

:
"

This

sand

mark

having such
the

and

of size, qualities shape,"c. ; is Every mark havingthese qualities such

a

of imprint

man's

foot ;

Therefore
a

this mark foot."

which

in the

sand

is the

of imprint

man's

The in
a

process flash
"

by

the conclusion

is reached
cases

"

passes
none

through
true

the

mind, in such

; but

the less it is a The

names
:

syllogistic argument

in

i. fig.
known

four moods
"

of the first figure are

by

the

Barbara, Celarent, Darii, Ferio.

These
names

contain the vowels

order ; and exhausts

of the

moods respective

in their proper

the student their

"

will

see shortly

this

by

no

means

connotation."
the

Our

however, is to discuss present object,

acteristicsof these moods.
The mode mood of Barbara that

char special

is its

so

familiar and

constant

thought
But
must
are

attention.

part that it
results which

importance usually escapes beforehand the large we might know playin science ; for science seeks for
laws
"

statements i.e.,

true

universally

about
fact

certain kinds
the
"

of fact.
a

Every
new

by

law
we

"

find i.e.,
a

a explain complete application

time

we

of the law

make

in or mally,explicitly, the

reasoninglong and
we

in Barbara, not for syllogism for this would make expression, tedious ; but implicitly at every
"

step
The

reason,

in such

case,

in this form.

are following examples of a law application

"

of this

mood, regarded as the heated, it expands

;

When Glass .'. Glass

material
a

substance

is

is

material substance
when heated.

expands

142

MEDIATE

INFERENCE

examples of these circumstances, we by reasonings in Barbara.

When moods AAI of and

explain what

occurred

speaking,in
figurei.,we
EAO,

the

of the valid present section, the

"

ignored
in

weakened

moods,"
is

mentioned

"

5.

This

because,

valid, they are practically though technically superfluous. Barbari and Celaront^ They have been given the names called subaltern respectively. They are sometimes
"

moods," for the conclusion

of Barbari 7, p.

can

be inferred from in
a

by
way

"

subalternation
and that the of

"

(ch. III. "

76)

that

of

Barbara,
from the

conclusion
Celarent. of
a

of

Celaront

similar

Of

remainingmoods
can a

i., we fig.
universal certain
can

may

notice
"

that that
"

Celarent

prove

only

negative

nothingin
All

given class
that increases increase
can

has

stated
be

: qualities

Nothing
wars wars

taxation
;

long popular ;

taxation

.*.No

be

long popular.

This
can

mood

is of less

importance than

Barbara^

for

we

advance only clear the ground, not directly ledge,by provingwhat thingsare not :
"

know

But may

be cured by punishment : can Nothing involuntary is involuntary Stupidity ; cured be cannot .*. Stupidity by punishment. no syllogism in Celarent could tell us how stupidity be cured.

"

7. The

second
are
:
"

figureproves

only negatives.

Its

valid moods

Baroco. Cesare, Camestres, Festino, It is useful in

distinctions establishing
in connection with
the

between

things.1

On

Camestres

see hypothetical syllogism,

chap. VII.

"

4.

AND

THE

ARISTOTELIAN

SYLLOGISM.

143

We
out

prove that P

distinction between
an

and

has

attribute M
or

which
or

S has that P

by pointing not (in the

has
not
an or

moods

Camestres
M

Baroco] ;
S has

attribute

which

(in the

moods

Cesare

festino).
The

following is an example of Camestres. discovered Before the planet Neptune was : The sun and all the planets belonging to
"

our

solar of

system
Uranus The .'. The
our sun
sun

must

completely
the known the known

determine

the

orbit

and and

planetsdo planetsare
"

not not

do

this ; the whole of

solar system.
we

For

Baroco,
true

may

give :
are

All Some .*. Some

theories

self-consistent
are are

scientific theories scientific theories

not not

self-consistent
true.

Again

"

All

moral
acts

acts

are are

done

from

Some

that

legal are

praiseworthymotive ; done from a praise not

worthy motive
.'. Some For
acts

;
are

that
we

Cesare,
are

ii.4) which
ii.in The The

legal are not moral. give two examples from Aristotle (Ethics, excellent illustrations of the value of figure
:
"

distinctions establishing

feelings(7ra07j) are virtues (aperai) are

virtues
"

.'.The

are

not

objectsof moral judgment objectsof moral judgment ; feelings.

not

Again

The The
.'. The

passionsare
virtues virtues
are are a

not

the result of conscious choice

choice
;

the result of conscious

not

passions.
"

The

followingis
cannot

Forces

good example of Festino : in Nature, working by strictly mechanical laws, produce organic beings capable of growth and
have

reproduction;
Some
.*. Some

forces in Nature forces in Nature

produced such beings ;

work mechanical by strictly

do

not

laws.

144
We
must

MEDIATE

INFERENCE

add

that

Cesare and AEO

and

Camestres

have

"weakened

moods," EAO
and

some respectively,

times called Cesaro

The i. figs.
more

Camestros. of syllogisms
no

student and

must

notice that in all the

the ii.,
no

premises
that each

state

exactlyenough,
to warrant term

and

less than
means

enough,
the

the

con

clusion. uted

That
once

middle

is distrib

and neither of the syllogism, is distributed in the premises without extremes being this of which distributed in the conclusion. Syllogisms

only

in

is

true
see

are

called

fundamental syllogisms. The

this

student

will

what clearly
meet

section,we
contain
more

with

when, in implies where syllogisms

to warrant

the the

following
premises

than

enough
moods

the

conclusion.

"

8.

The

third

figureproves
are

only "particular" pro

:
"

positions.Its

valid

Bocardo, Darapti,Disamis, Datisi^Felapton,

The
a

Ferison.

moods

with

an

I conclusion
; those

are

useful in
an

proving
of the of

rule

in

instances by positive to a proving exceptions

is to

with
A

conclusion,

rule.

frequent use

former

disprovesweeping denials (or assertions

incompatibility).
The its
"

mood

Darapti contains
All whales
All
.'. Some
are are

more

conclusion. particular"

The

enough to warrant followingis an example :

; ;

than

"

mammals

whales

water-creatures
are

water-creatures
an

mammals. of the fact that is

term
some

The

syllogism establishes
live in the water.
every

instance The

mammals from

argument

valid perfectly is distributed the conclusion

an

pointof
the
same.

view

; but

the middle

twice.
would clusion Datisi.

With be

I instead

of A

in either

premise

cannot

Hence, in some cases, when be proved in Darapti, it may be

are

con

Thus, in Plato's time,it could

excluded

States,all women existing

proved in be argued that "in from full citizenship ;

AND

THE

ARISTOTELIAN

SYLLOGISM.

145

but

some

women

are

public func capable of discharging

"

" in all women could not "c." tions ; therefore, We say the minor ; but the conclusion is not affected by the substitu

tion of The

"

some."

mood is
a

Darapti

is

speciallyappropriate when
and then
no we

the

middle

singular term,
a

other
must

mood

will prove

the conclusion. the fact that

In this connection

again emphasise

proposition making an affirmation about a as an singularsubject (ch. II. " 3) is ranked as universal, A proposition (ch. III. " i, p. 53). If,then, we requirean

instance of the rule that

are

poeticgenius
argue
:
"

and

scientific ability

compatible, we
Goethe
was a

may
man

poeticgenius ; of scientific ability Goethe was a man ; of poeticgenius. of scientific .'. Some are men men ability In the following example of Darapti,the middle is not a term : singular
of
"

Potassium Potassium
.*. Some

floats is
a

on

water ;

metal
on

which exclude With student be

is

an

water, instance of the fact that metallic

for

metals

float

the

degree of lightness necessary the regard to remaining moods

be able
to

do qualities floating. Disamis

not

of this

figure,the
may

should

show

for himself how Bocardo the from

derived
"

from

Darapti, and
"

applying
case

subalternation

to

Felapton,by major premise,or, in the

of

Datisi, to the minor.

awkwardness
a

"
as

9. The

of the

fourth

figureis due

to

the fact that

term

which

is

subjectis naturally
Thus, if we

taken

in predicate
"

the conclusion.

have three,

premises
roses JA11 are

plants,

\A11plantsneed air,
we
"

should
"

roses as one

"

naturally expect the conclusion to be about should regard the syllogism naturally i.e.,we
the conclusion being i., Barbara, fig.
"

in

All

roses

need
K

air.

146
But

MEDIATE

INFERENCE

in the the

fourth
statement

figure the
about
are
"

makes

unexpectedly thingsneeding air

"
"

conclusion

fAll

roses

plants,
air ;

need \A11 plants

Some

needing things
AAI in

air

are

roses.

This is

is the

mood

called Bramantip. iv., fig.

well
as

It

as entirely superfluous,

unnatural, for the

con

can clusion,if desired,

be obtained
The in

of the conclusion
to

in Barbara. and IAI

"

by simple conversion remark same applies

"

the

moods

AEE

iv., fig.
which

called the

Camenes

and when

Dimaris
we

in respectively, is naturally, if the drawn

conclusion,
and Darii fourth

think

in Celarent of the

and respectively;

conclusion

figure

is

it is obtained by conversion. required,

The
two

and fig.iv. EAO EIO, and fall less Fresison called Fesapo into respectively readily i. If we the major of Fesapo simply, the form of fig. convert have and the minor per accidens, we a pair of premises from which i. ; the conclusion of Fesapo follows, in Ferio of fig. derive Fresiso?t by taking the also, from Fesapo we may " of the minor subaltern premise.

remaining

moods

of

"

"

"

"

10.

We

may

thus

sum

up

the

reasons

why

the first
:
"

as is, figure

Aristotle

to held, superior

the others

(a) It

alone

with the Canon complies directly its scientific value, Reasoning ; hence

of
as

illustrated above.

(b) It

will prove

each

of the conclusions

A, E, I, and
A
can

O, and

is the

only

mood

in which

be

proved.

(c)In

the

mood principal of the

of this

the figure, and

relative
minor of their

extension
terms names,

major, middle,

to corresponds

the relative order

AND

THE

ARISTOTELIAN

SYLLOGISM.

147

The ("")

subject in
is

the

conclusion the

is also

subject
the
con

in its clusion The

course

and premise,

predicate in
its

predicate in
of
rests

premise.
is of what

most

fundamental

these
on
an

considerations

the

which first,

assumption of

able reasoningis. On this ground also, we were the specialrules of the first figure. They to prove of Reasoning itself. of the Canon a are really repetition be These proved also from the special rules may generalrules of the syllogism.
true

Proof of the SpecialRules of Fig. i.

Rule
i.

The

minor

premise
form
M

must

be

affirmative.
"

The

for

i. is : fig.

P,

Mj
P7

.'.S
If

possiblelet the minor premise be negative. Then the be affirmative, P is undistributed there ; and major must P is dis and also the conclusion be negative, and must if the minor tributed there. Hence premise is negative Illicit Major. be Therefore the minor have must an we
affirmative.
Rule Since is the
must not
2.

The

the

major premise must be universal. minor the premise is affirmative,

there.
; and
as

middle

term

distributed

Hence
it is

it

must

be

distributed

in

major premise
be universal.

subject there,this premise

EXERCISE

IX. of

Prove, from

the

General for

Rules
the

the

syllogism, the fol

and third

lowing Special respectively.

Rules

second

figures

Fig. ii.
1. 2.

One The

premise

must must

be

negative.
be

conclusion

negative.
be universal.

3. The

major premise

must

148

MEDIATE

INFERENCE

Fig. iii.
1. 2.

The The

minor

premise must
must

be affirmative.

conclusion

be

particular.
one

It is also Rules nullo. of

to deduce possible from the syllogism

every

of the General de omni

et de

the dictum

Aristotle
as figures,"

called

figs.ii.

and the may

iii. the

"

imperfect
conclusive

they have not i. of fig. character They canons .or by constructing

them,
This
as

cogent
be

and

dicta

independent to directly applicable

i. to fig. applicable
Lambert may

made

the

dictum done But

of Aristotle
"

is

has

been

e.g.,

by

(Ueberweg,
be

Logic, " 103).

have
not

these

maxims, it

affirmed,

the

and clear, distinct,

self-evident character

of the

Aristotelian dictum. exhibited the cogency

means

Aristotle himself
in The may the

of the moods the

imperfectfiguresby
is called Beduction thus
:

of and the

first

figure.
of the

process

its generalnature

be

stated

Transform
a

premises

imperfect syllogism in such

may

way
one

that

its conclusion valid of the moods of

be drawn

from

them The

in

of the

the

first figure.

transformation

premises

(a) by one of the processes of immediate both of the premises, or inference,applied to one of the premises,if necessary, in (b) by transposition
is effected order The
to

keep
names

the

major premise
the various the
not

first. moods of in the im

given to

perfect figuresare

only

means

by
of

their three

and vowels, the quantity the

indicating, of the quality

:

major premise,
the

minor,

and

the conclusion indicate

The also the

some

intermediate
reduction
are

consonants

processes

by

which

is effected. and
c

con significant

sonants

s, /, m,

and

the

initial letters

of the names,

B, C, D, F.

150
The first s in

MEDIATE

INFERENCE

thejname

indicates

that

the

originalminor

premise is to be converted simply ; the m indicates that the originalpremises are to be transposed. The C indicates the new that from pair of premises,thus obtained, we are in Celarent,fig. i. ; and the second the conclusion to draw
s

indicates

that

if

we our

convert

this conclusion

in

Celarent

simply, we
Convert

shall get the

originalconclusion.
and is

minor, original
No M

transpose

:
"

S,

All P is from which in Celarent

M,

the conclusion No
P

is,

is

S,

from

which

again by simple conversion,

No

S is

P,

which The

is the

conclusion. original in the

case

of Reduction process has already been illustrated

of the fourth

figure

(" 9).
Immediate reduction.

of direct applicationof operation, is called direct and transposition, Inference

This

By this
Inference
we

means

we

are

also

said
not

to

reduce any

ostensively
Immediate

Aristotle (SetKTt/oo?).

did

admit under Bocardo

except conversion; and

reduce
Baroco

this limitation
Ac directly.

cannot

and

they are cordingly

as

reduced

by
the

distinct process

known
in

reduction

per

impossibile (Siarot) aSvvdrov)or

: assume

direct

reduction

of falsity

the

conclusion

the truth of its contradictory) (i.e., ; take this contra with one of the original premises, as the two dictory premises of a new syllogism in Barbara, the con clusion of which will be incompatible with the other either the premise of the original syllogism. Hence conclusion is true of the or one original original premises false ; and, since in Deductive Logic the to be can premises are always assumed only true, we

accept the

former

alternative.

AND

THE

ARISTOTELIAN

SYLLOGISM.

!$!

Examples

(a) Reduce
All P Some Some

Baroco is M. S is not S is

:" per impossibile

M.
not

P. be
true

If this conclusion that is

:
"

is false, its

contradictory must

All

S is P.
a new

Make

this the
:
"

minor

of

syllogism with

the

original

major

All P is

M,

\All
from which
All

S is P, in Barbara is

the conclusion
S

is,

M,
Therefore
All S is M

which is

contradicts the

minor. original

therefore since the process, being Barbara, is and false, This can of its premises must be false. valid,one only be the assumed is not

P, the

(b) Reduce

premise All S is P ; and if this conclusion,is true. original Bocardo : per impossibile
"

is

Some false,

Some All M Some Take minor the and

is

not

P.

is S. S is not
P.

contradictory of this conclusion

draw
a

with

the

original
:
"

conclusion

from

them

in Barbara

\All
All

jAll

S is P.
M M
must

is S. is P.
be

This

new

conclusion

false,for it contradicts the

originalmajor; hence its assumed premise All S is P is conclusion Some false S is not P is true. the original im"mt be appliedto (c) The process of indirect reduction may Aristotle when of the imperfect moods. mentioning any the process appliesit to Darapti :
"

"

f All

M M

is P. is S.
S is P.

IA11
Some

152
The
new

MEDIATE

INFERENCE

syllogism

formed
same

conclusion, with the

Celarent:
"

contradictory of conclusion minor, gives a new

by
the S is P.
M M

this in

j No
( All
No

is S. is P. of the

This

conclusion
must

is the contrary be

original major.
"

One

of them

false,and

it

can

only be
false

this conclusion. the i.e.,

Therefore
conclusion

its assumed is
the
true.

premise is

original

employment of obversion, Baroco and Bocardo to be reduced be reduced directly, (i) Baroco may may Ferio by contrapositingthe major premise and obverting be reduced the minor. to Darii by con (2) Bocardo may the original major, transposing the premises, and trapositing of the new conclusion. taking the obverted converse
(//)By
It must has
no

be borne

in

mind
on

that the

the

term

Reduction view
of the
to
"

meaning except
other
must
a

Aristotelian the
"

of the inferiority

figuresto
always
some

first ; and reduce

re

duce
It is

"

mood

mean

it to

i." fig.

to possible

transform

of

the

imperfectmoods
a

into

other

imperfect moods

; but

this is

mere

exer

cise in
called
"

mechanical reduction."
When
one

manipulation,and
of the the

should

not

be

"11.
ism what

premises of
is called

logical syllog
have

is omitted

in

verbal

of it, we expression
an

in

modern

text-books

enthymeme
in which The the

This (syllogismus decurtatus).

is the form with. hence the

syl
miss

met logistic arguments are commonly ing premise is supplied in thought;

meme

enthy

has

the

same

characteristics
Most

as

expressed syllogism.
which then

commonly
is the be
of the

completely the premise

major,
when and
;

is omitted
the

but

understood
to

enthymene
minor

is said

first order

sometimes, the

premise

is

omitted,

it is of

AND

THE

ARISTOTELIAN

SYLLOGISM.

153
is

the when

second

order

rarely, the
third
a

conclusion
The
a

omitted,
of the

it is of

the

order.

omission

conclusion
"

is less
" u

logicalthan
"

rhetorical
to

device, to
; it is

insinuate

or

suggest

what

is

be

proved

"figure of speech."
The

syllogism which
:

when
are

fully expressed fought

out

is stated

as

follows

"All

religiouswars
bitterness hence its
;

with

the greatest
War
"
"

pertinacityand
religious
war
"

the

Thirty Years'
bitterness in the three War

was

length and
"

may
:
"

be

expressed
First

enthymematically
"The
was

forms
was

order:

Thirty Years'

long and long and

and

bitter ; for it Second for bitter,

Third

religiouswar."
Thirty Years'
War
was

order:
all

"The

and

the

so." wars are religious "All order: are religiouswars long war." was a religious Thirty Years' War

bitter;

is a formally valid syl enthymeme logism with one premise (or the conclusion) not expressed. has This use of the term largely prevailed since Hamilton

Understood

thus, an

wrote.

But
to
or

the

term
"

is much condensed
has

more
"

serviceable

when

under

stood valid sition second

mean

syllogism whether
that
even a

formally

not.

Jevons
have
a

may

pointed out force syllogistic

single propo
a

if it

clearly suggests

premise which thus enables a conclusion to be drawn. who have "The no Tooke, 'Men expression of Home to be rights cannot justlycomplain of any wrongs,' seems felt few people who have in point ; for there are not a case
wronged
be follows
Men
at
some

time

or

other, and
upon
true

they would
or

therefore

likelyto
:
"

argue,

whether

false

premises, as
of any

who
;

have

no

rights cannot
;

justlycomplain

wrongs

We

can

justlycomplain
we are
'

Therefore
In

not

men

who

have
"

no

rights.
that the
argu

other And

words,

we

have

rights.'
has also observed than the Hamilexplicit is vaguely hinted general principle often less

Professor of
common

Minto life are

"

ments

tonian

enthymeme.

154
at ; a
are

MEDIATE

INFERENCE

subject is referred to a class the attributes of which known. Thus : supposed to be definitely He was of ambitious too to be scrupulous in his choice
"

means.

He Each

was

too

impulsive not
sentences

to have

made
a

many

blunders. and hearer

an

of

these

contains in

conclusion The

enthymematic
understood of ambition
to

argument
have
a man

support
a

of it.

is

in his mind

at which

ceases

degree
The

of

impulsivenessthat

is

degree scrupulous,or the incompatiblewith accuracy."

to be

definite

idea of the

Aristotelian

Enthymeme

is (evdv^/jLo) is

not
an

an necessarily

it expressed syllogism; elliptically aims

argument

which
"

only
than

at

a establishing

result

as

probable,

as so

more

but possible,

not
us.

certain This

to
ex

happen,
"

far

as

our

premises
frequent form
come

tell of

tremely important and

be

reasoningwill
of Induction. of the
a

discussed

when

we

to

treat

Because

Aristotle and
as an

his commentators

spoke
"

enthymeme

"incomplete syllogism," meaning

not

syllogism or argument which does proof, later logicians supposed

"

furnish

complete
"

that

it
in

was

incom
What

plete,"as
to tially

being
to

not

fullyexpressed
about of

words.

Aristotle has
the

say

enthymemes

belongs essen

doctrine
ways
one

in fact

reasoning; but the modern of the enthymeme is simply a notice of the from which, in ordinaryspeech, we move on
or

doctrine

statement

to

another

without

stopping to
is

make

all the
are

steps definite and

so

explicit.This
an

why
bear

fallacies upon
some

often

hidden;

argument

is

based

unexpressed assumption which

be

will not

examination.

Syllogisms
"chains which the of

may

combined,
A
common

in various form

ways,

into
in of

reasoning."
of
:
"

is that
one

conclusion

one

syllogismfurnishes

the

premisesof

the next

AND

THE

ARISTOTELIAN

SYLLOGISM.

155

M JA11

is

P,

IAll
therefore but therefore
All

S is

M;
:

S is P

All R All R

is S ; is P.

in Barbara, the conclusion syllogisms of the first forming the major premise of the second. of the furnishes conclusion whose one The syllogism Here
we

have

two

premises is
which

called
one

the of the
more

Prosyllogism
its

the
a

syllogism previous
may, of

borrows

premises

from

conclusion
course, way.

is called three
we

Episyllogism.

There

be When

or

pass

in this combined syllogisms from one syllogismto steadily

as

another, making each

lished the
a

conclusion
a new

soon

as

it is estab
are

premise

of
or

we syllogism,

said

to

adopt
our

synthetic
as we

progressive method,
If
we

building up

results

go the

along.

state
are

the

episyllogism
to
case

and first,
an

then
or

we prosyllogism,

said this

adopt
the

analytic

regressive method.
often
one

In into
an

is prosyllogism which
"

condensed

enthymeme,
: episyllogism

stands
man was

as

of the

premises of
no man

the is

No

is

for infallible,
a

omniscient
was

Aristotle

man,

therefore
of

Aristotle

not
one

infallible."

syllogism
is called

this

kind, in

which the

(or both) of the

of
a

premises

is

expanded by
modern
"

addition

reason,

by

logicians an

Epicheirema
Aristotle the full in

aggressio, a term used by (eVt^et/w/yita, a different sense). In the example given,

"All

prosyllogism is:
;
no men

infallible

beings
no

are

omniscient
are

are

omniscient,therefore

men

infallible."
A

chain

of

in which and episyllogisms, prosyllogisms

all the

conclusions, except

the

last,are

omitted

in

156
was expression,

MEDIATE

INFERENCE

Sorites in which

logiciansa by post-Aristotelian According to the order, (crwpen-?/?, acervus). the premisesfollow one another, it is usual to
called Aristotelian
"

the distinguish The

"

and is

the Goclenian

Sorites.1

Aristotelian
A

form

is : A

B,

is C, C is D, D is
terms

E, hence
to

is E.

It progresses
extent ; and

from

of

narrower

those

of wider

clusions)the
the first is not is

minor

(in addition to the con except premise of every syllogism

The Goclenian A of form is
:

expressed.
is

E, C

is D, B
from
terms

C,

is B ; hence
to

is D.
narrower

It pro
extent

gresses
"

of wider and

those

i.e., D, C, B, A;
the

the

major premise

of

every

syllogism except
For forms. Aristotelian
A B

first is omitted.

the sake

of clearness

we

add

an

analysisof

the

two

Sorites.

Goclenian
C B

Sorites.

B, is C,
; .'.A

is

D, is C,
is B ;
.-.

is

C is D

is D.

is D.

Analysis. (1) (A
is B is C is C is C is D is D forms

Analysis. (i)
f

\B
A

(minor). (major).

C is D is C is D
D

\B
B

(major). (minor).

(conclusion).
(minor). (major). (conclusion).
the

(conclusion).
(major). (minor). (conclusion).

(2)

rA

(2) JB is

|C
A

\A
A

is B

is D

procedure is synthetic or progressive. In these examples the syllogisms are all in fig.i. Dr shown that Sorites are possible in which Keynes has and also in which each syllogism is of the second figure, each syllogism is of the third figure; but these are only
In both
1

The

"Goclenian"

form

is

so

called because

it

was

suggested by

German

of the sixteenth logician

century, Goclenius.

158

MEDIATE

INFERENCE

or by bringing it principle,

under

higher class
a

then

the

dictum the

of Aristotle If the

is

and directlyapplicable, aims

at

the

figureis
that in
an

first.

argument

negative conclusion,
the fact
one

separating two
attribute which other ; the
at ment

things by reasoning
is characteristic second.
a

from

of

is absent argument

the aims

figure is the
"

If
or

the

rule, a establishing

by
means

an

instance;
of
a

or

partly general if it endeavours to deny such

then

general

state
a

rule

by

negativeinstance:
to

the

is the figure

third.

In form make any

order of mood

express and in the

changes

in the strictly it is usuallynecessary to figure, given expressionof it,supplying

the

argument

premise

which

may

be

understood

but

not

ex

pressed, according to
is

Hamilton's

that postulate,

what

in language in thought may be made implicit explicit III. " 4). It is a mistake to say, as Jevons does, (ch. that such changes "are of an extra-logical character, and belong more properlyto the science of language ;
"

for may

they

are

changes
the
true

made

in

order

that

the

words

express

relations logical
the Port

of the
two

thoughts.

examples of arguments be proved by the which, he says, "cannot rules of the syllogism," and yet are perfectlyvalid. The is a thing insensible ; the examples are : (a) The sun Persians worship the sun ; therefore the Persians worship Divine commands Law a (b} "The thing insensible." us honour is a to kings ; Louis XIV. king ; therefore the
"

Jevons quotes from

Royal Logic

Divine if
we

Law
were

commands limited
to

us

to

honour

Louis

XIV."

Now

making merely grammatical changes be difficult if not impossible arguments, strict syllogisms. But them it should have to express as been evident that they can be so first expressed. The
in these it would of them adduces that
an

instance
are

in

support
of

of
a

the

general
insen is
an

statement

Persians

worshippers

thing

hence sible,

it is of the

type of fig.iii.; the second

is of the and hence applicationof a general principle, be expressed syllotype of fig.i. The arguments may in Darapti and Barbara gistically : respectively
"

AND

THE

ARISTOTELIAN

SYLLOGISM.

159

(a) The
The

sun

is is

an
a

objectof

Persian

worship ;
an

sun

Therefore

thing insensible ; something insensible is

be honoured

objectof

Persian

worship. (b) Kings are to

Law
;

by command

of the Divine

Louis

XIV.

is

king
Divine

Therefore
mand

Louis of the

XIV.

is Law.1

to

be

honoured

by

com

We

add

few

more

transformation
"

of the

this logical examples illustrating of reasoning. ordinaryexpressions

hold these

He

must

be

Buddhist, for all Buddhists

opinions."
Here holds
All

the

unexpressed minor

is, premise evidently

"

he

these

opinions
are

"

:
"

Buddhists is
a

persons

holding these opinions ;

He

person he is

holding these opinions ;

a

Therefore

Buddhist.
in and ii., fig. is

This is the mood

as

AAA
an

formallyinvalid,
This is
an

it involves
of
a

undistributed

middle.

example

fallacywhich
second

frequently arises through

resemblances.
some

arguing,in
one

the hold

from figure,

Any

may

opinions resembling
of

Buddhist

doctrines

without
are
we

arguments
under the

such Inductively being a Buddhist. and the conditions great importance, may

which

relyon
are

them

will be discussed
fallacious.
"

in

sequel;

but

they
had

formally
as

If the
must

original argument
1

been

follows

He

be

Example (a)might

also be

taken

as

an

instance

of what

Jevons

calls "immediate ch. III.

therefore sensible Persians

by complex conception" (see above, The is a thing insensible, : sun " 13) followed by Barbara are worshippers of the sun worshippers of a thing in
inference
"

the
are

worshippers of the sun, As worshippersof a thing insensible."

Persians
are

therefore

the

regards (/"),
XIV.
man. were

the valid conclusion

is that
as an

the French
not official,

bound

to honour

him

of Louis subjects a as necessarily

160

MEDIATE

INFERENCE

Buddhist,

for

none

other have

than

Buddhists

hold

these

opinions,"it

would

been
"

valid in Cesare, is
is
an a none

ii., fig.
than
a

leadingto
When
one

the

conclusion,

He

other

he Buddhist,"or (by obversion) of the

Buddhist. exclusive
or

premises is
is necessary
on

excep whether

tive

it proposition,
stress

to

consider

the chief
this

is laid

the

of negativeimplication

premise (which is usuallythe case, as in the ex its positive or on ample just given), implication (which
must

be

expressedas
In the
one,

or particularproposition),

on

both

equally.

last thus German

case
"

we

have

two

syllogisms

compressed into

are Only British subjects

eligible ; A. B. eligible ; C. D. Here eligible."

other The
ment
are
:

is

is
one

an

of

subjectand therefore in English subject and therefore is valid and the the syllogisms
rhetorical form of
a

is not. is a common following Why be ashamed

"

of argu All the

men

mistake ?

fallible." The
that this
"no

to questionis equivalent

state

ment

mistakes

are

things to
conclusion.
must

be

ashamed

of";
to

is

evidentlythe
men are

The

given
so

premise, "all
as

fallible"

be
:

restated
"

connect

it with
men are

the

thus conclusion, This

mistake
the

is what

all

liable to."

contains
the

subjectof
instance What

the

conclusion, and
it

is therefore
means

minor
every
:
"

for premise; it is universal, of "a mistake." all

men are

to

refer to

The liable

then syllogism
to

becomes

is

not

thing

to

be

ashamed
A

of;
is what
no

mistake

all

men are

are

liable

to ;

Therefore This

mistakes

thingsto
is

be ashamed

of.

is valid in
but

if the major premise be Celarent, i., fig. this

accepted ;

when
to

premise

we fully formulated,

might hesitate

accept it.

AND

THE

ARISTOTELIAN

SYLLOGISM.

l6l

EXERCISE The

XI.
with

following questions
what

deal

the

subjects of this

chapter. 1. Upon
minor
are 2.

have principle

the terms

of a applied to the terms these names generallyapplicable?

been

major, middle, and far syllogism ? How

[O.]
premises
may

Show,

with

that instances,

false

furnish

true

[L.] 3- If it be known, concerning a syllogism,that the middle is twice distributed, do you know what term concerning the conclusion ? Prove your answer. [L.]
conclusions. be universal major term in the conclusion,determine particular
4. If the

in the
the
not

premises and mood and figure,

weakened
one

it being understood

that the

mood

is

[C]
5. Prove 6. Name any of the that
in every
must

figure,if the minor

be universal.

premise is
broken

negative the major

[O.]
are

the rules of the moods following

:
"

syllogism which

by

AIA, IEA,
7. What

AEI.

[Jevons.]

it did Aristotle consider Why a syllogism in Camestres and reduce necessary ? Construct it directly and per impossible. [St A.] in the figure in 8. Give an original example of AGO to the first ; also which it is valid, it ostensively and reduce it valid by of IAI it occurs, and in any figure where prove is Reduction
?

Reductio per impossibile. [L

9. State

]
in
;

the

following arguments
and
are

giving mood
or

figure,if valid
broken
:
"

form, complete logical if invalid,give the rule mistaken, for

other

rules which

(r) (a)

We

know

that the
not

policy was
have

wise it would

failed. part in the dis

so,

(b) Only members

cussion.
a

of the

societytook
have done

You

must

for you
that

are

member. instance be
a

(c] The
may

of

Shakespeare
yet

proves
no

man

great poet and

fool in business

matters.

[St A.]
L

162

MEDIATE

INFERENCE

(2) (a] Every true patriotis disinterested ; few true therefore few men are disinterested, (b) If he did not steal the goods, why did
them,
as
no

men

are

patriots.
he

hide

thief fails
Thou
man can

to
a

do ? Teacher these him.

come

(c] We

know

that
for
no

art

from
Thou

God,
doest

do

signs that

except
makes
a

God
waste
never a

be

with

[E.]
want,
there

(3) (a)

Haste fore

and
loses

waste

makes

man

(b) No

fallacy is
imate
fore
no

by delay. legitimate argument

may

any
;

legit
there

argument

fail

to

win

assent

(c) He

must

fallacyfails to win assent. know a great deal,for he says

been

so

little. [G.]

(4) (a) This

have explosion must gunpowder, for nothing

occasioned could have

by
pos

else

sessed

sufficient is
not

force.
; for it is

(b] Suicide
but

always to be condemned voluntary death, and this has by

in
many

been

gladly
of

embraced

of

the

greatest

heroes

antiquity. (c) Few

towns

the

United

Kingdom
; and
as

have

more

than

300,000
to

inhabitants

all such members

towns

towns

ought
to

be

represented by
it is evident that

three few

in

Parliament,
have

ought

three

(5) (a) Whatever

be

is
as

representatives.[Jevons.] of sense given on the evidence

a

may

taken

fore,is

not

existence of a fact ; the fact,for it is not evident

of

God,
to
sure

there

sense.

(b) Seeing

that

abundance

work

is

sign of
and
un-

industrial hurricane

that fire prosperity,it follows benefit they industry, because

create
more

undoubtedy (c) I will

who
have
no

work.

doctors this

; I see

that all of those had doctors.

have

died

winter

have

[St A.] (6) (a) Socrates

No (ft)
was

wise, and wise

Socrates is
to to
was

men

alone

are

happy
no

therefore

tale-bearer

be

happy. trusted,and
; for

therefore

great talker is
are

be

trusted

all tale-bearers

great talkers.

AND

THE

ARISTOTELIAN

SYLLOGISM.

163

(c)

"

Their
and

syllogism
the United

runs

something
are

like

this.

France

States

republics
to

they

have

both therefore would before

he

shown

strong

tendencies
are

corruption
corrupt.
a

republics
be

liable
to

to

be

It

interesting
professor
of of and how

lay

such and ask

syllogism
him it
The

Logic,
many

what
would

thinks

it,
score

marks

be

likely

to

in
G.

an

examination.
"

Daily

Chronicle."
10.

[St
the

Stock.]
of the

In ? ? In

what what

does

peculiarity
did

Enthymeme
the
term

con

sist

sense

Aristotle

use

Enthy

meme

[O.J
any

11.

Take

Enthymeme
so

(in
to

the it and

modern into

sense), (a)
the
a

and

supply (6)
or an

premises epicheirema,
of each

as

expand
;

syllogism,

(c)

sorites

order'
mood,

name

variety
12.

product.

[C.]
possible
from its
each

Is of

any

inference
? If

of

the

following
;

sets

premises why
No No A C
no

so,

describe
is

logical

character

if

not,

say

inference

possible
C C

"

(a) (Z")

are

B D

all all

B B

are

some

C A

are

D. B.

are

are

some

are

[St

A.]

164

MEDIATE

INFERENCE.

NOTE.
When
a

we

know
are

whether distributed

the
or

Subject and

the
we

Predicate know III.

-

of

proposition quantity
if
we

undistributed,

both

the
Hence
an

and

quality
a

of

the

proposition (ch.
term
w

" 6).
and

indicate
term

distributed

by the
the four

mark
forms

undistributed
may

by the mark
thus
:
"

of

the

proposition

be

expressed

universal

affirmative

S P S P S P S P be

ii

negative

particular affirmative
ii

negative
of the

Hence

all the

moods
any

syllogism
than of the

may

expressed
the

without

using
or

other

symbols

those
terms
:
"

indicating

distribution

non-distribution

Barbara
SM

Festino

J
ISM

SP

SP

Darapti

-[
_

Disarms

|
'

MS

IMS

SP This notation
has

SP

the

advantage
the

of

showing
terms

at

glance the
to

validity (or invalidity) of

rules of
or

syllogism according
of is

the

regarding
(ch. V.

the

distribution the
as

(ch.

V.

" 3),

and

showing
not

whether

mood is

formally
when

"strengthened" compared
with

" 8),

Darapti

Disamis.

66

THE

PREDICABLES.

entirely agree
able feature

with of

"

in

intension,or

(b)be
In

an

insepar
first
case

S, and peculiar to S.
of (0/009) S
:
"

the

(a)P
" "

is the Definition is
a

Man
A

rational animal."
a

is triangle second

three-sided

rectilineal
a

plane figure."
x or

In

the

case

(b].P
of of

is

proprium

i"iov of

S:"
"

Man Man

has is

the power

speech."
in

"

capable

progress

knowledge

to

an

indefinite
"

extent." its three

has triangle

interior

angles together

equal
Aristotle

to

two

rightangles."
the what
two

expresses

thus possibilities

"

The

definition

shows does
not

the what

Subject really
the with

is."

"The

proprium
is

show it and
are

is,but Subject really

it."

from inseparable

convertible

(2) If
agree agree

S and

not

convertible,then
Hence
must

they do

not

coincide entirely

in extension. with S ; it

P cannot

entirely

in intension
or

either

(a) partially

disagree. (b}entirely In the firstcase (a) P is part of the definition of S, and is either a "difference" or a "genus" (761/09) A genus be predicated is that which (Siatyopa). may of several different kinds of thingsbeside the class in is contained in question ; as Aristotle says, the genus
"

the statement
"

of what is
an

are they really

"

:
"

Man

animal

(genus},"

"Triangles are
That

rectilineal planefigures (genus}"

of "animal"

is,the

characteristics

may
"

be affirmed
"

of many
1

different kinds
word
"

of creatures
has
a

beside
too

men

; and
as

The

property

"

usage

wide

to be

given

the

translation of tftiov.

THE

PREDICABLES.

67

the characteristics similarly,

all in lines, the
same

of

being bounded
to

by straight
other
a

plane,belong
kind
:
"

many

figures
other

beside

"triangles." A difference, again,is

of

qualityor

one distinguishing qualities

things from

kinds

of the

same
"

genus
Man

is rational." three-sided"

"Triangles are
In

the

second

case a

rendered

accident,
to

"

P is a o-vfjifieftrj/cos, usually (/;) qualitywhich may or may not

"

belong
a

the

subject ;
found

some

men

live for

upwards

of

century."
It

will be
one

that

every

must proposition

come

under which
"

of these make
"

four heads. life are

Most
cases

of the

assertions

we

in

common

of the so-called

accidental

predication.
must
now

"
kinds

2.

We of

consider

more

fullythese

four

predication.
(a)
Genus
and

Difference.
in defined but qualities
a

The of wider while

rower

concept which
extension

is poorer

is said to

be the

concept of

genus
nar

that which in

is richer

in defined

but qualities, of
a

extension, is called the

terms
are

concept

species

(eZSo?). These
" 3).
The

correlative strictly

(ch. II.
of

The

relation

of

species
of

to

genus

is that

subordination.

simplest

illustrations
in

generic

and

specific
"

concepts may
e.g., "a

be found
a

elementary plane geometry

rectilineal

is triangle

three-sided is
a

figure." by
a

"rectilineal number

figure"

figure bounded

certain is the wider

of straight lines. (not yet defined)

This is
a

concept
group,

of

genus,

Aristotle's

lyez'o?.

It

including triangles, squares

"c.

and make

other the

quadri
number

laterals, pentagons,

When

we

1 68

THE

PREDICABLES.

of

sides

the

have the concept of three, then we definitely three-sided rectilineal figure a triangle, ; this is a
to

species subordinate along with

of the other
we

the

genus,

which

includes

it

other

species.
the

The

to species, peculiar

it and genus,

attribute distinguishing it from distinguishing

is
an

of species

same

example

of what

called the
For

"difference,"Aristotle's Siafopd. pair of

related
as

Logic, any
are

classes

of which

one

is subordinate

But in Nat species and genus. ural History, these terms are given a particular place within a hierarchy of divisions and subdivisions : Kingdom," Group," Class," Order," Family," Genus," Species," of these is each Sub-species (ifnecessary). Logically,
to

the other

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

''

"

genus

to

the

one

which

follows

it.
"

The

relation

of

"

subordination
same

only

holds is
not

good
the shades the

between

objectsof the

kind

"yellow" "gold"

generic concept of "gold," but of yellow; although the concept

idea of
a

of the

various

includes of

colour

which

is

shade peculiar

yellow.

(b)Proprium.
which Properties
are

belong

to

the

whole

of

and class,

peculiarto it,are
"

called

propria, tSia. change

They
his

are

inseparable ;
nor

the

Ethiopian cannot
spots."
as

skin,

the All

leopard
to

his

such

properties are,
show that of the

it were,
are

challenge to
with
it.
as

our

Reason,

they
from

connected follow from

the

specific concept
may from
cases

and class,

They
"effect in the

follow cause." where

to

as

"consequent

reason," or
are

Examples
any from

of t\\z former and

found

characteristic the

found

follow I.

peculiar property is definition of the figure (e.g.,

of the latter will be
"

Euclid, Bk.
found in the

32). Examples

various

explanatory sciences

e.g., when

THE

PREDICABLES.

l6p
is shown
A
to

the

colouring of
"

certain

animals

be

pro

tective under the fact that which is

one

Natural
Man

Selection. is

simpler instance
of

is

capable
of

of

desiring knowledge,"
humanity
result rational

of the

generalpropria
"

ing from
Of
course are

the

specific property
various

thought."

which

not

follow from a propertiesmay concept, in the to peculiar species question. If par conceived
as

allelograms are
with sides
not
are

four-sided

rectilineal that their

figures

opposite sides

parallel,it follows

opposite
are

equal ; but this is true of many figures which parallelograms. Again, the characteristic of water,
of

the

power

transmitting pressure
the

equally in

all

directions,
true

follows

from

physical concept

of water, but

is

of all

fluids. '"'accident}' (c]crvfi^e/SrjKO^,

renderingof the concept signifies

not

This

the of
a

term state
or

is

not

It satisfactory. which does

condition The ways

not

necessarily belong to
may be
to

the

thing.
two

fact that it is
:

unessential

recognisedin
leaves and
"

it may

be
"

long
"

some

members has
one

of the class and

;
or

to

others,
an sun

This

clover
at

four time

it may

belong to
"

individual
is

not

at

another,
the

"The

eclipsed," or,
The

"Socrates

is

standing in
"

Agora."

first of Aristotle's

Predicables,

is Definition,"

of such

importance

as

to

treatment requirespecial

(see
have the

"" 4 "

to

6).
The
account

3.

of
some

the

Predicables

which

we

given
from

differs

in

important respects
The latter
an was

from

traditional account. but Aristotle,

not

derived
to

directly
in

from

Introduction

Aristotle's

written by Porphyry, who Categories,

Rome about six centuries

taught Logic
the mediaeval about

after Aristotle's time.

to

This

Introduction cians in centuries

a

became

accessible made

logi
two

Latin

translation

by

Boethius

after it was

first written.

I7O

THE

PREDICABLES.

Porphyry explains the differentia, proprium,

used useful that he
as

"

five

words,"

genus,

species,
are

and

accidens,as

terms

which which

in
to

Definition understand.

and

and Classification, The

it is

mediaeval

writers

supposed
the list. be

was

givinga

classification of
was

possible predicates,
attached
to

such
was

; and

great importance
that every

It

considered
to
one

predicate-termmust
The be

long

of these which
was

five classes. thus

essentials of the
may

doctrine indicated.

elaborated

briefly
by
It the fol

Genus,
Aristotle.

and species,

were differentia, a signified

defined
not

as

Proprium
of the be

property

given
it.

in the definition may

term
or

term

but
to

followingfrom
the class

may

not

peculiar

which
not

denotes. from with the it.

Accidcns

a signified property

lowing
nected
as

definition The of accidens

"

and may

not

con necessarily

be

(a) inseparable,
species under
to

"the
As

blackness
genus

crows

(b)separable.
least
two

every the

must

have

at

it,and

speciesmay
may arrange

again be
terms

genera in
a

subordinate

wre species,

series

according
we

to

the

decreasing extension
with
a

of the has
no

concepts ;
class
we

may and it,

begin
hence
a

genus
summum

which

above may

is called which

genus

and

end

with

species

cannot

be

further

subdivided

except

into
An

and individuals,

is therefore

called

infima species.
Such
a
"

example

has

been

given (ch. II. " 6).

is called and the
"

series of

singleterms
the

predicamental line
intermediate called of the subaltern

(lineapredicamentalis] ;
between genera
a or

the

classes,

highestand
The later of

lowest, are
"

species.
of series

so-called

Tree
on

Porphyry,"
"

device
"

writers,is based
concepts

predica

mental

(see " 9).

DEFINITION.

171

Part

II.
term

"

Definition.
we

"
idea the of
a

4.

In

a defining

state
"

in words

the various of the rather

"

qualities comprised
which
the
term

in its

intension,
The
"

the content
or primary,

identifies.
Definition of

objectof practical,
term

the meaning is, fixing idea the

to

for the sake Hence

mind.

impartingthe like simple qualities,

another ele

various

mentary

sensations, "hot,"
as

"red," "c., and

mental
"con
we ex

such qualities

"pleasure,""pain," "emotion,"
be

cannot sciousness,"

defined, in the
To

sense

which
must

have

just indicated.
The
same

be
true

known of the
as

they
most

be

perienced.
tions
At

is

generalrela
and

of material

bodies, such
an

"time"

"space."
;

the

opposite extreme,
one's

individual and

is indefinable

the

countless

of body peculiarities,
cannot personality

mind, which
be

distinguish any
any group
of

grasped
set

in in

universals is of

which

could
true

be

forth

words.

This

course

also

of

individual

places.
In in real
common

the fulness of detail which life, it easier

on a

we

find define.

thingsmakes
based

to

describe

than

to

Description is
mediate

mental it

picture,or gives
an

an

im
;

perception, of
is based
on a

which

account

Definition
to

concept.
;

Descriptionappeals
to

imagination and
one,

memory passes
a

Definition the

thought.
it
can

The

however,

into

other, and
in kind

hardly be
the
We
two.

said that there is

difference

between

may

roughly distinguish different modes

of

of than

descrip
others.

tion, some
Furthest which is

which

are

nearer

to

definition

from

strict definition is the vision. before

catches It

"symbolic description"
seizes "instinctively frames it into
a

simply artistic
of
"

the

harmonies

the

scene
"

it and

speak

ing whole,"

indeed

the whole

before

it fixes upon

I?2

DEFINITION.

anything,and carries of every part," and

"

the

entire

idea
on
no

into the the

in

passing
to

interpretation impression, "with

in

few its

strokes

that

seem

have

material
you

them, will
found
in

set

picturebefore

you

better

than

could
as

have

it for and

yourself."1 This
it makes
as
"

is the
us we

artist's
know would

method,
were

poetry
us us.

eloquence ;
"

the

thing by making
real

experience it, "feel"

The matter-of-fact

if it

for

method

of

reads description
and

its objects

piecemeal ; by traversing hither

together
of
as or

thither
to

and reach
"

putting
the idea

the

contents

of may

the call

it seeks field, it
"

the whole. in the

an

We

enumerative for

naturalist's

list of

marks

description, a plant identifying

animal.

Aristotle is the
The the

observed

(An. Post., i. 8)
end definitions
a

that

definition

beginning and the at process of arriving

of Science
as

of scientific is in

knowledge.
one sense

process

whole, the ideal of which

is the
are

But defined definitions scientifically concept. requiredalso at the beginning of knowledge, in

as
we

asmuch

must

have
our

clear

ideas

at

least

of
;

the and any

objects with
the
more

which with

are inquiries we

concerned need
not

definition than

which

begin

be

methodical
our

rule for

making

description.The methodical description

et

chief is

practical
to

define distin

per genus

proximum

that is,we : differentiam

it most
seen.

from guish the object

What

the class which

resembles.
In
our

this

implies will easily be

of
course

ordinary
we
"

descriptionswe
set

employ

general ideas, but

at

them

forth

in

any

order, beginning

any

point,

so

clear and of producing a sufficiently are sure long as we But in definition we complete pictureof what is meant. with that general idea in which the greater part of start indicate wish which the features to we are already con tained : thus, of the "phoenix," we begin by saying "it is
a

bird."

We

refer it at

once

to

a.

genus

which

is assumed

to

Cf.

Martineau, Types of Etkical

Theory, vol.

ii. p.

159.

1/4
become
man.
"

DEFINITION.

wild

animal

"

without

them

he

is not

The the

essential

qualities, again, are

of others
our

those
seen

from
to

which
as

number largest Thus "derived"

may

be

flow

consequences. and

distinction

is

between

"essential"

And qualities.
"

in formulat
"

ing the rule,we

for with
some

spoke

of the of

most

essential features
we

the

progress

knowledge supposed
the
term

may be

find

that

which qualities
out to

were

to

primary and
must be
too

turn essential,

be

only derivative.
definition the

(2) The
wide
nor

term

expressing
with

simply convertible
too
narrow.

defined, neither

This
"

rule prevents the definition from define

not

being too
are
some

wide
AB

e.g., to
are

as

AB,

when

there
the

which

X, is

too

wide, and
not true

definition every of
AB

is

not

for convertible,

it is

that power

is X.

Examples

"

Eloquence
or

is the

the influencing

feelingsby speech written,influence

"

writing." Many

things,said
not

or

Virtue
can

is the rule

but are feelings, capacityfor ruling over the

men are

eloquent. Many
cause

men."
"

who of

over

not

virtuous. which

The

anything
"

is

the

antecedent But
cause,

it

invariably
"

follows is
not

(Hume).
always
of two
same

the

"

invariably antecedent
the
constant
con

the
events

though
show and

nection
on

may

that

they both depend

definition
the definition in
a it,

the

cause
narrow

day (e.g.,
may
a

night). A
as

which of
a

is too

be described
which
"

higher class by
by
a
"

lower

is included Wealth

genus

species. Examples
Wealth consists will
of

consists

of

money."
student which is is

natural

products."
"

The of

of Economics
a

recognisethese
Even

errors, each

case

of
own

narrow fatally

definition. if we

Justice
a

minding

one's

business."
term
"

put

large

on interpretation

the

and business,"

understand

DEFINITION.

175
the definition of is still too and

"

minding

"

in

moral

sense,

narrow.

"Grammar

is the art
grammar
must

speaking

writing
than
a

correctly." But
set

consist of

more

of

maxims. practical
definition
should ways
:
"

(3) The
may

not

be

obscure.

Obscurity

arise in various

(a) From
From (ft) (V) From

the the the

employment
use
use

of

ambiguous expressions ;
which
are

of

metaphoricalexpressions ;
of the

expressions
one

less

familiar

than

to

be defined

(pbscurum

per obscurius) ;
From ("/) If
a

the

use

of eccentric
as
an

expressions. epigram, it
that
cannot

statement
as
a

is made

be is

criticised
intended

definition.
a

Assuming

each

to

be

serious

the definition, be

examples
"Growth ence?
relations is the
"

of

obscurityin defining may

is
a

following given:
"

transition
a

from

non-existence

to

exist

Life
to

is

continuous
relations"

adjustment (Spencer).
of the

of

internal

external

"'Sense'

recognitionand
in the

maintenance
affairs of
"

proper

and

relations fitting
tecture
is

ordinarylife."

"Archi

frozen music?
Some

Prudence

is the ballast

of the
"

moral
"

vessel?
as

sentences,
be

though technically ob

scure

definitions, may
definitions

highly suggestive as

metaphors.
Scientific uage of
a

expressed in the technical lang

are

particular science
referred
to.

not

instances of the definition is less

what is
In
more

fault here

For

though

the

familiar

than

the

thing defined, it
scientific
is

states

important
totelian that which

from

the

point
must

of

view.

Aris

it gives what language, in the order definition

term

yvwpi/jLWTepov
be known

fyvcrei,
first.
or

of Nature
not

(4)

should

use,

explicitly

im

the plicitly,

to be defined.

176
An

DEFINITION.

be

an

obviouslycircular definition may epigram : thus, an archdeacon

"

be is
one

intended
who
exer

to

cises archidiaconal
case

functions," would
archdeacon.
:
"

have
But

point in

the

of is
man

faineant
his due" very

fault each

constantly committed
In easy
to

this implicitly Justice is giving to

long and

involved
two

scientific dis
or

it is cussions,
arate to

formulate taken
same

three sep
seen
com :

definitions

which, when
The

together,are
fault may be the
an a

be

merely circular.

mitted
"

by using
is
a
"

the

correlative which does

of

term

defined

cause

that word

produces
not
"

effect." Mere
definition
"

of repetition may define

vitiate
as
"

we

contrary

opposition
to

oppositionin
"

which, "c.," having already defined

opposition

and

being
can

now

concerned definition
;

define
not

"

contrariety."
be

(5) The
be

should
as a

negative where

it
or

positive
should

and,
not

instance, opposites special

by
one

contraries

be

defined be the

another. is often should

con
a

(6) To
"

these of

rules

may

added, what
definition

counsel

that perfection,"

tain nothing

superfluous.
definition of
; for it is shown
one a

Thus,
than

Euclid's

square

contains

more

is necessary four other

i. 46) that (Euc., of its also

if

has figure

equal sides,and
three

angle,the

angles
"

must
cause

angles a right be rightangles.

Again,
of
enon

when

Mill

says

is the

assemblage
phenom
may

phenomena,
all this

which

occurring,some
or

other

invariably commences,
the

has

its

we origin,"

express

ping

(with the additional advantageof drop ambiguous term phenomenon ") in the
"

simplestatement the occurring,

"
"

"

The

cause

of

an

event

is that which

event

occurs."
"

6.
"

The

distinction of
was

nominal

"

or

"

verbal

"

and He

real

definitions

first

given by

Aristotle.

DEFINITION.

177
definition thunder
"

said the
to

(An. Post., ii. 10) that a nominal current meaning of a term, as when
noise in the
A

gives
is said

be "a

clouds," or
verbal
or

house

buildingin

which
not

people live."
even

nominal

definition need
"

have

the

of implication

real existence added

to

it may
"

be of

afterwards things
"

shown

be

impossible
"

e.g.,

perpetualmotion
this verbal

or

"

the squaring

circle."
to

But

sometimes of postulate

definition has
or

added

it the

real existence

given above
tion

(cp.also
matter

An.

in the examples as validity, Post, i. i). A real definition is essential

In
to

is the statement
as a

of what of

the fact in ques

science.

fact, Aristotle's dis

that
of

tinction
the
sense

coincides practically beginning and as the

we

with
end
we

definition
;

as

of

knowledge
need
not

in this

must

retain

it,but
as

distinguish
"real." in and If that
names,

the

two

types of definition
writers
to

"nominal" the
"

and

Modern
terms
"

usually express
those of of them

distinction nominal
"

similar
"

Aristotle,
must

real

but

scarcelytwo
define called the
"

explainit alike.
remember
terms
on or

we

retain this

we expression of it,

all definitions

meanings
nominal
"

of

and

so

may
some

be

while
a

the other

hand,
to at
a

definitions
"

evidentlyhave
of

direct reference first of all

real

aim thing, others,again,evidently

a

fixingthe meaning
to

term,

and
this

have

only an

in

direct reference
not
we

reality.Even
as

distinction does

go
never

deep.
define
to

For
a

Professor for its the

Sidgwick has
own

observed,
in
A

term

sake which

merely,but
it refers. it

order
mere

understand

things to
The
a

word, apart from

no

the
"

things for
truth

which
as

stands,
readers and is of

has

interest for

us.

is,
"

most
to

of Plato

know, only it is
that what
we

truth

difficult

retain

apply,
"

definition a gain by discussing

the

often but

slightly representedby
M

superiorfitness

1/8
the formula

DEFINITION.

which

we

ultimatelyadopt ;
and
to matter

it consists the
re

in chiefly

the greater clearness

fulness in which the formula

characteristics of the
fers have of been

which mind

brought

before
we

the
are

in the

process
at

seeking

for it.

While
our

apparently aiming
be These
latter

of terms, definitions
on

attention should

reallyfixed
are as

distinctions
we are

and

relations
to

of fact.
know,

what far
as

concerned

contemplate, and
in in the mind

possible arrange
we

and

systematise ; and
to

subjects ordinary
there is of
re

where fulness
no

cannot

present them
exercise of the
so

by
of

the

organs

of sense,
as

way

surveying them
our use

convenient terms"

that

on flecting

of

common

(H. Sidgwick,
to

Political The

Economy
of

',p.

49).
we are

definitions which

department
the

thought
of
"

and

in every give, depend on investigation, able

to

general

state
even

knowledge
in the
case

which of
"

we

have whose

attained, and

words
on

meaning
state

refers

life mainly to practical We should

"
"

the

general

of civilisation.
a

no

longer,with Plato,
sun

giveas
of and
"

model

of definition

The
move

is the
the

brightest
earth
"

the
we

heavenly bodies which

find,again,that words
have

round

like

"school," "house,"
very

monarchy,"
which
criticise
or

to-day meanings
in the
any

different
a

from

those
to

they bore
of
we

past.

For

like reason,

estimate
the

definition

requiresspecial
it

knowledge
And when of the
for

subject-matterto
we experience,

speak of
our

belongs. definitions completely satisfactory

are

which

objects of
final
to

reallyasking

the

results

of

exhaustive limits. 5
we

scientific
student of the of

inquiry
see

carried

its furthest in

The

will

that,while
which
are
now

""
serve

and
as

spoke

definitions

could

the that

beginning
type of

science,

we

speaking of

definition which

is

DEFINITION.

I/p
business of definition

the end

of

science.

Here,
of

"the

is part of the definition of

up
an

business hand
a

discovery"; "discovery and

We

go

in

hand."

begin by thinking
as a

object in

loose
are a

general way
familiar.

whole
an

made may
as

of

parts which
than

Such

idea
as

be

little more

mental

: picture

but

long

it is
we

precise enough
are

to

avoid

confusion
But

with
reason

other

things,
a

content. practically
"

suggests

step in advance,
the

to

ascertain
common

the

characteristics which
other the

object
and
we

has

in
to

with

species
other

of

its

genus,

also
are

it from distinguish
to

species.
which of tends real may

Then

led

inquireinto
of

the
"

generallaw
the "what"

regulatesthe
the
to

connection the form

its parts, this

thing;
take the

and

which

knowledge
"

is that

of the

causal
"

conditions
"

the i.e.,
We

of origin therefore

the object, that

some

how

of the
are

thing.
sense

say

definitions
are

provisionaland
the that
to

while progressive, reach them

even

others

final,in

is the ideal of science.

been held
An. (cp. Aristotle,

It has

ideal definition will show

reason

the

"why"
of

of

the

Post.,ii. 10) that thing," the very

of the results would

of its existence
we

but, short of this, many

Nature"
the

which called called

Natural

should

call

"laws

have
would

been
have

"definitions"
Newton's Law

by
of

Greeks.

Aristotle

Gravitation,or

Darwin's

theory of

definitions of "Gravitation" Selection, and in a far more Species." As Geometry was advanced the Greeks, than any natural state, among science, they scientific
of
"

took

this

as

their model

of

"

scientific
to

knowledge
up

"

(eTrio-T^/w??)
"

and, since in Geometry natural formula, it was

it is easy
to

sum

results

in

brief

speak of these results as "defini tions" rather than "laws." Thus, from this point of view, the whole of the Third Book of Euclid, which deals with of is an expanded definition of the circle. properties circles,
Before there leavingthis subject, which
we are some

particular
In mathe-

types of definition

must

notice.

ISO

DEFINITION.

matics,our
or
we

definitions
be reached

are

not

matters
are

to

be

discovered,
which

ideals
start.

to

they

with principles
most

This

constitutes between

the

important prac
and

tical

distinction
In

mathematical
we

physical
which book

science. essential

mathematics,
"Definitions"

begin by statingthe
objects with precede
each
we

characteristics of
hence In

the

deal,
"

of

the essential characteristics science, physical of gradual discovery. This matter of the objects a are definitions to is why it is possiblefor mathematical called Genetic, showing us indirectly be of the kind a idea of the object A form an we : may way in which Euclid.
"

sphere
a

is

solid

figure formed
its

by

the

revolution

of

semicircle about
may also from

diameter, which
In

remains

fixed."

We

notice the

type of fixed definition which

Acts such of
as

results for
"

legalenactments.
an
" "

Parliament,

instance,
"

ordinary term,

"person,"

has a special parish," factory," and precise meaning given to it, this being artificially conventional intension not a made, and constituting

parent," owner,"

"

"

"

capable
case

of

growth by

advance

of The may

knowledge, as
student be defined should

in the also

of

scientific that the

same

terms. term

observe ways
"

in different
"

that the

is, by
"

reference

to

different genera which

a

accord For

ing to
in

point of view
"

from

it is

regarded.
in

instance,

man

constitutes

different
a

subject-matter

Zoology
in

and

in

Ethics;
as a

and

"circle"
of
a

Analytical
and
not

Geometry
as

is

regarded

section

cone,

in Euclid). SyntheticGeometry (e.g.,

EXERCISE
XII. can,

1.

Why

is it that

some

names

and

others

cannot, be
but of

defined?
2.

[O.]
a

Why is definition often things ? [St A.]

question not

of words

l82
that
there

DEFINITION.

of "Inductive" is
no

signifythe

Logic, as Jevons and Fowler do. But for this separation. "Division" tends to reason splitting up of a given class into sub-classes ;

of animals, of the systematic arrangement "Classification," plants,of minerals,"c, in Science, for the sake of studying their

form, structure, and function.

first.

We

shall

consider

the

latter process

The

fundamental

rule

is

that
one

objects
another define
to

are a a

classed definite class

common
as

together when
or quality an

they resemble
of of

in

group

arrangement

But to qualities. objectsaccording which

as errs
"

their

is a qualities, inasmuch which almost

we

definition

by being
classes
we
"

too

wide,

as

it would

include

combinations

never

form, and

which for

should

regard
two

as

absurd.

Compare,
:

example, the

follow various
as

ing

combinations

(a) The
the

classing together of

human

beings (negroes, Europeans, Hindoos, "c.)

in
common

having being
any

attributes of manhood;

(^)the
chalk
as

classingtogether of
all

negroes,

coal, and

black

black, solid,extended, divisible, heavy. If the

is based
common
"

concept

which

on

classification consisted
have
not to

of

collection of
as a a

would qualities, (ff)

\ but

be

considered
formed form

"class

the mind
never

has would

naturally
the

such it. On

concept,
the
we

and hand

deliberately

other form

universals

which

sciously. The
on qualities

difference the

(a) is a type of both and uncon consciously is that in (") the common
is laid
are

which
"

stress
"

those

which have of

we

have

called

essential," those qualities which

influence
on

determining
others.

the

largest number

the

"
must

8. We

have

seen,

then, that the attribute

we

or

group
a

of

in virtue of which attributes,

form

into objects
are

class,

consist of the
these
are

common

which qualities characters that

essential. with
them

Since

the

carry

DEFINITION.

183
we characters,

the greatest number such

a

of other

observe

that
:
"

classification satisfies the

It shall enable
to

conditions following of

(a)

the be
us

greatest number
made about
of

general
member
one.

assertions

the
any

class.

(b) It

shall enable
a

to

infer
we

other
any

great part of what

know
the

about

(c) Its members points of points of

groups. Such used
a

shall have mutual

greatest number
the of

of

resemblance, and
to

fewest other

resemblance

members

class is said
us

to

be

natural.
to

This ancient

term,

as

of classes,takes there
can
are

back

the

view, that
classes of

in Nature

fixed,permanent
never

kinds
one

or

things which
idea is
now

pass

into

another. retain the

This
term

abandoned, although we
as

may

"natural"
The fact

applied to

methods

of classification.
clear admit
are

of

of drawing any impossibility universal experience. "To of all natural

dividing line
of
no

is

degrees is the
hard lines in

character
nature.

facts ; there

Between where

the

animal

and
to

the he

vegetable kingdoms,
drawn? absolute shade
I
...

for that

example,
I do
not

is the that

line
there

reply
one

believe

is any
events

distinction off into

whatever. another

External

objects and

by imperceptible differences ; and, consequently, definitions whose aim it is to classify such objects and
must

events

of

be necessity
...

founded

on

circumstances

par

It is, therefore, no taking of this character. objectionto a classification, nor, consequently, to the

valid defini which This is

tion

founded
seem

upon
to

it, that
our

instances
lines

may

be

found

fall,or

on fall,

of demarcation.

inevitable

things. But, this notwithstand and therefore the definition, is a good ing, the classification, the line, the do not fall on if in those instances which one
in the
nature

of

distinctions

marked

by

the

definition

are

such

as

it is

important to mark, such that the recognitionof them will the desiderated towards goal" help the inquirerforward (Cairnes, Logical Method of Political Economy, p. 139).

84
A

DEFINITION.

scientific system of classification is the

an

grouping of discoveryof
others. Its
to

classes in such

order

as

will lead

to

the

their

the affinities,
"

relations in which
to

the real structure, of the

of typical
result

each

class,stands
the
to

that

is that appears

classes be the

thus

formed

correspond
nature.

what

great divisions of

It

has also been

called
on

"classification
a

by

series."
a

This

is

both illustrated,

great scale and

"

small, in the

classifications of

history "c. Crystallography, Mineralogy,

The
natural
even

natural

Zoology, Botany, appropriate for

seen

classification is
in science. We

not

all

purposes,
as a

have

that it takes
"

basis have

the
a

most

fundamental

properties,
the of

those

which of

on determining effect
"

largestnumber
an

others.

Sometimes

the basis

test

importance in
or

attribute number

proposed
of others

as

of
an

classification is the
index
are

of which the may "Thus

are

it is

invariable

accompaniment," while
quences
or

latter
not

not

its

conse

and effects,

be

in

any

important

respect affected by it.

the rat, and the beaver

in classed

Zoology, the squirrel, togetheras rodents,

the teeth of other the

the difference between Mammalia

their teeth and basis of

being
in teeth

the

division,because

difference
many
mouse,

is

accompanied
the

by

differences in
the shrew-

other and

properties.So
the and

hedgehog,
unlike

mole, though very

in outward

appearance
vora,

habits,are
of other

classed

together as
on
"

Insectiaccom

the

difference in what
a

they

feed

being

panied by
p.

number

differences

98). Again, certain

comparatively of
and very
no

characters in

Logic, (Minto, natural objects may

may be

be

importance, but

invari
cases,
to

ably present
it is these
as a

easily recognised;

in such

practically convenient, in scientific work,

basis of division.

take

DEFINITION.

185
of classification in made for

The is
an

celebrated

Linnsean
one

system

Botany

example of
"

which, though

took He natural." as poses, is not of the sexual parts of the tion the numbers and

scientific pur his basis of classifica

stamens,
an

as

clue
means

to

natural

plants,the pistils in affinities. They are

some

deed

important
coincide
; but
one

of identification ; and

of his of

classes

with

classes

in

the

"natural" natural

system

division
on

his classification is not

because

it goes

the

of principle
"

number.
the

The
may

history of botanical
consult
any

classification

on

which the

student

stand of
a

ard text-book"is natural

best

example
said

of the

attainment

system

of classification.
to

It

scarcelyneeds
and natural
or

be

that

all natural

classifi

cation whether

all classification

for

scientific purposes,
our

not,

on depends entirely

know detailed

ledge of Nature's
rules istics of that deals.
account

processes

and
on

objects.
the

The

of classification

depend

character special

part of Nature

with do is

which
to

the
a

science

All

that

Logic
process

can

give
much

general
in

of the

which

all science
as

employs,

arrangingits objects so as to throw their origin, on structure, and possible

We have
as a seen

lightas
"natural,"
essential
are

affinities.
be
or

that

classification may
most

having
derived which In both
numerous

basis the
which

fundamental

from qualities,
;
or

the have
as

largestnumber
a

of others

it may

basis

those

characteristics
of others.

merely accompany
cases,
common

the

largestnumber
together

the

basis

of the

classification consists of
; and

qualities taken
"natural"
sense

both

may
term
we

be in
saw a

accounted

classifications, using the

than
we

wider slightly also that

on

did

before.

But
are

even

in of

science, classifications
a

often sake

made of

the

basis

single quality,for
Classifications
of

the

ready identification.
on

this
very

kind, made
few

the

basis

of

single attribute, or

are attributes,

called artificial.

Usually an

artificial

86

DEFINITION.

classification

is made

on

the
:

basis

of

one

fact

only.

Examples
in
a

are

easilyfound

the

arrangement
to

of words word in
as a

the objectbeing dictionary,

find of

any

easily as

possible; the

arrangement
economy authors'

books

according to size,for library, ingto the initial letters of the ing to "
rules
9.

of space, accord
names,
or

accord

the We of
a

language in
shall
correct
a now
"

which

they are

written.
the of

of give a formal statement division," the process logical

"

splitting up
are

given class
expanded

into

sub-classes. of the

These relation

rules of
a

only
to

an

statement

genus

the subordinate

specieswhich
whole
extent

compose

it. be
;

(") In dividinga
a

genus,
to

the basis of division must of the genus

to

quality common

the

and

species must
be

be

according distinguished
of it which

the

different modifications the basis cannot the genus,

a

they possess.
or

Hence of quality

proprium,
be

essential

for this would

e.g.,
we

species
"

cannot

possessed equallyby all the take "life," "reason," "c., as

"

bases for

the dividing
act

genus

man." have
"

(b] Each
Violation

of division

must

one

basis

only.
is

of this rule leads that the

to

cross

which division,"
If there

means practically

speciesoverlap.
be be

one

basis

only,the specieswill
constituent
In
must

mutually exclusive. together equal

must

(c)The
to

speciesmust
"make
the
a

the

genus. It

other
not

words, the division

"

be

ex

haustive.
The basis

leave leap" i.e.,

is made

gaps.
rule
a

on

which

Division
or

(see

above) is called the principium

These which the
two terms
a

should

not

be is

used made.

fimdamentum divisionis. to signifythe basis on

The relation
between
a

Classification ideas is
seen

"natural"

by referringto the definition of class, already given at the beginning of "

be
seen

(rule c}.
formed

It will the

that

"natural" different

class

is

one or

by

coincidence

of several

principia

DEFINITION.

187
to

quality common divisionis; for each fundamenta resemblance" each "point of mutual whole class,
members We of the

the the

among

class, is
a

distinct

basis possible
;

of division. processes

will

add

few

examples
(a)
"

and, first,of

which

resemble

division,

Ireland

into Ulster, Munster,

but division, Connaught." This is not logical physical partition,"the distinction of the various parts of Ulsterinto Irishmen" a physical object. A division of

Leinster,and
"

"

"

"

into (6) "Mind by the rules. men," "c., would be correct thought, feeling,and will ; body into extension, resistance, is a logicaldivision ; both Neither of these weight," "c. are examples of scientific analysis, (c) Triangle into logical acute-angled, obtuse-angled." Correct right-angled, the size of the angles (one basis, division,exclusive
"
"

as
"

compared
Churches three into
bases
no

with

right angle), and Gothic, Episcopal,High,

a
-

exhaustive,
and Low."

(d)
Here

are

of

division,architecture, government,
is taken
of the many

and

dogma
of each.

; and

account

different kinds

EXERCISE

XIII.

(1) Are
full for your mine

Definition

and

Division of

both
a

necessary

to
reasons

the

understanding of the meaning

answer.

term?

Give

[O.]
purposes of
a

(2) How,
the

for

of

theory, would logical

you

deter

notion and

class ?
for classi

(3) State
fication

explain any general rules needed beyond those given for "logicaldivision."
the critically

(4) Examine
"Artificial
ment
"

distinction Of which

of kind

"

Natural is the

"

and

in Classification.

arrange

of books

according
"

to

their

? subjects

(5) Explain
and division,"

fundamentum
of

divisionis"
each.

and

"cross

give examples
the
;

[O.]

(6) Examine
true

and

false

following divisions : (a) Religions into ; (c) (6) beings into material and spiritual
rectilinear
are

geometricalfigures into
students those
who

and

non-rectilinear
who
are

(d)

into those
are

who

idle,those

and athletic,

diligent.
of

"
known

10.

An
as

important traditional method by Aristotle Dichotomy (called

division,

188
back

DEFINITION.

goes

to

Plato. formal

It

has

been

adopted by
it appears

the
to

mediaeval

and
a

because logicians

the theoryof division which does not make the matter of our on knowledge, process depend entirely classification does as (" 8). But division by dichotomy is no more independentof our knowledge of the facts

provide

than shown

any

other

kind

of in i.

classification. This

is

clearly
of the claim
at

by Aristotle (An. Prior.,

this process them.
"

process that

Plato's view criticising 31). Plato appeared to

by

we

might
it is
was

discover

or definitions,

least prove

Thus
"

thought

that

we

could

discover
genus
or

what

man

by taking a
into
"

suitable
"

summum

to

which

man (we decide) we

Substance belongs i.e.,

Being.
"

This

divide

corporeal
that
or man

"

and

"not

corporeal being; then, deciding

the former

belongs to
we

class,corporealsubstance
"

body,
"

divide

this into
and Each may the
"

organic bodies
that
man

"

and

bodies

not

organic,"
so
on.

decide

belongs to
are
a

the former

; and

pair of
be Tree of

terms

and contradictories,
was

the

result called

expressed in

table which
"

afterwards

Porphyry

:"

Substance

J_
"

f
corporeal body i.e., I organic i.e., livingbeing
not

I corporeal

|
not

organic

1
sentient animal i.e., I rational
man i.e., I

"I
not

sentient

not

rational

Socrates

Plato

and

others

IQO

THE

CATEGORIES

OR

PREDICAMENTS.

more

terms positive

"

do the

not

come

under
terms

the

head

of
act

strict

dichotomy, for
are

contrasted
not
:

in each

of division

contraries and
of this
are

contradictories

(ch.ii.

" 4). Examples

curved
men

the division of lines into the division of

and into

not-curved white and

(i.e., straight) ; or
not

white

(i.e., yellow,red, brown,

we are black). Sometimes, again, when arranging in a subject-catalogue, books and further as objects, add a class, Mis we impossible, arrangement becomes
"

cellaneous,"which
named class."
But
a

means really
we never

"

All
a

those
class

not

in any
can

form

that

be

indicated

by

pure

term. contradictory

Part

IV.

"

The

or Categories

Predicaments.

"
tion which

ii.

We

have

seen

in

"

that
two

Aristotle kinds of

makes

fundamental
:

distinction which
not.

between what the

predica

one

tells The

us

is,another thingreally
"

does

former
;
"

expresses

(a)The
Part (It) The
are as

definition
of the

definition, the
We

genus

or

differentia.
kinds

other

kind of

predication expresses
may accidental that the

that properties
two

"accidental."
essential

the distinguish

and

predication respectively.
latter is

Aristotle
"

considers

improperlycalled

the predication."In the case of essential predication, predicatenecessarily belongs to the subject, it is of the subject of accidental the ; in the case predication,"
"

"

ch. ii.) subject(Categories, these distinctions, Bearing in mind we proceed to deal with an important question. We know that every /;/ the

predicateis merely

judgment
P
"

is

statement

about in the

facts,
"

it affirms
"

(or
S We is

denies)that something exists

affirms that S

certain

way

exists with

P. qualification

THE

CATEGORIES

OR

PREDICAMENTS.

IQI

may
some we

say, in other kind

words, that the judgment predicates

or

of

existence
"

being
of This

of

its
"

subject.
which
can

Can be

these classify

kinds ?

existence

predicated in judgments
Aristotle
answers

is the of the

question which Categories.

In

in his
want
a

theory

the first place,we

our

general term

for the

of subjects
"

judgments.
attacks

The

other
of
or

words, that which

"

primary subject of judgment in our knowledge first takes hold

concrete
or

is the

real

"

thing
course

"

of

ordinary experience.
of

These
us

individual

things or
the

groups of
or

things which
may

meet

in perpetually
"

experience
"

be
"
"

called Trpwrcu
"

primary substances,"
are
we

primaryrealities
and form modes them.

ovo-'iai. These
are

always
think
to

subjects,not
about the classify

predicates i.e., they

judgments
or

what

of.
of

We

wish, then,
which may

forms

being

be

predicated of
Consider that
"

the say,

case typical

of essential Here the

predication
"

is

to

Definition. the

subject
of
a

is

and primary reality,"

an

predicate consists
Let call the

genus

with

added

the thing,the qualification distinguishing

subject,from
"

that

genus.

us

genus

(orreality)," Sevrepa ova-La. A secondary substance is,therefore, any class, higher or lower, in which a We primary substance is included. have now two distinguished forms, of aspects, or two "" the first and most fundamental of the Categories
" "

secondarysubstance

substance

"

or

ovaia

; and

we

note

that in

every

case are

the

primary substance
the
to

and

the

secondary substance
what

related. essentially

Coming
dental," we
both each forms may

now

to

predication of
that and

is "acci

have of have
"

notice

this is

possible with secondary,

"

substance,"primary

accidental

in qualifications

it.

Aristotle

192

THE

CATEGORIES

OR

PREDICAMENTS.

considered
which
are

that these

real

or qualities
"

kinds
"

of existence
fall into

classes. words
:
"

of predicable We give the

the

substance

nine

Greek,

Latin, and

English

TTOO-OV TTOIOV

quantitas qualitas
rt

quantity. quality.
relation.

7T/305
TTOV

rdatio iibi

place.
time.

Trore

quando
situs

posture.

habitus actio

having. doing.

passio
For of

suffering.
the

example,

if the

"primary substance,"
we

subject

discourse, is Socrates,

may

say

of

him, taking
"

Aristotle's illustrations of

the feet

given, day,"
"is words

that

he

"

is five

in the order categories five (in height)," is

"is bigger,""was scholarly," that he

in the

Lyceum," "yester
on," "cuts,"
three their of
the

"reclines," "has

shoes
Two
or

cut"
are

ch. iv.) (Categories, used in

a

narrower
"

sense
"

than

English

Relation renderings suggest. comparatives of adjectivesand correlative. strictly in the

sense
"

consists of ideas
not
mean

chiefly of
which
are

Posture

"

does

position sig-

of

place but
"

"attitude."

"Having"

condition signifies The

e.g.,

"armed,"

"sandalled."
a

categoriescorrespond closely with

of and
in

possible
speech,"
Thus,

arrangement
substantive
"

the

grammatical "parts
and

of

adjective,verb
its

adverb. is

substance,"
Common
"

secondary form,

expressed by
"re

the

Noun;
the the

lation

by

"quantity," "quality,"and Adjective; "condition," "doing,"

Verb
"

"suf the

fering,"by
Adverb.

place

"

and

"

time

"

by

Nevertheless

the

categoriesare

not

merely

THE

CATEGORIES

OR

PREDICAMENTS.

193
kinds
of

grammatical; they represent the predicableexistence. They should

"

various

properly be
fixed the

called

but long Predicables,"

to

usage

has

application

of this term

the

relations explained above (" i). logical

EXERCISE XIV. the dealt subjects with

We in this

add

some

on general questions

chapter.
difficulties attend of material of defining the process substances, of sensations and emotions,
overcome?

(1)
names

What

the

and

how

may

they be

Illustrate your

answer

by

examples. (2) Show

Material

[O.]
that Division
can

system.

Logic],and [O.]
far
are

belongs to Applied Logic [or, have no place in a purely formal

of

(3)
actual What

How

the

rules
Or

logical Division
What
are

of

use

in

science ?

[L.]

is Scientific

Classification ? it?

the

chief

difficulties that attend

[O.]
classification
How of may

(4)

In

what

respects
to

is Aristotle's the

the
we

Predicables suppose Criticise

that

superior
each
was

ordinary one?
at?

arrived

[O.]

Or

and (i) the Predicables (2) the Categories (or Predicaments)as examples of classification. [O.] (5) "The Categories originally rather belong to grammar than to Logic." How they be given an intelligible may place in a system of Logic ? [O.]

NOTE.

"REAL
We
are never

KINDS." view

have

referred

to

the ancient kinds

or :

that in Nature
of

there
can

fixed,permanent
pass

classes
and

things which
a

into

one

another
to

hence
was

classification
"

which for it
or

corresponded
was

these divisions
a

taken

to

be

of recognition

natural,''' ready-made kinds

called

ancient

This view prevailedin classes,given to us is supported by J. S. Mill. The science, and

in Nature.
N

IQ4
"

THE

CATEGORIES

OR

PREDICAMENTS.

natural
one
"

kYnds
in other

"

"

or

real kinds

"

were

held

to

be

separated

from
ences

another

of differ infinite number by a practically different and at bottom words, they are
arose

separate.
scheme of

Hence

the

importance

attached

to

the

predicables given by Porphyry, and to such The natural kinds the Porphyrian tree. as arrangements were supposed to have been fixed at the beginning of natural for instance, constituted a beings," things; l human
"

"

kind"

in this
to

sense.

Hence kinds

when which such

we

conformed shows

our

con

cepts
had of
were

the

distinct of the

Nature
as

us,

any

arrangement
a

concepts,
"

significance,it dealt when real things ; and seeking for summa the fundamental really investigating
scientific

Porphyrian tree, with relations directly

the genera, differences
we

in

Nature. It will be
"

advantageous

to

have

clear

answer

to

the

much question How The rigidnotion of

or,
as

of this natural

theory
kinds

is still tenable

?
"

as

mutually exclusive
of peculiarities
was

the

Greeks
"

would

have

said, of eftfr;, species,as

Greek
as

arose mutually exclusive Geometry, Logic, because

like other
as

then

understood,
Science.
In

taken Geom

the

type and

model

of

genuine

Greek

etry, in Euclid, for instance,divisions or classes like circle, rigidlycut off from one Polygon, or like figure,line, were
another
to ; there
was no

conceivable

passage

from

polygon

from circle,from ellipseto circle, figure to line. But according to modern Geometry, a circle may be conceived whose foci coincide,or as a polygon with an as an ellipse infinite number which of sides ;

similarly, by conceiving
between
two

of

trianglein
third is

the difference
one

sides and

and

the

that so infinitesimal,
we

angle =180"

the

other be

two=o",
a

reach

the

geometrical evolution
of possibility
"

straightline. Hence of one figureout of

not

there

may

another

; but

the the

this does of

take

away

real kinds

"

figure indicated

meaning of circle, by the names

the

polygon, "c.
1

In later times

these natural kinds

to

were

believed

to be

due, in
"

the

animal members

and

kingdoms, vegetable
same

of the

"kind"

acts of creation, all the special the same from having descended

parents.

THE

CATEGORIES

OR

PREDICAMENTS.

195

The kinds" transition kinds of

same

consideration

applies
with the exist

mutatis

mutandis

to

"

real the real

in

Nature,

important
in

difference numbers. there which

that

forms
run

actually
one

large
them

The

into

another;
as

between it

are

margins
appear
to

debateable

ground,
a

were,
one

"

objects
to

constitute
natural

transition

from marked and

kind off in

another. differences

Still,

there which

are

divisions,
and kinds that clear exist if and

by
this

typical
sense

are

obvious real

we

can

maintain Evolution from divisions the

that teaches

in
not

Nature.

The

theory
have

of descended the taken

many,

all,
forbids

of

them
to

common

stock,
them of of is
as

us

regard
not

between

permanent
kinds."

but has

it

has

away
a

meaning
instead It in

"real absolute

It

given

them

relative

an

stability.
fact that the
"

an

interesting
and

natural
out

"

classifications,
the Evolution has is
"

Botany
was

Zoology,
generally

were

worked and

before Evolution

theory
them
a

accepted
A

given
now a

fuller
tree

meaning.
;

natural words
"

classification

genealogical "family,"
are

and

the

kind,"

"

affinity,"

genus,"

no

longer

mere

metaphorical

expressions.

196

CHAPTER

VII.

CONDITIONAL

ARGUMENTS
THE

AND SYLLOGISM.

THE

VALIDITY

OF

hitherto examined have consisted syllogisms of categorical propositions. We have seen (ch.III. " i) that,in addition to cate conditional propositions there are gorical propositions, in which P is predicated of S under condition. Of a

"

i.

ALL

the

these

there

are

two

kinds

"

or : conjunctive (a) Hypothetical

"

If S is P If S is
:" (b) Disjunctive

it is

Q.

P, Q is R.

S is either P Either In
more

or

Q. Q
is R. of be

S is P

or

there proposition disjunctive than

two

may,

course,

alternatives.

In

hypothetical proposi
"

tion the condition

is introduced
"

by

if," or

phrase"
The the

"

"?.""., suppose

that," grantedor
"wherever."

equivalent providedthat,"
an

"allowingthat,""whenever,"
condition
other
or

which proposition part of the hypothetical

states

suppositionis

called the

antecedent;

is called the (the result of the opposition) is in fact an consequent. The proposition application the

198
"
2.

CONDITIONAL

ARGUMENTS

AND

arguments1consist of syllogisms, (1) hypothetical syllogisms, (2) disjunctive of hypothetical in (3) dilemmas, consisting combination with disjunctive premises. said to be either are Hypothetical syllogisms (a) pure, in which both premisesare hypothetical, (b)mixed, in which the major premise is hypo thetical and the minor categorical. Pure hypothetical syllogismsare comparativelyof no categoricals expressed importance. They are really in an intensive form ("4).
Conditional
" "

"

"

the conclusion must premises are hypothetical, in form which have be so ; and, as we hypotheticals may of correspond to A, E, I,and O, all the figuresand moods the pure syllogismcorrespond to those of the hypothetical syllogism. categorical is an example of Cesare: The following When both
"

If A If E .'.If E We shall
see

D. B, C is never is F, C is always D. is F, A is never B.

is

be formally hypothetical propositions may also pure and vice versa; hence expressed as categoricals, be expressed as categorical hypotheticalsyllogisms may and vice versa. syllogisms, that

syllogism is spoken of, a hypothetical It con is usually meant. mixed hypothetical syllogism minor. sists of a hypothetical major and a categorical is always taken as the The hypothetical proposition for it asserts that a relation of Reason major premise, "
3.

When

"

"

and holds
1

Consequence,

between
a

two

concepts

or

judgments,
the

as universally
use

matter
as

of
a

theory; and
name

minor

This

of

"conditional"

is not as species, "hypothetical"

case

with genus, either in the universally accepted, for the

of

(" i) or arguments (" 2). propositions

THE

VALIDITY

OF

THE

SYLLOGISM.

99

The of fact. of it to a matter principle premise applies is that of the Aristotelian first the hypothetical syllogism of Reasoning figure,expressed in the generalCanon (ch.V. " 6). minor The premise may affirm or deny the antecedent
or

consequent

of the

major ;
:
"

hence

there

are

four

arith

forms metically possible

(a) IfSisP,
no

QisR;

(b)

If S is

P, Q is Rj

SisnotP;
conclusion.
S is
no

is

conclusion.

(c) If
.-.

P, Q is R;

(0

If S is

P, Q is R;
not

S is P ;

Q is
"""

R P.

Qis
no

R.

S is not if
we

There

is

conclusion
we

in

(a) and (b);

deny
for other
cannot

deny

the

antecedent,
for the affirm

cannot

therefore
true
we

the

consequent,
; and

latter may the

be

reasons

if we the

consequent,

therefore may

affirm

antecedent, for the

reasons.

consequent

result from

other

We
cases.

will

now

give

concrete

examples of each

of the

four

study of Logic furnished the mind it would multitude of useful facts,like other sciences,

(a)
be

"

If the

with deserve with deserve

to

cultivated of

; but

it does
facts ;

not

furnish

the

mind
not

multitude

useful

therefore

it does

cultivation."
This the

[Jevons.]
does
not

conclusion
a

follow

from

the

premises ;
not

for

acquiring of ground on which

To
correct

multitude

of useful facts is
a

the

only

the

study of

science of
a

can

be

recommended.
and
reason

and

exercise the powers

judgment
sufficient

ing
of

may

be

regarded,for example, as
a

justification
to

study. logical (b) " If

man's character is avaricious, he will refuse for useful purposes refuses money for ; this man is avaricious." character purposes ; therefore this man's
we are

give money
such
But

not

entitled

to

infer this from

the

premises ;

2OO

CONDITIONAL

ARGUMENTS

AND

for

there

although (c) If
"

many is his character

oxygen

may

be

good
not

reasons

why

he

refuses,

avaricious.
on

and

nitrogen exist
do

there; these
is

elements

Mars, life is possible life exist in that planet, hence

is
not
an

possible there."

Though

the

minor

premise

established

fact,

this argument is formallyvalid. affirm the To is to declare that the condition this and exists,

antecedent the justifies

affirmation of the consequent.

possible on Mars, the planet has warmth sufficientfor protoplasmic metabolism ; but the planet has not warmth and therefore life is not possible on it." sufficient, The minor premise again goes beyond our present know

("t)

"

If life is

ledge ;
us

but

the is
to

argument

is

formally valid.
; and

To

consequent
in

declare its non-existence

condition

denying

that the

(stated in the

deny the this justifies antecedent)

exists.

Hence
Either In the

the

rule

for

is this : hypotheticalsyllogisms

affirm the

antecedent, or
as

deny
have

the
a

consequent.
constructive

former

case,

in

we (c),

as syllogism; in the latter, hypothetical structive hypothetical syllogism. These

in
are

(d),a

de

sometimes
fallens

spoken "

of

as

the

modus

ponens

and

modus

respectively.
4.

We
a

have

seen

that

proposition hypothetical
two

expresses

relation
When

between

concepts

or

two

judgments.
the

form expressed in the hypothetical

us

propositioninvites
the

to

attend

more

to to

the relation any

between

concepts
if
we

employed
attend

than

special

instances.

But

to chiefly

the the

particular
proposition
the

actual instances, may

and
to

to possible,

which
we

be

conceived
a

apply, then

may

express

propositionin
tive A. Looked

form, the universal affirma categorical proposition,

"

Thus,
at
on

take the

If S is P other

it is

Q."

the side of

extension,"in

words,

lookingat

the

instances of its application," this pro-

THE

VALIDITY

OF

THE

SYLLOGISM.

2OI

means position

that wherever Hence the form

we

there may

is

case

of S

being
or

P, it is also Q.

express S which

the

hypothetical
is

propositionin
"All

"All

is P

Q,"

SP

is

Q."
"

example, the propositions If iron is impure, it is and "All the two brittle," impure iron is brittle," express
aspects
of
are

For

intension
"

and

extension becomes

respectively. Other
gaseous,

examples
heat "If and
"
=

If

substance in
metal

it absorbs heat" of heat

;

"

All

substances is
"

becoming
it is
are
a

gaseous

absorb

substance
=

good
good
"

conductor

conductors," "c. This change is sometimes of hypo called the reduction thetical propositionsto the categorical form. The term
"
"

electricity

"

All

metals

reduction

"

is

inaccuratelyapplied
are

here

the

two

forms
the
two

of the

judgment

not

identical ;

they emphasise
intension and
also

different aspects

of the

meaning,
"

"

extension. be
ex

Hypothetical syllogisms may forms : pressed in categorical

(a) Modus
"

consequently

ponens

"

If life is full of

it is exhausting ; distraction,
;

Modern Therefore This becomes

life is full of distraction modern

a

exhausting." regular syllogismin Barbara.

"

life is

(b) Modus
"

tollens

If Aristotle

is

right, slavery

is

social justifiable

institution ;
But

slavery is
a

Therefore This chief the

this ; Aristotle is not

not

right."
in

becomes

regular syllogism
of which
mood of

the Camestres^ fig. ii., in its

importance
extremely

consists

representing
is
exem

common

mode

argument

which

in the "destructive'1 plified

hypotheticalsyllogism. If the of the major premise in the hypothetical consequent syllog ism is negative,it is denied by an affirmative (A),and the
mood
"

is Cesare: If S is
No
case

"

P, Q is not
of S
a

R P

Q is
is
a

; .-. S

is

not

P." R
;

"

being
of
not

case

of

Q being
P."

This

is

case

Q being
a

Therefore

this is

case

of S

being

2O2

CONDITIONAL

ARGUMENTS

AND

The

student
a

will find

that,when

the

is hypothetical

expressed as affirmingthe
Middle;
appears
as

the syllogism, categorical

fallacyof
antecedent

consequent
the

appears

as

Undistributed
the

and

fallacyof denying
that than the the
:
"

Illicit Major. maintained

more

Hamilton tion is
not

proposi hypothetical
ordinaryone,
and the

complex
be

syllogism may

expressedthus
is B, C
A

If A

is D

Therefore,
He considered that

being B,

C is D.
an

the
It

syllogismis hypothetical
is
true

immediate

inference. in
are

that but

no

new

term

is
and is

introduced
the minor the

the

minor

premise;

the

major

distinct of

result

not

and propositions, either proposition by say that the

the conclusion

itself but

only of
be

the two obtained the

together. To
from

conclusion

could

either

is to premisesingly, construction

misunderstand

whole

nature

and

of the

hypothetical
the
two

syllogism. (a) The major premise

of Reason
ments
or

affirms

only that
between

relation

and

Consequence
It does the

holds
not

judg
to

concepts.
where

expresslyrefer
; and

instances any may

relation

occurs actually us

about We

instance particular
know that "A that is

it tells

nothing at
To

all.

"if A

is

B, then C is D," without

is D." will be

know

ing
same so

C B, therefore

say that "if

not

the barometer

the weather falls,

to

bad," is
is

the

thing as
the weather

say that "the bad."

barometer
But

and falling,

will be know is
we

when, independently minor,

assert
"

of the "the

major, we
barometer And
;

the truth of the

we

is

B,"

then falling,"
cannot assert to

may

the

con

clusion.
are

it unless

both

premises

conceded

that

is

say, the

inference

is mediate.

THE

VALIDITY

OF

THE

SYLLOGISM.

203 is B,
the
to

from (b} Similarly,

we

the

minor

premise alone, A
C is

cannot

draw of Reason them well

the

conclusion
and

D, unless
is admitted

relation
hold

Consequence
the minor.

between
as

"

unless i.e., the

major premise is
the

conceded We
must

as

notice,before
into the form
"

leavingthe subject of
all such if S is M
so.
"

that hypothetical proposition, be

can propositions

brought
is
no

it is P."

Usually R,"
"

there

in doing difficulty four the terms,

But is

the occasionally

with hypothetical ceals the

if S

M,

is

con

unityof
obvious

judgment
of

which

it expresses, S four the

by
P.

giving no
The

point

union

between
the when

and

empty

symbolic
this; but

statement,
it may

with

letters,

always does
ment

happen

judg

is

words. expressed in significant

we

The

following examples will illustrate what

case we

have

said.

In

each

give (a) the

with three

form
terms.

with

four

terms, (b) the

fundamental

form

(") If the report is true, what

you

say

is untrue. the untruth of what

(b) If (a)
If

the
you
two

report
say.

is true, it proves

parts of

hydrogen combine

with

one

part of
with

is formed. water oxygen, of two (b) If the combination parts of takes place, it part of oxygen

hydrogen

one

the combina (i.e.,

tion) forms

water.

(a) If

some

agreement

is

not

arrived speedily the trade

at

between

employers and
will be ruined.

workmen,
to

of the

country

(b) If

trade
soon

continue
be

be

it will injured by this strike,

ruined.

Sometimes, in the four-term

pointof
of the

union

between S
:

S and

form, "if S is M, P is R," the P consists in P being a species

are

genus
or

"if savages
P
"

cruel,the Patagonians are

cruel";
common

and
:

may

be is

co-ordinate

species under
two

genus

if virtue

voluntary, vice is voluntary."

that the forms of the

Similar

considerations

show

2O4

CONDITIONAL

ARGUMENTS

AND

disjunctive proposition,
is P
or

"

S is either P the
same.

or

O," and

"either

Q is R,

"

are

at

bottom

"
The

5. The

disjunctive
and S
"

syllogism

has

disjunctive
conclusion.
are

major premise major is,

"

minor categorical
or
"

and

is either P S

Q,"
S "S

and

there
"

four pro

possibleminors,
or positions),

is P

"

or

is

Q
not

(both A
Q"

"S

is not

P"

or

is

(both E
of these
as

propositions).
Before lead
to
we can

settle the ?

Which question,
we
"

valid

conclusions When
cannot
we

must

be

clear
or

to

another
we
are

point.
that

say

S
"

is either P
that the

Q,"

do

mean

it

be ? To

both

alternatives

mutually exclusive

answer

this it is necessary

between what in often do we mean distinguish and what we ordinarythinking, speaking,and writing, ought to mean according to the requirementsof Logic.
to

As

matter
to

of

fact,frequently we

do

mean

the Take

alter the

natives

be

exclusive,but
"

not
men

always.
in this book

instances following
boat
or

:
"

All the
"

collegeeither
either of its

play cricket
"

good
is

is valued

for the usefulness

of its contents the witness all these

or

the excellence the

style
is

"

Either

or perjured,

prisoner
is then
to

guilty." In merely that if

does the there

the propositions,
does
we

meaning
want

one

alternative In such
cases

not

hold,
not

the

other

hold.

do
true.

deny ought
state

that both purposes

to

alternatives may
is
no

be

But

for

logical

doubt

that

the

alternatives
if such

be

mutually exclusive
are

; this is necessary

ments

to

have make
we

any
an

scientific value. exclusive

a

We

cannot

about disjunction
amount
a

any

thing unless
ledge
"You about
must

have Even

considerable
to
a

of know

it.

say
or

such go
to

either pay
of the

fine

thing as this, prison," implies

as

knowledge

legalbearingsof

the circumstances

2O6

CONDITIONAL

ARGUMENTS

AND

get four
and

instead

of two

hypotheticals viz.,beside
"

(a)

(b) already mentioned

(c)
If S is P S is

"

it is

not

(d} If
and well then
as

Q, it is
in In

not

P ;
as con

there in S

are

conclusions

(i) and (2) above

can

(3) and (4).

is not
two

clusion
P.

Q
to

; and

in

(i)we (2) the

draw

the

conclusion

S is not sometimes mood

These
to

conditional the modus

syllogismsare
the other the

said
which

belong
denies the

the ponendo tollens,

by affirming ; and
modus

two, mood

(3)and
which

(4), "

to

tollendo

ponens,

affirms
6.

by denying.
A

dilemma

is

and the other disjunctive life we said In practical are have only two when we courses

syllogism with one hypothetical.

to

premise
a

be
to

in

dilemma
and both

open

us,

will have
the dilemma

unpleasant
shuts
us

consequences. up
to
a

So, in
choice between

Logic,
two

admissions. The the

structure

of the dilemma

will be

apparent from

followingrules and examples.

major premise
is
a

(1) The
tion
:
"

proposi hypothetical

than one antecedent (a) with more ; than one consequent ; (b)or with more than of both, so to be one as (c)or with more combined. two hypotheticals proposition. (2) The minor premise is a disjunctive conclusion is either a a or categorical (3) The disjunctive proposition, according as the hypothetical antecedent major has only one (or consequent)or
more or or

than

one.

The

dilemma
as

is said

to

be

simple

complex according disjunctive.

its conclusion

is

categorical

THE

VALIDITY

OF

THE

SYLLOGISM.

2O/

(4) The

essentials of the
or

dilemma

are

the

plurality
the

of antecedents

of consequents

in the

major, and

disjunctive minor.
Hence there
are

four

forms possible

of the dilemma

"

(1) Simple
If A

Constructive.
or

is B

if C
or

is D, E C is D
;

is F ;

Either A
E .'.

is B

is F.

(2) Simple Destructive.

If A is

B, C is
C is
not

D D

and
or

E E

is F ; is not
F ;

Either
A .'.

is not

B.

(3) Complex
If A is Either
A

Constructive.
D
; and

B, C is
is B C is D

if E

is

F, G is

or

E
or

is F ; G is H.

Either .'.

(4) Complex
If A is Either

Destructive.
; and
or

B, C is D
C is
not

if E

is

F, G is
H
;

D
not

G
or

is not E

Either A .'.
We form. have stated

is

is not

F.

the

dilemmas
are

in their than

longestpossible
terms

Usually

there

less

six

in the

simple,and less than eight in the complex, dilemmas, the following examples will show : as
"

(i ) Simple Constructive.
"

If she her ;
But

sinks

or

if she

swims

there

will be

an

end

to

she must

either sink will be

an

or

swim end
to

Therefore
"

there

her." if the it is

If

science

furnishes the

useful

facts, or
powers, useful
;

study of worthy of
its

it exercises

reasoning
;

being
But

cultivated
a

either

science
the

furnishes

or facts,

study

exercises Therefore

reasoning powers
worthy
of

it is

being

cultivated."

208

CONDITIONAL

ARGUMENTS

AND

(2) Simple
"

Destructive.
must

If he goes to town he and his hotel bill ; But

pay

pay

for his

railway ticket
or bill,

either his

he

is unable
;

to

pay

his

hotel

to

railway ticket
he cannot
go

Therefore

to

town."

(3) Complex Constructive.

This
"

is

very

common room

form. he will be burnt

to

If he stays in the he But

death, and
his neck
out

if
;

jumps
he
must

out

of the window

he will break
room or

either
;
must

stay in the
either be

jump
or

of

the

window he

Therefore

burnt

to

death

break

his neck."
In this
case

the dilemma Minto

is

an

analysisof
as

tion. dilemma
are

Professor
to to

gives
put by

the of

which have
are

the custodians been in if

situa practical standard example the the Alexandrian library

a

said

your

books

superfluous ; and pernicious." (4) Complex

Dilemmas
"

Caliph Omar conformity with the they are at variance

in 640

A.D.

"

If

Koran, they with it,they

are are

Destructive.
are

of this type
were were

less

common.

If he he Either

clever, he
does
not
see

would

candid, he would
he it ;

mistake,and acknowledge it ;
see

his

if

his

mistake

or

he

will not

acknowledge
Therefore

either he is not

clever

or

is

not

candid."

[Stock.] Jevons
"

says,

The

destructive dilemma otherwise

be

is

always com
into
two

plex, because
unconnected this does dilemma The Thus often the
not

it could

resolved

destructive

whose dilemma

hypothetical syllogisms";but of the simple destructive to hold appear major premise is stated as above. has the reputation of being fallacious.
"

Jevons
dilemma

says,

Dilemmatic
If it is

arguments

are

more

fallacious than is

not."

properly constructed,
but
many fallacies

absolutely correct;

THE

VALIDITY

OF

THE

SYLLOGISM.

209
from the

have
a

been

put into this form.

faultymajor or a major premise the antecedent, or

be
them false in may

Fallacymay arise premise. In faulty minor

the asserted the minor connection

consequent, may
between where
the may alter This

fact, or

the In the

be false.
"

premise
"

fallacy usuallylies
be affirmed may
or

antecedent

of the
;
or

major
the

the

consequent
exclusive
or

denied
not

natives

not
most
as

be

exhaustive.
hidden

last is the the

common

source

of

in fallacy

dilemma,
"It

Jevons

has

well find

shown. instances where

two

is seldom

to possible

alternatives
one

exhaust be with argue

all the

possible cases,

unless the

indeed in
if

of

them

the the that

simple negativeof
law of excluded
'

other Thus

accordance
we were no

middle.
fond of

to

if

pupil is

he learning,
no learning,

needs

stimulus,and
will be of any

that

if he dislikes
as

stimulus of of

avail ; but

he

is either fond
or

or learning

dislikes it, a stimulus

is either needless

no

we avail,'

evidentlyassume

improperlythe

dis

junctiveminor
the
some

only
who
to

two
are a

and dislike are not premise. Fondness for there may be possiblealternatives, neither fond of learning dislike it, nor stimulus in the

and

these

shape

of rewards

may

be

desirable. allowed which

The the

Almost

thus to
are

be proved if we are anything can alternatives pick out two of the possible

in

our

favour,and

argue

from
these

these alone."
observations is

most

famous

illustration of
as

ancient

fallacy known

Ignava
you

Ratio, the
recover

"lazy
your
a

argument''': "If it be fated that present disease, you will recover,

doctor from
you
or

from you

whether

call in
recover

not

again,if
or

it be

fated

your

present
a

disease, you
not
:

that you do not will not recover,

or

whether
con

call in

doctor

but

one

other be of

of these
no

tradictories
call in
a

is fated, and Here

therefore the
o

it can

service

to

doctor."

minor

premise

assumes

that

2IO

CONDITIONAL

ARGUMENTS

AND

"

fate does doctor

In

not

act
a

through doctors," that the callingin of

"

is not

link in the "fated" with

series of

events.

the dilemma

respect
not

to

the Alexandrian minor

Library,
that the

Caliph Omar
doctrines all that is

assumed tacitly Koran

are

in the

premise

of the

reallyworth
which the

merely sound, but contain knowing. Or, to put it otherwise, he

the books
not

ignores
matter

the
on

that possibility Koran

may

contain
Hence

useful the

does

touch.
are

alternatives
A

given

in the minor dilemma

premise
may

not

exhaustive.

faultyconstructive
appears opposite conclusion. which

be

"rebutted"
appears
we

by
to prove

dilemma
an

Stoic argument with " If pain is severe, be Pain

equallycogent, and As an example regard to pain : l

"

may

take

the

it will be

brief; if it lasts long, it will

;

slight ;
is either
severe
or

long
or

Therefore This is

it is either brief the

;

slight."
stated in the minor and
:
"

because faulty,
are

alternatives

premise
severe.
"

not

exclusive

pain

may

be both

prolonged

be thus rebutted Accordingly, the argument may If pain is brief, it is severe, if it is slight, it is long But

pain
cases

is either brief it is either the

two

or

slight ;
or

Therefore In And all such the

severe

long."
are

dilemmas

equallyfallacious.

con "rebutting" is only apparent, for the two clusions are compatible ; they are merely proved by using the fallacy, to speak, in two so opposite ways. of rebutting a complex dilemma The usual way will be from the followinginstances : seen
"

If A

is

B,
A

is

D,and
or

ifE

is

F,

is H

Either

is B

is F ; is D
or

Therefore

either
the
two to

is H. in the

Transpose

consequents

major premise,
not

changing
If A

each

its
not

negative H, and

:"

is

B,
A

is

if E

is F, C

is

Either

is B

Therefore

is F ; either G is not H
or

or

is

not

D.

Mr

Stock est, si

quotes the

from original
; brevis

"

Levis

ferre possum

Seneca, Epist. xxiv. est, si ferre non possum"

14

THE

VALIDITY

OF

THE

SYLLOGISM.

211

A who

story has

come son
:
"

down
not to

to enter

us on

of

an

Athenian

mother
the fol

urged her
If you
say say

on public life,

lowing grounds
"

what is
say you

what
must

men just, the Gods unjust, one

or

is

will hate will hate

;

you you.

; and

if you

You

the other

Therefore The the

"

will be hated." he
:
"

repliedthat followingreasons
son

ought

to

enter

on

giving public life,

me

If I say
say I must

what is
one

what
say

just,the men unjust,

or

is

Gods

will love
me

; and

if I

will love
;

the other loved."

Therefore These dilemmas

I shall be
are

equally cogent, and

All that and is loved.

the conclusions
any
case

are
a

quite compatible.
man

proved is that in

will be The

both

hated

gives an story of Protagoras and Euathlus to successful retort a reallyinvincible dilemma.

is
to

apparently
Euathlus from
as

pay

for
as no

the
soon

instruction
as

which his

he

has

received but and

Protagoras,
engages him on in that
"

he

wins

first case;

he
sues

suits, Protagoras gets

;

nothing
with the this case,

account

confronting him
be the issue
of

following
you
must

dilemma

Whatever

I claim ; for if you lose, you what must me pay pay me order of the court, and if you win, you must by pay me this contract." that if he does By Protagoras means

by
our

not

get his fee in the dilemma

ever

one

is invincible.

way, he Euathlus

will in
retorts

the
as

other;
follows
:

and
"

the

What you

be the issue of this case, I shall not pay you free from payment claim ; for if I lose, I am by our if I

what

contract,

and

win,

am

free

by order
the
case

of
as

the it

court."

Whereas,
he should

if Euathlus have
way
:

had

stated

reallywas,

admitted
"

the

of justice

If I lose
our

this case,

in this opponent's dilemma bound to not then, though I am

his

by you pay of order the

to

contract,
; if I

am

bound

to

pay I
am

you
not to

by the
bound
pay the you
two

court

win, then, though

court, I
am

pay
our

you

by
have

order

of the

bound

by

contract."

The

solution

is very

simple ; but
the

dilemmas

become

classical

through

apparent

of reconcilingthem. difficulty

212

CONDITIONAL

ARGUMENTS

AND

The

student with be
a

should

notice

that

syl hypothetical
or

logism
must not

antecedent disjunctive for

:
"

consequent
Fowler

mistaken

dilemma.

Dr

gives

the

followingexamples
geometry
a

(1) Whether
or as

be

regarded

as

mental
to

discipline
;
a

science,it deserves practical be regarded as But geometry may science ; and a practical discipline
deserves .'.It
to to

be studied

both

mental

be studied.
war,
we

(2)

If

go increase
we

must

either

contract

debt, or
at

the

taxation,or indemnify ourselves

any

the

enemy's
We

; expense shall not be able to do

not

of these

.'.We

are

able

to

go

to

war.

EXERCISE
1.

XV.

What rules

are

what

of

hypotheticalsyllogisms? To categoricalsyllogism do they correspond?

the rules of

[O.] hypo opinion as to whether Explain and justify your thetical syllogisms are, or are not, to be regarded as in of mediate stances reasoning. [L.] in Logic. Does what is meant by a dilemma 3. Explain definition? "If he man the following correspond to your
2.
"

escape he must rich ; but he was both

aged

to

have

been

either very poor,

so

clever
cannot

or

stupid and
the

he

very have

escaped." [C.] following arguments, reducing it to logical form, if possible: would some were (1) (a) If all men capable of perfection, have attained it ; but none having done so, none
4. Examine

each

of

"

are

capable of

it.
can

(b) If

any
a

that objection

be

urged
laws,
;
no

would laws

justify
could
can

change of established reasonably be maintained reasonably be maintained

tion that established
can

but

some

laws
no

; therefore

be
laws.

urged

will

objec a change of justify

not want to

(2) (a)

If

man

is

educated, he does

work

214

CONDITIONAL

ARGUMENTS

AND

similar arguments
axiom or principle premise: "Things equal
"

to
on

form, by making syllogistic

which

the

they depend into

major

to

the

same

thing are thing;

one

equal to

one

another A and B

;
are

equal to
and
B
are

the

same

Therefore It is

equal to
not
a

another."

replied that this is

argument
in any
case

true

because syllogism

the whole and that

is contained it does
not

in the
not

major premise ;

represent the given

argument, for C does

time which and
space
to

appear Locke

(b)Relations of also frequently give rise to reasonings lived before be not syllogistic Bacon :
appear

in it.

"

Locke,
before

lived before "A

Hume,
of

therefore

Bacon

lived
of

Hume";
A

is north
of C."

B,

is north

C,

therefore

is north

In the formal

the copula of syllogism relation

have

the of

propositions

expressed only the originally attribute ; and though (as we

subject and

seen) it easilyex inclusion (class presses the relation of genus and species all possible it does not naturally and exclusion), express Professor De Hence relations. Morgan proposed to extend the meaning of the copula, to take it merely kind of relation a some as general symbol signifying that the typical between subject and predicate ; so form : take the following would syllogism
"

A En .\A This has had

is related
ii

to

B C C

in

certain understood
same

way

in the

way

in that way. of the

proposed extension
been called the

meaning

of the Dr

copula
of such and

Logic of Relatives.
and

Martineau

already (1852) suggested a classification

"

relations

The

ideas of space

time, of

cause

THE

VALIDITY

OF

THE

SYLLOGISM.

215
to

effect,of resemblance
distinct laws elements and of functions of
a

and

seem difference,

involve

thought, to logic.

create

for themselves and

to

special

of
In

language,
all these
nexus

require
there

canons special room

spheres

is
as

for

such

necessary

of

conceptions

demonstration

requires ; yet
no

the rules of

class-reasoning places at
two
a

have [the syllogism] maxims as that a body

"

natural be in
"

application. Such
two

cannot

once,

that

causa

causa

causa

causati, that
the
not

things,of
are third,

which unlike

the first is like and each

second less

unlike

other,
"

are

reallythe
that what

basis
is
true

of of

frequentreasoningthan
the genus is
true

the dictum

of

the

species." Mr
worked of
out
a

Bradley,in his
classification which of

Principles of Logic, has

the
most

important types
express, among

relation the

judgments
its

which

ordinary syllogismtakes

place,as

dealing with

relation of the

subjectand remarks must following

as a

that express the propositions attribute. Against this doctrine be made. One may
as a

put the

matter

question of

verbal

of the

meaning
mean
a

of the dictum
a

logismwe
in such

piece of
always to

"

question de omni. (i) If by a syl formulated class-reasoning,"

or definition,

way

as

conform which

to

the type up

"

Each

of the
P ;

individuals

make

the

class

M, is
A

is

one

of these ;

.'.A then
not

is P ;
there
"

"

are

which certain, inferences, scientifically the is syllogism

8 ad

are

and syllogisms,"
to

what
But

Mill

con

sidered

it

be

(seebelow,"
as

finem).
"

(2)if we
stating
classes,
or

the interpret it

dictum

Aristotle

does,

for,when

(seep.
or

139,

Aristotle note), if
we

says

nothingabout

genera,

species; and

regard the "wording"

2l6

CONDITIONAL

ARGUMENTS

AND

of "formulating" of an argument as not the essence esti to the logical Logic,but as a process preliminary of mation of it, as the spreadingout and dissecting
"

our

specimen
hidden

in order
"

to

examine
then

it

and carefully

see

the

allegedspecial kinds of inference, to the syllogism in the parallel in of "class-reasoning," are narrower sense syllogisms have the Aristotelian sense, which we adopted. Thus, is : in example (a), above, the real syllogism
" "
"

mechanism,

all these

What

is

equal

to

B
;

is

equal

to

that to which

is

equal (viz., C)
A .'. A

is is

equal to equal to

B ; C. which

Here the

on major premise is the generalprinciple of the argument entirely depends. validity

the

"

8. The

question has

been

of raised,

whether the

there
con

is any clusion We
can

real inference

in the
new

whether syllogism,

gives us
must

any

truth ? the conclusion

"

reply that
be

of

an

inference

never

nected
from the

with these

"new," entirely the premises ; for premises.

is In

i.e., uncon absolutely

if so, it could
case

not

follow

the

of the

the

syllogism,

conclusion
the

contained
would

in

together ;
rules tained consists of the in

conclusion if syllogism

of the

it told The

us

premises taken offend against the anything not con

act

the

premises.
When

real

of

inference

in the

synthesis (avvOea-is, puttingtogether)

we

premises.
we

have

got

the

premises
for

together
formal But

have of

got

the

conclusion, save
the conclusion

the

process it has in

expressing it.

been
the

argued that
as
an

is

already
the
con-

contained

major premise,and
argument

that therefore
to

if syllogism,

taken

prove

the

THE

VALIDITY

OF

THE

SYLLOGISM.

21?
of the

elusion, is

petitioprindpii
view
was

or

"begging
Mill.
Put

question." This
what
men

taken Take

by
the

briefly,
"All Socrates fallible ?
we

Mill
are

urges

is this.

: syllogism

Socrates fallible, do
we

is
know make

man,

therefore
men are

is fallible." How We
are

that all

not

entitled that

to

this assertion unless

already know

Socrates

is fallible ; hence
more

the

con

clusion, being presupposed in the

general pro

have be proved by it. When we cannot got position, infer any particulars cannot the general principle, we itself assumes the principle it but those which from
as

known

"for

generaltruth
"

is but

an

aggregate
individual Hi.

of
means

truths, particular
of
are

comprehensiveexpressionby
number
"

which

an or

indefinite denied
at
once

of

facts The

affirmed

II. (Logic,

" 3).
the

conclusion
cases

about in which

Socrates other

is inferred
men

from

observed

have take

been

found without

fallible. Hence
a

the

inference
"

may

place

we reason general proposition. Not only may without to particulars, passing through from particulars All our do reason. so generals,but we perpetually

earliest inferences
dawn of

are

of

this nature. draw

From

the

first years

we intelligence

inference, but
of avoids fingers,

elapse
The

before

we

learn

the

use

general language.
thrust

child

who, having burnt

his

ing them
burns.

has reasoned inferred, or again into the fire, thought of the general maxim, fire though he never He knows
on

from

memory

that

he

has he

been
sees

burned, and
a

this evidence

when believes,

candle, that if he
be burned which

puts his finger into the

flame

of

it,he will
case

again.
to

He

believes without
case.

this in any

happens
is

arise,but
the

looking
He

in

each

instance

beyond

present

is

not

generalising ; he

a inferring

from particular

par-

218 ticulars.
.

CONDITIONAL

ARGUMENTS

AND

It is
. .

not

only

the
on

matron village

who,
a

when

called

to

consultation
on

the

case

of

bour's
on

child,pronounces
and
case

the

evil and

its

neigh remedy

the recollection

the
no same

similar

of

general maxims

of what she accounts authority have We her Lucy. we all,when to steer by, guide ourselves in the

way."
The essentials of Mill's view
are
:
"

to particulars. (1) All inference is from particulars of are merely registers (2) General propositions short such inferences already made, and formulae for making more. is a formula (3) The major premise of a syllogism

of

this

kind ; drawn

the

conclusion

is

not

an

inference

from the formula.

or

(4) The

real

antecedent logical the

premise
from

con

sists of the
It is true do
to not

particularfacts

which

was general proposition

collected.

that

in

great deal of

our

reasoningwe
it conforms have
to

form

general propositions;and
But
one
we
"

the

instances given by Mill.

in

ask,
"

what

us justifies

passing from
resemblance the
two

particular to
two
cases

another?
certain

It

is the

of

the have

which qualities

cases

in

common.

It is the

in recognition,

the second
common
we

case, of attributes form characteristics pass

found the

in the

first. These

only bridge by which

the of

can

from

the

one

"particular"to
perception

other.

What,
The
to

then, does

this

imply1} similarity
in
"

cognition and
different objects,

common recognitionof qualities

impliesthe formation of those qualities, a

"

the

mind
"

of

general idea
When
of

universal
fire

(ch.II. " 6).

an

the child's

experience of

gives him

idea

it

THE

VALIDITY

OF

THE

SYLLOGISM.

219

which

he And of
not

can

extend
the

to

new

case,

it is

universal
is the child

idea.
germ
may

the

recognitionof this universal of a general law. The recognition

universal
or

separate the

from

its embodiment
even

in the

particular case,
but he
reasons

put it into language

to

himself;
such

through
into "The that

it.

And

when
must

the take

put reasoning is explicitly

some

words, it

form

as

this:

of brightness, qualities

movement,
in the

"c., found

in

object,are

also

found
has

this; that object burns, therefore

same

this, which
same

generalnature
This is

or

is of the the

type, burns

also."

implicitin

child's

thought;

and
new

it is in
case

a a syllogistic argument, bringing principle

a

under This

generalprinciple.
a new

throws

lighton
not
"

the nature

of the of
a

proposition.
truths
"

It

is
not

an

aggregate

general particular

it does
When
mean

refer

merely
in

to

collection of

things.
does
seen

say

"hemlock that
means

is

poisonous,"this
cases

not

merely
fatal ; it

certain

have of

it

to

be

that,
is
may

on

the

basis
in hem

observation, I affirm that there

lock which makes it fatal. I

something

proposition from a of it investigation

result could The
not

gather a universal single instance, provided that my

thorough ; sufficiently
"

is

and

the

be called
of

an

aggregate of particulars."

characteristic it does of
not

every refer
to

truly general proposition

any
to
a

is that group

definite

number

or

individuals, but
to

indefinite perfectly certain attributes.

The

number, namely,
It asserts
a

all who

possess

connection

of attributes.1

conclusion

This

express in the

from those which propositions truths" is of great importance "aggregates of particular Logic : chapter XI. developments of modern philosophical distinction of universal

"4-

220

CONDITIONAL

ARGUMENTS

AND

of

the

syllogismis
The
out to

therefore

not

contained

in

the

major premise.
so as

major premise,when
its real

expressed

bring

form hypothetical emphasis is laid on the intension of its be thus expressed: the syllogismmay
"

the

meaning, naturally takes (seeabove, " 4), since the whole

terms

and

"

If

anything possesses
the attribute

the

attribute M,

it possesses

P;
;

S possesses Therefore We the

cannot

the attribute M S possesses

sure

also the attribute P." conclusion the the

new

be

of the

until
case

we

have S with

(in
the

minor

premise) compared
statement

general
found
on

made
the

in

major premise, and

M. It is the
to

their
this

in identity identitythat it is the

attribute

the

of validity of the minor

entirely reasoning
establish
from

depends;
it.
The the two

function

can conclusion,therefore,

only

be drawn

premisesin

combination.

hints as to the theorythus contains suggestive of the syllogism, nature in asserting but is erroneous that the conclusion lies in the major premise alone. In those cases where the major premise does express where than a it is no more an aggregate of particulars,
"

Mill's

collective

statement

about
one

group

of

facts,
"

and

where

the conclusion the conclusion Mill says would

even
"

expresses

of these

facts, we

anticipate
And
what

in

the major premise. stating

be correct
case

about

such

in such
a

there

might

be

syllogism. But genuine inference,

a

discoveryof something not known premise singly. If I learn that the vessel
at
some on sea

from XY
was

either lost

with all
other

on

board, and
that my there is

learn

or by subsequently, was
a

means,

friend AB
no

passenger
con-

that

vessel,then

doubt

that the

222

CONDITIONAL

ARGUMENTS

AND

NOTE

B.

ARISTOTLE'S

DEFENCE

OF

THE

SYLLOGISM.

The which
was

objection to
Mill bases his

the

form syllogistic

of

inference, on

anticipatedand
In

charge that it is a petitioprincipii^ answered by Aristotle himself.

his
we

Posterior

Analytics
as

which discover be of

infer" or, by thought

as

entirelynew

; it must

points out that nothing he expresses it,nothing which we distinct from sense-perception can be at least in part an application
he
"

previous knowledge. In the logistic reasoning, we require to

fact," but
"

case

of
"

deductive
not
a mere

or

syl
"col
a we

know

lective

universal
the

law, and
arises the and

also

to

know

particularfact ; have the former

and

inference

only when
to
"

in the

mind
any

latter is added

it

(An. Post.,i. i). Consider

scientific syllogism, e.g. :

Every trianglehas its three interior angles together equal to two rightangles.
This is
a

triangle.
this
to two

Therefore

has

its three

interior

angles

together

equal
It would

right angles.
that
some

brought of knowledge the same againstthe possibility reproach which Mill brought afterwards againstthe syllogism, that we have the major premise unless no right to assert we already
seem
"

of

the

Sophists

had

know

the

conclusion. the
one

Aristotle's reply is
is

as

follows

:"

"Before in pleted,1 the

any

instance
sense

produced
we sense

or

the be

syllogism com
said
For
to

perhaps
in another

must not.

know could

conclusion
one

; but

how

know

in the full sense he is

of the word

that this

triangle,

of whose

existence
two

equal
in the

to

he does

know full

has completely ignorant, angles ? Yet it is plain that in a sense right angles inasmuch he knouts the universal; but it, as its
he

sense

does

not

know the
not

it."

Aristotle

then it

explains how by asking,

"

the Do

objector puts
you
or

difficulty.He
know that all

puts

do

you

triangles

By "syllogism"is

meant

here

the

two

premises.

THE

VALIDITY

OF

THE

SYLLOGISM.

223

have

their
"

angles
know
was

equal

to

two

right angles ?"

a

If

the

reply
whose

is,

do

it," the
unknown
was

objector produces
to

triangle
asserts

existence
as

the

respondent,
to

and

that of its
;

its

existence
to two

unknown
must

him,
have

the

equality
also

angles
hence
he had

right angles
not

been

unknown which

he

did

really know
Now

the
were

general proposition
some

asserted.
to

there
"All

who
we

considered
know

the their

right reply angles

be,

the

triangles that
not

have "all

equal
This,
know

to

two

right angles,"
not

simply
correct

triangles."
"

says

Aristotle, is they
which
have

the

reply.
of, and
a

They

do

what

demonstration
was

the

general

proposition
;

they accepted
not

demon

strated

principle
were aware

it

concerned
as

only the
every

triangles which
without

they

of
There
not
sense

such,
no

but

triangle
in
he my what

qualification. why
while
a man

is

reason,

however,
sense

opinion
learning
The real know he has

should another would is

know he

in is
;

is

in

ignorant
but that
sense

of he
as

it.

absurdity
what
learnt In

not

be in

this the i.

should
when

he

learning (An.

same

it."
the

Post.,
are

i.)
in this the passage, that Aristotle the
true

words and

which

italicised

consciously
universal
asserts
a

definitely accepts
is
a

view

judgment
connection

generic
attributes
;

judgment
which
are

(ch. XI.

" 4).
only
one

It
on

of
other

depends
such that

the

attributes
from
to two

themselves the
"

they
the

must

follow

e.g.,

equality
the

of

the

interior definition

angles
of is
"

right
When

angles
the

from

Euclidean
of
a

the
a

triangle. generic

major

premise
any

syllogism

universal,
as

it includes
says,
to
"

particular instance
sense

in

sense,"

Aristotle

in

the

that
"

the

law

is

potentially applicable
it
the does latter
not

any the

instance.

In
"

another

sense"

include

particular
in the

case

i.e., not
as

until
an

is

explicitly stated,
general
law.

minor

premise,

instance

of the

224

CHAPTER

VIII.

THE

GENERAL

NATURE

OF

INDUCTION.

"
to

i.

IN

passing to "Inductive
we

point which

reached

in

return Logic,"we must the preceding chapter,

"

the relation of The

to categorical propositions. hypothetical hypothetical, If anythingis M it is P," and the

"

universal, "Every categorical

two

is

P," correspond to the

and the extension. The in real instances

sides

of

Term,
refers But

intension
to primarily

form categorical which

on

is found.

when

we

concentrate

attention

the

embodiment attributes, neglecting any particular the

of

them,
To

becomes proposition
of

an

assertion
"

of

necessary law." form

connection
make

these

attributes,a

"general
"

this connection

is that
M

of the

the natural explicit, proposition, If any hypothetical

"

thing is
in the any

it is

P,"

or

If S is M
not to
we

it is P." any wish

"

The

hypo
refer to

thetical form

is

adopted

express do
not

uncertainty
to

matter, but because

instances. particular
to

To

say that reference

material
to

bodies

is gravitate"
case,

say, without

any

special
of

"if

material,then
to

The gravitating."

absence

reference

particular objects(in space and time) evident in geometrical is most judgments,for the figures with which they deal are realised in the never perfectly is antecedent In some the hypothetical concrete. cases in the first law of motion, as impossibleof realisation,
any

THE

GENERAL

NATURE

OF

INDUCTION.

225

which forces. For

natural

speaks
these
form
not

of

moving objectfree
the

from

all

resisting
is the

reasons

judgment hypothetical
general law
say
to

for

a asserting

of

Nature.

And

it is

true strictly

to
"

that

any

categorical

propositioncan
and what vice
versa.

be The

"

reduced
one

the

form, hypothetical

form

of

judgment emphasises

the

other

does

not.

and Singular,particular,

collective
to

real

and unambiguously propositionsrefer directly objects, ; and the hypothetical persons, or events be the At unnatural
concrete

form take

would away

in

such

cases,

for it would

reference which

is the

principal
The

meaning.
there

the hint

same
or

time, even
a

in these

judgments,

is the

suggestion of
of such

general law.
the

oppositeextreme
tions
form be
as

consists of

proposi hypothetical categorical

not

the

first law be

motion, where

would

unnatural, since its subject would

realisable in the
are

physicalworld.
in which

Between the the

the

two

extremes

the

judgments

hypothetical categorical

form form
two
more

is natural for forms than

for scientific purposes,

or

historical
are never
"

the But descriptive purposes. equivalent ; the change is strictly

a

verbal, it is

change

of

emphasis.
as

When

we

the hypothetical judgment explain of

mere
"

affirm

ing

"connection
to
a

are attributes,"

we

not

practically
No;
the

reducing it
between
in
our

connection is
a

of ideas'!

propositionthat
A

there
"

general law of connection

mean

and

does

not

merely
the real

connection than

heads.

It

implies a
is
a

great deal

more

it
in

actually expresses.
effect says,
"

It refers to

world, and

There A." the

law in the

real

world, such
with
a

that

C follows from
ment

The

truth of the of the

judg hypothetical
"then" "such the

lies in

connection

"if";

it affirms that there

exists really

general

226

THE

GENERAL

NATURE

OF

INDUCTION.

law

as

would, if
a

we

suppose certain

some

stated

conditions

present, produce
We have
seen

result."
in the kind. when

(ch.V.) that the major premise of this typicalsyllogismis a general principle

Hence it is
we

get the

natural

meaning

of the

major

universal but as a expressed not as a categorical to a particular proposition.Its application hypothetical

case

may

be thus Law

illustrated
: :

:
"

of Nature

If

anything is
;
:

it is P ;

Particular fact

S is M

and Application
This
may be

conclusion

S is P.

illustrated

by
the

few

concrete

examples.
lengthens the path

(1) Whatever
in which
Heat

lengthens
it

pendulum
;

swings ; lengthens the pendulum

heat
moves move

Therefore

(2) If
A

body
to
on

lengthens the path in which in a regular orbit round

farther from
of the

it
a

swings.
;

centre, it

tends

the

centre
moves

of revolution in
a

body

the surface the

centre to

earth

regular

orbit round Therefore

of the earth farther

it tends of the

move

from

the centre.
cen

(3)

If the

speed

moving

body is increased, the

on

trifugal tendency is greater. of a body The rate of motion

greater
Therefore the
at

the earth's surface

is

the equator than

at

higher latitudes
at

the

tendency generated centrifugal

motion is greater the

in it by than
at

earth's

equator

higher latitudes.
From

this it follows the

that

body weighs
as

least at the

equator,
This

and

weight

increases

the

latitude

increases.

reasoning is confirmed delicate spring balances or pendulums of a body is least at the equator.
purely deductive
Observe
the

by experiments with
:

the downward

pull

premise

"

if
as

anythingis
a

it is P

"

more

particularly.Regarded
states

it logical proposition,
reason

that

the

antecedent

is the

of

the

con-

THE

GENERAL

NATURE

OF

INDUCTION.

227
real

sequent;
it
states

looked
that M

at

in its reference
cause

to

the

world,
we

is the
a

of P ; it in

impliesthat
Nature, and
the

have is the

discovered
cause

law

of

causation
Now when

in

question.
term

syllogism is

changed
M

from

the

hypotheticalto
:
"

the

form, categorical

becomes

the middle

Hypothetical.
If

Categorical
P,
;

anything is

it is

All M

is

P,
;

S is M /. S is P. Hence Aristotle says

"

S is M /. S is P.

TO

fjiev yap
term

alnov

TO

pecrov

(An.
cause."

Post.,ii. 2) :
We the may worth
on

the

middle
say

expresses

the

therefore

depends
tion hold

" 101): Ueberweg (Logic, of knowledge form of the syllogismas a the assumption that general laws of causa
Nature, and
the may

with

in

be

known.

And in which

that the
we

has syllogism

greatest scientific value

mediating concept
know
cause

(the

middle

term), by
conclusion. above

which
the

the

truth

of the

conclusion, expresses
in the of the

real

of the

fact stated

This

is verified in each

examples.

In

(i) the
dulum;
of its motion which

middle
and

concept

is the
real

this is the
In
a

of the pen lengthening of the lengthening cause

path.
round

(2)

the
; and

middle such

concept
motion

is that
is the In
cause

of

centre

generates the concept

round in the
was a

centrifugal tendency.
increase
and in the

(3) the
of

middle
motion increase

is the

speed

the
an

centre;

this increase

causes

tendency. centrifugal
aware

Aristotle

that real
:

the

middle
In the

term

does

not

always
middle

express

the the

case.
"

the following, does do

not

is

not

cause are

Whatever

is near,

twinkle; planets

near,

therefore

they

not

228

THE

GENERAL

NATURE

OF

INDUCTION.

twinkle"
the

(An. Post., i. 13). In major is what (in the modern

"

such

syllogism,
be
is which
reason

phrase)would
for which
no

called found has

as

an

empiricallaw,"
"

statingsomething
rather than of the

to

be

uniformly the fact, but

found

yet been

why
true

it is

so

otherwise.
prem

Having graspedthe
ise, we
The
account

function
true

major

have aim of of the of

grasped
methods

the

Inductive

problem of Induction. Logic is to give a general or by which generalprinciples

are

Laws

Nature,
be

which

fitted
In

to

serve

as

major

premises, may
ductive the in

established.
at

other and

words, In
classifying
consists
be
;
no

Logic

aims of the

understanding
; for

Methods

Sciences of

all Science There

can

discovering Laws
that the Laws

Nature. and

between opposition shall

see

Induction
of Nature

Deduction
be the in

for

we

cannot

established

without

help

of Deduction.
two

But
:

starting-point
we

is different in
start

the

processes

Deduction,

of

in Induction, with facts generalprinciples; observation, not yet raised to the rank of principles. with
2.

"

It is not

only in scientific matters

In the
commonest account
a

that

we

employ
we
are

inductive

methods.

affairs

seeking to explainor continually

pens, and in

for what

hap

doing

so

we

employ, in
of

germinal,ele
were

mentary
These

form, the genuine method

of science.

"germinal" inductions
by Aristotle,under
the and

ordinarylife
of
"

noticed

heads

Inductive

"Enthymeme," syllogism,"
ample,
The totle
to
or

"Paradeigma"
limited the
" "

(Ex
Aris

Analogy).
Induction process He
;

term

is (eira^w^rf)

by
"

the

which
that

he

calls

Inductive
from

syllogism."
part
to

says
we

Induction

reasons

whole

realise, as
the

it were,

the truth about the

the whole

by going through

truths about

parts.

230
Thus

THE

GENERAL

NATURE

OK

INDUCTION.

the

kind

of

inference is

which

Aristotle
In
as a

calls

induction, eTraycojrj,
Aristotle does
of
not

really deductive.
this "induction" All strict

fact,
kind is

regard
from

proof distinct

Deduction.

proof

Deduction
as a

and be formallyexpressed (cnroSeifys), may in fig. i. (a-vXkoyio-jjios Sta rov syllogism pecrov). Aristotle calls Induction in which
"

What
a

is
"

to

parody
a

Mill

"
"

not
we

way

we

must

reason,

but

way

in which

7n6a: or thingsclearer (^"j]\ovv and others.1 to ourselves Troietv) v(*)T"pov, a-a(f)"(7T"pov It is a mode of arranginga deductive as so argument
may
reason

to

make

to

enable

us

to

the truth of the realise, psychologically, is the real

which generalprinciple (apxtf)

"

major premise,
"

mode

of

instances. forward the

the principle forward illustrating by bringing word eTraywytj The simplymeans bringing Of where
course,
we

witnesses."2

cannot

get "all"

instances, except
not

the

number
"

is limited ; but induction

"

this fact does

as

vitiate an
in view.3

illustrative

such

Aristotle had
With

the mediaeval

process thus

have

Induction became simply logicians when of counting particular we things ; and found that each one has the by enumeration
the
are

quality P, "they
than all enumeration

Induction P." Thus all the for

consists
we

in

concluding that by complete

less of months

may

prove

that

"

months the

of the year have number

thirty-two days," and can so we limited,

ticular
case

is
par

ascertain the
the

fact in each

before

making
all

is perfect induction.
cannot

go
An.

over

This statement. general it usuallyhappens that we But the particular for some of cases,
b 35 ;

See

Prior.,ii. 23, 69

Top., i. 12, 105

xxxvii.

16 ; and

cf.

An.
2

Post.,i. 31.
Cf. Burnet, Ethics Cf. An.

of Aristotle,p.
b 33.

Post.,i. 4, 73

THE

GENERAL

NATURE

OF

INDUCTION.

231

them the

may

occur or

at

future

times

or

in

distant

parts of
com

earth

other

regions of
of them
"

the universe.

When

plete enumeration
tion that heard black." is called
one,
"

all is
"

the impossible,
crow

Induc

imperfect :
up
crows
"

This

is
I

black, arid
seen or

and

that one, all

to

all that

have

of; therefore
The

are (withoutexception)
"

scholastic

imperfect induction
the known
or

consists
cases

in enumeratingall essentially of is The

some

observed

object S, and,
rests

if it is found

that each
and

of them is P.

that every P, inferring process

more.

S, known

unknown,

on

observation

and

counting,and
by

nothing
This
Bacon

scholastic and Mill. is of is

no a

induction Mill says,

was

attacked vigorously

for

instance,that
briefer form
: replied
"

Perfect
con

Induction clusion

scientific value reassertion in

whatever; the
of

only
To

the if of

premises.
Perfect

this

Jevons
were
no

has
more

well

That

Induction

than

process

it is yet of great importance, and abbreviation, be to continuallyused in science and common Without it but
we

requires
life.
state

could be

never

make

comprehensive
every
a we

ment,

should

ticular.

After

obliged to enumerate in examining the books

be up
all
our

par

and library should be

findingthem
unable
"

to

English books,
results in the
one

to

sum

proposition,
"

all the be
we

books

in this

are library

Englishbooks
list of books

; but

should

required to
to

go

over

the
one

every

time

desired
of the

make

any

acquaintedwith
is,that the power
in
a

the of very

contents

library. The
number
to

fact

a great expressing

of

facts particular

brief space
as

is essential
art

the progress consists

of science. in

Just
a

the whole

of arithmetic for

nothing but
and sub

series of

processes

addition abbreviating
us

traction,and

enabling

to

deal

with

great number

232

THE

GENERAL

NATURE

OF

INDUCTION.

of units in

very

short
to

time,
in

so us

Perfect
to

Induction with
a

is

absolutely necessary
number
The is
a

enable
a

deal

great

of
case

facts particular of of

very

brief

space."
It

Imperfect Induction
inference

is very different. Bacon says,

kind

which,

as

precarie

et periculo exponiturab concludit,

instantia contradictoria, it.

to
cannot

A the
a

simple negativeinstance
grey
crow

will refute
care

As

regards
that
too
no

example given,few people would

has
never

assert

been
the

seen.

It

be that

strongly impressedon
mere can

mind

of the

student

however countingof instances, make S and

a

many We
two

they may
may

be,

conclusion P
are

more

certain.
twice
or

know
or

that
two

conjoined
but

thousand
warrant
we us

million

times;
are

this does

not

in
have

saying that they something more

A
mere

always conjoined unless

the
mere

than

number
mere

to

go

upon. of

enumeratio

simplex, a

assemblage
Take
a an

is simply worthless. positiveinstances, The three interior angles of example :

"

old

are triangle

togetherequal
be
of and
true
a

to

two

right angles."
it is

This
from

is known

to

for universally, triangle.Suppose

we

proved

the definition
not

that this
on

proof were
measurement

known,
of the

that

had

to

rely only

to angles of particular triangles

discover the
to

what

their

sum

is in each

case.

Granting that
sufficient accuracy

measurement

could the pro

be

made

with

establish be
no

positionin particular cases,

for
we

there any

would

warrant

taking it
had
not

to

be

true

of

whose triangle is

angles
mere

measured. of be
a

There

nothing
that the

in the
sum

measurement

to triangle

show

of its Another of laws

angles must

of this

particular magnitude.

example of the difference between the enumeration in the and real proof,is found positiveinstances,
of motion. planetary

Newton

from proved deductively,

THE

GENERAL

NATURE

OF

INDUCTION.

233
the

the round

law the

of
sun

that gravitation,
must

the

paths

of

planets
the

be

Before elliptical. had

the

discovery
calcula

of the

true

law

of

Kepler gravitation,
; and

attacked

problem
tion had
on

of

planetarymotion
an

by

laborious of

the basis of the

immense

number
orbit

observations,
But

proved
not
one

of the ellipticity it of any would

to
see

of Mars. the

this did of each

prove in
turn

other have whether

planet;
to

motion

be

observed

with
an

sufficient accuracy
or ellipse

it constituted done

not.

When

this had still be in

been

with all the

say that of

known
all

it would planets,

impossibleto
a

the

planets move
; and

ellipses. As
and there

matter

fact,

in
were

Kepler'stime Neptune, Uranus,

unknown
even or now

all the may be

asteroids another and have

planet beyond Neptune,

the
sun,

one

between of. Hence

Mercury
if we
to

which but

we

do

not

know and the

nothing
we

observation
say

measurement

rely on,

cannot
now we

that

all

planets move
law have of

But

know do

that if Newton's
so, whether
we

ellipses. is gravitation
them

in

true,
all
or

they
not.
not

must

observed

But

all

"

simple enumerations
in this way. it discovered,
was

"

are

turned

into and

demonstrations Uranus had been the

Before

Neptune
that
one

found
went

all the uniform

satellites in

planetarysystem
their

in

direction been

round for

planets.

Not

only has
been
move

no

reason

found

this, but
and

it has

found round

that them

the in

satellites of Uranus the

Neptune

oppositedirection.
is
one

There

condition

on

which

simple enumera
"

tion of

positiveinstances
"

may

furnish

not

indeed

demonstration,but
when
we

: strong presumptionor probability

have
to

reason

to

suppose

that,were
have

there

any

instances

the

contrary, they would

become

234
known
are no

THE

GENERAL

NATURE

OF

INDUCTION.

to

us.

well-groundedconviction
in the very been absence afford
to
a

that of of

there
com

even negativeinstances,

pleteassurance,

may

high degree
the view

proba
one

bility.This

appears

have

of Aristotle

viii. 8); and as Aristotle (Topics, held on objectsto a generalisation

suggests, if any
such

grounds, it rests

with the
What
we

objectorto
modern
a

find

negativeinstance.
how into is, Logic inquires
"

Inductive reliable

establish

general statement,
of
our

one

which

goes

beyond
more

the range
"

yet is

than

and experience, particular in we are justified probable." How

or

concludingfrom
for all
cases
a

one

more

cases

known

to

us,

law
we

of the Law

same

kind ? ? To

How,
this

in short,can

establish

of Nature

questionAristotle
he says

littleattention paid comparatively it is contained

the in the doctrines

; what

about
and

of the

Enthymeme
is of great
forms

Example.
3.

"

The

Aristotelian
covers

Enthymeme
the Induction.
some

logical
what

significance ; it
later writers have
ment
we

elementary
And of the

of

called marks

in his treat

of pass
one

Aristotle it, from

stages by which

guess-work
he

towards
"

scientific
a

knowledge.
form of

In the

place

speaks
for

of it

as

rhetorical for
more

useful syllogism,"

persuasionand
much

concealing
than this.

fallacies An

i. 2); but it is (Rhetoric,

enthymeme
"

is "an

argument
27:

from

or probabilities

signs

from

eVrl evOv/Jifj^a fjuev ovv word ef elicoTCOV r) oyfAel"v).The from eV and Ovfjios, is derived,not directly but hold as probable. to reflect upon, or evQvfjLeio-Qcu,

(An. Prior., ii.

the By eifcos,

"probable," Aristotle
embodied
in

means

the

rough

of ordinarypractical generalisations experience (e/jureisuch pia),

memes
as are

proverbs, "c.
"

Enthykind,are

from "probabilities of ef eltcoTwv,

this

THE

GENERAL

NATURE

OF

INDUCTION.

235

all in

i.; but, having only a probable major premise, fig.

The medical best illustra
;

they have only a probableconclusion.

tions of the
"

are sign (ari^elov)

"

the

word

might be
symptom
To
state
to

rendered from it
more

being the arj^elov his diagnosis. the physician makes which the generally, sign is a fact which is "symptom,"
"

the

"

"

found may of go

accompany

some

other when

fact. the of

The

two

facts habits

togetherin time, as
animals
or one are a

carnivorous

certain

sign
one

and great ferocity and lightning The union of

strength ;
thunder the
two

may

follow the

other, as

may

be

signs of
have
to

another. of

facts may

all

degrees
the
most

from probability,

absolute
as

down necessity the

events.

groundlessopinion,
to
course

when

of birds flight The the

is taken of

be

sign

of be

coming
more

conclusion

cannot

certain than
The forms the of the

sign. correspond to
the three

enthymeme
We

of figures
In

syllogism.
and

conversation

begin with the third figure. of the premises is writing,one

in all arguments, when it is

frequently omitted,
obvious.

as

(a) In
instance
are

the of
an

third

figure,the
or

enthymeme
"

gives
Wise
men

an

accepted
Pittakos

suggested rule good"

:
"

good,
in

for

is

loc. "'/.). (Aristotle,

Stated

full,this becomes

Example
Pittakos is

i.

good
wise of

; ;
men are

Pittakos is wise
Therefore instance infer which What
we are a

good
is the

the (i.e.,

individual
which
we

Pittakos

sign

from
two

real connection he

between

the

qualities
case

possesses).
to

usuallyinclined

do

in such

is

to

236
make formal

THE

GENERAL

NATURE

OF

INDUCTION.

the

conclusion

universal,thus
in

committing

the the

minor fault of illicit

iii. Nevertheless fig.

universal

conclusion, though formally unsound, may

the
one

be it

justified by
the

example,
to

if
a

we

have

examined between
com

thoroughlyenough
wisdom
and

discern

real connection

the

goodness.
may be in

Otherwise,their
that
are

bination
we

in this instance

and merely accidental,

are

justified only
are

concluding
cases
as

wisdom
united The

and in this follow

goodness
case, and

not

incompatible; they
so

may

be

in other where
we

well.1
go of

ing is
we

an

instance

should

quite
the

wrong
to

if
a

without leapt,

further
:

examination

case,

universal

conclusion

Ex.

2.

Potassium Potassium Therefore

The

floats
is
a

on

water

metal

;
on

metals

float

water.

enthymeme
a

in

iii. may fig.

be

compared
of

to

the the
"

of beginning

It scientific investigation. under

points out

circumstances
which
true
"

which

conjunction
has been
as following,

facts

is

popularlybelieved,or
The than

suggested to be
Mr Bosanand
a

reallytakes place.
says,
"

quet
guess

is little more

"an

observation

:
"

Ex.

j.

Yesterday it rained
All the yesterday

in the

evening;
to

smoke

tended

sink ;
or

Therefore
a

smoke-sinking may
rain.
the

be,

is

sometimes,

sign of
is what

This

formallycorrect
(see ch.
III.

are

good," reallymeans

conclusion, " 2).

"

some

wise

men

238

THE

GENERAL

NATURE

OF

INDUCTION.

Ex.

I.

Fever-stricken
This

are patients

thirsty excessively ;

thirsty patientis excessively ;

he is fever-stricken. in ii. are fig.
;
"

Therefore

Formally, all enthymemes

attempt
are an

for they invalid,

affirmative

conclusion

but
"

they practically
"
"

sign or importance. The symptom but for it might have another is not conclusive, cause; when And the conclusion has a certain probability. we all suggesting have a number of independent symptoms
of
extreme

the

same

we conclusion,

regard the
consists
of For

conclusion
"

as

prac
"

certain. tically
circumstantial series of

In

a legal investigations,

coil

of
a

evidence

nothing else
example
from
: a

than person

enthymemes
in
an

in

ii. fig.

is found
of
seen a

uninhabited
and
on

house, dead
same

the

effects

wound;

that from

running away

the Ex.

a A.B., is evening, man, neighbourhood of the house.

2.

Murderers A.B.

flee from
the may
course

the
scene

scene

of the crime
;

flees from A.B. of

of the crime

Therefore

be the murderer. very inconclusive. But that

is This, by itself, when clothes A.B.'s

are

if,
his

house

is

searched, it is found
we

then blood-stained, in

may

make

another the

enthymeme
same
"

with fig.ii.,

conclusion other

pointingin
items

direction.
e.g., A.B.'s

with Similarly

of evidence

boots fit the fresh foot-marks

the
a

going from
and
so

the
on.

house

where times

murder group

was

committed;
such of

Many
The

of the

enthymemes
a

has

or led, rightly

of what

prisoner. following examples afford tentative justifications is suggested by the last two examples in fig.
wrongly, to
execution

iii. :

"

THE

GENERAL

NATURE

OF

INDUCTION.

239

Ex. Smoke that goes

3.

downwards
are

is heavier than than

are

air ;

Particles of moisture Therefore smoke.

This

heavier

air ;

of particles

moisture

in the

descending
would the other

conclusion
in may

is the

probable;
way
a

for

the

cause

naturallyact example,
we

suggested.
rather

For

find

stronger justification.

Ex.

4.

Protective
series blance The
x

resemblances of
;

naturally increase slighterto question

in closer

through
resem

species from
in

resemblances from
to slighter

increase

in
to

genus

closer

resemblance

y ;

Therefore
tant

the resemblances

question show

impor ordinary

The

signsof being protective. that should student notice,finally,

are

our

perceptivejudgments
their

enthymemes
words
:
"

in

when ii., fig.

is expressed in implication Ex. 5. such

An

oak-tree

has

such the

and
same
an

appearances
;

This

object has
this

appearances oak-tree.

Therefore

object is
such the and
same

Again
My
That

"

brother person

has has

such

an

appearance
;

appearance brother.

Therefore Most of
our

that person mistakes

is my
in

identification inference into

arise from which the

the per

of formal invalidity

the be

ceptivejudgment

may

expanded.
we

(c)In
becomes
a

the

first

figure,as

said, the

enthymeme depends

formallyvalid syllogismwhose

truth

240

THE

GENERAL

NATURE

OF

INDUCTION.

on

the truth

of the

major premise.
scientific

The

enthymeme

in

i. differs from fig.

the

syllogism(o-vX\.oyio-/bi
the
cause
or

in fig. i., only through having as middle eTTio-T'rjiJLOviKos)

term

the

symptom

or

effect,not
will make

ground.
:
"

The

following examples
Ex.
i.

the difference clear in

Enthymeme

fig.i.
mean

All

such tion
"

combinations

of symptoms

Consump

Here

we

have

such
a

combination
of

Therefore The middle

toms
"

this is

case

Consumption.
run

physician's diagnosiswould
term
"

thus ;

and

the

the
not

combination express the

a

of characteristic symp
cause,
on

does

but the

the

effect,

of

the

disease.

But

in

treatise

he subject,
or

would

begin by describingthe
the effects "When of

specificmicrobe
into is

bacillus and
human and the

its introduction
x

the

organism :
such

bacillus
it is

such introduced,

thingsfollow; here
And
a

introduced; observe
argument
run

consequences."

when

this

is
:
"

ex

pressed formallyas
Ex. If bacillus follow ; This is
a x 2.

it would syllogism,

thus

in fig. i. Scientific syllogism is

introduced, such

and

such

things

case

of the introduction

of the bacillus ;

Therefore And When

the results in shows

question must
that the

follow.
do

observation

results

follow.
as
"

the expressed categorically,

syllogism has,
of the

its middle the i.e., We

as

term,
cause

"the

introduction disease.
up of the smoke
"

bacillus"

of the also
sum

may the

result and

of

the

discussion
the form

to
an

connection in

rain, in

of

enthymeme

i. : fig.

THE

GENERAL

NATURE

OF

INDUCTION.

24!

Ex. All that particles

than
;

3.1
the loaded air in

sink

in

damp

weather when

more

in

dry

are

with moisture

they sink
Smoke of
more

that

descends sink

before
in the

rain

is

an

example
weather

that particles than in

air in

damp

dry ;
that

Therefore with nected

smoke moisture

descends

before
"

rain is loaded

when
cause

it descends of rain.

is really i.e., con

with the

"

4.

The

Aristotelian

is Paradeigma (TrapdBeiy/jia)

call analogy. It equivalentto what we now practically is what Mill called reasoning from particular to particular,

from

one

instance

to

another. should

"Athletes
statesmen

are

not

chosen
one

by lot,therefore
Aristotle's

neither

be," is
Aristotle from

of thus

ii. 20). examples (Rhetoric,

"

describes it :
to
cases
come we

The

paradeigma
vrpo?

reasons

particular

particular (co?yLtepo?
iinder

the

same

It brings both yitepo?). universal, one being known [to

"

under argue

it]." Aristotle
one

saw

what another

Mill

did

not

if

from

to particular

which
we

resembles formed

it in certain
in
our

it is only because attributes,

a

have

minds attributes

concept,
of

which universal,
we

represents
find it to be

those

the

first object, and

All

applicableto
that
we

the

second.
or

that

Mill

proved

was

do

not,

need

not,

consciously express
this kind arranges of
reason
as

the

universal
In

in the form
to
on

of

generalproposition.
it

order

bring out
a

that clearly

ing depends example

1

Aristotle universal,
followed

an

Imperfect Induction
of
an

by

syllogism.Aristotle's
is
as

analogicalargument
(3
and

follows

"

The
Mr

Examples
another

Bosanquet's Essentials
in

4), b (3 and 4), and c (3) are of Logic, where, however, they

from
are

used

connection.

242

THE

GENERAL

NATURE

OF

INDUCTION.

war

between

the

Thebans
an

and

Phocians
war

was

war

be
the
war

tween

and neighbours, and Thebans

evil ; hence will be

between
a

Athenians between induction

War

evil, for it is

neighbours."
:
"

We

an have, first,

incomplete
disastrous

between
war

Thebans
one

and

Phocians

was

This

was
war

between

neighbours ;
disastrous. the
two

Therefore

between the is

neighboursis
which

This
cases,

brings
and
case

out

universal then

connects

which
:
"

applied deductively to
disastrous
Thebans

the

second
War

between between

neighboursis
Athenians
and

War

is

war

between

neighbours ;
Therefore
war

between

Athenians

and

Thebans

is

disastrous. The of principle from

this

universal The
more

the

is quite sound analysis and apply it to first case

; we

form

the second.

argument

from
not
"

Example
less

may
"

also be
as an

arranged
"

and concisely
in

correctly

Aristotelian

enthymeme
This
and War

ii.: fig.
war a

disastrous

is Phocis) between

to the instance of (referring between war neighbours ;

Athens

Athens

and

Thebes

is

war

between

neighbours ;
Therefore
war

between disastrous.

Athens

and

Thebes

will

probably be
This would be
an

formallyincorrect
undistributed
real

as

for it has ii.,

meme

middle

it

givesa
are

probability.In
from
one

syllogismin fig. an enthy ; but as modern Logic such

a

arguments
is
an

called arguments from

Analogy.
to

Analogy
which
re

inference it in in

instance
"

another

sembles
each

certain respects
one or more

Two
a

things resemble
certain

other

respects ;

proposi-

THE

GENERAL

NATURE

OF

INDUCTION.

243
"

tion is

true

of the one,
xx.

therefore

it is

true

of the other

Logic,III. (Mill, degrees of value,

"

2).

The

inference

may

have

all

from

being worse merely

than worthless

the resemblance

lies in
for
on a

accidental

(when to qualities),
Its
re

being a ground
worth

certain practically the

conclusion.

depends
on

importance
"

of the

pointsof
the

semblance
On what

which does the

it is based.

importance
Not
on

"

of
mere

points of
number of

resemblance

depend?
as

the
extent

resemblances,
resemblance tained

Mill

said, "the
first with
next

of
amount

ascertained
of
ascer
un

compared
of
"

the the

and difference,

with

extent

of the

explored region
"

unascertained
here referred

differences."
to

The be used

unexplored region
a

cannot

as

standard

of

comparison, simply because

the unknown
two
cases

it is "un

explored."
ence

And the

range makes it

between
mere
as

pointsof differ to take impossible

of
to

the
ences

ratio of known
a

resemblances for
an

known

differ Mill

valid

ground
xx.

inference,as
cases

maintains
one

III. (Logic, in
a

3).
large

Two

may of

resemble

another

very

number

unimportant
a inferring

respects,

not affording

the

least

ground
in

for

resemblance

in

any

other
one

quality. For
another be

instance,two
of the
same

boys

may

resemble other
same

height, features,
same

and strength, age, born

come

physicalgifts, may
town,
educated

in the

in the

way,

from

families of similar social

we

and position
one

cultiva
has have
were some

tion ; yet could

native mental the
same

infer that
a

because

of

them

abilities of
If the number

high order,the other will of points of resemblance

ought
The
are

the essential force ; but

none

the argument thing,

to

possess
reason

it is

clearlyworthless.
resemblance
says, in

is that

of

the
as

points of

fundamental.
we

Hence,

Mr

Bosanquet

Analogy

must

244

THE

GENERAL

NATURE

OF

INDUCTION.

weigh
For and
a

the like

points of resemblance,
reason

not

simply count

them.

we

must

of difference, weigh the points

cases

see

whether

the two

differ in any
be

fundamental

quality.The
ences

resemblances General

must

the differ essential,

unessential. of the the the

and systematic experience, which of the

knowledge belongs,
essential
The
are

subject to only
means

given analogy

the distinguishing

and

unessential.
has Prof.
been

following example

frequentlyused
quotes
it from
may

as

an

illustration of Analogy.

Minto

Reid
a

Powers, Essay (Intellectual

very

I. ch.

: "We iii.)

observe
we

great similitude
the other

between

this earth

which

inhabit

planets. They all revolve round the sun, as the earth does, though at different distances and in different the sun, as the all their light from periods. They borrow
and earth does. Several of them
are

known
means

to

revolve have

round
suc

their axis like the cession

serve moon

earth, and

by that

like

of
to

day and
them
us.

night.

Some

of them

have

moons,

that

give
to

does
same

of the sun, as our light in the absence in their motions, subjectto They are all, the
to

the

law it is
our

of
not

as gravitation

earth think

is.

From

all this

similitude
may,

unreasonable the

that these

planets
of

like

earth, be
The in
two
are

habitation

of various
states

orders

living creatures."
ever,

inference,as
ways,

Reid

it,is,how

defective he

(i) Though
he

all the
not

points
the

which

mentions

important,

does

mention

conditions for the existence of life ; (2) absolutely necessary that the other planets may he neglects the possibility differ from
are

the earth
not

in such

ways
are

that the

those

essential

conditions of the

fulfilled.

What

essential conditions

the existence of of life? 1 mean "By life we possibility organisms which depend upon the possession of a nitrog changes enous compound, protoplasm, for the chemical exhibited and of living are ; upon by which the phenomena in the atmosphere, or dissolved in water, of the presence their nitrogenous constituents with which element oxygen,
the
1

That

is, of "life"

in

the

only

sense

of

the

word

which

we

can

conceive.

246

THE

GENERAL

NATURE

OF

INDUCTION.

reasoningwhich
life.
modern of But he

we

are

constantly employing directlyface

have end of the formulated

in

daily
of

does

not
we

problem

Induction,as
and

it at the end

"

againat
real

the

"

2.

Our

experience is
events
one

fragmentary and
one,

incomplete ; it gives us
connections have
to

by

whose

be

discovered.
connections what
con

What between

Science
fact and
must

does

is

to

seek
we

for

causal
to

fact ; and

want
we
can

know

ditions
such that
a

be satisfied before between

two

infer legitimately that

we can

connection is the

so facts,

say

one

Cause, the conclusive

of the the form the
P
are a

sign or
an
"

necessary is
a

accompaniment,
universal
or, to

other.
"

Such
"

assertion S
must

law, in
and

S is P

or
"

be

P,"
"

bring out
of such

real

meaning,

if S is M

it is P

(where M
knowledge
we
are sure

causallyconnected). And
law is

if the

properlyreached,
"

that
cause

is,if
of

that M the

and

nothing but
between
We
can

M M

is the
and
P

P,

"

then

connection

is inde

pendent
to

of time and
cases

place.
in the has

reason

backwards
the future M.

unobserved
be
sure

past and

dip into

and

that P
two

always been produced by

questionsconcerningour dis of Nature. How the principle came covery of a Law into the inquirer's ? mind, as a suggestion or a possibility
are

There

different

How,
attend

when
to

once

is it to be proved ? suggested,

We

will

the latter

only for
where

the present,
most

the most consider

fundamental. first the

"

It will be such

case

Laws

logically advantageousto most are easily

as

it is

obtained,

Induction

in Mathematics. Induction
:
"

(a) In
quote
a

illustration of Geometrical from

we

may

forcible passage
in the
we

Jevons

"When

fifth

of proposition

the

first book
an

of

Euclid

prove

that the each

anglesat

the base of done

isosceles

are triangle

equal to

other,it is

by takingone

THE

GENERAL

NATURE

OF

INDUCTION.

247

triangleas particular
which the reader
is

an

example.
to

figure is given
two

requested
the

regard as having
those

equal sides,and
be
must

it is then also.

conclusively proved
But

that if the sides sides

really equal
be

angles opposite to
Euclid
treats

equal

says
one

nothing about
we

other
a are

isosceles

triangles ;
that

he

as single triangle

sufficient asked
to

specimen
believe

of all isosceles what be

so

and triangles, of that is true

as

is
so

true

of

any

other, whether
a

its sides

small

to

be
to

only
the

visible in

microscope,or
There

large as

to

reach
an

farthest fixed star. number of isosceles

may

evidentlybe
be

infinite the

as regards the lengthof triangles

equal sides,and
the number
of

each

of these

may

varied infinitely

the or diminishing by increasing

contained

angle,so

that

is infinitely possibleisosceles triangles

we are

infinite ; and

yet

asked

to

believe
we

of this incom have know that

to
two

prehensiblenumber
only
much be of
one

of

objects what
We

proved
with
as

single specimen. as knowledge can certainty

as

do

possess, earth

if lines
stars

conceived

drawn

from make

the

equally distant, they will

line the

equal angles with

we can

the

joiningthose
this passage
"

stars

; and

yet

never

have

tried

experiment."
In

Jevons
out

has

well

shown

the

"univer
But

sality of
does
not

the results of Geometrical

reasoning.
is the
most

he

clearlybring
reason

what

essential

the point, examination

why
a

this

is attainable. universality
we

By
ab
It is

of

singlecase
law. How

have

reached

an

solutelyuniversal
for possible
are we

is this know the

possible?

two

reasons.

We

by

definition what

the

essential from
Hence

of qualities these
we are

isosceles

triangle ;
from

and
no

argue

essential
certain

and qualities that the every

others.
true

result will be isosceles tri-

of every

isosceles

for triangle;

24$

THE

GENERAL

NATURE

OF

INDUCTION.

must angle,simplybecause it is isosceles,

agree

with

our

specimen
The

in

all the any

qualities necessary
or sides,

for the

proof.
of the

length of
"

of the which

the

size of any

angles, points in
any

any

triangle may
in the

differ from of the

other,
"

are

not

included
the

definition which the

and they are not triangle, depended. of the The universality certain of what absolutely of in question; triangle in geometry

pointson

proof being
kind

result
are
we

depends

on

our

the essentials
can

of the

and

be certain of these
not

because
The

definitions have
his
own

to be

discovered.

frame geometriciancan change them, if necessary.

and definitions,

which formula (b) Let us next consider an algebraical is true universally the letters true whatever /."?., quantities be proved that represent. It may easily may a?-P. (a+ ") (a-b) Having proved this in the singlecase, we know that the the result is of absolutely universal validity, whatever be, provided that a and b are different quantities may quantities.How do we know this ? Because the proof depended only on the definition and rules of algebraical the essential qualities," to on so multiplication,"
"

"

"

speak, of
the terms and the

this
a

operation,and
b

not

on

any And
to

quantitythat
the

and

might represent.
operation have
the
not

definition

rules of the

be

discovered ;
his
own

like algebraist,

geometrician,frames
termed technically reaches
a

definitions.

(c)There
matical
from
two
or

is

"

process

Mathe

Induction,"which
three the

universal conclusion
same

instances.

It illustrates the
; but

as principle

previous inductions
which may be

it is in

specially
a

to applicable

terms

arranged

regular
follow-

series whose

order of

is known. progression

The

THE

GENERAL

NATURE

OF

INDUCTION.

249
De

ing, which
Morgan
"

is

simple example, fairly proof

there that the square odd in

is

given by
number

"

Observe
to
as

the
many

of any

is

equal
with 6x6=1 and

consecutive
are

numbers, beginning
that number
:

unity, as
write down
a

units
11.

thus
",

+ 3 + 5+ 7+ 9 +
n

Take and

any

number,
a

dots in rank

that so file,

dot

represents

unit.
must

To

into ("+ i) X enlargethis figure

(ti +

) dots, we

place n

more

dots

at

each

of

two

at the corner. adjacent sides,and one more of n is changed into the square square

So that the of odd

101

("+i)

by

adding 2/2+1, (Thus

the theorem
100

which
oo

is the

("+i)th
101

number.

Xi

is turned

into

by adding
the of

joist

odd be
true

number,
of
n

or

201).

If then
true

alleged

", it is therefore

("+ i)X
i

("+ i).

But

it is true
true

of the firstnumber, for

"

therefore it is

of the second
"

2x2 i.e.,
=

"

+ 3;
so

and on."

therefore of the third Here

we we

i.e., 3X3
terms

+ 3 + 5; and
3,

have the

series of

(i, 2,
every

"c.)in
every

which

know

relation wish
to

between
a

pair of
of

consecutive
term

terms.

We We
we

establish the

fact about

in

it.
which

suppose that
therefore
next

fact holds

any

one

term,

denote which

by

; and

prove We

that it holds then

i

of the

term,

is "+i. of the
2 on

find
;

by

observation
it
must

that it holds of the result

first term,
so on.

therefore
univer

hold
the

second,

; and

The

of sality relation

depends
terms

the fact that the essential

(whichis simplya
is
on

numerical

one) between
",
n

any the

pair of consecutive proof depends

On the other
cannot

known,

as

; and

this alone.

hand, where
be without is
a case

this

proof from
may
sure

the essential theorem it holds

conditions
in
case

obtained,we
of
"

a verify

after

case,

being

that

universally. This

incomplete induction

250

THE

GENERAL

NATURE

OE

INDUCTION.

by simple enumeration
enumeration is

of

instances." positive from the very

Complete
nature

for impossible, of
cases

of the
was

quantitythe

number

is infinite. believed that

x

Thus,
22X
1 -{-

great mathematician

Fermat

always a prime number,

He could
case

whatever

value

might
be
so.

have. Case result

was

not, however, prove

was

that it must
x
=

after

tested, until 4294967297.

be
a

and

the

amounted found rule

not

to to

This

large number

prime;
on

it is divisible the

by 641.
absence

based

only

observation,in
be asserted
to

of

demonstration,

cannot

be

always
can

true.
we

Now, with these instances before

as

us, what

say
an

to

the conditions
case

of proof
The

for

general law, from

on

individual

proof depends

two

conditions.

grasped some (1) We must be sure that we have really in the particular thingessential or fundamental case, and not are arguingfrom changeable or accidental qualities ; (2)we must be sure that any new case exactlyresembles
the old

in

those In

characteristics
both

on

which

the
are

proof
abso
own

depended.

mathematics for the is

conditions
makes argues have

lutely secured,
But in nature and

mathematician and essential,

his from
to

definitions of what
the

them. be
dis

essential conditions
This and is the

covered

proved.

great

difference

between

physicalinduction,and all the difficulties of physical induction it. result from There The of error. are always the two possibilities with sufficient been examined not have case original may thoroughness ; or, in applying the general rule which derive from it, in thinkingthat be mistaken we we may
mathematical the
new case

resembles really

the

old.

If the

result of
reasons.

induction

is "uncertain," it is
other
as

only

for these of the

Jevons
of

and

writers

constantlyspeak
as

results

induction

only "probable,"

containingan

THE

GENERAL

NATURE

OF

INDUCTION.

251
are care

element ful any

to

of

"

uncertainty." This
not in
to

is true, if

we

in the rightplace. If there is put the uncertainty

because
we a

it arises uncertainty
our senses

go

beyond

the

experience of
that

stating

law, but because

is liable experience
we

the

double

misinterpretation
as

of which

have

spoken.
induction, then,
laws of
Dr from

We

may
of

define

the

legitimate
cases.
:

inference This agrees

universal with
one

individual

Fowler's

definitions
the

"the

inference legitimate
for
sense
"

of the
not

general from
used

particular is
in which Dr

"

here

in the

particular," rigidnarrow
definition
of

it is

Another objectionable.1 is based

on one
"

givenby

Fowler

of Mill's views

and induction, of the unknown

is very from

misleading:
the known better

inference legitimate future from the

(of the

past)."
what
or we

This reach

is much
is
a

expressed by saying that

if the could
can new

generalproposition. And
were

"future"

cases

unknown strictly
them.

we

not

to apply the general principle

We

only
new

do

this

so

far

as

we

know

the constitution
must

of the
same

cases

in this respect
as

"

they
was

contain

the

conditions
cause

the

one

which

first examined.
must

The

dis

covered the other

in the
cases.

case original

be

reallyoperative in
of from inferring
we

We
to

can

hardly speak
when

the "known" there certain

must

the

"unknown"

know them

that in

be

complete identity between

that there is is
a

respects.
It is
true
an

"

6.

assumptioninvolved
must
"

in

induction.

There

which principle
be

be

granted

if scientific investigation is to
1

possible, a
is

necessary

The

sense

in which

it

means

something that

only

"here

and

now,"
would

unconnected with other pointingto nothing beyond itself, in this sense, be known, for that can never things. A "particular,"

destroyits isolation.

252

THE

GENERAL

NATURE

OF

INDUCTION.

of presupposition

scientific method.
event

We

must

grant

beforehand that every

or

has

cause.

This

principle
place

postulate is called the Law

Fowler
states

of

Universal
can

Causation. take

Dr

it thus

"

No

change

being preceded or accompanied by other circum if we were stances, which fullyacquainted with them would for the change." This fully account principle be shown be implied in all thinking. Even to may
and children, the lower
races

without

of men, it.

though they do
If the savage would

not
were

think
content

of it, think
to

accordingto
any
event
are

leave

unexplained,he
controlled

not

imagine that
olent
of
an
or

all events

malev by spirits,
to

benevolent. without Even

no

It is in fact impossible

think
or

event

referring it to
we

cause,

known

unknown.

if

had
as

state

of affairs where way of

the
con

past gave

assurance

to

the

future,our
to

it would ceiving

not

be contrary
We

the

of principle

the

of Causation. Universality had added capricious power this was turningthem now

should

think

that

some

itself to the
way and
now

and conditions,

that. Causation
Dr

By
Fowler

the

side

of the

Law

of Universal

another fundamental of as places, presupposition the law that the same have the must induction, cause
same same
as

effect ; when

the

same

conditions This

are

fulfilled the

result will follow. the of principle

as

is sometimes
Nature

referred
; it

to

the

of Uniformity

is better

described
as

the
on

"

Unity of Nature," Uniformity of Causation."

the that this

"

or, less

abstractly,
will
the in is

The

student

see

reflection

is principle
; for

included Cause effect

of principle
meant

Universal
a

Causation
on

by
the

just

in science

condition

which followed

always

follows

("7).
would

If it sometimes

and

sometimes discover

did not, there would it ; you

be

no

objectin tryingto
a cause

simply not

have

at

all.

254
Mill

THE

GENERAL

NATURE

OF

INDUCTION.

expresses unknown

the

of Uniformityby saying principle will be similar

to

that "the

the

known,

and This

the future resemble is

not

the

III. iii. " 2). past" (Logic,

the

scientific

principleof Uniformity;
of which
we

it is the and

practical presumption
there is
no
"

have

spoken,
"

The it. necessityabout unlike the future," says Green, might be exceedingly without of the words), past (in the ordinarysense any of inductive reasoning, violation of the principle rightly intellectual understood. of periences what think
If

the

'likeness'

means

that future

the

ex

sensitive been

beings in
in the

the

will be is
reason

like
to

they

have

past, there

otherwise. what

Present it
was

experienceof
in the time

this sort of the

is very

different from
saurus."
l

ichthyo
an

And
as

even

at
as

present
one

experience has

aspect of chaos

There are regularity. of Nature indeed in the infinite variety ordinary many others or events perplexing, uncommon, ; but appear of things. This to the general run even contradictory well of is
not

fullyadmitted only uniform

are

by

Mill

"

The

course

of

Nature Some
same

is

; it is also

various. infinitely
to
recur

phenomena
conditions
seem

always seen
we

in the very
at

in which

met

with

them
some,

first; others
we

capricious altogether ; while

accustomed
to

which

had

been
to
a

regard
of
some

as

bound

down
we

exclusively
unexpectedly
with
which
to

set particular

combinations,
of them the

find
we

detached had of

from

elements

hitherto found

conjoined,and
"

united

others

III. iii. 2). quitea contrary description(Logic, Mill and Fowler regard the belief in Uniformityas based on induction from uninterrupted experience. This

is

only true
1

of the belief that the present order of Nature

on

Green,

Lectures

the

Logic of J. S.

Mill

Works, (Philosophical

vol. ii.p.

282).

THE

GENERAL

NATURE

OF

INDUCTION.

255
a

will continue

in the

future.
human

This

belief is

late devel that

opment.
course

In

earlyages
was

beings believed

the

of

Nature

rupted. ity of
traced, as
savages. factured

But

the belief is not

have

inter always being capriciously and Uniform in the Universality

a

Causation
we

late
even

development
in
the

it

can

be

seen,
no

speculationsof
can

And

there is

evidence

that it

be

manu

impossible essentially by experience. It seems exists that actually with the irregularity that experience, have produced a belief that every event in it, can of itself
has the
a

cause,

and
event.
are

that the And

same

cause
were

will
so,
"

always produce
if the
laws

same

if it based
means on

of
to

Causation
our

wholly
then based kind this
on

experience as
all others

given
admit

senses,

"

that the whole Mill and

"

of inductive
to

reasoning is
be the of

what of

weakest

induction,

simple enumeration

instances." merely positive

Professor

Bain, following Mill,talks about

he
as

"

the

inductive
diffi

hazard," "the leap to the future"; but place. He speaks culty in the wrong
time

is

puttingthe
mere cause.
a

if the
of

lapse of
Time the

could

have

an

effect
causes

on

the

action
would

might produce
so

other

which

counteract
we

first,

the "hazard"

certainlyexists

; but

if

have

ascertained
a

and action of the same presence of time makes instance, the passage certainty of the effect.
the

cause
no

in

subsequent
to

difference

the

"

7. How

shall

we

define

Cause? aims
at

From

the stand

point of
account

Inductive

Logic, which

of scientific method,

this

a general giving questionmeans, What

is the

best

definition of Cause
Let
us

in the

scientific

sense

of

the word?
ch.

consider

Mill's account

III. (Logic,

v.)

(a) He
cedent
"

defines

the

Cause

first

as

the invariable is found

ante

of succession Invariability

by observ-

256
ation other

THE

GENERAL

NATURE

OF

INDUCTION.

to

obtain

between has

every

fact in Nature the

...

and

some

fact which

preceded it ;
the And
cause,

invariable
con

antecedent

is termed the effect.

the

invariable the

sequent
of

the

of universality every

law

Causation

consists in
in this
set
manner

this,that
with
some

consequent

is connected
tecedent then
or

an particular

of antecedents" that the

"

(III.v.
a

2). (b) He
"

pointsout
when

invariable

antecedent group

is not of
con

usuallyone
as ditions,

but circumstance, particular

a

person
"

eats

of

dish particular
not

and if

dies in consequence he had

not eaten

"that

is,would

have

died

of it " ; not

ing
state

of it in combination of

only the food, but the tak with a particular constitution,

"

"c., health, climate,

which

these

constitute

the group

of conditions
v.

is the "invariable

antecedent" choose
one,

(III.
some

3). Among these what and arbitrarily,

shows that invariable the

conditions
call it the sequence

we

Cause,
an

(c) He
as

then

is not

adequate defini
"uncon
mean

tion, unless
ditional." when of

sequence says

is also

regarded

"This,"

Mill, "is what

of Cause is necessary,

writers

they say
means

that the notion which

involves

the idea
must

necessity ; that
make with
comment

that which

be,
may

that which

will
to

be, whatever
other of the

regard
on

we supposition things" (III.v. 6).

We

will

each

three steps in Mill's

development time, of
relation the of
a

of the idea of Cause.

on (a),

By layingstress,in
in priority

his first statement

the

or antecedence,

What Cause, Mill raises the question, time time

we

is the
we
can

sequence

to
"

causation?

Now

only have after,when

and
cases

sequence have
two
as

and a relation of before i.e.,

distinct
two to

events.

Can

cause

effect be

regarded
may have

distinct events?
lend

Some such
a

of causation
"

seem

support

to

conception

e.g., we

(a)the

cause,

the introduction

THE

GENERAL

NATURE

OF

INDUCTION.

257
the effect, afterwards.
never

of

microbes

into
of
a

livingbody
disease
:

;
some

the (fr) time

appearance But

certain far

this is

going too
effect
as

even

popular thought
the
cause

regardsthe
them in the above

separatedfrom
The

; it

regards
not

only as

distinct in time.
case

apparent separation
we

arises from

the fact that

have

considered
has reached called

the immediate
an

but have waited effect,

until it have

advanced effect.

stage of development and

Cause and
"

this the
a

effect
a

are

divided
of the
on

simply by
breadth
current
"

mathematical is thrown
;
on
one

line

line

destitute
across

which of events

by
side
is

our we

thought
have pause the in

cause,

the other

the effect.

There

no

reality ; the
cause comes

whole
into

process action be

is continuous
at

; the immediate
moment

only

the

very The
and

when

the

effect

beginsto
is the
of
one

produced.
of
cause

point to
effect.
of
two

be borne
But

in mind

continuity
and

the relation

antecedent

consequent,
not

distinct events,

the other,is following

the essential aspect of the

true

causal of

relation. into

It
a

is,of
human

course,

that the entrance

microbes

body
no

is "followed"

by

certain
case.

disease; but
The

this is
matter

essential is that
as

aspect of the
soon as

essential
effect
a

the

microbes

lodgment
of

in

the

human
In

body they Chemistry,

in the
pro

begin

to

secrete

injurioussubstances. Oxygen
of
water

again,the
from the

union

and
one

Hydrogen
is
not
an

portionby weight of eightto

formation

event

distinct is

the

whole

process

continuous.
Hence Mill's first statement

that (a),

the

cause

is the

"invariable
that the
cause

antecedent," is corrected
is
"

in his To

third

(*"),

unconditional."
that

say that

causa

tion is duced

means unconditional,

the effect will be pro

to

whatever

we

suppose

the circumstances
R

be.

It

258
means

THE

GENERAL

NATURE

OF

INDUCTION.

that has

some

kind found

of connection in

deeper
way

than

that of

time

been

; the cause

some

necessitates

the effect.

Obviously
is in

this

connection, where

it

can

be

established, is of
sequence In the

supreme

importance, and
of
no

the

time

comparison
with
a

importance.
statement

connection
is often find
a

Mill's

second group

that (fr)

cause

complex
which
"

of facts

actingto
as

gether,we
of the

passage
:

is often Cause

quoted
sum

his total

final definition

of Cause

The

is the

taken together negative, ; of every of the contingencies the whole description, follows. the consequent which being realised, invariably and conditions,positive The under

negativeconditions
one

may

all be
of

summed

up

head, namely, the absence

preventingor
of cir

causes." counteracting that

we

it is quitetrue speaking, Strictly

at
"

cannot

stop
say,

any

limited combination

cumstances,
the when
an
"

and
; for

constitute these,and nothingelse,

are

cause a

all events

connected is
a sense

together,
"

stone

is

dropped, there
all time
as

in which

it has any in

effect
may

through
be
at
more

and the

all space.

Thus,
causes

event

regarded
the
remote
we

effect of all the

But

the

universe

preceding moment.
conditions
to know
are

all these for

further and

usuallytaken
event
to

granted.
The various
cover

What

want

is the immediate
to

cause.

scientific ways,
some

seeks investigator and

isolate the
so it, as

in

examine

or

analyse
with

dis

definite circumstance and

mean

which
not

the

event

will occur, is what times

cause we

without

which

it will

occur.

This Some

by

the

"immediate
to

cause." the

it is
as a

more

convenient

regard
as
a

immediate of facts

singlefact,sometimes

group

acting together.
For
an

example, in the formation of water by the electric spark through a vessel containing two

passage

of

parts (by

THE

GENERAL

NATURE

OF

INDUCTION.

259
immediate
energy,

volume) of Hydrogen
cause

and

one

of action

Oxygen,
of the

the

is the

one

fact be.

of the
On the

electric

whatever of is
a

it may

other

hand,
in the the

in the
course

modification
of ages,

speciesof

the

animal
to

kingdom
consider
"

it

more

convenient immediate action

of

of possibility

several

different direct

causes

the

e.g.) Natural environment ; the

the of
a

Selection; the
inheritance
own

of

characteristics "c.

acquired by
in the
the
case

creatures'

activities, through
is the

Again,
shot in

person's death
cause

being

heart, the immediate

we ing of the heart by the bullet, which a single fact. This stops the heart's action

may
; and

pierc regard as
heart's
the

the

action

is

one

of the
of that

processes

necessary

in

order

that

complex
ourselves
go

process

physical life
in
causes

should do

continue.
not
sense.

It is evident

ordinary life we
circumstances

usually trouble
We
do
not

about the
cause

immediate

in this

beyond

preceding
arose
"

out

of which person
which

the

immediate
fired

e.g., the

action

of

the

who
are

the bullet.

Such

antecedent
some

circumstances,
ourselves.

strikingand
the
what
" "

important from
with which
we

practical pointof view, are

Sometimes,

causes

concern

the important is scientifically be of great importance to know least will produce an without circumstances what event knowing be of importance how they produce it. For instance,it may to clear the premises of rats ; traps, strychnine,phosphorus, the practically important : it may
most

is

and
choose
rats.

terriers
:

are
we

various do
not
as

"causes
a

"

between

which

we

must

but

rule

hold

Popularly, we take as the cause for some or practical arbitrarily purpose.

The

post-mortem s on dead an antecedent, selected

seeks,
may

Immediate
group
as

complex
sidered
be does among
to
a

of

Cause, for which conditions,each

;

Science
one

may

be
con

of which

be

co-operatingcause

on

the

other

single definite circumstance, and to not necessarily imply an arbitraryselection

the
one

hand, it may regard it as such

of

it from

surrounding conditions.
definite fact
to
or a

be

it is taken But, whether definite group of facts, it is always in the absence

presence of of which it does

understood the
not event

be that

circumstance in the

takes

place, and

which

take

place.

260

THE

GENERAL

NATURE

OF

INDUCTION.

"

8. Mill

says

much

of what says,
means

he

calls the that

a

"

Plurality
be
"

of Causes." the uniform

"

This, he
consequent
causes

fact may

of several different antecedents

; many
causes

e.g.,

many

motion;
If so, how
to

many
can

produce death causes produce a

cause

produce
x. (III. i).
"

sensation"

the

be

the invariable

antecedent,
"

say
"

nothing
?
"

of

the

being invariability
the the
as

uncondi
"

tional

The is

fact is that

doctrine
" "

of

Plurality
to at

of Causes in end
a

only true
way, The

when such

cause
we

is understood the

loose of

popular
7.

referred

disappears before any exact plurality is consistent only scientific investigation ; the doctrine "
with We
"

the may

popular

and

not

with

the
some

view scientific of
"

of

cause.

illustrate this
are

by
of

Mill's

instances.

There

many

causes

motion,"
;

heat ; electrical and the doctrine modern

matter

magnetic action
of

impact ; Yet gravitation.

rules in all motion

visible

of the Conservation

Energy, which namely, by

causes
a

Physics,means
is

that practically
same are

produced complex
If any

in the
"

way, many

other

motions
But

in matter.
a

There process

of death." multitude

life is

of consisting which
some

of

co-operating processes,
one

of

are

directly
is
can

essential.

of
ceases

these
; and

essential processes
the
are

interfered

with, life
one

interference many
causes

only be
death "death"

of

kind.

Hence there
are

there many
as

of
;

only
is
may

because
a

kinds

of

death "A

fact have
most

as

complex

"life."
causes."

Again:
But

disease

many

different

the

youngest and
"

successful

of recent
"

scientificstudies

sometimes
that
to

called many life

"

Bacteriology
of disease
"

has

proved beyond
those
most

doubt

kinds
are
one

among the

inimical
human

produced by

entrance

into the

body

of

kind particular
"

of the

extremely
Thus,

minute

livingorganisms known

as

microbes."

262

THE

GENERAL

NATURE

OF

INDUCTION.

EXERCISE. What

1.

do

we

understand Mill

by

Cause his

in view

inductive of
Cause?

investigation? Is [St A.] Or,

Examine

consistent

in

Mill's view
the
must

of the

relation

of Causation

(a) to
" "

Experience, (b) to
"

2. cause

The
must

cause

Uniformity of Nature. be contiguous to the

the

[G.]
effect
;

The

precede
is

effect;"
statements.

"

Cessante

causa,

cessat

Discuss effectus." 3. the

"

these

[St A.]
from the known
to to

Induction

legitimateinference
inductive
view

unknown";
Examine

"The the

hazard," the

leap

the

future."
statements.

of Induction

implied
and

in these

[St A.] sign (or symptom} 4. Distinguish between causal condition), givingexamples. [L.]
5. In
sense one

cause

(or
other

what

sense

may

it be
"

affirmed, and
a

in what
can

may
"

it be ?

denied, that

phenomenon

have

only
cause

cause

[L.]
the value of the distinctions
cause

6. Examine

(a)between
Or,

and
"

condition,(b)between
The

and is

reason.

conception
to

of

Cause

ultimately identical with

that of the Reason." reference 7. What

Cause

Examine of

this statement,

making

some

Mill's view

varietyof

Causality. [St A.] meaning has been assigned to

the antecedence and

the word

[E.j
relation does the ? of sequence of causation, and to the principle

8. In what

phenomena stand to Uniformity of Nature

''

[L.]

the presuppositions distinguish carefully in Inductive involved Inference, and estimate the degree of which this kind of argument yields. [E.] certainty
9. Enumerate

and

10.

"

cause

is

an

effect concealed this

an

effect is

cause

revealed."
11.

Examine is meant Discuss

critically.[L.] per
enumerationem
was

What

by Induction
its value.

sim-

plicem ?
of it?
1 2.

What

Aristotle's

view

Illustrate Induction the

same

as

used

in arithmetic
as

and

geometry.
?

governed by [L.] Or,

Is it

principles

PhysicalInduction

THE

GENERAL

NATURE

OF

INDUCTION.

263

Consider mathematical

the

necessity
science and
the

attaching
natural

to

the

conclusions

of

science

respectively.
doctrine

13.

Explain

concisely (b)
of the modern

Aristotelian
How ? What

(a)
these

of

the

Enthymeme,
ments

Paradeigma.

are

argu
to

treated

in
?

logic

is

their

relation

the

syllogism
14.

Explain,

illustrate,

and

estimate

the

value

of

Analogical

Reasoning.
In What what

[G.]
different
meant

Or,
senses

has

the

word
from

Analogy Analogy?
an

been
State

used?
the

is
of

by

Reasoning reasoning.

rules and
"

analogical
of bad

Give

example
Or,
a

of

good

one

analogical
considered,
this

reasoning.
Analogy
is

[E.]
always

Logically
Examine

weak

argu

ment."

carefully.

264

CHAPTER

IX.

THE

THEORY

OF

INDUCTION

OR

SCIENTIFIC

METHOD.

"

i.

EXPERIENCE

presents

to

us

chaos

of innumerable

and in succession. events, together has first to ascertain

"

In this

chaos, science
"

the

facts ; facts
account
or

then, to
are

ascertain

what

follows what"

what i.e.,

connected invariably for these

are
so

together;
Hence may be

and

then,
how

to

regular con
connected.

nections,to
there

show
are

why they

three stages in scientific method, which

as Experiment, and Observation, distinguished do more Explanation. The first two of these cannot it so ? the question of fact, Was than answer they are off practically shade and into one identical, logically
"
"

another.

We

may
we

call them shall see,

"steps

towards the

Explana goal
and of
to
ex

tion,"for, as
Science. observation

Explanationis
are

Some
;

sciences

limited practically observation

others

employ

both

periment; and others are able not only to establish facts but to explain them. by experiment and observation,
The

first step towards Observation

in
a

Explanation is
a

to
as

observe
a

the

facts.

is
order

mental
to

as

well

physical
must must

for activity;1 attention

more or

observe, not

only
we

the

take

but direction, particular

of what
we

be

less conscious

other

like words, observation,

1

lookingfor. In ordinary perception,is

are

To

overlook

this

was

Bacon's

great mistake.

THE

THEORY

OF

INDUCTION.

265

selective. of what that pass

man's
to
a

experienceconsists,indeed, only
be interested in.
never

he agrees before

Millions

of events

man

enter

into his

at experience

all; they have

not

no

interest for It that

utter

him, and
well-founded

hence

he

does of

notice

them.

is

doctrine

modern

psychology
be
an

without chaos.

selective
"

ex interest,

periencewould
accent

Interest alone

gives

and
"

emphasis, lightand

shade, background and

Our in a word. perspective, foreground, intelligible on interest lays its weightyindex-finger particular own and may items of experience, emphasise them so as to

give to
And

the least

frequentassociations
the most

far

more

power

to

shape our ledge; mind,

ance.

thoughts than

frequentever by

in science the may The

the interest

from springs noticed

possess." previousknow
a

when simplestfact,

well-prepared
import
Watt's

become

an

observation

of immense of

too-familiar anecdotes
force of steam of the in

James

ob

servation of the
and
trate

the kettle-lid, lifting illus

Newton's
our more one

observation The he
one

falling apple,will

point.
than

true

observer in

bringsto

his observ how

to

ation

finds

it,and

yet knows

abandon

by

his most

cherished

preconceptions
observation the facts
are

if the facts will not We and

must

support them.

between carefully distinguish

In
to

experiment.
are

simple observation,
Nature
;

observed

due

in has
"

experiment, they

arranged by
"

ourselves. between is

Jevons
the two
to
:

described excellently

the difference
To

observe
are

merely

notice

events

and of

changes
nature,
or

which without
vary

produced in the ordinarycourse to being able,or at least attempting,

changes.
Thus the of the sun, moon, and

control

those

early astronomers

ob

served the

the motions

planetsamong
of the laws

fixed stars, and

graduallydetected

many

266

THE

THEORY

OF

INDUCTION

or

the and and

it is that Thus of those bodies. returns periodical observes the ever-changing weather, meteorologist
notes

the

heightof
of the

the

barometer, the temperature

and force of the of the

moistness

the direction air, character

wind, the height and

clouds, without

being in the least able to govern any of these facts. when The is generally a simple observer geologist, again, The and of rocks. he investigates the nature position the botanist,and the mineralogistusually zoologist,
employ
natural
"

mere

observation

when

they
are

examine with

animals,
in their

plants, and
In

minerals,

as

they

met

condition.

experiment,
of

on

the contrary,

we

vary at

our

will then

the combinations observe the

thingsand
It is thus
water

and circumstances, that the chemist electric

the result.

discovers
current

composition of

by usingan
and

to

separate its two

constituents, oxygen

hydrogen.
he
a

The
two

mineralogist may
or

employ experiment when togetherto ascertain produced.

Even how been

melts

three substances have

particular

mineral may

the botanist and

observation ; for by to passive not confined are zoologist removing animals or plants to different climates and different soils, and by what is called domestication, they may try how far the natural forms and species
are

capable
All the

of alteration." the fact

event
are

advantagesof experimentspringfrom
means

that

by this

we

can

isolate

or

insulate

an

by fully

presentingit under acquainted.

circumstances
meanwhile Discourse the
on

circumstances

with which thus

"

we

The
"

importanceof
seen

knowing
Sir

all the
;

will be

in the from

followingsections J.
Herschel's

following passage
the the

Study of
contrast

Natural

Philosophy will
observation
and

point experiment:
help
to
"

between

OR

SCIENTIFIC

METHOD.

267
listen
at to
a

"

In

simple Observation
us,

we

sit still and

told tale,

and piecemeal, perhaps obscurely,

long

intervals of It is

time, with
after

our

attention
that

more we

or

less awake.

only by
and
to

rumination
the
our

gather
not
at
we

its full

import;
we

often, when
regret that
to

opportunityis
attention
was

gone

by,
more

have

directed particularly

some

point which,
but
In
our

the
at
on

time,

appeared
other

of

little moment,

of

which

length
the
com

appreciatethe
hand,
we

importance.
cross-examine

Experiment,
witness,and
the

by

paring one
enabled
to

part of his evidence

with

other, while he

is yet before us, and

are

to

reasoningupon it in his presence, the questions, put pointed and searching

may
at
once

answer

which

enable

us

to

make

up

our

minds.
in
are

Accordingly,it departments
our

has been

found

that invariably the

those

of

where physics
or

phenomena experimental
carried, the
in

beyond
of

control,
causes,

into
has
not

which been

from inquiry, progress

other

knowledge
in such have

has
as

been
admit

slow, uncertain, and

of

irregular ; while
which

experiment,and

mankind
and

agreed to its adoption,it has

that these other
two

been

rapid, sure,
We
must

steady."
it is

remember
between and the

impossibleto
or we

draw when

preciseline
one

processes,
But
to

to
can

say

ends

begins.

clearly
to

the distinguish which

ment

sciences
upon

according

the

extent

experiment. Without Mechanics, Physics,and Chemistry could

they depend
and these
state.
are

experi
scarcely
in
an

exist ; advanced

fundamental

sciences

In

Physiology experiment naturally

part, for,if made
of the
at

plays a
be made

much
on

smaller the

it has all,
In

to

organs

body. living
"

the

sciences

descriptionand classification, Botany, Zoology, Mineralogy, the range of experiment is still

of
"

268

THE

THEORY

OF

INDUCTION

more

restricted ; while
may say

in

Astronomy, Geology, Meteor

far far
as as we
we

ology,we

concerned, is
of be

experiment,as impossible. We say "as

that Nature
a

are are

concerned," because
mena

sometimes

produces pheno
may
an

so

remarkable
an

character

that she
"

be said

to

making
What second the

experimentherself
have

as

in

"eclipse
us

of the sun."

"
to

2.

we

said of

Experiment introduces Explanation, which

is
This is

the

step towards
Cause
of the

to

ascertain

fact.

usually im
have

We investigation. possible except by experimental

to

look

for the Cause

one

in

some

fact which

precedes (or
causal

the accompanies) connections Mere prove the

are

under
"

investigation ; and
to

not
as

given, they have

Professor
to

be discovered.

sequence,
consequence

Minto
so

puts

it, does
be
The
events to

not

suppose

would hoc. of

commit

of post hoc ergo propter fallacy is, in the ever-changingsuccession Nature

question
which

presents, what
from those

events

are are

causallyconnected, conjoined? casually

warrant
a as

in distinction When do

which

observations This

of post hoc

conclusion much
*

propter hoc 1
the possible

is decided

by varying
what

as

circumstances
to

of the

phenomenon

under
or

so as investigation,

eliminate

is unessential

casual In of the

in them.
an

elementary work
methods of causal

it is best

to

base

our

account

Mill.

Mill

elaborated

that of J. S. on investigation five rules for such investigation, which the he called of

statingfive distinct

processes

respect
Differ

ivelythe
ence,
1

Method

of

Agreement,
of

Method and
which

the
word

Joint Method
"phenomenon"
with
"

Agreement

Difference,

The

that ($aiv6iJifvov)
"

used
that

synonymously
can

fact
our

and

"event"

to

appears)is anything signify

be

observed

by

senses.

2/O

THE

THEORY

OF

INDUCTION

have investigation the

only

one

circumstance alone

in

common,

circumstance
cause
or

in which

all the instances agree

is the may which without

effect of the rule

more

express may

the be

eliminated
event

We given phenomenon." simply by saying that facts (may be present or absent)

are

the affecting It is then

not

causallyconnected
the

with it.
which

probable
the

that
event

remaining fact,
is

is present whenever

occurs,

causally
whose in
are

connected
cause

with

it. for.

Thus,
We

let A

be the what

an

event

is
A

sought
occurs,

observe
to

circumstances
other facts

which

in order

find

invariably present with it. Mill indicates distinct facts by different letters. Suppose, then, that we are able to
analyse the various instances instance,Abed; second, A
and
so on.

of
c

A f
e

as

follows

first
c

A third,

g h

Then

is the

only

other

fact in which
a

the

instances of A
A and
c

agree ; hence

there

is
The

are

causallyconnected.
same

that probability of the principle

Method
after A

is the
or

whether

b, c, d, "c., come
with

before

or

are

simultaneous

it.

Mill's statement Nature difficulty. what does

events not
are

of this method
not

ignoresa preliminary
show
a

only failsto
marked To denote

us, at

glance,
; she

connected really
events

with

given one

give us by

off into

distinct and

separate phenomena.
observation

the facts learnt is

to

through granted

letters a,

b, c, "c.,
have it is

take for

that the hardest done. elements ascertain We

must

part of the work

of observation

is already

When in the
not

phenomena
this manner,
common

been
a

analysed into their

very

simple affair

to

facts in the

different

instances.

starts

with

that the Method of Single Agreement forget prepared material,taking for granted the is most be difficult to discern.
sure

very it is

thingthat
so

This

is

why
only

difficult to

that the

instances

have

OR

SCIENTIFIC

METHOD.

2/1
And hence and
the

one

material

circumstance

in

common.
on

force of the method of the

are,

depends
more

the number and

A

variety they
c are

instances

; the

numerous

varied and

the

greater is the

that probability

causallyconnected.
The of "plurality
We
"

causes

is also

serious

obstacle

to

this Method.

have

seen

(chap.VIII.
a

" 8) that
in which may

the

before will probablydisappear plurality is a popular there still, analysis ; but

is true, for caused tion has mediate down. and instance,that heat, light,
But
"

more

searching
it be

sense

motion

in different ways. reduced

cause,

until
causes

scientific
"

investiga singleim
breaks

the

various
of

to

the

Method

SingleAgreement
real

If

heat, for instance, is produced by friction,

these for
causes

all combustion, electricity, eliminated the

would

be

by

this

method,

they are
differ.

pointsin
is
seen

which

different instances Hence the real worth

as a

of heat

of the Method
a case

when
as

we a

regard it not
of
law

proof of
causation

of

causation,but

stage in scientific inquiry. It "points to the probability

some

of

which, if discovered, would

facts way
for

explain more

the satisfactorily

disclosed
other
and

to

our more

and observation," effective methods."

we

"paves
:

the

Its real thus

:

significance appears
When observation another
is

when shows

state

Mill's
events
or

canon

that

two

accompany

one

(either simul
that

taneously
are

in

succession),it
; and

probable

they

causally connected
the
number

the

probability increases
instances. The

with

and notice
of Mr

variety of the

student and the

should method

the difference between

this method

simple
Laurie

enumeration

(i.e., counting
of

instances).As
1

says, in the Method

Agree-

PP-

Laurie,Methods 3I9-338H.

of Inductive

Inquiry Mind,
y

vol. ii. (1893),

272
ment stress

THE

THEORY

OF

INDUCTION

is laid the

on

the
to

as variety

well the
as

as

on

the

number
we

of

instances ;

enhance

probability,
many but
as

must

varied
We

assemble not deliberately instances as possible.

add
two concrete

only

may

examples

of the

applicationof
was

this method.

(a) An
Roger
tain the

of application interesting

the Method He

made
to
"

by
first

Bacon
cause

in the fifteenth century. of the

colours

wished

ascer

of the

rainbow.

His

been to to have con notion,"says Professor Minto, seems with the substance the phenomenon nect crystal,probably then supposed his thinking of the crystal firmament from
to

encircle

the

universe. passage

He of

found

the

rainbow

colours
crys

produced by
tals."
But

the

lightthrough hexagonal

extending his observations,he found that the of materials of light through other transparent passage attended He certain forms was by the same phenomenon. of waterfalls, in drops it in dewdrops, in the spray found
in

rowing. This afforded a good colours is some indication that the production of rainbow of lightthrough a trans with the passage connected how observations were made, and parent globe or prism. These the true analysis of extended, by other investigators ; but remained for Newton to accomplish the causal connection
shaken from the
oar

in

(" 4). by another method or biological prob (") An extremely important chemical of the Method of Single lem was suggested by applications Agreement, in 1838. This affords an excellent illustration
both When the
way many

of the value sugar is

of

the method into

and alcohol

the

changed

limits of its power. and carbonic acid in

some
"

ordinary alcoholic fermentation, the process is in related to the vegetable cells of the yeast plant.
years

For
no

these in

minute

organisms
one

received

little

or

attention
cell

; but

1838 Schwann,

of the founders Tour demonstrated showed

of the the

theory, and

Cagniard

de

la

of these vegetablenature and multipliedin grew

and yeast cells, saccharine

that

they
on

solutions."1

Hence

'Ken

d rick, Helmholtz

(Masters of Medicine

Series], p.

26.

OR

SCIENTIFIC

METHOD.

2/3
it
was

the basis of the Method that these minute

of

Single Agreement
the
go
was

asserted
cause
was

livingthings were
But

immediate further
gave
a

of fermentation. warranted that there

this

to

than

by this method
is
a

alone.

It

causal

connection.

probability a counterAccordingly,
ground
for
a

only

held theory, supported by Liebig, able time. He maintained and the

its

consider the

that the connection

between is

fermentive

process indirect ; that the

livingorganisms
a

yeast cells form

these
two to

substance

altogether which by
called
of
see

purely chemical
fermentation.

action

produces the chemical

theories decide.

change
the We

Between is

Method shall in the

Single Agreement
what
the

powerless
were was

other

methods

called

in, by which

end

hypothesis original
This method

established
our

(" 7).
control
over

is applicable where

the

phenomena
is
not

under

unless experiment,

is very limited, that so investigation of an extremely rudimentarykind,

possible.
When the causal Method of
"

"

4.

Single Agreement
and
an

has have
of of

a suggested

connection
it
can

this,as
in the
of

we means

seen,

is all that

do

"

important

testingthe
Difference

suppositionis provided

Method

the Method named (better the Method ence). This is essentially When
are we can

Single Differ
ourselves,we

of Experiment.

produce
with the of

the
mere

phenomenon

not

content

the

Method
to

which generalprobability Agreement yields. We take the agent and introduce it into definite
we

believed

be

the cause,

circumstances
therefore
to
we

arranged by ourselves,where
whatever
we

know

that

change
have

follows

must

be

due

the add
we

agent which
the

introduced.

Sometimes
other
same.

agent

to

the known

at circumstances,

times

subtract

it ; of

the logically the

canon

results
as

are

the
"

Mill's statement instance

occurs,

is

follows

If

an

in which and
an

the

phenomenon
in
s

under it does

investigation
not

instance

which

occur,

274
have
one

THE

THEORY

OF

INDUCTION

every

circumstance in

in the

common

save

one,

that

occurring only
alone the

former

the

circumstance
cause or

in which
an

two

instances of the
cause

differ is the
of the and
an

indispensable part
canon

phenomenon."

The
as

may
:

be

more

simply
of

clearlyexpressed
agent is followed by
the

follows the

When

the
or

addition its

by

appearance, of
a

subtraction

disap

pearance,

certain
same, that

event,
agent

other is the

circumstances
cause we

remaining
event.

the

of

the have

When

the

suspected agent
; when

is present,

the

positive instance
What the

it is absent, the
eliminated

negative

instance. away

cannot

be

without with

doing
it.

with

event, is

causally connected

is seen in simplest illustrations of this method that the the coin and feather experiment,designed to show of a light resistance of the air is the cause as a feather, article, slowly than a heavier one, as fallingto the ground more is the retard coin. The to be a phenomenon investigated When ation of the feather. the two are dropped simul taneously in the receiver of an air-pump,the air being left in,
One

of the

"

ground after the coin. This is the the phenomenon instance where occurs (the positive instance). Then the air is pumped out of the receiver, and the coin and reach the ground instant, feather, being dropped at the same does together. This is the instance where the phenomenon
the feather flutters
to

the

not

occur

(thenegativeinstance)." The
is the
presence

singlecircumstance
former feather's
case,

of difference and with

of the

air in the of the

its removal

the

retardation

fall

is removed.
In further

illustration of this

method,

we

may

return

to

the

examples given in the previoussection. The pro duction of colours by lightpassing through sphericaland prismatic glasses had already been noticed ; and Newton
it the subject of exact proceeded to make experiment by of the Method of Single Difference. repeated applications of the sun's lightadmitted A beam through a small hole in
an

firstof the

otherwise

darkened

room,

produces

on

screen

circular

OR

SCIENTIFIC

METHOD.

275

(negative instance). But on passing the beam nearly five times through a prism, the image becomes as long as it is broad, and is coloured from end to end by a succession of vivid tints (positive some instance). Hence
of the
sun

image

thing in

the

glass is the
vary pass and
to

cause

of the

colours. vary

Newton

now

proceeded to the glass,to same prism,

of these he

the size of the

the

prism,to

the

of quality of the

beam

through different parts

minor

try other
any

suppositions ;
in the colours.

but

none

changes
He

made

difference

Hence

concluded
cause. a

that the

real

prism
so

second

the prismatic shape of the glass was the original this by placing on eliminated of exactly the same one angle, but inverted,

together the two prisms formed a solid with parallel surfaces. The out unlight,passing through both, came of the coloured and sun. a image perfect undistorted gave
that Hence
cause

the

prismaticshape
colours.

of the

glass
now

of the

Newton

proved to be adopted the idea

was

the

that

lightis reallycompound, being composed of differentlycoloured primary rays, each undergoing a different degree of refraction (change of direction on passing into the glass of the prism). So he proceeded to test the actual properties

white

possessed by
screen,

each
ray

ray could

separately. Through
be

hole
rest

in

the

any

one

transmitted
was

while

the

were

stopped.

The
was
was

transmitted found done

to
"

prism, and
When latter

to to

passed through a second undergo only a change of direction.

ray of the distinct coloured rays, the

this
were

each

found

be

refrangible by the second

violet most,
as

prism

in

different that

degrees
same

the

the

red

least ;

precisely,

is,in the

order

Thus elongated spectrum. lightwas proved,and the fact that the primary rays compos ing it have different degrees of refrangibility corresponding
to

by the first prism in forming the of white the composite character

the differences

of colour.1

The Method

student

should

notice order
to

that
test
not

in
a

every

case

the

is

applied in

suggestedcause;
arise
of

although
a

the

suggestion does

always
Method

from

deliberate

applicationof
Powell's

the

Single

Agreement.
1

Cf. Baden

History of Natural

Philosophy,p.

279.

276
The

THE

THEORY

OF

INDUCTION

successful

of application
on our

the

Method of the

of

Single

Difference

depends
the when

knowledge
under in the

negative
we

where instance,
i

phenomenon
"

is investigation

absent. have the

Only

as

above

examples
"

control

of all the material

circumstances
sure

acting in
that
no

be we negative instance, can introduction of the suspected cause

(a)

the other

makes

change, and (b)that

tion is not before the due
to
some

the

apparent effect of its introduc

circumstance

which

was

present

in the

negative instance.
was

In the

examples given carefully

When

negative instance
beforehand in the arrangements prepare
no

and deliberately

prepared
and
cannot

the

apparatus of the air-pump,

room.
we

of the darkened

the value.

the experimentis negativeinstance, For the and

of little or is made
to

example
force of

(a) If

the

attempt

measure

gravityby delicately
of the the

suspendinga
a

small

and suddenly bringing ball, light the it,

mass

large and heavy

attract not

ball close to the small

large
with

ball would would

one.

But unless

experiment
of the

be

of the

least value sudden of

performed

the utmost ball would would

precaution ; the
cause

motion

large
of

currents

"c., which air, vibrations,

more

disturb the

small

ball far has

than

the

force

gravity.The formed by adopted to

action of appearance

experiment
reason

been very

successfully per

of the

the

ingenious
than the

methods the

control

negative instance
other of the

from

any of
a

circumstance

sudden

large

mass

matter.1
result of

(b) Suppose,
using
artificial
matter

again,it
manure

is

requiredto
This
; for
a

test

for clover.

to

determine

a might seem portion of ground

very easy is
sown

with

the

manure,

another from

portion is not,
the
one

and

the

weight of
that

clover

obtained
1

is

compared
ch. vii.

with

obtained

See

Tail's

of Matter, Properties

(p. 127,

second

edition).

278
We shall

THE

THEORY

OF

INDUCTION

see

that

the

second

of these The Double

is of

more

im of of

portance
Difference

than is

the indeed methods

first. the
are

Method method

fundamental

science ; other tions

to
ance

only imperfectapproxima
followers
or

to

it.

Mill

and
two

his

(e.g., Fowler)fail
show the

the distinguish of the is

methods,
Method of

to

import
Its
true

Double

Difference. and (/.".),

character

indicated

by

Laurie

(under
"Joint
Indirect describe
"

different
Mill's Method Method it
more

names) by Bosanquet, Lotze, and third Method is called by him

of

others. the
"

Agreement
"

and Most Double

Difference

"

or

the

of Difference."

however, logicians,
Method of

simplyas
in

Agreement,"
agreement
in

agreement
absence.

presence

combined

with

"

6.

The

Double

Method
:

of
"

Agreement
or more

is stated

by

Mill in the
in which
stance

canon following

If two have
more

instances
circum

the

phenomenon
while have

occurs

only one

in common,
not
occur

two

or

instances in which
common save

it does absence alone effect

nothing in

the

of that the two

or
an

circumstance,the
of instances

circumstance
cause

in which
or

sets

differ is the
of and the

the the in

indispensable part
This is vague,
two
one

cause

of

phenomenon."
more

it is incorrect

positiveinstances would be enough, stillless could two instances ; never negative it is not that the negative instances and necessary have The should nothing in common." following be proposed : Whatever is present simplercanon may
than
"

point:

in the of
the

numerous

observed and

instances
absent

of

the

presence

of

phenomenon,
its

in

observed

instances

absence,

is probably

connected

causally with
that
we

phenomenon.
had
a

This
and

method

presupposes the

have

wide

varied

experience of

conjunc-

OR

SCIENTIFIC

METHOD.

2/9
failed
to

tion of instance it is

two

events, and
one

that

we

have without

find any

where

has occurred

the other ; then and

the

probable

that

they
with

are

connected, causally
number
and the

increases probability

the

of variety

the

negativeinstances.
of

It presupposes

ordinaryMethod
"

SingleAgreement
"

before
; and

proceedingto
like that
not

marshal

the

negativeinstances priatewhere
In exact

Method,

it is appro

experimentis
Double

possible.
of

illustration Darwin's

of the

Method

will take

of investigation devoted He is produced by earthworms. table mould" and to Earthworms] specialtreatise ( VegetableMould thus performing a work are proof that these creatures of vast magnitude and importance for the maintenance
on

Agreement we the theory that "vege

a

the of life

the surface
The

of the

earth.

to be investigatedis the production of phenomenon vegetable mould on the surface. These were rightlymade as num (a) Positive Instances.
"

erous

and

varied
of

as

possible i.e.,the
"

surfaces

examined the

consisted which
were

widely different kinds

were

of

land, and Many

"

objects

sunk

of which

different
we

kinds.
a

observations
the

made,
a

of

quote

few.

In

spring of

long existed as poor pasture, and when that it trembled stamped on, slightly so was swampy with red sand, so that the whole sur was thickly covered holes When were dug face appeared at first bright red. 1835,
field,which
had in this field after
the
an
a

interval of about

sand

formed
the

layer at
surface.

depth

half years, of three-quarters of an

two

and

inch been

beneath

Seven
were

years

after the
now

sand red

had

laid on, fresh distinct formed a

holes

dug, and

the

sand

the surface." inches beneath layer, two of black consisted which The sandy originalsurface-soil, the layer of red sand. found immediately beneath peat, was
Another
"

instance

was

that

of

Kentish

chalk

formation.

immense having been exposed for an surface, from period to the dissolving action of rain-water, is extremely deep well-like cavities. being penetrated by many irregular,
Its

During

the

dissolution

of the

chalk,

the

insoluble

matter,

280

THE

THEORY

OF

INDUCTION

including a
been from left six
on

vast

number surface

of unrolled and forms

a

flints of all sizes,has bed

of

the

stiff red the red

to

fourteen has

feet in thickness.

Over
as

clay, clay,
is
a

wherever

the land few inches

long remained
case

pasture, there

layer
a
a

in thickness chalk inches had been

of dark-coloured

vegetable

mould." field
was

In another

buried

seven

field whose

surface

the surface of spread over in thirtyyears ; in another thicklycovered originally in thirty years covered with

with

flints of various turf

sizes,was
out

compact

growing
In

lay

the

flints. in
case,

vegetable mould, beneath which the latter case, also, the worm-castings
of
as

increased another

numbers

the
as

pasture

improved.

In

yet

objects such

chalk, cinders, pebbles, "c.,

of different land
;

and
same

in the

tried on the same degrees of heaviness, were the same to found that they sank it was depth The by vegetable mould. time, being covered circumstance formation of
common

only material
cases

to

all
on

the the

different

of

the

vegetable mould

surface,

which of earthworms are estimated, on the presence from basis of careful observation and calculation, to number

is the

in an and thousand to upwards of fifty thirty acre, and from seven castings weighing in the mass is therefore There over eighteen tons in an acre. which of the adequacy of the cause the Method

to
a no

yield
to

half

doubt

of

Single
to

Agreement suggests. (b) Negative Instances.

confirmed the earth
as

"

The

suggestion was
of
not

found
to

be

follows. them

Boulders,

sufficient size

keep

sink, although the sur their edges. But in face of the ground is raised all round exist. In one permanently dry earth very few earthworms in breadth in length about five feet and three, a stone case
beneath

dry, do

had

in thirty-five inches only sunk two ; but years digging a large hole to a depth of eighteen inches where few burrows had and stone lain, only two a worms

"

on

the
were

seen,

although

the

soil
were

was some

damp

and

seemed of

favourable
ants

for

worms.

There

large colonies Among

other forest

beneath
worms

the stone, and had decreased

possibly since their establishment

in number."
the
case

the

negative instances
of beech "was

recorded, is
Knole Park.

of

dense

-trees, in

"The

ground,"

says

Darwin,

thickly

OR

SCIENTIFIC

METHOD.

281

strewed
almost

with

large naked
absent.

stones,

and

wholly
ago.

Obscure that the land

lines had

worm-castings were and on irregularities

been thick time cultivated wood
some

the surface centuries beech-trees allowed before

Hence
worms

indicated It is

sprang
worms

up
to

a probable that so quickly, cover

that

of young
was

enough
their

not

for

up

the

stones

with

castings,

the site became

we

unfitted for their existence." for

have

good grounds

believing that earth

is

are

the

agency

and

that it is formed

by which vegetable mould by no other means.

of the
Double

formed,

"
may been

7. The be

nature

Method
one

of Difference

thus

: expressed

When of of

phenomenon
under

has

shown

to

be the
to

the

cause

another

given
second it is

conditions,by
when
we

Method find any

Single Difference; and

where the the first : then

fail

instance
without
"

phenomenon

has the

occurred

probablethat
antecedent
"

first is the second way with The

"

invariable unconditionally
latter
can

of the

that the i.e.,

be the the of

produced in no other increases probability negative instances.

than

by

the

former and

; and

the number Method

of variety that

presupposes

Single Difference,and goes beyond it in examining the negative instances independently. Very often, perse

veringexperimentsare necessary instances. sible negative

The
extent

in

various testing

pos

of the

field

over

which is
a

we

must

range

in the

assembling negative instances

trained

question which
and
accurate

wide possessing investigator,

the of alone subject,
can

know
on

ledge of
the kind

decide.

It

depends

(or the

state problem in question,and the advanced it belongs. In of the science to which reverse)

Chemistry, there
found earth.
an

is

reason

to

believe

that the

we

have
to

ex

perimental knowledge
on

of

nearly all

elements of

be

Hence, when

by

the Method

Single

Difference

element

reaction (i.e., yieldsa particular

282
if A, then
our

THE

THEORY

OF

INDUCTION

"

in assuming is justified "),the investigator of the

that

knowledge
the other other element then

negative instances (thepro

the
statement

pertiesof
that
no
"

warrants elements)

will produce that

not
a

reaction particular number

if not A, (i.e.,
of the

elements In other

"). But places Chemistry in

branches of of the

the limited
an

tion.

posi exceptional the great difficulty science, negativeinstances.

Dr

lies in the Hill has

examination

as expressed this truth: "Paradoxical forcibly of science is taxed it sounds, the ingenuity of the man in making observations and not devisingexperiments, them ; the real difficulty but in planninghow to unmake is experienced in devising an experimentin which is absent, while the supposed predisposingcondition
...

other
In

conditions

remain

the
Double

same."
Method of

we Difference, occasioned shall analyse the investigation by the suggestions of SingleAgreement, mentioned made through the Method in " 3, Example (//). A suggestion had been that the made (and controverted) with the of fermentation was directlyconnected process of living yeast- cells. Accordingly a series of presence into the negative in searching experimental investigations afford undertaken stances : these (of no fermentation)was of the nega beautiful example of the successful treatment a

illustration of the

tive instance. boiled

"

Gay-Lussac

showed

that

clean

grapes

or

of a passed into the Torricellian vacuum grape juice, free from barometerfor any fermentation tube, remained ad length of time, but that if a single bubble of air were
soon mitted, fermentation Gay-Lussac's experiment,

appeared.
and

Schwann that if the tube

repeated
air then
were

showed
a

admitted mentation
two

to

the

vacuum

through

red-hot

fer

did

not

occur"

(M'Kendrick,loc. tit.} Thus, by

of
was

of the Double Method applications established : it following results were

the Difference, something in

atmospheric air that caused fermentation ; and the cause The effects (whatever it might be) was destroyed by heat.

OR

SCIENTIFIC

METHOD.

283
A

of temperature 20" C. of from

process
was

were

then

further

studied.

temperature

60" C. ; and
with

favourable most to it ; while the 24" C. was (o" C.) and again at stopped at freezing-point the connection boilingdestroyed it. Afterwards
to

that showed Helmholtz atmospheric air was examined. in a sealed-uptube con the oxygen produced by electrolysis fermenta taining a boiled fermentible fluid did not cause that was tion. This was absolutelyunmixed simply oxygen

with

any

organic

or

other

foreign matter,
since it.

and air

differed

in has

this respect from extremely minute

that air filtered

atmospheric oxygen, livingorganisms in

was

always

Hoffmann

showed

through cotton-wool
All the these

incapableof causing
went to

fermentation. the

negative instances

confirm

of the immediate cause were yeast-cells of the process the process, especiallythe fact that the cause But the most was ingenious"negative" destroyed by heat. He made by Helmholtz. placed a sealed experiment was

theory

that

"

bladder found the wall

full of

grape-juicein
fermentation
If the

vat

of

and fermenting juice,

not

that the fluid in the

cause

bladder
could

did
not

ferment.
pass
were

Thus

of

the

of the

bladder.
a

fermentation
substance

Liebig held, by

separate

formed

would and presumably soluble,one have cells, through the wall of the bladder ; but if the process pass then one caused can see were by the small yeast-cells, why fermentation the could not not excited, as was yeast-cells
pass The

through the excited, as by the yeastexpected it to

through theory

the of

membrane." causation
was by yeast-cells

not

proved

by
but

these this

of applications Method proved a

to

the Double number

Method

of

Difference;
the cause,

of facts about

which
for the

lent support

that

theory, and
of Pasteur.
"

laid the

foundation

splendidresearches

"
and of may

8.

In

the

most
we

exact

"

sciences, where
are

the

causes

effects which
or intensity,

examine
rate

at

any

of

of degrees susceptible we or less," being more

"

not

only observe

and

compare is

events

but

measure
"

them.

Jevons's statement

: fullyjustified

Every

questionin science is first a matter of fact only,then a and and of quantity, matter more by degrees becomes

284
more

THE

THEORY

OF

INDUCTION

preciselyquantitative ;
century
most

"

in

the

middle
of
as

of

the

nineteenth
and

of the

phenomena merely

electricity
now

were electro-magnetism be for the most they can

known

facts ;

part exactly measured

and

"

calculated.
As the

phenomena can be measured, there arises of a more possibility preciseform of either of the two
soon
as

primary Methods.
variations,the
Whatever another is either
connected
canon

This of

is the Method which

is thus in any
some

of Concomitant stated

by

Mill

phenomenon phenomenon
a cause or an

varies

manner

whenever

varies

in

particular manner, phenomenon,

fact of
or

effect of that
some

is

with

it

through
are
a

causation.

When may

the variations be

ascertained modification

by experiment,this
of the Method of

regarded

as

Single Difference.
A

Mill First

simple but (Logic,Bk.

Law continue

excellent III.

is given by example of this Method viii. 7), the experimental proof of the
"

of Motion.
to
move on

This in

law
a

states

that

all bodies

in

motion

straight line with

new

uniform
asser

velocityuntil
tion," says

acted
"

by

some

force.

"

This

; oppositionto first appearances all terrestrial objects, in motion, gradually abate their when and at last stop. velocity Every moving body, however, of various the resistance encounters obstacles,as friction, the atmosphere, "c., which know we by dailyexperienceto It was be causes suggested capable of destroying motion. that the whole of the retardation might be owing to these If the obstacles this inquired into? How causes. was have would been could have entirelyremoved, the case
. . .

Mill, is in open

been
not

amenable be

to

the

Method could

of

Difference.

removed,

they

only be

They could diminished, and the

admitted of Concomitant only of the Method therefore, This accordinglybeing employed, it was found Variations.
case,

diminution of the every tardation of the motion ; and

that total both quantities of the

obstacles inasmuch

diminished
as

the
case

re

in this

the
were

antecedent

and

consequent

286

THE

THEORY

OF

INDUCTION

cedents,
effect of

and

the

residue

of

the

phenomenon

is the if
we are

the remaining show and that the

antecedents."

Thus, efgh is
way
; and

able

to

complex
in
no no

event

caused that
g
e

by
is C ;

ABCD,
caused then
we

is caused
and in

other way,

by A,
know

other

/by B,
D.
are

and

by

that h is caused

by

Typical instances
found in chem method

of the

employment
says

of this method
"

as istry, Jevons

In chemical
to

this analysis the

is

constantlyemployed

determine
combine

proportional
Thus

by taking a known weight of oxide of copper, passing hydrogen it in a heated Over tube, and condensing the water produced in a tube containingsulphuric acid. If we subtract the original weight of the condensing tube
water

weight of substances the composition of

which

together.

is ascertained

from

its final
;

weight,

we

learn oxygen

how in

much

water

is

produced

the

quantityof

it is found of copper the

by
from

the final weight of the oxide subtracting its original weight. If we then subtract the of oxygen the from that of the water, which
we we

weight of weight
the with

learn the

hydrogen
When
as

have

combined
is very Roscoe's that

oxygen.

the described

experiment
in
we

carefullyper
Lessons in

formed,

Dr

Elementary Chemistry,

find
ii'ii

weight of
form We have tion ;
100

oxygen

unite with

88-89 parts by parts of hydrogen to

that of
causa

parts of water."
observe that the Method
assumes we

must

performed
we

several

conclusive

inductions
"

must

know

that ABCD of

is the

invariable
various know

antecedent"

efgh, and
A, B, and

unconditionally with the similarly

C.
If
we

component
that ABCD of D

causes,

do

not

is

the

invariable "unconditionally

antecedent" infer that

efgh,we
cause

cannot, after the

of

"subtraction,"
that

is the

h,

or

even

they

are

OR

SCIENTIFIC

METHOD.

287
be connected

connected causally with other

in any

way

; for h may

antecedents which

which Mill

co-operate with ABCD.

and his followers

Many coming

examples
under

give
of
:

as a

this

canon

are

really instances expressed

is
been must have

distinct rule, which

any

has

been

thus

When
unex a

part

of

complex
causes

phenomenon
which

still

plained
further There

by
cause

the

assigned,
be

for

this

remainder in the

sought.
as

is of

no

indication this

as inquiry,

far

it has the

gone,
"

what
"

cause
a

may

be, and
the

hence

Method

becomes
to

finger-postto
Such

unexplained.
which have

It calls attention
to

"residual

phenomena"
have

be
to

accounted discoveries

for.

phenomena
and

frequently
as

led
of

of the

first

importance, such
Professor from
: was

that in
,^

argon

by
Their

Lord

Rayleigh

Ramsay
the

1894.
of
an

started investigations

detection

unexplained residual phenomenon

from various chemical
sources

nitrogenob
of uniform

tained

but atmospheric nitrogen was density,

about

per

cent
was

heavier.
due mixed Herschel
to

They
the

proved
inert

that

the

increased the

weight

fact that the

an

nitrogen in
hitherto
ail the from
a

atmosphere
Sir

is

with

gas

undetected.

J.
in
of

says: have

"Almost resulted
of

greatest discoveries
the consideration

astronomy
residual kind.
...

phenomena
It
was

thus the

numerical or quantitative that the grand discovery of resulted

as
a

the

Precession

of

Equinoxes

residual
of
to

phenomenon,
return
same

from
seasons

the

imperfect explanation
the
return

the the

of

the

by

of

the

sun

apparent place among

received afterwards
of discovery in
a

the fixed stars."

a

Herschel's illustra

remarks tion and

most

remarkable

in the

the

planet Neptune
The
sun

by
the

Adams known

Leverrier

1846.

and

planets have

calculable

effect in

disturbingthe path

288

THE

THEORY

OF

INDUCTION

of Uranus

in its

orbit ; elliptic
could and
not

but there

were

residual
for.
were

which perturbations From these the

be

thus

accounted

orbit the the

position of Neptune
been observed.
as

calculated Mill when several

before

planet had
Method

refers to

of Residues

available

special difficulties arise in observation,because

causes

act

at

once,
a

and

their effects

are

all
same

blended kind
and
as

together, producing
the

jointeffect
Bk. (Logic, he

of the III.
x.

separate effects
of what

""

4).

Mill's view

calls intermixture
"

of

effects has
one

simply explainedby Jevons : If in and experiment friction, combustion, compression,

been
will

electric action
causes

going on at of produce quantities

are

all

once,

each which

of these will be

heat

added say may of the how

together,and
much
a

it will be difficultor
to

to impossible

is due
case name
as

each

cause

separately. We
intermixture the effect is of joint It is distinguished
or,
as

call this the effects,

same

of the

homogeneous

that indicating

kind

the separate effects. of the

by
the

Mill from

cases

heterogeneous,
of

he the

says,

intermixture heteropathic

where effects,

joint
of rise

effect is totally different in kind from Thus if

we

the separate effects.

bend

bow

too
warm

much

it breaks
ceases

instead
to

bending

farther ; if we and

ice it soon
we
a

in temperature

melts ; if

warm

water

it rises in then sud

temperature

homogeneously
and
an

for
a

time, but

denly ceases,
production Now,
the
cause

effect of
or

different kind, the totally follows. explosion,

of vapour, the

an possibly

when method
of

jointeffect

is of

heterogeneouskind,
ascertain the
or
a a

of difference its
occurrence.
a

is sufficient to Whether

bow

spring
in

will break whether

with

given weight may

at
a

be tried, and easily any

water state

will boil

given temperature
may also be

given

of the

barometer

ascereasily

OR

SCIENTIFIC

METHOD.

289
of effects
several
we

tained.
we

But
a

in the
more

homogeneous intermixture

have

causes,
to

each how
of

complicatedtask. There are and producing a part of the effect,

much is due
to

want

know

each."
in

It is true such
cases

that the within Mill

a

Method the
narrow

Residues limits

is available

in which in
most

it is available
cases

at

all.

himself
cause;

admits it
can

that

it

cannot

prove
one.

only suggest
may,

the

search up in

for the the

"
stage

9.

We

therefore, sum

characteristic

features
:
"

of

scientific Induction

preliminary

(1) It
tions
cause or

is

suggestedor assumed,
some

from

observa previous
is the

by
a.

other

means,

that A

immediate

of

(2)
with

Positive
are

of instances,

occurringin
"

connection

A,

then

if possible, sought for,experimentally

in order

to

establish the

proposition

If

A, then a"

are
"

(3) Negativeinstances, including apparent exceptions, then investigated in order to establish the proposition
not

If

A, then
far

not

a."

How

do precisely carry
us

the Methods The causal

; and
answer

of Observation

and do
A

Experiment
more

?
a

is,they cannot
that
a

than

establish

law this

results from the of

under ;

all circumstances of

only by
that

applica
Double

tion

the

most

powerful method,
both

Difference, where
are
,

and positive negative instances What than this more experimentally investigated.
want to is,
a

do

we

We

to want, if possible,

explainthe law,
"

that

understand

the

"

how A.

"

of
If
we

it, the
"

means

by

which
law

always

results from with

to

could

bring this
more

into

harmony
the

other any

scientific
extent

laws, and
it
or

if we especially

could

deduce

antici should The

s

pate it on
have

ground
from

of

previous knowledge, we
to

passed

observation

explanation.

2QO
chief

THE

THEORY

OF

INDUCTION

object and
and that A

the

of the Methods great difficulty is to isolate

a cause
"

of that

Observation

Experiment produces
a

is, prove
as

A by getting

to

act

as

far

in possible the

isolation

(""4

and

7).

The

chief

object
to

and break A

of scientific Explanation is great difficulty this isolation action

down the
a

by connecting the
causes.

action

of

with When

of other

law is ascertained
we

by
an

the Methods
not

of Observa

tion and should

Experiment,and
to

do

know

why

the law

hold, it is said
do

be

empirical law
an

(e/jLTreipia
is
one

experience or
which
we

trial).Hence
not

empiricallaw
connect

yet

see

how

to

with

previous

knowledge.
Mill
says

that

"

scientific

inquirersgive
which which

the

name or

of

em

laws pirical has

cases

to uniformities to

observation

experiment
to

shown

but exist, much

want

on

they hesitate
which
reason

varying
exist"

from of

those
any

have

been

rely in actually
a

observed, for
should that the
to

seeing

why
this
we

such
must

law

(Logic,Bk. III. xvi. i). of such a degree of reliability

by which
ruminants
more
"

To

add

law

varies according (a)

of
"

the

method
are

it
:

was

established,
an

Horned

animals which affords is

a

this is than
a

instance

Agreement
and there of
a

is
no

scarcely
doubt

simple enumeration,
connection. it to
any
new

presumption
in animal."

of causal

Hence
case

certain

extending

dew is formed, the dewed (") "Where surface is colder than the surrounding air" : this connection ascertained in many has been instances,varying from one in other respects. The another resulting empirical law may be extended therefore to cases new "differingfrom those in the than previouslyobserved," with greater confidence former The same remark instances of case. appliesto many of SingleAgreement, such as those given in " 3. the Method of Single Difference gives us reliable know (c) The Method under the given conditions of ledge of the action of a cause it does not give us have the experiment ; but as we seen, under new concause knowledge of the action of the same "horned

OR

SCIENTIFIC

METHOD.

29!
"if

clitions.
at

It does the

not

warrant

the

empirical law
be."
"

A, then
cir

whatever

circumstances

may

The
cause

conclusion
A in the

which

it actuallydoes bed has

may be

warrant,
the

that

the

cumstances

the effect a"

enough,
the For
ment
same

made

if the experiment is careful ground of a universal law by the

of Causation
"

of principle

the

Uniformity
know

the

cause same

under effect."

circumstances
may

will

always
from

have

the

instance,we
that
"

observation

and

experi

and

the

terrible other Double

the nervous quinine affects beneficially system health of the body generally,while strychnine has a effect of the opposite nature." But we can give no

reason

for the truth of such of

generalisations, (d) The

and

Methods

Agreement

make the to shown, serve able to affirm with greater confidence we are trustworthy"/.*., that A, and A only, is always the cause of a; but still they do not show than why it is, they do not give us more
"

have as Difference, we resultinggeneralisations more

empiricallaws.
When
we

ask We

"

how have

"

A
seen

is the

cause

of a,

we

pass

to

Explanation.
these is
not
an

that the distinction between

;

absolute there sciences is

one
a

they

are

two

stages of
seen

one

process. fact that

That
some
"

real distinction is
not

in the

have

got beyond the stage of

it may the

Observation,

the

"

as empirical stage,"

be called.
methods
to

"
which

10. we

It

was

remarked

in

passing

that

have the

already explainedcannot
a

get

work

without

preliminary or guess, supposition, for the phenomenon suggestionof a possiblecause under investigation.
First,then, we
must

aid of

have

an

assumption
cause

as

to

the the
to

and locality, Methods

test to

the possibly

nature, of the

; and

of Observation

and

Experiment exist in

order

suggestions.Every research by which we seek be guided by some discover truth must conjecture :
such it be
a

whether

theoretical

suggestionof
to

cause,

or

the

of something suggestion practical

be

accomplished.

2Q2

THE

THEORY

OF

INDUCTION

Thus, the work

of the

alchemists, who

spent days and

of

nightsin experimentsto find a means metals into gold, prepared the way for which has long exploded chemistry,
which without Hill has smile tion
at

transmuting
scientific
guesses

modern the

wild

guided
which

the

alchemists
never

in their have

and experiments, made

"

they could
delusions
any
to

them.
are

Dr

illustrated vividly
the
at
seems

this

point: might
'

We

apt

to

of the he
a

alchemist. find

His

expecta
in his

that

moment
us

gold
But

crucible
other

merely
for heat
to

fixed

idea.'

what mix sub

motive

had

he

research? and cool

Merely
them,
or

to to

things together,to
lime
order child. and

them dissolve

condense,

in water

alcohol,in

that he

might see what happened, was to play the Anything might happen. The result might be
ugly,pleasant to
be of
a

pretty
could
at

or

smell

or

the
was

reverse

; but

it

not

useful.

What succession thin

purpose

served when,
his chemi haste

the end

long

of processes,
an

cals which

disappearedinto
perhaps
upon his If
we

air,with
Such

unseemly
laid the would

smashed back?"
we are

his retorts, and

philoso
be of any

pher

experiments
as

motiveless.

in doubt
a

to

the

cause

phenomenon,
ture,
"

make

guess,
seems

or supposition,
a

conjec
and

we

proceed
Such
a

to

imagine what test it by the

sufficient cause,

methods in

described. previously
scientific

conjecture is

called

language

an

hypothesis

suppositio, "placing under"). (viroOea-is,

are

Hypotheses, then,
the Methods

continually employed throughout

Observation
and

of Inductive

Experiment.

Mill's the

great

mistake

lay here.
of

validityof the Method

he

recognised,indeed, Explanation by Hypothesis,

He
; and

which
to

calls the Deductive

"

Method mind

he

grants

that

this method

the

human in the

is indebted

for its most Nature."

But

conspicuous triumphs

of investigation

294

THE

THEORY

OF

INDUCTION

4.

or Verification, comparison of these consequences

with This

the facts of Nature. Newtonian the

might

be called the

Method,
process

since which

all he

its stages

are

in exemplified

by

established his
it do

theory of Gravitation.
must

Before

illustrating
What
sug

further, we
we mean

examine

the
an or

second

stage.

by saying
bringing

that fact of

hypothesis or
law?

explains a gested principle

is essentially
a

Explanation
less

the
or

particular, or
more

general, under
may be
We

the

universal,

general.1
law,
when
events
same

This

done may and be

in different

ways. facts

(a)
shown

"explain
instances

"

by

as

many
are

different
to

disconnected (at first sight) of

one

and famous

the

Law

of

Causation.

One

of the

most

examples

of such

is Kepler's discovery that the planet Mars explanation observations of Tycho orbit. The in an elliptic moves Brahe had determined
a

great number

of

successive

of that planet to a high degree of accuracy ; positions orbit appeared to be extremely ir and the resulting

regular.
tions
was were

But

the

earth

from itself,

which the
sun

the

observa it

made, is
to

in motion

round

; hence

necessary the orbit

that part distinguish Mars

to

of the
to

irregularity
the earth's

of

of then

which

was

due
curve

motion, and
to

ascertain what
the

corresponded
assumed is

the

true

of positions
to

planet. Kepler evidentlynot

to
us

the earth's motion

true
"

be

which circular,
was

approximately
circular. of the

; but

the orbit of Mars

The

which picture
own

Kepler presents
interest.

working
is full of

of his the
1

mind intense
the in"

while

pursuing this
It would

research be

most

impossible,

Hence

"bringing
witnesses.

of the term Induction, which means appropriateness of facts,justas lira.ywyfi means "bringing in"

of

OR

SCIENTIFIC

METHOD.

295

without
the

details,to explain enteringinto mathematical was brought process by which the ultimate suggestion
his consideration
an

under convey

; and

it would
mass

be

equallyso
of

to

idea

of

the

immense

calculation

through which
theories
to

he toiled in
test

each putting with

of his successive the

the

of agreement way

observations.
exultation
at

after working his Finally, triumphs, and anticipated

one

in alternate

bitter

disappointmentwhen,
air, drivinghim,
"

after says,

another, they vanished

'

in
"

as

he

almost

to

insanity/
in
one

he

at
an

length

had

the de

intense
scribed with

of finding that gratification

about

orbit elliptic

the

sun

of the fociagreed accurately

of the

the

observed

motions
movement

planet Mars."
; all its

The

of its irregularity

vanished

observed

positions became
seen

were intelligible,

to
curve.

be successive The

pointson
to

this

when "explained," simpleand symmetri for

cal

thus proved hypothesis, the other known

Mars,

was

extended

by analogy
true

and planets,
as

proved
were

of them
"

also, by observations
motion
was no

accurate

as

then

that available, Kepler perceiving

as

his
was

original only an
dis

assumption
Law." connected

to

the
Thus

of the

earth
"

approximate one.
There facts

established better
"

Kepler's first
of how

could
"

be

instance

are

explained by beingbroughtunder
the
"

generallaws.
covered when law.
we

In

Kepler's case
same

law

had
"

to
an a

be dis
event

; but
can

in the show

sense

we new

explain
of

it

to

be

instance

known

(b) We
shown laws. the
to

may

"explain"
are

law

by
A

law.

Of law

such may

ex

planation there
result

two

kinds. combined of
a a

given

be

from

the

operation of
we

other

Thus, the motion

of

if projectile,

neglect
is
150.
"

resistance
1

the

air,is

parabola.

This

ex-

Baden

Powell, History of Natural

Philosophy, p.

296
"

THE

THEORY

OF

INDUCTION

plained by proving it to laws governingthe motion

the first Law
to
move

be

the

result of two

known
are,

of the
a

: these projectile

of
a

Motion, that

body

in motion

continues

in
on

line straight
some

with

uniform
; and

unless velocity the attraction

acted

by
the of

external

body
and any the
two

between
the Law other of the

moving body
"force"

earth, accordingto
bodies
attract

that Gravitation,
a

each

with

as varying(i)inversely

the square the

distance
of their
"

between
masses.

them,
But law
a
"

and the

as (2) directly

product
law

most

fundamental
a a

of explanation
can

law
to

by
be

is attained when of

given
more

be

shown

case particular

generallaw.
the Law

Newton's

explanationof Kepler'sLaws
affords
an

by
of

of Gravitation

instance impressive
of what The of
we

this,and
called the

is also

perfect example
Inductive Method.

have

complete
first

process

by

which

the

(and essential) part

established
may

Newton's
be

great

generalisationwas
in this section.
Newton's and
own

analysed as
earlier

follows,accordingto the four stages mentioned

genius,taking up
out

facts of observation

thrown suggestions
to

by previous investigators,
as a an
: hypothesis Any

led him bodies

as

formulate
one

this law

two

attract

another

with

force

varyinginversely
them. If this

the

square

of the

distance

between
an

hypothesisis true, the weight of it by the mass of exerted upon

decrease Within
to
as

the the

object (the pull earth1) should

earth

its

distance

from from

increases.
surface

those
our

short

distances

the

earth's

which
not

observation

of gravity extends, the intensity

as we

does
1

diminish appreciably
the said

recede

from

the

The

pullwhich
as

exerts object

real

but, in comparison fact,

with

upon the earth is of course the earth's attraction, may be

reckoned

practically nothing.

OR

SCIENTIFIC

METHOD.

297
as

earth. from

But

in
as

the the

case
moon

of

an

object removed
must

far

the earth

is,it

have

appreciably
the earth's
a

diminished.
surface falls in

Now

the

of gravity at intensity the space its

is measured
one

by

through
which the

which

body
would

second

; and

at intensity

the distance of
moon
were

the moon, fall towards

by

the

space earth

through
in
one

the

second, if she

not

prevented by
surface earth the
moon came a

another earth the

cause.

Also, the object at the

the
centre

of the

is distant from
centre

of the

(which is
from

from

which

by gravity acts)
Hence it be

length of

the earth's radius ; and

centre

the distance of the

the earth's

is also known.

calculation in
which the

Proportion,to ascertain ought

to

the distance the earth

true.

through
in How
one can

moon

fall towards

second, if the Newtonian

we

were hypothesis

compare

this result with

no

the actual

fact of be tried in
a

the moon's
upon

since falling,
"Newton

such

experimentcan
an

her?

saw

that such
to
us.

experiment is
moon

fact

constantlyexhibited
in
an

The

performs
been
ascer

revolution tained which

orbit whose
;
was
a a

dimensions

had

by
she

astronomers
moves

with consequently,the velocity known. But this

velocityim
inter The

pressed upon
actual and
tance

such

body

must, if

nothing else
space. the

fered, carry it off in

motion
of the in any

line through straight is in

'

moon

an
'

orbit round of that

one

earth;
dis

given portionor
from the

arc

the orbit,

through which,
deflected
at

at the end

of

second, the
is
a

moon

has

line straight

which

tangent

to

the orbit This

'

the commencement space

of that which the

second, is known.
moon

is the

through

is

actually
one

is actually (i.e., pulled)towards falling'

the earth in

second. take the

Newton,
distance the

had then, in his calculation, of the

moon

only

to

from

the

centre

of the
centre

earth,and

distance of the surface from

the

298
the (/.*.,

THE

THEORY

OF

INDUCTION

radius

of the

earth) ; and, squaringthese

second of the

num

would bers,the inverse proportion fallen

be that of the spaces

the
moon,

through
at

in

one

by

and

by
con

body
result

the

surface with be
causes causes

earth.

If this calculated

agreed

the

result

observed,his actually
the fall very
same

jecturewould
which gravity be that
to

verified ; and bodies the from

to
moon a

force

of

near
'

the

earth,would
in other and
to

which
be

to

fall,' or,

words,
Newton
at

deflected

rectilinear course,

describe her orbit round

took

the earth."

In this calculation

for the radius

of the earth the

lengthwhich
accurate, and
there
was
a

that time result

(about 1666) was

did
two not

considered

the

verifyhis conjecture ;
between
moon.

difference of
the calculated crepancy that
was

feet per second of the

the actual and

deflection

This

small

dis show

largeenough, in
he

Newton's
not

to opinion, account

his cherished

could hypothesis the

for the

facts ; and for

some
more new

dismissed
But

subject from
the radius Newton

his

thoughts

time.

in 1682

of the earth had

been the

accuratelycalculated.
value
a

substituted

in his little way

former in the the

and proportion,

"having
utterly

proceeded
unable of its
to
to

calculation,was
he
was

carry it on, from

overpoweringexcitement
requesteda friend
that the moon's

termination anticipated
The from

; and

finish it for him." calculated

result his

as deflection,

hypothesis, agreed with

This

the

deflection calculated
as
a

from

observation.

great
of the New of
ne
we

result sufficed

clue to the whole afterwards

mechanism

planetary system,
ton

and

of the universe.
powers
are

proceeded

to

show, by his unrivalled

of the Law

mathematical cessary have of

that Kepler's Laws calculation,

consequence

of Gravitation.
a a

If

bodies

revolving round freely

attracts

common

centre

force, which

them

with

"pull" varying

OR

SCIENTIFIC

METHOD.

299
from Their
"

as inversely

the

squares
must

of

their distances

it,then
orbits focus ;
to

the
must

followinglaws
be radius

hold
"

good

(a)

with ellipses drawn

the

centre

of force

in

((3}the
centre

from

each in

moving body
equal times
vary
as

the

must

describe
of

equal areas
from

(7)the
of the

periodictimes
their
same mean

their revolution the

the

cubes
were

distances

centre.

These

three laws which be and

true

Kepler
of

had

shown, from
of

Tycho's planets
to

observations,to
round be
as

the

motions

the

the

sun,

which

other

observations

showed

true
was

of the
most went

motions

of satellites round
case

their

planets,
Saturn.
were

evident

in the

of

Jupiterand
that

Newton

further,and

proved

if his law

absolutely true, Kepler'scould

for the attraction but planets,
was

only be approximatelyso
the
sun

holds

not

only between
be

and Hence

the it

between

the

planetsthemselves.
observation
that which
"

impossiblethat
the
more

their orbits should

accurate

perfectly ellip
afterwards
"

and tical; became take

true.

showed possible,

justsuch

perturbations
law been
were

place
And

as

would

be

expected
to

if Newton's it has

by rigorous deductions
is competent
account

shown

that

his law

for the

complex They
to

motions
"

observable actually

in the solar system.

are

accounted

for,"or
of the

"

in being proved explained," law.

It is this law

be consequences
that the

demonstration,
with

consequences

of

do

actually agree
with the
are

that forms facts,

for Science

the verification of that law.

to

"11.
How
are

We

now

proceed
which

deal

question,
two to

? hypotheses suggested

There be

prin
suggest

cipal means
a

by

facts

may

made

theory
"

(a) By (b) By
The
account

the

Method

of

Agreement

Analogy.
the Method of

alreadygiven of

Agreement

3OO
has shown

THE

THEORY

OF

INDUCTION

how

it may
We

suggest
find the
;

an

hypothesis of
P in
a

im

mediate

causation.

event

number

of instances find that the

stance

A, B, C, D, "c.
fact S is the

examining further,we
other hence material
a

only
"

circum of

in
P

which

they
do
not

agree,

connection

S and

is

suggested. This
we

differs from
count must

simple enum
instances,
"

eration ; for
we
as

merely

the

begin

to

weigh
P

them.

They

differ
as

as

much

possible from
of and
"

each S.

other, except

presence

regards the the Expressed syllogistically,

the property P ;

argument

becomes

A, B, C, D, "c., have A, B, C, D, "c., have

.'. S and The student
P
are
or

the property S

may that

be
as

connected. causally
"

will notice
a

A, B, C, D, "c.," may
the

be
is

regarded as
an

collective

singular term,
in and

argument

Aristotelian
on

Enthymeme
the

in.,whose fig.

prob

ability depends

of the variety form the subjectin both instances which collectively in the premises. In fact, Aristotle's "Enthymeme of Mill's Method third figure" expresses the principle of

number

Agreement
There
are

more

correctlythan
ways

Mill
may

himself

did.
to

two

in which

we

endeavour
"

make

this conclusion

in universal,

the form

Every

is P."

(i) By counting all

see

the

instances

of

in order

to

if P

is present in each.
every S

If so, then The

by complete
are
100

enumeration per
cent

is P.

instances
we

and limited, This is usuallyimpossible ; hence show beyond counting,we cannot All that

; the

total is

have if
we

reached
do
not

it.
go

that the

every

is P.
S of

remains
P. the

is

to

estimate
leads
to

of probability

being always
chances

This

the

calculation
of

and

quantitative Theory

Probability.

302

THE

THEORY

OF

INDUCTION

or

compare

other

cases,

according general law

extend it
a
our

to

the

canons

of
cases

inductive
may fall. first

observation. instances
of
us a

But

it suggests that both under which

be

they
of the which

It prompts
case

to
on

knowledge
of connection

and the

found second.

law

includes

Thus, suppose we have a suggested connection, S is P. It be suggested, in the way have we described, by the may in Method of Agreement (otherwise,by an Enthymeme
this particular kind of suggestion need not fig.iii.) ; but fact M to be an necessarily precede. If we can find some in both S and P, we the important circumstance justify may inference,thus : original suggestionby an analogical
"

is

Sis
.'.

M, M;
P
are

S and is of

probably causallyconnected
an

through
in ii. fig.

M.

This
"

course

Aristotelian
"

Enthymeme
determine be

The of

the suggested explanation is,to investigate and

P

connection
M
we

M
cause
"

further,in order
If this relation both
"

to
can

whether

is the
may M.

of P.

then established,
P
a

explain P, bringing this becomes Stated syllogistically, ") : (a syllogism of cause

"
"

S and

under valid

the universal

i. syllogismin fig.

is

Sis
.'.

P, M;

S is P.
may

For

concrete

examples, the student

refer

to

ch. VIII.

Ex. 3 is a suggestion based on " 3 (a), Agreement ; in " 3 (""), Ex. 3 is an of the same analogicaljustification Ex. 3 is an suggestion; in " 3 (c), explanation of the sug gested connection by a law of real causation. Similarly, Ex. on " 3 (a), Agreement ; and 4, is a suggestion based of it. justification " 3 (b\ Ex. 4, is an analogical

"

3.

In

It thus
or

appears the

that

an

inference analogical process.

is a stage
If the

step in

complete inductive
to

inference analogical

the

new

case particular

is justifi-

OR

SCIENTIFIC

METHOD.

303
and
come

able,there
a ferring

is

ground
law

for

going beyond analogy

which
both
cases

in
;

general
And

under is
no

although,so
thesis.
a

far,the law
if there from is

only

an suggestion,

hypo
of

ground
cases,

for

an

induction
is
no

general law
a

the

two

there

ground

for

good analogicalinference.
may be
to

Analogy
vious
our

described
a new

as

the

of application

pre

knowledge

set

of facts ; and

this broadens

and restatements suggesting revisions. Thus, our knowledge of the various functions of plants digestion, has been ob reproduction,"c. tained by ascribing to the various organs of the plant

conception of

its scope,

"

"

"

purposes various of

analogous

to

those

which And

are

fulfilled in
turn

by

the

parts of animal

bodies. thrown
and

the

study
of its

plant physiology has enlarged

This

light
modified
the old

upon
many

animal

and physiology, theories." is

A
a

"reforming of
of the instance and of it is his

by
the

the

new"

general characteristic
of
Pasteur

groivth of knowledge.
seen

conspicuous
described
The
were

in

early re

searches
as

friends into
Louis Pasteur many

in the old due

Life of
belief
to
a was

bacteriology, by his soncontagious

introduced
on

in-law. diseases into the

the

that
or

virus research

poison
was

blood.

Further that the

undertaken
was

assumption

cause

of the diseases

some

virus. This a thing in the blood, but not necessarily was a suggestion by analogy with the former belief,and it was proved by inoculating healthy experimentally animals the with
a

drop

of

infected

blood.

Afterwards

presence

of minute

animalculse,visible only by the

in the

microscope, was
animals
; but
at

detected first it
not
was

blood

of

diseased minute Sub

supposed
such

that these

organisms could

produce
Pasteur

great effects.
that
a

however, sequently,

proved

phenomenon

304
of such

THE

THEORY

OF

INDUCTION

magnitude
of
an

as

fermentation

was

caused

by

the

growth

invisible

vegetable organism;
animalcuke, whose

hence presence

analogy suggested that

was

the

detected
true
cause

in the of

infected
the

the

blood, might after all be diseases in question. This proved

of
were

verified,was hypothesis,being experimentally

to

be

true

of by applications The
a

the

Double these the

Method diseases

Difference.
caused

old

theory, that

by

virus forced

introduced

into

blood,
known

could facts ;

only give a
and all

explanation of
to
a new new

many

it had
the

to

give way
But

theory,harmonising

facts.

the with

theory
old ; and

was

originally
the

suggested by analogy
tions with based
had the
to

the

specula
were

regard
revised

to

the
not

action

of the virus

which

upon

facts did

lose their value ;

they simply
on

be

by
seen

the

aid of the

new

lightshed
an as an

question.
13. lead
to

"
may

We
to

have

that the of

of perception
a

analogy hypo signi

the formulation

generallaw
which
say We

thesis

explain two
than

things between
"two

some

ficant resemblance

is discerned.

"two
one

things"
of them
an

vaguely,rather
may
event

because events,"

be itself an
which

hypothesis or
under We

theory,and
it but
to

the other
a

partlycomes
now

suggests

modi

fication of it.

proceed

consider
the

the charac under

teristicsof
which We
we

and good hypothesis,

conditions

may
must

regard an
understand
the work

as proved. hypothesis

first that
of
were

the

invention

of In in

hypotheses
the

is

the

scientific genius. the discussing ways

previous section we which hypotheses might

they can
to

be

"suggested";
must

but

before

be

suggested there
the

be
are

mind

prepared
of
as

receive

suggestion. They
There

the

creations
a

the

mind. investigator's

is such

thing

OR

SCIENTIFIC

METHOD.

305
art ;

genius in
scientific
run

science

as

well

as

in

poetry and

and

the

genius

stands

out

of

scientific workers.
and

clearlyfrom the common such a mind, trained by To

thought, a few facts will hypotheses of farsuggest, almost as if by inspiration, reachingimportance. This is what Tyndall expressed previous observation
in the

passage

so

often the

quoted

from

an

essay his and the

a

on

"

The

Scientific Use Science.

to

of

"With
upon,

in Imagination," accurate experiment

Fragments of
observation architect of

work

imaginationbecomes
Newton's passage

physicaltheory.

falling apple act of the prepared imagina to a falling an was moon tion ; out of the facts of chemistry the constructive the atomic formed of Dalton theory ; Davy imagination with the imaginative while endowed was faculty, richly with incessant, preceding, Faraday its exercise was accompanying, and guiding all his experiments. our the exercise of this power, Without knowledge of
. .

from

Nature

would

be

mere

tabulation of coexistences

and

sequences,"
every Nevertheless,

hypothesis

must

be it is
a

based

on

facts.

It is

suggested only because

the facts. It
of

explanation of dependent
of

is

not

created

possible by the

scientific imagination "out

as facts,

are

the

nothing"; it is not in impulses of the artistic

dependent, as Tyndall says, imagination.It is intimately of accurate the suggestions on experimentand observation, and also on whatever knowledge the investigator already
possesses.

His

suggests the
must

previousacquaintancewith the subject limits within which probable hypotheses

opens his eyes
to

and lie,

obscure
to

residual phenomena insignificant mind would pay

no

attention.
for
u

And

and analogies the ordinary which in its origin it as

we

depends

upon

facts,so

its verification

must

306
examine
ness,
must

THE

THEORY

OF

INDUCTION

the

relevant

facts with

and be "the
to

if there
or rejected

is any

exact rigorous the hypothesis discrepancy,

the

most

modified.
to

It is
form
an

no

that

first be

thing is
show
most

paradox to say hypothesis; the

instances of

second,

dissatisfied with

it."

The

Kepler
are

and

Newton who
are

that the

greatest investigators
abandon cherished
cannot

those

ready
fact.

to

theories,the fruit of laborious

be shown
says
to

research, if they
What

harmonise

with

Francis Darwin

of his father is true of

of the scientificgeniusin every

was as

branch with
on

inquiry.

"

It

though
flow that

he

were

charged
channel

theorising power,
the

ready
;

to
so

into
no

any

disturbance slightest avoid

fact, however

small, could
thus the

fact became
many

of theory, and stream a releasing magnified into importance." In

this way
him the
; but

untenable richness
of

theories

occurred naturally

to

his of

was imagination

equalledby
his

power

theories

and judging, by comparing them up

if necessary with of facts.

a

condemning,

Summing
may
state

the conditions
as

we good hypothesis,

them
must

follows

"

(1) It
with necessary.

be

received

capable of being brought into accord modification,if knowledge, by mutual

a

(2) It

must

furnish

basis for deductive

inference

of

consequences.

(3) The
the We rule have

consequences

so

inferred

must

agree

with

facts of Nature.

alreadyillustrated the meaning

"

of the

first

(see" 8, last paragraph). It is sometimes expressed conceivable." be must by saying that the hypothesis
This

is,of
to

course,

true

if "conceivable" II.

means

"not

self-contradictory" (see ch.

necessary
state
as
a

" 12); but

that the

it is

hardly

specialrule

hypothesis

OR

SCIENTIFIC

METHOD.

307
the other in the

must

not

contradict
means

itself.

If,
to

on

hand,
sense

"conceivable"
of

"easy

imagine"

the meaning to one's mind, then it is not picturing true to say that a legitimate hypothesismust be "con ceivable." It is not easy to imagine the antipodes, where
"

to

"

go

up

means

to

go
we

in
so

direction diamet
; it

rically opposite to that easy to imagine that \ve

in great velocity
not

which
are

describe

is

not

moving through
at
were

space

with It is

two

different directions
that if
an

once.

easy

to

imagine
a

organ
were no

played by
still

machinery
in
to
or near

in

and hall,

there
no

creatures living

it,it would
that
we

make live and

sound.
move

It is harder in
a

imagine
elastic

solid perfectly

and

medium,
For

no possessing

weight,and
it is

capable
in
a

of nine second make

hundred
of time.

millions of millions
similar
a reasons

of vibrations
a

mistake

to
not

the

rule say that any The

new or

hypothesis must legitimate

or

with conflict
of Nature. may be

of

the "received"
means
"

"accepted"
an

laws

rule

that,though
i.e., may

hypothesis
with
"

strange

conflict

the

apparent
still be

consider
is

it may of previous knowledge implications it is legitimate if, when we legitimate.And both what the hypothesis implies and what
in
our

implied

previously accepted knowledge, the

shown
to

can discrepancy

be

be the

only apparent.
received and it may

This

may

require a modification
which it is
set

of

knowledge,
require a
sup
to to

by

in the

new

light ;

modification

of the

hypothesis also.

Thus, the
believed

positionof
conflict with
that with
on

"antipodes" was once for experience, ordinary

other side of the earth

be
mean

in

it seemed
were

the

people living
was difficulty
"

their

heads it

"downwards."
was

The that

removed

when

understood
the
mass

down

"

means

only the

direction

in which

of the earth attracts

308
bodies

THE

THEORY

OE

INDUCTION

; and that direction by gravitation the earth's centre. line towards straight not only that rule implies second The must must

is

always

in

the

hypothesis
in it itself;

be

clearlyand
conceived

conceived distinctly
after the

also be
our

analogy of something

in

like
assume
we

something utterlyun experience. To assume acquainted with, is to all that we are previously for be neither proved nor disproved, what can
not

could

draw

any

conclusions

from

it.

Even

the

solid and of an absolutely hypothesis is of light, the phenomena to explain

elastic
not

something,
"

of this kind. ether

to
were

Jevons
should

says

trulythat
from

if this

"

luminiferous
known

wholly different
in
to
so

everythingelse
to
reason

us,

we

vain

try
least it

about of And

it.
"

"We that

must

apply
must

it at

the

laws

motion

is,we
able
to

far liken
to

to

matter.

as, when

applying by arguing

those

laws

the

elastic medium

air,we
so

are

infer many
in
a

of the
manner

similar

phenomena of sound, concerning ether we

are

able

to

infer many is to take

an

of the

phenomena
it of
we

elastic

light. All that we do im substance, increase its elasticity

of and gravity retain
some

mensely, and denude

erties of
to matter matter
to

other

prop

; but

must

sufficient likeness

allow did
not

of deductive
use

calculations."

Newton
use

the

it.

He

used
as are

it to

now as we hypothesis just such unprovable signify

word

assumptions
Hence

excluded

by
"

this

second

rule.

he said

non hypotheses

hypotheses."
The

The

word

is
sense.

fingo, I do not imagine used still occasionally by

that of the
we

scientific writers in this third condition

is

one

illustrated.
be

The
as

consequences
as rigorously

already hypothesismust
have then
com

deduced with

and possible,

pared

the

results

of

accurate

observation.

The

310 made
to

THE

THEORY

OF

INDUCTION

with

the

purpose, hence

before

all

else, of helping
be

us as

understand;
the

they

must

thought
we

out

completelyand
stated

accuratelyas
It is
not

possible. Here
between much
a
so

have and of

essential

difference

Science

Common

-Sense.

difference

W. Professor subject-matter. that "scientific thought does

K.
not

Clifford said
mean

roundly

thought about
;

scientific scientific
human
or

subjects

with The

long
is

names

there

are

no

subjects.

universe;
been
or

that

subject of science is the to say, everythingthat is

related
to

has

may
to

be

man."

Common-

Sense

is
far

content

know
to

and

understand

this universe

just

enough
is chaotic

Common-Sense sometimes
seeks these

needs ; hence satisfypractical and knowledge in a disorganised

state.

Science,
of events, and
means

on

the seeks
to

contrary,
connect

for the real

causes

causes

together by
is Science shall seeks

of

explanatory laws.
with
and the outside
con

Common-Sense
of

usually contented
for clear the
more

things.

distinct

which ceptions but

give

us, not

appearance
true

only,
real.

something deeper, which

EXERCISE.

is

and

1.

"The

Third this view

is

the distinctively
nature

Inditctive

Figure?
this

Discuss
2.

of the

of Induction.

"Analogy is the statement. Or,

"

soul

of

Induction."

Criticise

Consider
tween

the

relations that have

been

held

to

exist be

think there is ever Do you Analogy and Induction. proof from analogy ? If not, what place does analogy hold in the process 3. of inference ?

[L.]

Distinguishhypothesis from theory. Explain the use of hypothesis in scientific procedure. Show, by a concrete far the reason, and how example, how far the imagination,
has

entered

into

the

construction

of

workable

hypothesis.

[L.]

OR

SCIENTIFIC

METHOD.

$11
of modern

science, and show how hypothesis has given rise to discovery, tracingthe stages by which approximate certaintyhas been
any

4. Select

of the great conclusions

reached.

[L.]
are

5. What

the

Inductive

difficulties in

negative?
6. The elimination. tion.

Give

appropriateexamples.
Methods the have been

arguing [E.]
called

from

Inductive

Discuss

of weapons appropriatenessof this descrip

[L.]
the relation of
: following observing
"

7. Discuss

examine

the
no

No

tion, and
Or-

save

Hypothesis to Observation, and theorising apart from observa in the lightof theory." [L.]
in the

Analyse the

process

of scientific observation, and consider whether

or

lightof

your

answer a

how
"

far it is pos another

sible to have Consider

logicof observation.
nature

[L.] Or,
relation

in detail the called Methods

and

to

one

of the processes 8. Can the Method?

"

Descriptionand Explanation.
of Induction be reduced
to
one

Are

valid?1 they logically is inconceivable this

statement.

[St A.]
be false."
sense

9.

Whatever

must

Discuss is it true?

the

ambiguitiesin
Examine
can

In what

10. a

the have

: following

"The

theory

arise from
any

two
our

only merits or demerits desiderata not (i) it must

"

be
as

contradicted

by

part of

(2)it must experience,

of the

be

simple as possible." [L.] Describe the logicalcharacters u.

"

following in
upon of the

: ferences,and discuss their validity (a) Sir D. Brewster proved that the colours seen caused not by the nature are mother-of-pearl
"

He took substance, but by the form of the surface. impressions of mother-of-pearl in wax, and found

that, though the

the
colours
were
"

substance

was

entirelydifferent,

exactly the same." 2 (ti) A person is in sound health mentally and physically. The breaking of a minute blood-vessel in the brain clot of blood a there,which is followed imcauses
1 2

This Is

will question

repay

careful consideration.
as an

Jevons rightin givingthis Single Agreement?

example

of the

method

of

312

THE

THEORY

OF

INDUCTION.

mediately
by
the death.

by

unconsciousness the existence

of

and of brain."
of
;

soon

afterwards

Hence

mind

depends

on

healthy
are

functioning
no

the

(c)

"

There fallen them

great
hand
of

nations time

antiquity
England
of

but
must

have

by
to

the

and

join
Like

complete
has
grown
to to
a

the

analogy
from
a

the

ages.

them,
and but
grows

she

birth-time and

of

weakness
;

tutelage
she
must

day
face

of her

manhood

supremacy that

has

setting. [E.]
in is that

Everything

also
can

decay."
found surface
be

(d)

"No rock

coal
nearest

be the
must

district;
the the and and

for

if

the

Laurentian,
;

Carbon

iferous formation
older

strata

absent the

for

Laurentian the the Silurian Old Red

is older
the Old

than Red than

Silurian,

than

Sandstone,
the

Sandstone

older

Carboniferous

strata."

[St A.]
(e)
Goldscheider considerable
ments
a

proved
part
our

that in
our

muscular consciousness

sensations of
arm

play
the
move

no

of

limbs, by
moved where found
movement

having
an

his

suspended
Under
on

on

frame

and

by

attendant. work could the

arm

these the small moved

circumstances, muscles,
an

no

devolved

he

that

he of

distinguish
as

as

angular

when

he

and

supported
also

it himself. that is the

[Creighton.]
chief
source

(/)

He

proved

of from
arm

movement-

consciousness
surface the and of the

pressure-sensations

the held
so

inner that

joints, by
are

having

his
more

joint

surfaces that
a

pressed
smaller

closely together,
was now

finding

movement

per

ceptible.

[Creighton.]

313

CHAPTER

X.

FALLACIES.

"

i.

THE

word

Fallacyis
erroneous

sometimes
or belief,

used
mental of

to

signify any
of
too

false statement, any kind.

In

confusion the word

This the
or

leaves

the

meaning

vague.
some

rule
are

is a violation of logical sense, a fallacy regulativeprincipleof logicalthought.

There

such

principlesgoverning the
and of have

formation

of

conception,of judgment,
and

inference,deductive
been
in the treating this point From be

inductive; of these
in
an

we

precedingpages
of view the

elementary way.

chief types of
the
"

fallacymight
not

classified
We say

according to
"

violated.1 logical principle

we

chief types

only,for

could

take

account

before

hand made. The the

of every

kind possible

of mistake

which

might be

traditional

doctrine logical

has

narrowed generally in

meaning of the word the latter term limiting

can

to mistakes fallacy to

reasoning,
The of

that

type of reasoningwhich

be

expressed in

form syllogistic

(ch. V.)
on

traditional Aristotle
as

of fallacies is based classification

that

givenin

his treatise On
ii.Bk. vii.
Formal is made

Difficulties Sophistical

See

Welton's in

Logic,vol.
De

of Fallacies cellent ; Mr
some

Morgan's

(pp. 227 ff.) The treatment is ex Logic (out of print)

accessible
to

of his material

the student

by

Welton.

314

FALLACIES.

usually referred (irepl "jo$i(TTiK,wv e\e"y%a)v),

to

as

the

the title suggests, the Refutations." As "Sophistical aim of his discussion is entirely practical, to enumerate the various tricks which might be employed in contro of the were Sophists employed by many versy, and
"

"

"

(ch.I. " 3).

A

false argument,

says

Aristotle, may
two

err

either in the express

: fallacy

thoughtsexpressed or
them. Hence which

in the

which signs(words) main

to

he indicates
are

classes

of

(a)those
in from
extra

due directly

language (fallacies
which arise

dictione, Trapa
the

rrjv

\e%iv\ and (b)those

than the

thought
six

rather

language (fallacies
Of
the first class
are

dictionem, e"o"7-779 \e%ews).

enumerates

he

forms

: on

some

of

them

trifling,
Greek

being

indeed

dependent

the

of peculiarities

syntax.
I. Fallacies
due
to

language.

(i) Ambiguity
This
terms terms.

(o/jLcovv/jiia, "equivocation"). consists in the ambiguous use of one of the three that in reality there are of a syllogism, four so Its most important case is the fallacy of am
of word referred De
to

biguous middle, already

old

(ch.V. " 3).

:

An

example is given by
"

Morgan

Finis rei est illius perfectio, Mors

est

finis

vitse,
vitae; perfectio
on
"

Ergo,
where Some the the

Mors

est

ambiguitymay
of
a

be laid
are

instructive

examples

or on finis. perfectio Often given by Jevons :

"

ambiguity is
might
" *

subtle

and

difficult

so character,

that different
we

opinions may
:

be held

it. concerning

Thus

argue who

He

harms

another

should

be

punished.

He

FALLACIES.

315
disease
to

who person

communicates
harms him.
to

an

infectious

another
an

Therefore another
not

he who

communicates be

infectious disease
"

person

should
a

punished.'
argument
consider
we

This

may

or

may

be held to be of actions
we

correct

according to
come

the kinds the

term

should
as

to

under

harm,

according
of this

regard Many
for in

or negligence

malice

to requisite
are

constitute harm. nature,

as

difficult
stance
:

legal questions

Nuisances To To
"

are
a

punishable by
is

law ;
;

keep keep

noisy dog is a noisy dog

nuisance

punishable by
turn

law.

The

questionhere
which the law

would would

upon
to

the

degree

of

nuisance

interfere

prevent.

Or

again:
Interference

with another

man's

business
man's

is

illegal ;
;

Undersellinginterferes
Therefore
"

with

another

business

is illegal. underselling

Here

the

questionturns
that
to

upon

the kind

ofinterference,
of

and

it is obvious

interference The

referred

is not the kind underselling in the major premise." of

serious

confusion

be

met

by

careful definition of

ambiguous terms (ch.VI. Part I.)

the

can

only

(2) Ambiguity boly ").

structure

structure

(a^i(Bo\ia, "amphi

This of
"The
a

arises when
sentence

ambiguous grammatical : produces misconception

depose."
I.
sc.

Duke
"

yet lives that Henry shall

"K.

Henry VI.,"
are

Part

II.,Act

iv.

of Ambiguities

this kind in in
a

more

in possible
to
"

the classical

languages than
tions of order

English,owing
sentence

the

and

to

varia possible oblique construc

"

tions,as

in the

Latin

version

of

the

oracle

given

to

3l6

FALLACIES.

Pyrrhus:
One

"

Aio

te,

^Eacida,

Romanes
TO

vincere

posse."

of Aristotle's examples is

f3ov\eo-9ai \aftelvpe

Aristotle explainsthis (3) Composition (a-vvOecns). to consist in takingtogether words which fallacy ought
to

be

taken

separately. He
mistakes
who is

seems

to

have
"

been
"

con

sidering only verbal

possible for
"Yes."
a

of this kind

e.g.t
to

Is

it
"

man

"Then

it is
"

walking for a man possible

Can you "Then you
can

not to

walk ? without

walk and

walking." Again
this? "c."
this and

carry this?

this? and this and

"Yes."

carry

text-books In modern "c. [together]."1 this, of arguing Composition is the importantlogical fallacy the

from which

distributive
has

to

the

collective
very

use

of

term,
the of

Jevons
of
a

explained

: clearly

"In

premises
a

syllogism we
then

may

affirm

something
each

class

of

that things distributively^

we

is, of
in the

and

any

and separately,
same

may

conclusion
we

infer the
may say

of the
'

whole the

put together. Thus

of
a

that
two

all

angles

triangle are
any
we

less than

angles is

less

rightangles,' meaning than two rightangles;

We
must
not

that but

of

the
not two

must

infer that all the

angles put togetherare

argue that

less than

rightangles.
member
of
a a

because

every

jury is very
are

juryas
nor

whole

also each
or

to judge erroneously, the likely to judgeerroneously; very likely

that
to

because

of the witnesses

in

law

case

is

liable
can

givefalse

mistaken

evidence,no

confidence
a

be

reposed in
example
confusion
ways
:
"

the concurrent

of testimony

number

The

in the

text
"

of

Elenchi Sophistici
a

(ch.iv.) is
may

one

of verbal

only

of i.e.,

phrase which
StvaaOai

be

read

in

either of two rb

| ei/ n6vov $vvd/j.evov \woX\a. tyepeiv

(pepeivand

3l8
De
a

FALLACIES.

Morgan, that
which

if in
not

quoting an
we are

author

we

italicise

word

he has

leave or italicised,
of guilty

out

words, in

the

quotationor its context,

The

(6)

of Figure of fallacy the trivial confusion

Xefew?)is
similar in

fallacy. Speech (TO a"xf)fj,a TT}? of supposingthat words

this

declension, conjuga grammatical form (case, tion, termination, "c.) or similar in being derived from
"

the
a

same

root

"

are

similar in other respects.

It is

really
the

trivial kind

of false

analogy; e.g.,to
mensa

suppose
or

\h"\.poeta

is masculine

because

is

so

to

confuse do

meanings
The
are

of forms

resemblingone

another,as
the

art,

artful, artificer.
two most

importantfallacies in
Division.

list foregoing

those

of

Compositionand

II. Fallacies due

to the

thoughtrather

than

the

language.

Aristotle mentions

seven

types of this kind

of

fallacy.

in

consists of Accident (TOa-v/LifiefiiiKos) 1i ) The fallacy unessential with an essential difference or an confusing
Thus: Socrates man." the
"Is
a

resemblance.
"Yes." "Is

Plato different from "Yes."

not

Socrates?" Plato

man?" It does other

"Then

is different from the

one

follow that because

or

differs from

in

one

more

respects,
same

they therefore
it does other in
not
one

differ in every that

respect.
the

In the
one

way, the

follow
or

because

resembles
are

more

respects,that the
the animal
an

two

similar in

all respects.

Of

this mistake
an

example
call you you
an

"

To
ass

call you

is a crude following is to speak truth ; to

to

an
ass

is

to

call you

animal; therefore Any

be

call

is to

speak
in Four

truth."

of typical fallacy found

Accident, when
to

stated

form, will syllogistic

Terms.
a

be

an

example of

(2) Next

in Aristotle's liststands

form

of

to fallacy

FALLACIES.

319 the of dicto

which

subsequent
in

Latin

writers gave
dictum

name

secundum consists ular hold

ad quid (777;)

It simpliciter (aTrTuo?). holds

true

assuming
or

that what
some

in

some

partic

respect,
true

under any

circumstances, will special

or
as a

without

restriction
this

general rule.
of Con

in speaking of Aristotle, illustrations of it which tradiction

refers chiefly to fallacy,

to

appear

deny

the Law

(ch.II. " 12); thus, he says that we should be in arguing that an object which committing this fallacy
partly black
It is and

is

partlywhite
white in
a

is both

white

and

not

white.

only

certain

respect (secundum

not absolutely (simpliciter, quid,7777), aTrXco?).

The

which fallacy,
"

is

very
to
a

common

one,

consists
a

essentially in gettingassent
and ification, conceded if
we

statement

with

qual
been

then

proceedingto
the

argue

as

if it had

without that then

We qualification."

commit

this fault

prove and

purpose, for any

true
causes
mean

is useless for a syllogism claim to have proved that it is another

certain
useless

purpose.
to

For
to
as

example :
if we be

it is undoubtedly

that

give
"

beggars promotes
Jevons
is
never

mendicancy

and

evil ; but
that

says
to

"

assistance

this to interpret given to those who

consideration

solicit it, we
of inferring who

fall into the all who

as

under fallacy what is

"by

solicit alms
a

only true

of those

solicitalms
is
a

profession."
form

There
as

converse

of this

which fallacy that what

is

quite
holds

common,
as a

and

consists in
will hold may

assuming
true

true

generalrule
which

under the

some
case.

special
"

circumstances

alter entirely

For that

example," says
culture is

Professor

Minto,

"

it
on

being admitted
to

good, a disputantgoes applied to

seek
to
some

argue

as

if the
"

admission

sort

of culture in moral."

particular
Fallacies dictum

or scientific, aesthetic, philosophical,

of this kind

argue

dicto

ad simpliciter

32O secundum his

in
own

FALLACIES.

quid
"

e.g., every

man a

has

opinions;
power

therefore
to

rightto inculcate magistrateis justified

a own

using his
cannot

enforce

his

views. political
as a a

We what To

infer of his
true

specialpowers

magistrate
man.1

is

only
two

of his

as general rights

the

fallacies

already mentioned
to
to

in this add
a

con

nection,De
that of
case,

Morgan
does
not

rightly proposes
one

third

"

arguing from
The

specialcase
resemble will
see

another

special
circum

which

it in material that this is

stances.

student

iden really

tical with false

VIII. analogy (ch.

was fallacy

" 4).

(3) The
norance

next

called

by

the

Latin

writers
"

IgnoratioElenchi, after
of

Aristotle's

e'Xey^ou ayvoia,

ig

[the nature of] refutation." To refutean establish the exact logical must assertion, we adversary's of it (ch. III. " 7). To prove a conclusion contradictory which is not the contradictory is ignoratio elenchi. In
modern
to
cases cover

text-books
all in
cases

the of

scope

of the the

is fallacy wrong

extended
"

"proving
of the be

point,"

all

which, instead
may
a

required conclusion, a
for it is defended. from
a

which proposition
Mr

mistaken

Welton
"

quotes
:

concise

example
and

Spencer's
nine
no

Education
cases

Throughout

his after career,

boy, in
Greek

out

of ten,

applies his Latin

"

to

purposes." As the same practical the Spencer's ignores argument

of
a

writer

Mr observes,

fact that the advocates claim that What Latin and

classical education
are

do in

not

Greek
urge

of direct

use

life. practical

they do
an un

is that the

study

of the

classics furnishes

rivalled mental

training ; and

it is this

which proposition

the fallacy dicto simpliciter ad dictum a identify with the fallacy of Accident,and accordingly secundum call the qiiid the "converse a dicto secundum fallacy quid ad dictum simpliciter Some of fallacy Accident."

writers

FALLACIES.

321
"

true

must e'Xey^o? disprove." Jevons truly says,

The

fallacy occurs usually

where the

in the of words

course

multitude
of

for confusion

thought and
case.

long harangues, and figures leaves room This forgetfulness.

. . .

of

the great is,in fact, fallacy

to

resource

of those unknown

who

have

support

weak
an

It is not

in the in
a

legal
law

and profession, suit is said

to

attorney for the defendant

handed
the
to

have

the

barrister his brief

marked,
ever

'No
uses

case;

abuse

plaintiff's attorney.' Who

as

thus
"

what

is known

argumentum rests, not

or

ad

homthe those is
ac

inem

that

is,an

argument
this
no
a

which

upon

merit of the case, but the character

engaged
cused
ecutor

in it" commits
a

of position fallacy.If a man

to

of

crime,it
as

is
If

answer

say that the pros law is

is

bad.

great change in the

is
an

proposed
to argue

in

it Parliament,

Irrelevant the
man right

Conclusion
to

that the proposer

is not who he

bring
to

it forward. open
to

Every
retort

one

gives advice
who

lays himself ought

neces

the

that who

preaches ought glass houses

there is of
no

or practise,

that

those

live in

not

to

throw

stones.

Nevertheless
the

sary

connection

between
the

character

the

person

advice and giving

"

goodness
ad

of the advice. form of Ir

The

argumentum

populum is another
consists in

relevant
ments to

Conclusion, and
a

addressing argu
to

body

of

people calculated
from
matter

excite

their

and prevent feelings

them

forming a dispassionate
It is the

judgment
weapon To ad
or an

upon

the

in hand.

great

of rhetoricians and

demagogues."
is called the argumentum
the

these

we

may

add

what

ignorantiam, on trading
persons

ignoranceof
ad

the

person

addressed
to

; the

argumentum
for

verecundiam,
of
to

appeal
;

veneration
the

instead authority
ad

reason

and

argumentum
x

baculum, which

is

322
not
an

FALLACIES.

argument

at

all, but

an

appeal

to

physical
ex

force.

(4) The plained in

kind

fallacyof
some or

the

Consequent is vaguely
text-books
as

modern

meaning "any
described
meant

of loose the

and inconsequent argument,"

non

by

phrase

sequitur.

Aristotle

by

it

simply the invalid "argument from the affirmation of the consequent" in a hypothetical proposition.He
mentions evidence
"

cases

of

it in
man

arguments
has
no
a

from

presumptive
means

e.g., "This
must

visible

of

support, and
Even if we

therefore
"

be
man

grant that
no

if
means

is

thief." professional a thief, professional

he will have

visible

of

the particular support,"

conclusion
we

will not

follow.

Of

equal importance,

as

have

seen

antecedent.

is the fallacy VII. " 3), of denying the (ch. When long pieces of reasoningare being
"

dealt with, the

the form of

denial of the
that

antecedent the

"

often

takes is

assuming
invalid

because

conclusion

supported by

arguments,
Petitio
"

it is false.
ev

(5) The
alrdaOai

fallacy of
/cal

Principii (TO

apXV
con

clusion which
may take

to i.e., assume \a/mftdveiv) is to be proved.1 Aristotle says

the

that this

place in
assume

five ways. the which proposition in which is it is to is to be be

(a)To
and Aristotle

in the very form

proved, proved. As
the
as

hints, this
concealed

unless hardly possible

some

sumption is
An

by
to

sort

of verbal in

confusion.
account

illustration of it is

be found
which

Mill's

of

the

ground
"

of the

the

axiom

lies at

the

basis of

Induction
says
1

Uniformityof
"ultimate

Nature.

This

principle,
all IneV

Mill, is

the

major premise of

Petitio

does principii
means

not

translate Aristotle's r6 really

diTe"r0ai,which clusion, as
we

petitio quasitior
said.

assumption of

the

con

have

FALLACIES.

323
of the is there

Induction and yet is itself founded on duction," weakest kind,per enumerationem siuiplicem ; it fore

only an
actual

"empirical law,"
circumstance If

true

within have

the
come

limits of
under

time,place,and
our

which

observation.
all

it is the
be
a

ultimate

major
nature

premise of
of future.
ness verse

Induction, it must
without
Mill difficulty of

law of the

true things,

exception of past, present,

says: "The

and

On

this

precariousis in
an

of the Method ratio to the

Simple

Enumeration the

in

largenessof
and the
we

The generalisation.

process
as

is delusive

insufficient, exactlyin proportion

If is specialand proposition then, the subjectsuppose, be
so no

the

of subject-matter in extent.
...

limited
matter

of any
no

to generalisation

widely

diffused of

that there is

time, no
must

place,and
afford
an

combination
either

but circumstances,
truth
or

example
never

of

its

and of its falsity,

cannot

if it be

found
at

otherwise
any

than

true, its truth

be
as an

contingent upon
exist
all times

unless collocations,

such

and

places.
with tinction

It is therefore

...

law empirical which and

co-extensive the dis

all human

experience, at empirical
Causation and of laws

point
laws of

between
Stated

Nature The

vanishes.''1
Law

Mill's argument briefly, is of

so

is this.
a

of Uniform

universal
an

character either
true at
our

that every time of its truth those actual

or

place must places which

afford

instance
to

\\sfalsity.It

is observed have
come

be

times

and

within time is
a

it experience; therefore
our

is true

of every This
a

and
neat

of place,independently

experience.
to

example
when

of

of proving the universality It is usual in

a

assuming it.
committed

call this of

principle by form of fallacy, assumptionand

mine.

singlestep

a inference, ixrrepov

(Jiysteron Trpbrepov proteron) ;

1

when
The

the

Logic, Bk.

III. ch. xxi. " 3.

italics are

324 conclusion
a

FALLACIES.

are

separated by various steps

of

inference,

circulus in

probando.

is committed when we type of fallacy (b) The same which involves the take for granted a general principle and which is just as much in need conclusion, required of proof as the conclusion itself; or, indeed, when any taken be self-evident. Mr to general truth is falsely Welton

quotes
"After
two
'
"

an

example
value goes

from

Spencer's Education
of every
as

(ch.i.)
kind has

statingthat 'acquirement
"

values
Mr

as

knowledge and
of view of

value

discipline
different
He then

Spencer
to

on

to' discuss the value

of

from subjects
turns

the

point

knowledge.

commences
'

his

value of studies, and disciplinary with the following disquisition flagrant the

: Having found what petitio found have by implication we that be quite sure We may

is best for the

what the
most

one

end,
those

is best for the other.

acquirement
useful for best be

of

classes

of

facts

which
a

are

regulating
fitted for

conduct, involves
the strengthening

mental

exercise It would of

faculties.

utterlycon
kind of
and

trary to the beautiful economy

culture another
were

Nature, if one

needed
were

for the needed

as we

gainingof
a

information
"

kind

mental
assume

gymnastic.'
the
we

(c)Aristotle
prove
same

says

that if

to particulars

the universal which

involves them,
is induction that
"

commit

the

kind

of

fallacy. This
"

per
some

enumera-

tionem
warrants

simplicem
"

e.g.,
"

assuming
it is
an

is P

"

all S is P

inductive

fallacy.
to

(d) The
a more

fourth mode

which

Aristotle refers

is

only

form of the first. It is to prove a general prolix by breaking it up into parts and assuming proposition the truth of each

part.
rests
on

(e)The
converse

fifth mode

immediate
to assume,

inference
for

by

relation

III. " 12): (ch.

instance,

326
what the
must

FALLACIES.

the other hand, on Fallacy. If, Logical conclusion does follow from the premises, the fault then have lie in the premisesthemselves, and we is called
a

what the

is called conclusion

Material

Fallacy. Sometimes, however,

to

will appear

follow from

the

premises
it will
to some

until the

meaning of

the terms

is examined, when is deceptive owing fallacies as

the

be found

that the appearance

in the language. Such ambiguity since non-logical, speaking, strictly is extraneous But three
to

these are, of words

meaning

the

science which

deals with

thought.

arrive at Thus we they are called Semi-logical. or heads, namely (i) Formal Purely Logical
"

Fallacies Fallacies, (2)Semi-logical

or

Fallacies of Am
second

biguity, (3) Material Fallacies." fallacies of Ambiguity, consists of

called fallacies
"

The

class, class,

those which
"

Aristotle

in

the

language
first the

the

third

Material
side the

consists of Aristotle'sfallacies "out fallacies,

language."The
of

class,Formal

fallacies,

consists

breaches

of

examples have already been most importantof these are

distributed middle,
minor.
are

rules,of which syllogistic given (ch.V. " 3). The

(a) four

terms,
of the

(b) un
major
or

(c)illicit process
will
see

The bottom
"

student
cases

that all Formal

terms.

fallacies

at

of four

"

3.

Inductive

mistakes incident Fallacies," said usually

to

to

in

ductive

are reasoning,

be of three main

types :"

(a) erroneous (I)) (c)

" "

observation.

analogy.

generalisation.
the nature
are

We

shall

pointout briefly
At

of these
cases

inductive
erroneous

fallacies.

bottom

they
at

all

of

generalisation. (a) Observation is

bottom

All sense-perception.

FALLACIES.

327

the

of error possibilities

the fact that in mind

as

arise from sense-perception perceptionthings are not imaged in the

"

in

in

mirror, the mind

is
no

itself contributes to the

an

result.

There

without perception

element

of

thought and inference^ although in simple cases

of perception
a

the (e.g.,

colour We

as

red)we
not

of the inference. which

more
more

need

conscious scarcely dwell on this doctrine,

are

is well elaborate extensive

established in modern
and

psychology.
observation And

The

systematicthe
of of

is, the
it is

is the work
-

thought in it.
and
error

in

this

thought aspect
this

and perception of
as

observation
lie.

that the

of truth possibilities
source

error

Many
of per in

writers describe what

we

of
we

"a

confusion
what
we

perceiveand
This
are

what

inferfrom

ceive." ference The scious

suggests that the perceptionand

which separate things, referred
to

the

two

is not the

the

case.

confusion and
to

is between

half-uncon

instinctive inference, which

make that correctly (e.g., conscious "that (e.g., these the
"

has experience is
a man

taught us
the
we more

and "),

deliberate and
the We
as

inference, by which
man

extend

former

is my

friend
as

Smith

").

often treat

secondary inferences

if they were
ever scarcely

as trustworthy

primaryones,
it analogies,

which

is

true.

(") With
remembered
as a

regard
that

to

mistaken is
an

must

be

analogy
of

never

strict

proof; and,
analogy

rule,the conclusion

argument
lines of

from

is

The only problematical.

to

real

importance of analogy

is and
even

suggest hypotheses and

insufficient

inquiry. Hasty

analogiesmay
Most

suggest unscientific and

absurd

hypotheses.
of the
some

primitivesuperstitions,
of the
race,
are cases

characteristic of

childhood

on hypothesis resting

fragmentof analogy.
in
the

This

fact

is

abundantly

illustrated

anthropological

of Tylor, Lubbock, writings

and

Clodd.

328

FALLACIES.

and false analogy are implicitly (c)Mai-observation Fallacies of ex which erroneous. are generalisations more common generalisation plicit are, however, even enumeration from mere ?".,to make e.g., to generalise law of nature enumeratio an simplexinto a ; to argue succession post hoc ergo propter hoc, mistaking mere in neglect of for true causation ; to generalise extreme our cases," which ought to cover generalisation ; to
"
"

"

"

"

neglect counteracting causes

In order the
to connect

or

material
"

conditions.

these Inference that

"

Inductive

Fallacies

"

with
may is

doctrines
the

of

we already explained,

remind

student

fallacy of observation
the Aristotelian
sense

usuallya bad
"

enthymeme
in ii.: fig. All A This look

in

(ch.VII. " 3)

e.g.,
so
so

and and

so,
so

looks

Therefore The that form.

this is A.
of of

inferential character
it
so

observation

is shown

in this

readilyadmits
a

being expressed
is
a essentially

in

And

false

analogy

universal
a

conclusion
infers from the that the

in
all
cases

fig.iii.(ch. VII.
Catholic
of
to must

" 4)
"

e.g.t if

person

countries

abound and

in then

beggars applies

Italy,Spain, "c.,
France.1
remember
that

conclusion
The student and

both

good observa

tions

when good analogies, faults of

"formally" expressed,
in

display the
or

affirmative conclusions
in

fig.ii.
from

universal

conclusions
"

fig.iii.
of view of

But

though
are

the

purely

formal the

"

point

they

all

equally they

from faulty,
are

point of

view

scientific method

not

so.

We

refer of

course

to

the

Aristotelian

of analysis

the

Syllogism

of

Analogy.

329

CHAPTER

XI

THE

PROBLEMS

WHICH

WE

HAVE

RAISED.

"

i.

THROUGH

all the

preceding treatment Logic, we

is
to

of the

more

elementarydoctrines
the essentials of what

of

have

been the of

expounding
Traditional its doctrines them have

called rightly make many

Logic
and with

and, in order
more

phrases
their short

have we intelligible,

connected But
we

Aristotelian
of

fountainhead.
some

stopped

developing
we

further

issues which

they involve, although

have

frequentlycome
to

within

sightof
In the

these

issues.
we

present chapter
these
more

propose

examine

the in
a

bearings of
way the of student Modern

fundamental
some

questions
further the

which, it is hoped, will afford

who wishes in its
to

guidance

to

pursue

study
We

Logic
the

philosophical aspects.
the order in which

shall take up have

We

questions in
that
or

they

been

raised in the
said

previous exposition.
Logic
correct

have

deals

with

the

principles
on

which the may

out
even

regulatevalid
the
call

thought, and

which
We

of validity them
not
to

thought depends (ch.I. " i).

but

postulates of knowledge, because

with

them

only science
work. If falls

everyday thought cannot

are

begin
of

they
to

untrustworthy, every
are

fabric

knowledge
of

pieces, for they

which
hold it

the

general bonds

connection

together,

330
and

THE

PROBLEMS

WHICH

WE

HAVE

RAISED.

only through
as

them

has

our

knowledge
have

such

co some

herence of the

it

now

possesses.

We

discussed
"

more

fundamental

of these

principles e.g.,

the

Aristotelian Canon
and The the Law of

of Deductive Universal Modern

V. " 6), Reasoning (ch.

Causation

(ch.VIII.
is to
state

" 6).
these

chief

object of

Logic

as principles

as systematically possible, in the lightof the idea that the general activity of of a living Thought may be compared to the activity In this case the writer has ex as organicbody.
" "
"

completely and

pressed it elsewhere
as

"
"

the intellectual postulates appear

or

the

vital processes
"

functions which

"

e.g.,

cir digestion,

culation, respirationby
is

the life of the

;

organism
the vital
'

preserved and
'

its

growth effected

they are

functionsof thought.

It is useless to

discuss the

cer

tainty of
in and its

any

one

of these very fact

when principles that

we are

considered
it separating from seeing appears of

isolation ;

the

consideringit by itself precludes us real significance.Its true character only

the function the it

through
to

performs in
of
treat

the

growth

and intelligence discuss

attainment
is to

knowledge ;
it not
"

and

this function other

in isolation

but

in relation to
our

into its place in

principles to inquire J intellectual activity as a whole."

sense

similar

Hence

we

see

in what

Logic

is "formal" of the

It discusses
cess

the

general characteristics

(ch.I. " 2). thinkingpro

details which form the regard to the particular " of the thinking. But for a similar reason, all science objects is formal, because all science consists in tracingout the uni versal characteristics of things, the structure that makes To what them is formal is they are." say that a science under the only to say that a definite kind of properties comes point of view from which that science looks at things; and
"

without

Criticism Philosophical

and

Construction, ch. i. p.

12.

THE

PROBLEMS

WHICH

WE

HAVE

RAISED.

331
nature

Logic
of
A

is formal
as a

inasmuch

as

it considers to.1 of

the

general

thinking
numerous

type

to

be

conformed

and

influential school another

have logicians and with

one

treated which

in subject as "formal" Because be justified. cannot the without it does of reference

not to
"

sense,

Logic

the details of the

as

Thought objectsthought about,

that

deals

follow

these

writers

assume"

it can

treat to
an

Thought while disregardingall reference of Thought In vol. i.p. 16) : Hamilton real world. says (Logic,
"

the
act

of

thinking,there
the

are

three

thingswhich
or

we

can

discriminate
exerts
or

in consciousness. manifests

There

is the mind
There
matter

thought.
is called the

ego, which is the objectabout of

which is
a

we re

think, which
lation between
"

thought.
which
we

There
are

subjectand objectof
always manifested
this is the
not

conscious,
mode
or

relation
"

in

some

determinate
Now

manner,

and

form

of

thought.
see

of these

three, Logic does

That

consider

either the

first or
to be

the second." the

an

is,Logic neglects what we shall of Thought, portant characteristic

"

most

im

to
"

have

objective
has been
a

reference described closed let upon

of
as

some
"

kind.

Such

Logic
"
"

which

places subjectiv.gly._"armal
It is true that

itself within
any
out

circle of

"ideas," dealing with ideas without

this abstraction

simplifies all the harder the subject; it removes problems of Logic at of its value as an investigation most the cost of taking away of Logic we have of real thinking. In the present treatment
the facts. avoided this easy abstraction.

"
has

2.

The

next

pointof
the

fundamental
law

arisen

is the
where

relation of the

importancewhich of Identity to the

Judgment,
and

subjectand
We of shall
"

yet

are
a

united.

are different, predicate approach this question

through
which criticised

criticism has
"

Jevons's Equational Logic," to already

been
"

reference

made.

We

have

Jevons's Equational view of the propositio?i (ch.IV. " 2) ; but as he has based on this view a theory needs further examination. of Reasoning,the question
1

The
to
"

student

will

see

that "formal"

in this

sense

is

really equiv

alent

abstract."

332

THE

PROBLEMS

WHICH

WE

HAVE

RAISED.

Jevons's "Equational Logic" resembles

the

in

principle

holds He Symbolic Logic of Boole and Venn. that the real meaning of every proposition is to assert that subject and predicate are identical. With some this is evident in expression, in A propositions pro be converted positionswhich can simply e.g., "All this equilateral triangles are equiangular." When simple identity is not actually expressed, Jevons
"
"

"

"

holds show
"

that it. S

must proposition Instead of saying"All

can we

the

be S

expressed so
is

as

to

P," we

must

say

All

is SP," for S
then

part of P ; and
SP. and

Reasoning consists drawing conclusions

in
"
"

only with the Swrite the proposition S may in putting propositions together
=

be

identified

from

them

(ch.I. " 7) :
one

this

process,

Jevons's system, becomes

the substitution in i.e.,
a

the "Substitution

of Similars the value

propositionof
Take the
a

of We

term want

as

given in
the

another. from

simple
floats

example.
water."

conclusion

proposi

tions "Potassium
on

is

metal," and
thus
"

"Potassium

We

write them
=

Potassium metal ; 1i ) Potassium which Potassium floats on water. (2) Potassium for side Substituting potassium on the right-hand we (i)its value as given in (2), get Potassium metal which floats (3) Potassium
=

"

"

of

"

on

water

;
"

or, in

ordinary language,
on

Potassium
the
terms

is
are

metal

which
and

floats

water."

When

numerous

complicated,real simplification may

these
means.

be

obtained

by
con

It may clusion that

be

said that is both

in

the

the example given, and

which

natural
not

scientific would
the

be

metallic

attributes do
for

exclude

degree of
And this

lightness necessary

on floating

water.

334
and

THE

PROBLEMS

WHICH

WE

HAVE

RAISED.

and difference, variety, identity just because the meaning of every term has the two sides of extension and intension.
3.

"
of
"

positionto estimate the merits Hamilton's comprehensive view of the Judgment, that the proposition that the subject-concept asserts
We
are now
a
"
"

in

includes

in

it, or

"comprehends"
Taken
"

in

it,the predicate-

concept

(ch. IV. " 4).

only
But of

and strictly

literally,

this is true

positions.
the is

of analytic i.e., pro Mill's accusation,in his Examination the

"

Definitions

of Hamilton^
distinction

that of

comprehensive
; for the

analyticand

ignores propositions, synthetic

criticism
assumes

"

view

without really there is

an

foundation

that and

absolute

distinction between
real

analytic
in
S and

synthetic judgments. If every volves both identity and difference

and

judgment

between
and

P,

if every

term

has class

both
of

intension
and analytic

extension,
class
or analytic

there cannot of the

be

one

another

judgments, though synthetic syntheticaspect

A may be

either the

prominent in

this

or

that

judgment.

to the teacher judgment may be analytic and the learner; but if it is merely syn to synthetic thetic if no link is seen between i.e., subjectand pred icate it is a mere grouping of phrases. The increase of knowledge is never like the addition of new stones
"
"

to

heap,

or

new

bricks
can

to

wall ; it is be

an

expansion
to

of old material which

only
of
a

compared
"

organic
ger

growth,as
mination have
a

in the of
a

case

living thing,
real of

say the

seed.

Thus, in every
or

development
And
an

expansion

judgment we the Subject in

the Predicate. there

ment

is of

thing

new"

because judgment is synthetic state a expansion i.e., something new fact ; it is analytic because the new some makes the Subject itself more definite.
the
" "

"

THE

PROBLEMS

WHICH

WE

HAVE

RAISED.

335
the
ana a

Hamilton's

"

comprehensive
of the
a

"

view

appliesto
He himself proper

lytical aspect Subject, to

vol. i. p. for statements

judgment.
view

takes

propositionwith

singular term
his

(a

name)
on

for

illustrate his

(see Lectures
facts about the
went

Logic,
even

220); and
of
"

would interpretation
"

hold such
for
a

accidental I read

Sub

ject.
time

For

if instance,

Phccdrus for
a

the first

and

learn

that

Socrates
my

walk

by
is

the
not

this expands Ilissus,

notion

of Socrates
a

; it

(so far
of

as

it

means

anything to me)
Thus,
a even

mere

tackingon
which
not

something
If

irrelevant.
about

statements

give us information synthetic.

Caesar may
very
was a

real

subject are
rote

merely "Julius

schoolboy learns by
in the
year 44

that

killed

B.C.,"the

statement

be
reason

indeed

tion into about Caesar

syntheticto him, and for that entirely enter never as a new pieceof informa may the body of his knowledge ; he may forgetall
an

and in it,
to

examination

make

JuliusCaesar
But

the

whom

St Paul

appealed.

if he
"

has real

ised the
was a

general period in which

of of

Caesar

lived, that he
than

contemporary

Cicero, earlier
under of whom the

Virgil, pre
was

decessor

Augustus
the
statement

Christ

born, simply
well

"c.,
"

then
more

precisedate analyticas
to

makes
to

definite
the

some

: knowledge alreadyexisting

that

extent

judgment
the

is

as

synthetic.

Recurringnow
as an
"

to

attempt
mere

read
"

the

judgment
must note

a equation, i.e.,

identity,we

that

the

laws

of
as

so interpreted

Identityand Contradiction may to justify Jevons's equationalview

but when
so

be of
"

the make for

proposition ;
all real

understood, these

"

laws

judgment impossible. It has been held, instance,that the whole meaning of these laws is
in the
statement

exhausted

that

thing must

be

itself,

THE

PROBLEMS

WHICH

WE

HAVE

RAISED.

and other

cannot

be A."

anythingelse,
"

"A
as

is the
"

A," "A
necessary S is

is not

than

If this is taken
we

type
unless
"

of all S and is

then predication, P
are

cannot

say

P,"

identical

; for

this would
And
our

be to say that result would way

something other
every S is

than

S."

be

that from

predicate which
"
"

differs in any

whatever

irreconcilable with it ; every judgment entirely of the form is impossible, S is P and in the strictest P and sense cannot we get beyond saying S is S is P." This conclusion drawn the was by Antisthenes is Cynic, who declared that we cannot say "Socrates
"
" "

good,"
is

but

only that

"Socrates

is Socrates"

and

"good
of this

good."
In actual
we thinking never

make
statement
a

judgments
can

kind.
to

And

if

we

find

that

a as

be reduced

as "tautology," saying we nothing at all i.e., deny its rightto be called a When make we an we judgment. affirmation, predi this difference in cate something of something else ; and
"

this

form, we

regard it

the elements

of the

judgment

is

not

inconsistent with

unityof

reference.
met

Propositionsare
but which tical," in the have and

with
more

which in the
;

contain

apparently "iden predicate than there

are

is
I

subject
"

written." should

is war" e.g., "War Such statements be treated

as

"What

I have

written

are

far from

uncommon,

never

merely

analytic propo

sitions.1

"

4.

We

have

seen
"

that

every

judgment

is both
to

syn real those

thetic and

in its reference analytic synthetic in connecting the knowledge facts, analytic

1

of

For
war,

example,
you
must

"

War be

is war"

means

substantially If
" "

"

you
"

enter ; and

on

prepared
I have

to

face all that

means

it involves What

"What
ten

I have

written

written

I have

writ

I do not

change."

THE

PROBLEMS

WHICH

WE

HAVE

RAISED.

337
further

facts with
on

previousknowledge.
points.
there Professor is

We

must

dwell

both
In

these

every

Judgment

reference

to

reality.

Our

judgments,says
things
:

Minto, "express beliefs

among

about
natura

and any

relations
one

things in
them
to

rerum

when
to

understands
never

and

gives
of the

his

assent

them, he
of of

stops

think

state speaker's

mind,
mind

but of what
are

the words when man's

represent.
we

When that
our

states

spoken of, as
that
a

say

ideas

are

confused, or
his
as

concep
states

tion of
mind
are

duty influences
viewed
when

conduct, those objective facts in the

we

of of

world

realities. Even
in is
were
a a

speak
when and

of
we

thingswhich
say that that
a

have
centaur

sense

no

as reality,

combination fabled
to

of

man

horse, or

centaurs

live in the vales of

of mind
to
or

the such
to

passingstate
that
we

it is not Thessaly, expressed by the speaker as think of the

attend

of;

we

pass

at

once

the

reference objective

words

[to the
Mr

world

of Greek

mythology]."
Bradley and
the We

This is the view that Mr

have
every

Bosanquet
subject of
the ultimate in the

expressed by saying that

judgment
is

ultimate

Reality.
not

speak of

subjectbecause
ment

it may

explicitly appear

judg

when the

this is

examine

But when we expressed in words. is asserted,we find of what implications

an or indirectly, that,directly objective system is referred

to

"

as

explainedabove
"

"

which
centaur

is here

called

Reality.
vales of

Thus, when
half
man

we

say half

The

is a fabulous creature,

and

horse, that lived in the

touch Reality in referring to the popular we Thessaly," This of the Greeks. of some imaginations mythological in the and it scarcely is the ultimate subject; appears The the subject is the centaur. where proposition,
Y

338
"

THE

PROBLEMS

WHICH

WE

HAVE

RAISED.

reference

to

Reality"is

easiest to trace in the world

in

Judgments
of Mind
or

to something directly referring

Matter. Mr
proper
our Bradley has expressed

result thus
an

Judgment

is the
as

act

which
to
a
"

refers

ideal

rec content,1

ognised
ment

such,

Reality

beyond the

act.

Judg

because the act," every judgment spoken of as be called a is a thought of the mind, and hence may ideal content, an use mental act." In judging,we a universal meaning,a concept i.e., as such recognised

is

"

"

"

"

II. " 6),which, (ch. nised the

until it is

asserted,is only a recog

refer ob

meaning,

to adjective which Reality jective

wandering adjective."And we "a Reality beyond the act," an

"
"

does

not

depend
I assert

on
a

any

thoughts

about
assert

it.
that

In

every

judgment

this
hence

meaning of Reality. Mr throughout to all kinds of judgment ; principle and predicate to take both the subject he comes
The adjectivally. proposition but
one

meaning, and Bradley applies

of the

whole

proposition
to

expresses
nature

idea,and

I attach

this idea

the

of the real.
:

Thus, take the

Wren
was
" "

proposi following
the

tions

"Sir

Christopher
;

architect

of

St Paul's Cathedral

proposed to hold an Ex planets move hibition at Glasgow in 1901"; "The is produced by the Ozone in ellipses round the sun ; the air." The subject passage of electric sparksthrough and the respective predicates in each of these is Reality, The designingof St Paul's are to : Reality) (referred The (ofcertain proposal Cathedral by Sir C. Wren ; Exhibition in Glasgow in 1901"; to hold an persons)
It is
"

"

"

"

"

"The
1

paths elliptic

of

the

planetsround
a

the
It do

sun";
simply
the

phrase "ideal content" is not "conceptual content," and has means "ideal" or perfect.
The

happy nothing

one.

to

with

THE

PROBLEMS

WHICH

WE

HAVE

RAISED.

339

"

The

production

of

ozone

by

electric

sparks passing

through the air." is the most This theoryof Mr Bradley's important of It seems to be borne out by some recent investigations. of expressing of our familiar ways propositions e.g., Now time there was Once a giant a ; upon and and right "It is meet it came to pass that ; all bringout the refer These bounden our duty ..." to some ence Realityoutside the S and P of the ordinary
"

"

"

"

"

analysis.
with the
the

But

this does

not

dispensewith
must
an

or

interfere whenever

which analysis, ordinary form

too

be used In

judgments
goes

part of

inference.

fact,Mr

Bradley
the
we

far in
a

of the subject again dissolving

as adjective,

into proposition have

mere

in the

examples
of

given. My
a

assertions
as

are

not

usuallymade

Reality as
made taken of

whole,

Mr

Bradley suggests; they are

is

some

which portion of Reality, particular time

at
a as separate or least) true logical subject of

(forthe
In
our
"

individual
the

thing,and
ment.

which

is the

judg

the given propositions C. Wren

"

real

subjectsare

; individual) The holding of an Exhibition in Glasgow in 1901" (as The idea planets (as a class of an ; entertained) Ozone (as a substance or gas heavenly bodies) ; in Nature). The subjectsof our judgments existing

Sir respectively,
"

(asa

historical

"

"

"

"

have

very different when

we
"

degrees of

permanence about
"

or
"

individual
that

as ity,
"

make

assertions

cloud,"

the

sun,"
"

the any

present king,"
such

the

plays
to

of Shake in

speare
ment
as as

; but

subject is

referred

judg

and

having an existence distinct from other things, having features or characteristics which may be
it.
a

of predicated
Mr
seems

Bosanquet gives
to

modified
we

statement
:

which

agree

with

what

have

justsaid

Judgment

340
is the

THE

PROBLEMS

WHICH

WE

HAVE

RAISED.

reference
means

of

significantidea
an

to

Subject in
between

Reality by
them. The

of

identity of content
is the

"Subject in Reality"
which may be
we

individual
;

thing (or things) of

have

spoken
"When is

the
ex

"identityof
ample
'

content"
Mr

explained by
table

an

which

Bosanquet
of its the

gives.

say, per

This table is made

. . .

oak,'the
wood. and the

given in
has
a

ception ; grain and

and
as
'

among in

it qualities I if

certain

colour of the
'

know
are

the the

grain
same

colour those of I
...

oak-wood,

they

of

table, then
coalesces
to
'

made

oak
am

with

meaning or content this point in reality ;

table is made of oak-

and wood'"

able

say,

This

of Logic, p. 70). We have before (Essentials our mind, in perceptionor otherwise, a real subject, about which we judge ; having also before our mind is identical with formed a concept which previously attach we certain features or aspects of the subject, it as predicate.
" 5.
to

When

we

examine

the

relation

of

affirmative

judgments (ch.III. p. 52),we see that even negative and impliesthat a negativejudgment refers to reality, assertion. is inconsistent with a suggested reality is one Aristotle says emphatically, There primary
"

assertive
"

^,0709, affirmation
cf.

then

there
"

is

denial ; " 5,
a

affirmation is

in thought to prior

denial

(De Int.,c.
This
states

An.

Post., I. 25;
will be

Poetics,c.
on a

20).

fact which tive

evident

littlereflection.

Nega

have the function of simply averting propositions make a In real thought and speech we never error. affirmation suggested, denial unless there has been some

imagined, or actuallymade,
and
we

and

we

wish

to
we

deny

it ;

the have

reason

why

we

deny

it is that

believe is incom-

grounds for

another

assertion which

342

THE

PROBLEMS

WHICH

WE

HAVE

RAISED.

Thus,

our

result

is that
"

"S

is
and

not

P"

denies
on

the the
P.
no

affirmation suggested basis positive

It is indeed
one ever

is

P,"

is asserted which

that

is

something
common

excludes

obvious, from
it worth
to
some

language, that
to

thinks

while actual
cannot

deny thingsexcept

with

reference
a

or

possibleaffirmation.
over
"

If I say to he

man,
me as

"You mad

jump
if I

the You

moon,"
cannot

might think
as

but he I

say, either said

jump
We

high
turn

that?
to

might
never

accept

the

challenge or
now

reply, "Well,
a

I could."
Does

related

question.
a

every

affirmation involve
we

the
we

idea of

? negation
a

Whenever
"

affirm
or

anything
concept,
formed?
is

affirm in the

idea, significant
How
seen.

meaning,
the Now is
a

logicalsense.

is

concept

comparison
very

have as we By comparison, without distinction. impossible fact ;

I
cannot

This

obvious

compare

things to

gether, or
distinct in
I
can

thoughts together, except by keeping them then mind; if I have them distinct, my
their

note

resemblances.
in

And other

distinction in

volves
tion. idea of

and, exclusion, separation,

An

words, nega
that

affirmation, as
not

"

S is

P," involves the general

but negation,
of S and

the

negationof
only
think

particular
S and
P

connection
of

P.
we

It involves
can

the

generalidea
of

because negation,

them by distinguishing
are

from respectively
we
can

things which
think of the different Professor from

not

S
"

and S

not
"

P, and

only

relation

is P This

it by distinguishing

relations. Minto.
the

has been

stated by excellently
or absolutely are

"Nothing
items known
as

is known of
our

in

isolation;

various

knowledge

inter-relative;
other

is everything

by distinction
the of in slavery,

from

things.
shade of

Light
of

is known

oppositeof darkness, poverty

of out
;

riches,freedom

each

THE

PROBLEMS

WHICH

WE

HAVE

RAISED.

343
the

colour clash every which The wise

or

by
item

contrast

to

other

shades.

...

It is in

conflict of of

that knowledge emerges; impressions foil,by knowledge has its illuminating

it is

revealed,over

againstwhich
of the
not
same

it is defined."

are thingsdistinguished

kind,
we

other
not

the

distinction would
to
"

be

made;
from
a

are

concerned
"

"honest" distinguish from

"

or

round

sick."
a

We

make

"triangular," thing definite

same

it from by distinguishing
"

variation of the
our

thing;
the
to

we

do

not

differentiate but

impression against
akin find it is We
.

whole

world,
upon
some

against something nearly

ground.
in
et
. .

it,
"

common

that

this is

assumed practically

Definition

really

the basis of definition per genus

we

differentiam.When
of

wish

to

have what from of

definite

conception
in
same.
some

anything,
class and

to

apprehend

it is,we

place it
the

it distinguish the
to

species of
what
are we

In

obeying
a

logicallaw
clear

ought

to

do

with

view

thinking,we
method
or

only doing with

we

exactness

and

conscious

what less

all do

and in

cannot
our

help

doing with thinking."

There is

more

definiteness

ordinary historyof
the affirma

celebrated principle, omnis determinatio is the

sense

in
est

the

Philosophy,
sense

that

negatio:

in which

it is true the

in which

tion involves

generalidea
to
our

of

negation.
fact, that
every
we synthetic,

"
to

6.

Returning
is both
a

fundamental

Judgment
discuss
of

analyticand important
and

proceed
illustra

most

fundamental

tion We the
ment

it. have
seen

that greater stress

now
on

may

be

now laid,

on

and synthetic,
:

the
on

side analytic the

of the

Judg
of

in other

words,
are

now

objects or
now

groups
connec-

objectswhich

referred

to, and

on

the

344

THE

PROBLEMS

WHICH

WE

HAVE

RAISED.

tion of attributes

or

which general qualities

stress
a

is asserted.
one

According as greater
on

is laid

on

the of

aspect
kinds

or

the

other,

we

have

distinction VII.

two

of

universal
When

judgments (cf.ch.
student

" 8;

ch. VIII.

" i).

this distinction is for the

remain
Modern

firmlygrasped, few difficulties in the higher developments of

"

Logic.
the
a or

(a) In
refer
to

judgment
a

all S

is

P,"

the of

"

all S

"

may

group,

definite number
in

cases

actually
narrative.
enumera

observed
Such

recorded
are

history
"

or

other

judgments
I suppose

the result of
to

complete
the
"

tion."

myself

have

counted

then, S's,

all S are I say observingthat they all have the quality, P." Such judgments belong to history narrative ; in or this they resemble the singular judgment "This S is P," and the particular S are P." or judgment "Some many

(ch.II. " i, a) that the singular judgment is characterised by being limited by indications of time and placeto a single object. The universal judgment (ofthe kind now under is limited in the same consideration) way
We
to
a

know

whole

group

"

and
are

if the
not
"
"

indications of time

and

place which
"

limit it

expressed,they are
i.e., the

implied.
consist

leopardsare spotted ing of every specimen hitherto

The the the
ment

All

collection of the been the

some

observed

species.
found
men

place is anywhere
time is

where the

leopard has
"All
at i.e.,

"up
were

to

present."
"

of

regiment
the

captured"

engage
to

time

and
"

place Every

of

which
on

are

supposed
shelves the

be
of

understood.

book

these

treats

Logic
as

"

here the

the

place is indicated,and
remain
same

time

long as judgment is
of
a

is

books

there. way

The
to

particular
at

limited

in the all the

part

least

group:

"Nearly

Dublin

Fusiliers

lost their

lives."

THE

PROBLEMS

WHICH

WE

HAVE

RAISED.

345
may be
cer

on Judgments resting

observation

or

narrative
true

called

for they are valid," "empirically and

only of
be

tain times refer to

places. And
of
a

judgments
so

of this type which called

the whole

group

limited may

The "all" is numerical, valid universals." "empirically makes the subject, "all S," a collective and practically Mr Hence term. Bosanquet has called them simply
"

collective

judgments."

The

the singular,
assert

"

particular,"

and of

the collective universal and particular things,

to

judgments
forth In

the existence
re

set

their

and qualities

lations
more

other

things.
on

all these

judgments

much

stress
to

is laid

the

extension
on

of the

subject (the
In

reference such

than particular things) the

the intension. is

judgments also

synthetic aspect
and different
stress

predominant.
the side of

There (I)]

is another

type of universal
on

judgments, where
intension,and
the

the main

is laid is

judgment
not

makes

of the attributes

predominant. The assertion regardingthe connection an which the subject and predicate signify,
analytic aspect
existence
case

regardingthe objects. In this

satisfactory ; for necessarily carry
we

of any form
"

particular group
all S is P
"

of

the

is

hardly
hence be

the with
"

meaning
them

is that the attributes of S

the

attribute P, and
"

should

rather say

S is necessarily P

or

"

S must

P."
ment

Professor
as

Creighton has explained this type of judg follows : When we say, ignorant people are
" '

the proposition does refer directly not to superstitious,' but states the necessary con individuals, any particular nection between ignoranceand superstition.Although the existence is of

ignorant
is
to

persons the

who

are

also

super
most

stitious

presupposed in
function
.

its proposition,
a

prominent
butes.
. .

assert

connection

of attri

'all material So, in the proposition main purpose

of the

bodies

the gravitate,'

judgment

is

evidently

346
to

THE

PROBLEMS

WHICH

WE

HAVE

RAISED.

affirm

the

necessary

connection

of the

attributes of

Mr Bosanquet distinguishes and gravitation." materiality a on connec these as generic judgments,for they rest tion of content or they presumptionof causality /."?., result in certain that given attributes necessarily assert
"
"
"

others. We
law."

may

say,

that they assert therefore, do not

"

general

These

judgments
In Dr

depend on
words,

an
"

enumeration The

of instances.
of its

Martineau's is
a

foresight
or

cases particular

not

included

in the and
a

meaning
person without which
"

in the evidence

of

general rule;

may any its

the Law to assent reasonably suspicionof the vast compass There interpretation ranges. account we may give of them
to

of Refraction of facts
are over

"

certain the

natures

or

kinds

whatever grounds for ascribing attributes of being, without going

through
any

objects included
their
the
we

under

them

or

having
is
not

prescienceof
to

actual

contents.

It

necessary of mankind human The

ment

know

natural
can

of history
to

all the varieties of mortality

before

venture

affirm

beingsin general." simplestinstances of

are

this type of universal

"
"

judg

found any
"

in mathematics
are triangle

e.g.,

The

three interior
to two

angles of angles
of
"

togetherequal
of Here In
a

right

The

circumference

circle is incommen there

surable with its diameter."

a

is

an

assertion pro
as a

necessary connection. in the

every the

the instance,

perty stated
consequence
statements

subjectof
upon
an

has propositions

the property stated do

not rest

in the

predicate. The
of

enumeration

instances,
a

but

on

the connection

of the

concept

of the
on

angles of
the
con

with triangle nection

that of two

and rightangles, of
a

of the

concept
And

circular

line with that of may

at

line. straight
true

this connection
to

be any

asserted

as

without

any

limitation

instances

particular

THE

PROBLEMS

WHICH

WE

HAVE

RAISED.

347
"

times is
not

and
an

places.
rest

For

this reason,

the the

pluralwith judgment;
form

all
as

"

of adequate expression upon be

it

does

not

enumeration, the sign of numerical

quantityshould
of the
to

dropped.

The

proper
"

is that
"

S is P indesignatejudgment, of the connection, emphasise the necessity so-called

"

or,

S must

be

P."

Sometimes
so

the

emphasis laid
be

on

the connection
to

of attributes is

strong that all reference

may

particular judgment

thingsor
assumes

instances

dropped, and
asserts

the "if

the conditional This that

form (hypothetical)

is S it is P." the

statement

only the

anything of reality

general law
those of P.

the

attributes of S

in necessarily

volve

This
ments

distinction between
was

collective and

genericjudg

explained by clearly
The the proper what is

Aristotle in his Posterior he calls "universal"

Analytics.
asserts to
a

genericjudgment
sense common

in (icaOokov)

; the
or

collective

judgment

merely
group

generallyapplicable

(KOIVOVor Kara Travros). "By universal what I mean universal predication] belongs to all, [i.e., and and belongs essentially, belongs to the thing as such. It is plain, that all universals therefore, belong to to their subjects necessarily belong to a thing ; and and to belong to it as such, are the same. essentially, For example, the triangle such has its three interior as angles together equal to two right angles, and these
anglestogetherare
The and
a

essentially equal to
hold of any of no first[i.e.,

two
a

right angles.
certain

universal

must

thingof

kind,

also of that kind

kind

constituting

genus]." This is exactly the "generic" uni versal, holding of any thing of a certain kind just be the thing is of that kind and of no other (An. cause Post.,\. 4). have found that the " 7. We "generic universal

wider

34"

THE

PROBLEMS

WHICH

WE

HAVE

RAISED.

judgment," in
reference
to

its

most

abstract

form,

still contains

reality, to any par though not necessarily ticular objects in the real world. The more abstract it it tends to take the hypothetical becomes, the more
form
; in that
case
"

as

Mr

Bradleysays
of the

"

its truth lies

the

in its affirmation of the

connection

of the then with

if; that is,the affirmation

"

existence

in

reality
some

of such

general law

as

would, if we
a

suppose

conditions
the

present,

produce

certain S

result." is M

Because
is

hypothetical proposition "if

the

it is P"

implication justmentioned, it is capable of being used as a significant portionof scientific know VIII. " i); in Aristotelian language, ledge (ch. it can
be
used
a

capable of

as

"major

premise."
from

But

before

we

can

it,its general reference to to be particularised, reality requires by being connected

with
some

"draw

conclusion"

actual

case

in

space

and

time

"

it i.e.,

re

premise." In the absence of this the judgment in its hypothetical particularreference,

quires a

"minor

gives us perience ; this

to

form

no

information

about

anything in
may

ex

is

why

the conditional form is M it is P

be
do

used
not

express

ignorance:"z/S
it is M
or

(but I
even

know

whether

is only about ignorance

assertion of the

the

not)." But particular case

connection of

then

the

; the

positive
M

general

with

is

evidently implied.
Now,
can

in the

disjunctive judgment
both
possess The

both fuller

these

sides

be

detected,but
" 6).
than

significance
is less in the

(ch.VII.
determinate

particular reference
and hypothetical; is either of the
?
"

in the

general
"Even do
you

is larger. "A implication if you do

not

or

C."

know
be

which
one

two

it

how is,

know
such

that it must
an

assertion about

make we cannot Evidently without knowing something

350

THE

PROBLEMS

wnicii

WE

HAVE

RAISED.

"

8. To

illustrate the

observation

made

at

the close

of the

previoussection,we
Deductive
and
on

shall consider

the

relation

between

Inductive

reasoning.
usuallybeen
content

English writers
to
to

Logic
reasons

have

say

that Deduction

from from
can

general principles
facts particular
to

facts, Induction particular

we

Before general principles. of this statement

as

estimate
must

the be
are

value clear
not

of the

distinction, we

to

two

real
a

and point. Deduction different and independentkinds is the same process of thinking
one

Induction
of in

reasoning. The
both
a
"

to find i.e.,

place
case

for of
"

some

fact

as

detail within

system.

In

the
"

deductive syllogistic

(ch.V.) our reasoning

of
a or

system

is

partly known
under

beforehand, in the form

the fact

general law

which
ch. VIII.

detail is start,

brought
in

(ch.V. ""
our

2,

6-

" i).

We

having find

hands But

the

common

thread

which

unites the various

have
to

facts.
common

in Inductive We

reasoningwe
start

the

thread.
occur

with

certain

kinds

of facts

which

togetherin our experience. We assume them unites which is some that there (ch. principle VIII. " 6) ; and our objectis to read out of these par ticular details the generallaw of their connection, and, if possible, to explain this connection by further con necting it
and laws Thus with
a

other

laws

and

this is to connect

facts

into the

whole. systematic traditional English mode Deduction

that in both
must

of

Induction

and

at least

distinguishing be qualified by
reasoning
work
"

remembering
have show the the
a

"kinds"
of

of

we

essential function
way in which
or

thought at
are

to i.e.,

details The

connected

together
the have We

into

system

whole.

difference
cases.

lies in

starting-point being different

seen

in the two
are

that both

modes

of inference

requiredtogether

THE

PROBLEMS

WHICH

WE

HAVE

RAISED.

351
"com

in

scientific

reasoning;for
both

what

we

called of

the

plete scientific method,"

includes necessarily
ent

the

Method

Explanation,
In the
pres

(ch.IX. " 10).

the
we

work

we

have of

not

limited

meaning
start

of Induction facts

to

that kind

where reasoning
to

with

given
with that

together and

have

find

their real

connecting prin
of Induction have

ciple ;
the

we

have

identified the

theory
and

theory
"

of Scientific includes passages

Method,

said

Induction In many treated

"

Deduction."
in

Mill's

Logic
"

we as

find Induction the

as

in

the

present work

theory

of

Scientific Method.
'

Stated
one

to

general terms, Induction (according line of thought in Mill) is the discovery and proof
in its most

of

operation of the "general propositions": it is "that be true in a to mind by which we infer that what we know particularcase
resemble the
or cases

will

be

true

in

all

cases

which
"

former

in certain is the

assignablerespects."
we
a

In

other clude is
true

words, Induction
that
of

what the

is

true

by which process of of certain individuals

or

con

class

whole
true

class,

that

what

is

true at

at

certain
"

times

will be

in similar

circumstances
on

all times

(111. ii." i). This

ate

evidently rests "uniformityof nature," which may

the

assumption
"

of the

be treated

as

the ultim

(III. iii." i). In say major premise of all inductions" of Induction that a case ing this,Mill evidentlyconceived
be

could The

expressed
cause same

same

syllogism thus of causes) will always produce (or group

as
a
"

the

effect.
ABCD

The
E.

causes

have

been

observed

to

have

the effect

Therefore
E. Hence "a

the

causes

ABCD

will

always have
cases,

the

effect

single instance, in

some
"

is sufficient for

when the investiga complete induction" (III.iii." 3) i.e., tion of the single instance has been so thorough that we can

be ABCD

sure

of

and

having grasped of E being their

all

the

relevant

circumstances
on

effect.

Carrying

the

same

352
line of tion
"

THE

PROBLEMS

WHICH

WE

HAVE

RAISED.

thought,Mill
to

says
"

that the
are

"

main laws

business

of Induc which and

is

ascertain
"

what

the

of causation
cause

exist in nature, the

causes

to

determine

the effect of every

of all effects"

vi. " 3). (III.

The

process
mass

of Induction of facts which

is

one

of

analysis applied to the

presents
to
us.

complex

Nature

This

is analysis

in the first instance

to

in mental, and is exemplified The

knowing

what

look

for.

described to cellently by Mill with far more physicalanalysis, by observation or power vii. of phy by experiment (III. "" 2, 3, 4). The methods sical analysis described the five Inductive Methods are by Mill in Bk. III. ch. viii., have these methods x. : we ix.,
" "

importance of this is (III. vii. " i). This leads

ex

re-stated

with
out

the

necessary

modifications

; and

we

have

pointed

of Explanation, place of the Method which is accurately described by him (III.xiv. ; esp. " 5), but which he treats method, useful in only as a subordinate the
true

helping out
If the

the others.

doctrines
referred be that
a

have
result the Mill

just

would
as

implied in the passages to which we worked were consistently out, the theory of Induction substantially
which
a
we

same

have of

expounded.

But

mingles
with student

it with it.

line

thought wholly
that most

in

consistent
The

of Mill's

Logic will see

his

of the

difficulties and
a

inconsistencies in his
to

treatment

arise from

persistent attempt
on

found the

of exposition

scientific

of knowledge which origin is known as "empiricism."1 This theory,which is based on that of Hume, maintains that the only source of knowledge consists in "experience," understood to the succession of separate facts appearing in the mean of our senses. The mind contributes nothing perceptions the facts of receiving to knowledge beyond the power method the

theory of

See

Green's

"Lectures
vol. ii.

on

the

Logic

of

J.

S.

Mill," in

his

Works, Philosophical

THE

PROBLEMS

WHICH

WE

HAVE

RAISED.

353
or un

and

them distinguishing
or sum

according as
after another.
"

one

is like

like
the

comes

before

or

of these into any

details of

Knowledge not their con sensation,"

is

nection

kind

of system.

thought, Mill argues that Mr as Judgment refers to "real things," and then every almost takes our breath away Bosanquet says by calling them 'states of consciousness'" [the 'real things'] (I.v. "" the same point of view he insists that "every i, 5). From truths" (II.iii. general truth is an aggregate of particular "unconnected" " 3),where means "particular" by anything

When

working
"

out

this line of

"

"

common

to

itwith others.

And

Induction

tends
can

to

mean

the

process

by which

these disconnected
statements

details
or

manufacture Hence also he he had

(in our
stated

minds) general
that the Law be
the
to

laws.

maintains

of Uniform

Causation, which
all Induction instance
of

of presupposition "is of itself

an

(meaning
Induction"

Scientific

Method),
the
sense

(meaning
ticulars
of

process

combining the disconnected par -experience into general statements). It

instance in its weakest of "Induction" an is, moreover, form (III.ch. xxi.) Mill attempts to evade the result ; and have as we ing difficulty, seen, by a flagrant though un conscious petitio principii (see above, ch. VIII. " 6 ; ch. X. " i. P- 323)From

the

same

line of

reasoning is
and
the

from

the view that "all thought came to particulars particulars" (II. iii. " 4);
name

denial

of the

of Induction

Mathematics, because "the reallygeneral, is not believed on the evidence of particular instances" (III. ii. " 2). In this sense, the Methods of Scientific Inquiry expounded by Mill himself in his Third inductive Book not are can ; they do not, and not, start
" "

tions of

generalisa truth obtained, though

to

the

with disconnected of such and such

a

but particulars,

with facts observed

to

be

kind, facts read through conceptions.

the relation of

"

9.

The of

subjectof

Logic

to

other

branches of much

Philosophy is one
z

that has been

;

the

subject
im-

discussion unprofitable

some nevertheless,

354

THE

PROBLEMS

WHICH

WE

HAVE

RAISED.

are portant questions

involved
one

in it.1 We

shall conclude

by briefly touchingupon Modem Logic, as we

identical with
what

aspect of it.
have

explained it, becomes

called What
to

is sometimes

the

Theory

of

Knowledge,
the Before

or

Epistemology.
of

is the the

relation of

treatment logical

knowledge day

? psychological

we answering this question,

must

remember

that from

Psychology
various

at

the

present
in

is

approached
two

points of view, and

from particular
"

funda the the

mentallydifferent pointsof
of Physiological Psychology school which he

view Wundt

one

in exemplified the of writings

and

founded

another, in Stout's Analytic

Ex
no

Psychology or planatory.
The

Ladd's
former
to

Psychology,Descriptiveand
treatment

of

Psychology has

relation whatever
as
"

Logic ;

for it

treats scarcely

ideas

cognitive it leaves out the fact of knowledge and its deals elaborately implications. The latter treatment with description and of the intellectual pro analysis
cesses

but it is interested in them

as

only as

mental

facts.

Logic is interested in them tive principles of thought.

as

It

the regula exemplifying dwells on these principles

types

to

which
can

our

hence

Logic

go

and thought must conform itself; beyond the actual facts of the in

tellectual activities of of

mind,
the

and

can
"

formulate that is
to

an

ideal

knowledge,by
"

which

worth

say, the may

truth

of

our

present intellectual achievements

be

judged.
The
were

ideas and

aims

of what

we

have

called
T. H.

Modern Green

Logic
in his and the

explained by
lectures
on

the The

late Professor

Oxford The

Logic of J.
The
aim in

S. Mill

Logicians Logic of the Formal of since the death (published,

and

considered

scope of the various "parts" of Criticism the author's Philosophical

Philosophyare
and

Construc

tion,chapter i.

THE

PROBLEMS

WHICH

WE

HAVE

RAISED.

355

author,
views

in

his

collected

Philosophical
first
H.

Works,
to

vol.

ii.)
readers
and

These in
Mr

were,

however,
Mr F.

introduced
in his the

English (1886)

general
Bernard

by

Bradley
his

Logic

Bosanquet (1888).
mined in The the and other.

in

Logic,

or

Morphology
two

of
worked

Know
up
on

ledge
was

ore

which of

these

writers

Logic
the The

Hegel
of

(first published
Lotze

in and have value

1818)

the

one

hand,
on

Logics
two

(1874)
works

Sigwart
been the

(1873)
translated

the

last-named of of

into

English,
especially
:

and the work

are

great

to

student,
Helen of his

more

Sigwart
The in

(translated
main short also and
to

by

Dendy

two

vols.,

London,
are

1896).
stated We

points
form refer Welton's in
to

Bosanquet's
Essentials

logical
of Logic

doctrine

(1895).
Manual both the

may

Creighton's

Introductory
Basis

of

Logic
of which
of

Logical
ductions
work
;

of
Modern
to

Education,

contain
Mr vol.

intro

to

Logic,
Welton's

on

lines

Bosanquet's
ii., which

and the

Manual

of
Inductive

Logic, Logic.

treats,

on

same

lines,

of

NOTE.

THE

following
of them of its the

mechanical valid into moods Latin of

device
the

for

remembering syllogism,
here

the

names

categorical
is is inserted

by
on

fitting
account

hexameters,
The student

antiquity.
to

recommended

to

pay

no

attention

it

"

Barbara, Cesare,
Tertia

Celarent, Camestres,

Darii,
Festino,

Ferioque,
Baroco, Datisi,
;

piioris
secundae

Darapti,
Ferison,

Disamis,
habet

Felapton,

Bocardo,

quarta

insuper
Fesapo,

addit Fresison.

Bramantip,

Camenes,

Dimaris,

358

INDEX.

Connotation of Bosanquet, on Proper Names, 36. Reference on to Realityin Judg

Conclusion Concomitant 5Concrete

of

Syllogism, 121-2.
Variations, 269, 284-

ment,
on

337-40.

Logic, 355. to Realityin Bradley,on Reference Judgment, 337. Modern on Logic, 355.

Modern

Bramantip)
Camenes,

137, 146.

Names, 14, 15. Propositions, 196-7. Arguments, 198 ff. Connotation, 17, 18, 25, 33. relation to Denotation, 27-30.
Conditional limits of, 30-32. of Abstract Names,
of

51,

137, 137, 144.

146.
143.

34.

Camestres, Camestros,
Canons of

Proper Names, 35-7. Consequent, Fallacy,322.

Content, 17. Syllogism,123 ff. Law Contradiction, of,41-3. Categorematic words, 10. Categorical Propositions, 51, 97 ff., ContradictoryNames, 21-2.
334

ff.

Propositions, 45,

74.

Categories,Aristotelian,190-2. Causation, as Postulate of Know ledge,251 ff.

Axiom of, 252. Mill's doctrine, 256-8, 260-1.

88-9. Contraposition, Contrary Names, 21. Propositions, 75. Conversion, 78-84. Copula, 9, 50, 337, 341.
Correlative

Continuity of, 257. Cause, the Immediate, 259-60. of, 260-1. Causes, Plurality Celarent, 136, 140.
Celaront, 142. Cesare, 137, 142. Cesaro, 144.
Chains IS4-7Circulus of

Names,

24.

Creighton, J. E., 345,

355.

Darapti, 137,
7, 300,

144-5, ISI. 229,

236-

328.

Syllogistic Reasoning,

in Probando, 324. Circumstantial Evidence, 238. Classification distinguished from

Division,182,
Artificial, 167-8.
and

186.

Darii, 135, 140. Darwin, 279-80. Datisi, 137, 145. Deduction, 115 ff., 198 ff., 213 ff. also (See 222, 224-7. Barbara.) and Induction,6, 228, 350. De Morgan, A., no, 214, 221,
,

3i3-

Evolution, 193-5.

Natural, 182-4. Definition,181. rules of, 183.

and

Definition, 171 ff. Complete, 172, 179.

rules of, 173-6. and Nominal Real, 176-8.

Class

of Predication, interpretation

99-102.

Mathematical, Genetic, 180.

180.

Collective Common

Names, Names,

19. 17. view of

Legal,
and

80. 181.

Compartmental
cation, no.

Predi

Classification, 172, Circular, 176. Denotation, 17, 18.

relation
to

Complete Definition, 172, 179. Complex Conception, Inference

by,
92.

Connotation, 27-30.
Names,
34.

of Abstract

Composition, Fallacy,316. Propositions, Compound 58-62. Comprehension of Concepts, 103. Comprehensive interpretationof
Predication, 105,
334

Description,171-2. Dichotomy, 188-9. de omni, 139, 215. Dictum Difference,Single,269, 273-7.

Double, 281-3.

ff.

Concept, 24-27. Conceptualist view

of

Logic,

in,

Predicable,167-8. Difference, Dilemmas, 206-11. Dimaris, 137, 146. Direct Reduction, 150.

INDEX.

359
Generalisation
218. connection with and

Disamis,

137,

144-5.

Resemblance,

Propositions, 51, 196-7. Disjunctive Syllogisms,204-6. of Terms, 73-4. Distribution in Syllogism, 125-8. Division,182, 186. by Dichotomy, 188-9. Eduction,
ence. see

Induction,246-

51-

Empirical,232-3.
Fallacies Generic Genetic

in, 326.

Judgment, 345-8.
Definition,180.

Immediate

Infer

Empirical Law, 290-1. Empiricism, 352-3. Enthymeme, 152-3.

Aristotelian, 154, 302, 328.
234-41, 300,

Genus, 166-7. Goclenian 156. Sorites, Green, T. H., 254, 352,

Hamilton,
on

354.

Import
106-9.

7, 20, 58, 331, 334. of Propositions, 105,

Enumeration, 232-4, 236-7,272. Epicheirema, 155. Episyliogism,155. Equivocal Names, 16. Equivocation, 314.
Evolution
and
see

Herschel, 266, 269, 287. Hobbes, 13. Hypothesis, 291-9.

suggested, 299-304. of a good, 305-8. Hypotheticalpropositions, 51, 196. 198. Syllogisms,
Conditions Law of, 40, 41, Identity, IgnoratioElenchi, 320. IllicitProcess, 126, 127.
331-4. how

193. Classification,

Analogy. Example, 60-62. Exceptive Propositions, Excluded Middle, Law of,43-4.

Exclusive
60-62. Propositions,

Experiment,265-8,
286,
293.

275,

281, 284,

Immediate
16.

Inference,

77

ff., 115-

Explanation, 293-8.
59. ExponiblePropositions, of Concepts,17. Extension

Conversion, 78. Obversion,84. 87. Contraposition, Inversion,90. Other kinds, 91-2. Imperfect Induction, 232. Import of Categorical Proposi tions,98 ff., 334 ff.
of

Fallacies, 313

ff.

Aristotle's Classification of, 314.

Whateiy's Classification of, 325. Inductive,326. Felapton, 137, 144-5.

Feno, 136, 146. Ferison, 137, 144.

Hypothetical Propositions,
225,348.
204, DisjunctivePropositions,

Fesapc, 137, 146.

Festino, 137, 142-6.

of

348-9.
of Names, Incompatibility
22.

IndesignatePropositions, 55. Indirect Reduction, 150-2. Characteristics of, 138 ff. Induction,Aristotelian (seeEnthy and Paradeigma), 228 ff. meme Specialrules,147-8. Mill also on First (seeMill), 351-3. figure (see Barbara], and "Perfect" "Imperfect," J35-6" 138-42, 146. Formal 231-2. 6, 330. logic, Relation to Four Deduction, 6, 228, terms, Fallacy, 124-5, 326. Fourth figure, 137, 145-6. 35.0. Method (see Preliminary Fowler, T., 20, 149, 212, 251, 252, Method), 289. 278. Complete Method, 293 ff. Fresison, 137, 146. Postulates of, 252-5. 186. Fundament urn Divisionis, and Syllogism,224 ff. or General Common see Deductive, Syllogistic Names, Inference, 6, 10, 117 ff.,198 ff.,213 ff., Names.

Figure of Speech, Fallacy,318. Figures of the Syllogism, Distinc tion of, 132-3.

360
(See also ) ference.
222.

NDEX.

Immediate

In

Inductive, see Induction. InseparableAccident, 170. Intension, 17.

Beginnings of, in Greece, 3, 4. of Aristotle (seeAristotle),5, 6. and Psychology, 354.

Modern, 354-5.

Lotze,

21,

278, 355.
121, 199, 219, 222,

Inversion, 90. Major Premise, Jevons, 16,

149,
on on on on on

27,

56,

no,

125,

126,

153, 283, 311, 319, Division of Logic, u.

325.

226, 348. Term, 122.

Illicit Process of, 126. Martineau, J., 104, 214, 346. Mediate Inference, 117 ff.
Method of

the

Concept, 25. 55. Indesignate Propositions,

88. Contraposition, of 101, Propositions, Import 333-4-

Agreement, Single,269.
278.
281.

Double, Double,

of Difference, Single,273.
128. of Concomitant

"Equational" Logic, 331-3.

on on

negative Premises,
non-

Variations, 284.

Arguments, syllogistic Dilemma,

in 208.

of Residues, 286.
of

158.
on

Explanation, 293.
Term,
10, 39, 117, 121,

the

Middle
227.

125-6,

on

Induction

Mathematics,

246.
on

Mill, 6,
and

251, 300,
and 16.

325.
Abstract

Observation

Experiment,

on

Concrete

265.

Names,
on on on

15,

Elenchi, 321. Ignoratio 278. JointMethod, Mill's,

on

Negative Names, Relative Names,

Connotation of Names,
and 33-7.

21.

24.

Judgment
Universal

and

8, 9. Proposition,

Denotation

or Generic, 345-7. Collective,344-5.

on

Import

of

102Propositions,

348. Hypothetical, Disjunctive, 348-9.

(See

also

jon
'

Proposition.}
Kepler, 295, 297. Keynes, 56, 92, 97, in. on Inversion, 90. Kinds, "real" or "natural," 193.
Knowledge,
330,

on

4. 353Real Kinds, 193. Validity of the 216-220. Perfect

Syllogism,
231.

on on on

Induction,

Analogy, 243-4. Uniformity of Nature,

323,

254-5,

353of

350.

on on

Cause, 225-61.
Methods

Induction, 268
of

Language and Thought, 6, 7. Laurie, H., 271. Law, 38. Laws of Thought, 2, 39 ff., 329-30. of Nature, 38, 226-8, 246, Laws 348.
as

ff., 351-2.

Empircist Theory
353on

Induction,

Hypotheses,

292-3.

Minor

Premise, Term, 122.

Illicit Process

121,

348.

Uniformities,

253. of
of

of, 126.
113, 224,

232. Empirical,

Minto,
Sufficient
3*9. Modus

W.,
337"

no, 342.

268,

Leibniz, principle
Reason, 46.
Locke
30.
on

Modality, 56.
Language, Ponens, 200. Tollens, 200. Determination Moods,
of First of

Ambiguity
Science
or

Logic,

as

Art, 39.

of

Valid,

Definition Formal Material Divisions

of, i, 2, 330. (seeDeduction], 6, 330.

or

Figure, 138.
142. 144.

Inductive

(see In

Second,

duction).
of,
10,
n.

Third,

Fourth, 145.

INDEX.

361
compartmental

Names, Absolute, 23.

Abstract, 14-16. Collective,19.

view, no.
Existence

Implicationof
"3, Problematic 337

in, 112,

ff121.

Common, 17. Concrete, 14,

Connotation

Premises,
15.
33.

117,

of, 17, 18, 25,

21.

Judgments, 56. Categorical:Affirm Propositions,

ative,52.

21-2. Contradictory,

Contrary,
Definition Denotation

of, 171 ff., 176.

Analytic,57-8, 334. Compound, 58.

Contradiction

of, 17, 18,

27.

of, 45, 74.

Equivocal, 16. of,22. Incompatibility Negative, 21. 21. Positive, Relative, 24. Singular,17. Natural 183. Classification, Necessary Propositions, 56. Negation, Basis of, 340-42. Negative Experiments, 281-2. Instances,277-9.
Names, 21. Premises, 128-9.
52. Propositions, Newton, 141, 275,

Contrapositionof, 88-9. Contrarietyof, 75.

Conversion

of, 78-84.
of Terms

Distribution Exclusive Fourfold

and

in, 73-4.

Exceptive,60-62. of, 55, 98. (See

Exponible, 59.
scheme

Import Judgments.}
Inversion Obversion

of, 98

ff.

also

Indesignate, 55.

of,90. Negative, 52.

of, 84.

295-9.

Nominal Numerical

Definitions,176.
221. Propositions,

Opposition of,74-7. Particular, 54. Quality of, 52. Quantity of, 53. Singular,53.
of, 75-6. Subcontrarietyof, 75-6.
Subalternation

Observation, Fallacies in,326. and Experiment, 264-8. Obversion, 84. Opposition of Terms, 20-22. of Propositions, 74-7. Origin of Hypotheses, 299-304.
Ostensive Particular

Synthetic,57,
Verbal,
57.

334.

Propositions, Hypothetical,
196.

51,

Reduction, 150.

54. Propositions, Empiricist Theory of, Particulars, 25 r- 353Perfect Definition, 179.

Import of, 225, 348. Disjunctive, 51, 196-7. Import of, 204, 348. Proprium, 168, 170. Prosyllogism,155. Psychology and Logic, 354. Quality
of

Induction, yPerfect

231.

\Petitio Principii,322.
Qu"szti, 322.
Phenomenon,

Categorical Proposi

tions,52.

Pluralityof

meaning of,268. Causes, 260.

Predicables
188. 268.

Quantity of Categorical Proposi tions, 53.

176. Definition, Reduction, 150.
Relative
Real

Porphyry,
"Tree,"
Post hoc

of, 170.

ergo propter hoc, of Aristotle, Predicables 165 ff.

Names,
and

24.

Predicaments, see Categories. 8, 9. Predication, predication view, 98.

class

Resemblance
320.

Analogy, 243-4,

view, 99.

Rules

equation view, 101. attributive view, 102.

"comprehensive"
334-

view,

104,

of, 286. Residues, Method of Classification, 183. of Definition, 173. of Division, 186. of CategoricalSyllogism, 123 ff. of Hypothetical Syllogism, 200.

362
of of

INDEX.

DisjunctiveSyllogism, 205-6. Dilemma, 206.

Synthesis and
334-5, 35"-

Inference, 177, 216,

Systematisation, 350.
Second

Figure,SpecialRules, 147. Characteristics, 143.

Moods,
137, 143. 170.

Terms,
in

see

Names.

Separable Accident, Sidgwick, H., 177.

Sigwart, C., 355. Singular Propositions, 53.

Names,
17.

of, 73, 4. Syllogism, 125-8. Theory and Fact, 309. Third Figure, Special Rules, 148.
Characteristics, 144. Moods, 137, 144.
Laws of Thought, Thought, see Knowledge. Inference,

Distribution

Sorites, 156. Species, 166, 7. 76. (Relation), Square of Opposition Stock, St G., 37, 210, 325.
Subalternation, 75. Subaltern Moods, Conclusion.
see

Ueberweg,
Middle Undistributed

on

function
227.

of

the

Term,

Weakened

Middle, Fallacy,125of

Subcontrariety, 75-6. Subject, 8, 62, 97, 111-13.

Sufficient Reason,
117 ure,

6, 326. Uniformity
senses, Unity of

Nature,
252.

in

two

252-3.

46.
also

Nature,
Element 350-

Nature Categorical, Syllogisms,

ff.

(See

Mood,

of, Fig
with

Universal
219,

in

Reasoning

Enthymeme.)
connection 225.

Judgments, 345-8.
Verbal Verbal Deduc Weakened

Categorical,

Hypothetical, 200-1, 198. Hypothetical,

Disjunctive, 204-6. Reasoning, Syllogistic
tion.
see

Definition, 176.

Proposition,57.

Symbolic Logic,

no,

332.
10.

Words, Syncategorematic

Conclusion, 135-7. Welton, J.,313, 320, 324, 355. Whately, 7, 325. Whewell, 6.

THE

END.

PRINTED

BY

WILLIAM

I3LACKWOOD

AND

SONS.

PERIODS

OF

EUROPEAN
THE

LITERATURE:
by

Complete and
SAINTSRISE OF

HISTORY CONTINUOUS 12 In BURY. crown II. THE

Edited SUBJECT. OF each 5s. net. 8vo vols., OF (12TH

AND

PROFESSOR

FLOURISHING
ALLEGK)RY.

13TH

THE AND ROMANCE CENTURIES.) By GEORGE

III. IV. V. VI. VIII. IX. XI.

THE

THE THE
THE

THE THE THE

LL.D., Aberdeen, Professor of M.A., Hon. BURY, University. English Literature in Edinburgh CENTURY. FOURTEENTH By F. J. SNKLL. SMITH. GREGORY G. PERIOD. TRANSITION By RENAISSANCE. EARLIER By THE EDITOR. HANNAY. RENAISSANCE. LATER By DAVID ELTON. AGES. AUGUSTAN By OLIVER CENTURY. MID-EIGHTEENTH By J. H. MILLAR. [In the press. TRIUMPH. ROMANTIC By T. S. OMOND.
The other Volumes
are

SAINTSand Rhetoric

"

I. THE DARK VII. THE FIRST CENTURY

Prof. W. P. Ker. AGES SEVENTEENTH HALF OF THE Prof. H. J. C. Grierson.

. . .

X.

THE

ROMANTIC

RKVOLT

Prof. C. E. Vaughan. XII. THE LATER CENTURY

NINETEENTH

The

Editor.

PHILOSOPHICAL
Edited in the

CLASSICS
KNIGHT,
St Andrews.

FOR
LL.D.,
Re-issue Vico,

ENGLISH

READERS.
Philosophy
Frof. Flint. Robertson

by WILLIAM Universityof
.... ....

of Moral Professor in ShillingVolumes. Prof. Groorr

DESCARTES,
BUTLER

Rev.
.

Prof. Mahaffy. W. L. Collins.

BERKELEY, FICHTE,
KANT

HAMILTON, HEGEL, LEIBNIJS,

....

Prof. Campbell Fraser. Prof. Adamson. Prof. Wallace. Pro. Vateh. The Master o" Bailie I. Met z. John Theodore

HOBBES, HUME, SPINOZA,

BACON: BACON:

Prof. Knight. PrincipalCaird.

Part f., Part II.,

....

LOCKE,

Prof. Nichol. Prof. Nichol. Prof. Campbell Fraser.

.

FOREIGN

CLASSICS

FOR
CHEAP

ENGLISH
In

READERS.

Edited

by

Mrs OLIPHANT. each.

RE-ISSUE.

limp cloth,fcap. 8vo, priceIs.

"

Editor. VOLTAIRE, by the DANTE, Sir B. B. Hamley, K.C.B. by General PE PASCAL, by Principal Tulloch. by Henry Reeve, C.B." GOETHE, TRARCH, by the by A. Hayward, Q.C." MOLIEKE.
" "

"

by Rev. W.

F. Tarver, M.A." MONTAIGNE, L. Collins." RABELAIS, by Sir Besant. Walter by E. J. CALDERON, Hasell." SAINT SIMON, by C. W. Collins. Editor and
"

Trollope." MADAME DE SEVIGNE, by Miss Thackeray. FRENCH OTHER LA FONTAINE, AND Collins, FABULISTS, by Rev. W. Lucas M.A. Sime, M.A. SCHILLER, by James ROUSSEAU, TASSO, by B. J. Hasell. ALFRED DE by Henry Grey Graham. MUSSET, by C. F. Oliphant.
"
"

CERVANTES, by the Editor. AND RACINE, by Henry M.

CORNEILLK

"

"

"

ANCIENT
the REV.

CLASSICS

FOR

ENGLISH
M.A,

READERS.
CHEAP RE-ISSUE.

Edited
In

by

LUCAS W. COLLINS, fcap.8vo, priceIs. each.

limp cloth,

: ILIAD, Contents of the Series." HOMER : ODYSSEY, by the by the Editor." HOMER by G. C. Swayne. Editor. HERODOTUS,
"
"

C.KSAR, by Anthony
"
"

Trollope."VIRGIL, by

by Sir Theodore HORACE, the Editor. Martin. by Bishop Copleston. ^SCHYLUS, CICERO, XENOPHON, by Sir Alex. Grant. SOPHOCLES, by C. W. Col by the Editor. and W. J. A. Church lins." PLINY, by Rev. Brodribb. EURIPIDES, by W. B. Donne. ARISTOPHANES, JUVENAL, by E. Walford. AND THSOONIB, by by the Editor." HKSIOD
"

"

"

"

"

"

AND J. Dsvias. -PLAUTUS TERENCE, by the Editor. TACITUS, by W. B. Donne." LUCIAN, by the Editor." PLATO, by C. W. GREEK Collins. by Lord ANTHOLOGY, Neaves." LIVY, by the Editor." OVID, by A. Church. Rev. CATULLUS, TIBULLUS, AND by J. Davies." DEMOS PROPERTIUS, ARISTOTLE, by W. J. Brodribb." THENES, by the by Sir Ales. Grant." THUCYDIDES, Editor." LUCRETIUS, by W. H. Mallock." PINDAR, by Rey. F. D. Morice.
" " "

CATALOGUE
01

MESSES
P

BLACKWOOD
U
B L 1 C
A

"
T 1 0 N

SONS'
S.

ALISON.

History of Europe.
1. From

By Sir ARCHIBALD
of the
Portraits.
14 13

ALISON, Bart.,D.C.L.
French Revolution
to

the

Commencement
vols., with
vols.
crown

the Battle of Waterloo. LIBRARY EDITION,

ANOTHER

JDemy Svo, "10, lOa.

EDITION,
EDITION.

in 20 vols.

crown

PEOPLE'S

Svo, "6. Svo, "2, 11s.

2. Continuation
LIBRARY PEOPLE'S

to the EDITION, EDITION,

Accession
crown

of Louis
Svo 84s.

Napoleon.
Thirtieth Thou

8 vols. 8 vols,

Svo, "6, 7s. 6d.

Epitome
Atlas

of

Alison's

History

of

Europe.
3s.

sand, 7s. 6d.

to Alison's
LIBRARY

History of Europe.
4to, "3,
6d.

By A. Keith
With
some Third

Johnston.

EDITION, demy
EDITION,
31s.

PEOPLE'S

Life of John

Duke

of

Marlborough.
War of the

Account
Edition.

of
2 vols.

his Contemporaries, and of the Portraits and Maps, 30s. Svo.

Succession.

Essays
demy

Historical, Poiiticai,And
IN
FROM

Miscellaneous.
:

vols.

Svo, 45s.

ACROSS
OF A

FRANCE
JOURNEY 1889-90. by John

A
of
'

CARAVAN
TO

BEING

SOME taken With

ACCOUNT
in the Winter

BORDEAUX A

GENOA
of my

IN

THE

"ESOARGOT,"
at Eton.'

By the Author Wallace, after

Day

Life

Sketches

by the Author,

and

Map.

fiftyIllustrations Cheap Edition,

demy

Svo, 7s. 8d.

ACTA

SANCTORUM

EIBERNLE

j Ex

Co-dice Salmanticensi.
JOSEPHI
et
DE BACKER, e Sumptus Largiente 4to Volume, bound in

Nunc SMEDT et DE priinum integre edit.a opera CAROLI Bollandianoruin Soc. Jesu, Hagiographorum ; Auctore MARCHIONE In One JOANNE PATRICIO BOTHAE. handsome half roxburghe, "2, 2s.; in paper 31s. 6d. cover,

AFLALO.

Sketch

of

the

Natural
With

History (Vertebrates) of
of
'

Islands. the British By F. Q. AFLALO, of the Natural "c, History of Australia. and Bennett. Crown 8vo, ns. net.

P.R.G.S., F.Z.S., Author

numerous

Sketch

Illustrations

by Lodge

AIKMAN

Manures

ana

the

Principles
Professor
of

of

Manuring.
Glasgow
Crown "c.

By C.

M.

AIKMAN, D.Sc., F.B.S.E., "c., College ; Examiner in Chemintry,

Chemistry,

Veterinary
8vc, 6s. 6d.

University

of Glasgow,

Farmyard
Crown

Manure

Us

Nature, Composition, and Treatment.

Svo, Is. Cd.

List of Books

Published

by
other Sermons.
Head-master

ALMOND.

Christ

the
Crown

Protestant; and
M.A. 8vo, 5s.

By
of

HELY HUTCHINSON Loretto School.

ALMOND,

Oxon., Hon.

LL.D.

Glasgow;

ANCIENT
by Rev.

CLASSICS
W. LUCAS

FOR
COLLINS, M.A.

ENGLISH
Price Is. each.

READERS.
For List

Edited
Volt,
see

of

p. 2.

AUTOBIOGRAPHY AYTOUN.

OF

CHILD.

Crown

8vo, 6s.
Poems.

Lays

of

the

Scottish Cavaliers, and

Is.

other

By W.
in

AYTOUN, D.C.L., Professor of Rhetoric and Belles-Lettres New Edition. Fcap. 8vo, SB. 6d. University of Edinburgh.
EDMONDSTOUNE GHKA? EDITION, Cloth.
Is. 3d.

the

An

Illustrated Edition
Prom

of the
PATON.

Lays of the Scottish Cavaliers.

Small

designs by Sir NOEL

a

Cheaper Edition.

4to, 10s. 6d.

Bothwell : Poems and

AYTOUN and

Poem. Ballads
Sir THEODORE

Third Edition. Fcap., 7s. 6d. of Goethe. Translated by

MARTIN,
K.C.B. Third Edition.

Professor

Fcap., 6s.

Memoir
MARTIN,

of William
K.C.B With

E.

Aytoun, D.C.L.
Post

By Sir THEODOEJJ

Portrait.

8vo, 12s.

BAKER.
BARTRICK

Palace
BAKER.

of
Crown

Dreams,
8vo, 5s.

and

other

Verse.

By

ADA

BARBOUR.
Pott

Thoughts from
8vo, limp

the

Writings of R. W.
Church

BARBOUR.

leather, 2s. 6d. net.

BELLESHEIM.
From the

History of the Catholic

of Scotland.

BELintroduction of Christianityto the Present Day. By ALPHONS D.D., Canon ol Aix-la-Ghapelle. Translated, with Notes and Additions, LESHEIM, of Fort Augustus. HUNTER BLAIR, O.S.B., Monk Cheap Edition. by D. OSWALD Price 21s. net. Complete in 4 vols. demy 8vo, with Maps.

BLACKIE.

John

Stuart Biackie
With

Biography. By
8vo, 6s.

ANNA

M.

STODDART. POPULAR

EDITION.

Portrait.

Crown

BLACKWOOD.
Annals of
a

Publishing House.
and

William

Black wood
With Four

and

his

Sons ; Their Magazine Third Edition Demy

Friends. By Mrs OLIPHANT. 8yo. Vols. I. and II. "2, 2s.

Portraits.

Annals
his

of

Publishing House.
Mrs

Vol. III.

John

Blackwood.
View of Strath-

Daughter By Demy 8vo, tyrum.

2 Portraits GERALD With and PORTER. 21s. CHEAP EDITION. Demy 8vo, 7s. 6d.

Blackwood's
March
1901.

Magazine,
Nos.
1 to

from

Commencement
168

in

1817

to

1025, forming

Volumes.

Tales from
in

Blackwood.

First Series.

Price One

Shillingeach,

Sold separately at all Railway Bookstalls. Paper Cover. 30s. cloth,18s. Half calf, They may also be had bound in 12 vols., richly gilt, Or the 12 vols. in 6, roxburgho, 21s. 28s. Half red morocco,

Tales from
four

Blackwood.

Second

Series.

Complete Complete
Blackwood's

in

Twenty
Twelve

"

Handsomely bound in 12 vols., ShillingParts. cloth, 30s. In leather back, 52s. 6d. Half morocco, 55s. roxburghe style,37s. 6d. Half calf,gilt,

Tales

from

Blackwood.

Third
in 6

Series.

in

Shilling Parts. Handsomely bound The 6 vols. in roxburghe 21s. 18s.

vols.,cloth, 15s.; and in Half calf,25s. Half morocco,

*

12 vols.

cloth,

28s.

Travel, Adventure,
Uniform

and

Sport. From

Magazine.
price Is.
Hand

somely

with bound

'Tales from Blackwood.' In Twelve Parts, each in 6 vols.,cloth, 15s. And iu half calf, 25s.

New

Educational

Series.

See separate Educational

Catalogue.

William

Blackwood

"

Sons.

BLACKWOOD.
New

Uniform

Series of Novels

(Copyright).

Now Price 3s. fid. escb. Crown 8vo. cloth. ready :~ MARMORNE. By P. Q. Hamerton WENDERHOLME. By P. G, Hamerton. REATA. MAROREDEL. THE STORY By B. D. Gerard. OF By D. Storrar NEIGHBOUR. BKGGAR MY By the Same. Meldrum THE WATERS HERCULES. By the Same OF Miss MARJORIBANKS. By Mrs OHph"nt. ! FAIR TO SEE. M Lockhart By L. W THE PERPETUAL CURATE, and THE RECTOR MINE is THINE. By the Same. By the Same. FAMILY. DOUBLES AND CHAPEL, and THE DOCTOR'S SALEM QUITS. By the Same PETO. ALTIORA By Laurence Oliphant. By the Same. With IllustraPICCADILLY. PLANT. A SENSITIVE By the Same. By E. D. Gerard. LEE'S LADY WIDOWHOOD. By General Sir : tions. \LADY BABY. E. B. Hamley. By D. Gerard. VOE. By Paul Gushing OF KATIE STEWART, and other Stories. By Mrs ; THE BLACKSMITH | MY TRIVIAL Bv A LIFE AND MISFORTUNE Ohpnant, BROTHER. EIS AND VALENTINE By the Same. ' Plain Woman NELLIE. POOR DAUGHTERS. SONS AND By the Same. By the Same.
'"

Standard
FLORIN

Novels.
one

Uniform
Illustrated

in
Boards.
| PEN ADAM

size
Bound

and
in

binding
Cloth, 2s. fld.

Each

complete in

Volume.

SERIES,

TOM CRINGLE'S Loo. By Michael Scott. MIDGE. THE CRUISE OF THE By the Same. CYRIL THORNTON. By Captain Hamilton. PARISH. ANNALS OF THE By John Gait. THE PROVOST, "c. By the Same. WYLIE. SIP. ANDREW By the Same. Or..v%n T5-rr4lVrt TTxTTIATT Tn DTHE ENTAIL. By the Same. Miss MOLLY. By Beatrice May Butt, DALTON. REGINALD By J. G. Lockhart. SHILLING

OWEN. By Dean Hook BLAIR. By J G Lockhart LEE'S WIDOWHOOD. LADY By General Sir E B. Hamley CHAPEL. SALEM By Mrs Oliphant THE CURATE. Same PERPETUAL By the U"CW"UIC. .-" """".__ """ Miss MARJORIBANKS. By the Same. JOHN : A Love Story. By the Same.
-

SERIES,
DOCTOR'S WAUCH.
AND

Illustrated FAMILY.

Cover.

Bound

in

Cloth, Is. "5d.

NIGHTS
AT

THE

RECTOR, and THE By Mrs Oliphant.

THE LIFE MANSIE OF Moir" PENINSULAR SCENES F. Haraman.

By D. M. By

SKETCHES.

SIR FRIZZLE PUMPKIN, "c. THE SUBALTERN. ! LIKE IN THE FAR WEST. ! VALERIUS A : Roman Lockhart.

MESS,

By G

Story.

By

Rnxton J G

BLISSETT.
Author

The

Most

Famous

Loba.
Simple,' 'The

By NELLIE
Concert

K.

BLISSETT
With
a

of the of 'The Wisdom Frontispiece. Crown 8vo, 6s.

Director,'"c

BON

GAULTIER'S
tion. With

BOOK

OF

BALLADS.

Fifteenth

Edi

Illustrations

BOWHILL.
of

Questions
Our Stolen
MARY
18s.

by Doyle, Leech, and Crowquill. Fcap. 8vo, 5s. in the Theory and Practice and Answers
Crown
8s. 6d. net

Military Topography. By Major J. H. BOWHILL. Portfolio containing 34 working plans and diagrams,

8vo, 4s. 6d
a

net

BO

YD.
Tour.

Summer.
BOYD. With

The

Record

of

Roundabout
S BOYD
Laree

By demy 8vo,

STUART

170 Illustrations

by A.
on
of

BROWN,

The

Forester
of

A
and

Practical Treatise
the General

the

Planting

Forest-trees and Tending JAMES Sixth BROWN, LL.D. of ' British Forest Author

Woodlands Bv Management D CEc Edition,Enlarged. Edited by JOHN NISBET In 2 vols. royal 8vo, with 350 Illustra Trees,'"c.

tions, 42s. net.

BRUCE.
In Clover
and A

and

Heather.

Poema

by WALLACE
Poems.

BRUCE.
paper,

New
12s. 6d

Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d. Enlarged Edition. limited number of the First Edition, on large hand-made o/:'"ptei
a

Heres

Hand,

Addresses
to 100

and

Crown

8vo, 5s

Large Paper Edition, limited

copies,price 21s.

List

of Books

Published

by
the

BUCHAN.
Religion Glasgow.

The
and

First

Things.
By

Studies
Rev. JOHN

in

Embryology
John Knox

of

Natural Theology. Crown 8vo, 5s.

BUCHAN,

Church,

BUCHAN".
JOHN

The
BUCHAN.

Watcher
Second

by the Threshold,and other Tales. By

Impression.
Crown

8vo, Cs.

BURBIDGE. Domestic

Window Floriculture,

Gardening, and Floral Decora

tions. Being Practical Directions for the Propagation, Culture, and Arrangement Second Ornaments. Domestic Flowers By F. W. BTTRBIPOK. and as of Plants Illustrations, 7s. 6d. with numerous Crown 8vo Edition.

Cultivated

Plants

Their

Propagation

and

Improvement.
Seed
"j\d

Including Natural and Artificial Hybridisation, Raising from and Layers, Grafting and Budding, as applied to the Families Illustrations, l?s. f,"3 Cultivation. Crown 8vo, with numerous

Cuttings,
Genera
ID

BURKE. BURROWS.

The
By CHRISTIAN

Flowering of the Almond

BURKB.

Tree, and
4to, Is net.

other

Poems. Britain.

Cheaper Edition.

Pott

The

History

of the

Foreign Policy of Great

By MONTAGU
or

Oiford France.

Chichele Professor of Modern History in the University "e. : "Offisier de I'lnstrneticn Pablique," : Captain K.N. ; F.S.A Crown New 8vo, 6s. Edition, revised

BURROWS,

BURTON, The

History of Scotland
of the

From

Agricola'sInvasion
HILL In 8 vols.

Insurrection, last Jacobite By JOHN Cheaper Edition. Historiographer-Royal for Scotland 3s. 6d. each. Extinction

BURTON,

to the D.C.L., Crown 8vo,

The

Book-Hunter.
Title-page and Cover
8vo, 3s. 6d.

A New
by JOSEPH

Edition,with
BROWN. Printed
'

designed specially
antique laid
-

on

paper

Post

The

Scot

Abroad.

Uniform

with

The

Book

Hunter.'

Post

8vo, 3s. 6d.

BUTE.
The Roman

Breviary

Reformed

by

Order

of

the

Holy

by Order of Pope St Pius V. ; and of Trent ; Published the Offices since VIII. ; together with VIII. Urban and OF BUTE, into English by JOHN, MARQUESS out of Latin granted. Translated in 1 vol. and In 4 vols. crown 8vo, New Revised and K.T. Enlarged. Edition, [In the press. 4to. crown
(Ecumenical Council Revised by Clement

The

Altus
By JOHN,

of St Columba.
MARQUESS
OF

With
K.T.

a In

Prose
paper

Paraphraseand
2s. 6d.

Notes

BUTE,

cover,

Sermones,
Twenty-eight

Fratris
Discourses

Adse, Ordinh

Prsemonstratensis, "c.

of Whithorn, hitherto Scotus unpublished ; of Adam is added Collection of Notes by the same, illustrative of the rule of to which a OF BUTE, K.T., LL.D., Edited, at the desire of the late MARQUESS St Augustine. "c. WALTER GRAY DE BIRCH, LL.D., F.S.A., of the British Museum, "c by
,

Royal 8vo,

25s.

net.

BUTE,

MACPHAIL,
and

AND

LONSDALE.
of Scotland.

The
By JOHN,

Arms
MARQUESS
131

of
OF

the

Royal and K.T., J. R. N. MACPHAIL, wood, and 11 other Illustrations.

Parliamentary Burghs

H. W. Crown

With LONSDALE. 4to. "2, 2s. net.

BUTE, Engravings on

BUTE,

STEVENSON,

AND

LONSDALE.
By
JOHN,
With

The

Arms

of the

and Police Burghs of Scotland. Baronial and H. W. LONSDALE. II. STEVENSON, J 4to. vol. crown

OF MARQUESS BUTE, K.T. In 1 Illustrations. numerous Un the press.

William

Blackwood

"

Sons.

BUTLER. The Ancient

An 13

Church
Study.
Plates and

and
By
a

Parish

of

Abernethy, Perthshire.
of the Parish.

Historical

Rev.

Collotype

Map.

D. BUTLER, M.A., Minister Crown 4to, 25s. net.

With

John

Wesley
a

and and

George Whitefield
Methodists
on

in

Scotland;

or, The

Influence

of the Oxford

Scottish

Religion. Crown ; or, The Fcap. Svo, 2s. 6d.

8vo, 5s.

Henry Scougal
of

the Oxford
of the Scottish

Methodists
Church.

Influence

Religious Teacher

BUTT. Theatricals
8vo, 6s.

An

Interlude.

By BEATRICE

MAY

BUTT.

Crown

Mias

Molly.

Cheap Edition, 2s.

Svo, 6s. 6d.
Crown
8vo, 8vo, 2s. 6d
ea,

Eugenie. Crown
Elizabeth, and
Delicia. CADELL.
late

New

Sketches. Edition. Crown

other

Sir John

Cope and

the Rebellion
K.C.B.,

of 1745.

By the
With 2

General Sir ROBERT CADELL, Maps. Crown 4to, 12s. 6d. net.

Royal (Madras) Artillery.

CAFFYN.

Seventy-One
of the 1S61 and 1863,

Caflyn, "Member
Eleven, of the
of

not Out, the Reminiscences of William England and United Elevens, of the Surrey County Team of 1859, and of the Anglo-Australian Teams Anglo-American
All Edited

Second

Edition.

Crown

by Svo, 6s.

"Mid

-On."

With

numerous

Illustrations.

CAIR1).

Sermons.
of

By JOHN
Seventeenth

OA.IKD, D.D., Principal of the

Thousand.

University

Glasgow.

Fcap. Svo,

5s.

CALDWELL.
nificance

Schopenhauer's System
(the Shaw

in its

PhilosophicalSig
CALDWELL,

M.A., University, U.S.A. ; formerly Assistant to the Professor of Logic and Metaphysics, Edin., and in Philosophy in the University of St Andrews. Examiner Demy Svo,
D.Sc., Professor
Northwestern 10s. 6d. net.

Fellowship Lectures, 1893). By and of Moral Social Philosophy,

WILLIAM

WELL. CALL The Effect

Waterloo.

of Maritime

Command

on

Land
With

Campaigns since
Plans.

By Lt.-Col. C. E. CALLWKLL,

R.G.A.

Post8vo.6s.net.

Tactics of

To-day. Second
Balmerino
of the

CAMPBELL.
With A New

Impression. Crown Svo, 2s. 6d. net. and its Abbey. Parish A History,
By JAMES CAMPBELL,

Notices

Adjacent District.
;

D.D., F.S.A. Scot.,

a

Minister

of Balmerino Edition. With

Author
an

of

'

History
of

of the

Celtic Church

Appendix

Illustrative

Documents,

in Scotland. ' Map of the

Parish, and upwards

of 40 Illustrations.

Demy

8vo, 30s. net.

CAPES.
CAPES. From Door to Door. By BERNARD Darkness. of Crown Our Lady Svo, 6s. de la Muette of the Comte The Adventures
of Terror.
Crown Svo. 6s. :

Crown

Svo, 6s.

during the Reign

Northern Exist

CAREY.
War.

Monsieur
By
WYMOND

Martin
CAREY.

Romance
Svo, 6s.

of the Great

Crown

CHARTERIS.
ence

Canonicity
and

; or,
of

Early Testimonies
New Testament. Based

to the
on

Use

of

the

'Quellensammlung.'
Criticism
in the

Books Edited

the
A.

by

H.

CHARTERIS,

D.D.,

Kirchhoffer's of Biblical Professor

University of Edinburgh.

Svo, 18s.

CHESNEY.
K.C.B. A

The
New

Dilemma.
Edition.

By General
Svo,
2s.

Sir GEORGE

CHESNEY,

Crown

List

of Books

Published

by
:

CHRISTISON.
and Ports.

Early Fortifications

in Scotland

Motes, Camps,

Lectures in Archaeology for 1894. By DAVID Being the Rhind CHRISTISON, M.D., F.B.G.P.E., Secretary of the Society of Antiquaries of Scot and Illustrations and 3 Maps. land. With 379 Plans Fcap. 4to, 21a. net.

CHURCH
Church

AND
of

FAITH.
Dr

Being Essays
WAGE,
Dean

on

the

Teaching of the

England. By Canon MEYRICK, BARTLETT, Principal DRURY, TEMPLE, Bart., E. H. BLAKENEY, and SMITH, MONTAGUE BARLOW, Sir RICHARD Second J. T. TOMLINSON. With Introduction by the LORD BISHOP OF HEREFORD.
Edition.
Post

FARRAR,

R. E. Dr WRIGHT, Eev. Professor MOULE, Chancellor

8vo, 7s. 6d. net.

CHURCH
A Book

SERVICE of Common

SOCIETY.
Order
:

being Forms

of

Worship issued
1 vol.

In Service Society. Seventh Edition, carefullyrevised. by the Church in 2 vols. crown Also 5s. crown 8vo, cloth, 3s. 6d. ; French morocco, clcth,4s. ; French morocco, 6s. 6d.

8vo,

Daily
Order

Offices for
Crown

Morning
Scottish of

and

Evening Prayer throughout

Issued

the Week. Service

8vo, 3s. 6d.

of Divine
Society.

Service
With

for Children.
Hymnal.
'In

by the Church By HUGH

in Brown

Cloth, 3d.

CLIFFORD.
CLODD.
By

Bush-Whacking, and
Author

other

Sketches.

CLIFFORD, C.M.G., Second Humanity,' "c.

and Court Kampong,' 8vo, 6s. Impression. Crown

'Studies

Thomas
EDWARD CLODD.

Henry Huxley.
Crown

"Modern

English Writers."
CLOUSTON.

8vo, 2s. 6d.

CLOUSTON.
Fourth

The
Impression.

Lunatic
Crown

at

Large.
PEOPLE'S

By J. STORER
E. W. A

8vo, 6s.

EDITION, royal 8vo, 6d.

COLLINS. A Scholar
8vo, 6s.

of his and the

College. By W. Undergraduate.
Impression.
Crown

COLLINS. of St

Crown

The

Don

Tale

Hilary's

College, Oxford.

Second

8vo, 6s.

COLQUHOUN.

The

Moor

and

the Loch.

Containing Minute

in all Highland Sports, with Instructions Flood and Fell. By JOHN COLQUHOTTN. Demy 8vo, 10s. 6d.

Crag and Corrie, Wanderings over With Illustration?. Cheap Edition.

CONDER. The

Bible

and

the

East.

By Lieut. -Col.
'

C.

R.

CONDER,
'

R.E., LL.D., D.C.L., M.R.A.S., Author of Illustrations and a Map. Crown 8vo, 5s.

Tent

Work

in

Palestine, "c.

With

The The

Hittites and
Map.
Post

their

Language.
Crown

With

Illustrations and

8vo,

7s. 6d.

Hebrew Jim,

Tragedy.
A Tale.

8vo, 3s.

CONRAD.
Lord

By

JOSEPH

CONRAD, Author
of

of 'The
Unrest,' "c.
[in the press.

of the Islands,''Tales Nigger of the Narcissus,''An Outcast Second Impression. Crown 8vo, 6s. 8vo. Youth, and other Tales. In 1 vol. crown

CONSTABLE.
STABLE, Author

Marrables'
of
'

Magnificent Idea.
of "c. Intellect,' Crown

By
8vo, 6s.

F.

C.

CON

The

Curse

CORNFORD.
By
L. COPE

R. HISTORIES

L.

Stevenson.
Second Edition.

"Modern
Crown

English Writers."
2s. 6d.

CORNFORD.

8vo,

COUNTY
umes

OF
each. With

SCOTLAND.
Maps.
the

In

demy
of

8vo

vol-

of about

350

pp.

Price 7s. 6d. net.

Prehistoric
Being
ROBERT
a

Scotland

and

its Place
to

in

European Civilisation.
Histories Scotland."

General

Introduction

"County

By
Lake-

of 'Prehistoric Problems,' 'The MUNRO, M.A., M.D., Author Illustrations. With numerous Dwellings of Europe,1 "c.

io

List of Books

Published

by
By HAMILTON
Religion,'"c.
Crown

DRUMMOND.
DRUMMOND,
8vo, 6s.

A
Author

King's Pawn.
of 'A Man of His

Romance.
'For

Age,'

the

ELIOT. George

Eliot's

Life, Related
With
Crown

in

Her

Letters
With

and

Journals.
and other

Arranged and
Illustrations.

Edited by her Third Edition.

husband, J. W. CROSS. 3 vols. post 8vo, 42s.

Portrait

George Eliot's Life.

New

Portrait
8vo, 7s.

and
6d.

other

Illustrations.

Edition, in

one

volume.

Works

ADAM MILL THE FLOSS. ON THE ROMOLA. SCENES CLERICAL LIFE. OF SILAS MARNER JACOB ; BROTHER THE LIFTED VEIL.

of George Eliot (Library Edition). 10 volumes, small With Drawings by William demy 8vo. Photogravure Frontispieces, from Hatherell,R.I.,Edgar Bundy, R.I., Byam Shaw, R.I.,A. A. Van Anrooy, Maurice Cowper. Greiffenhagen, Claude A. Shepperson, R.I., E. J. Sullivan, and Max Gilt top, 10s. 6d. net each volume. FELIX RADICAL. BEDE. HOLT, THE
MlDDLEMARCH. THE

DANIEL DERONDA. SPANISH GYPSY ESSAYS; THEOPHRASTDS

; JTJBAL.

SUCH.

Life

and

Works

of

George Eliot (Warwick Edition).

MIDDLEMARCH.
2 vols. 2 664

14 vol

; leather,limp, gilttop, 2s. 6d. net umes, cloth,limp, gilttop, 2s. net per volume ; leather,gilttop, with book-marker, 3s. net per volume. per volume ADAM THE FELIX

BEDE.
MILL
ON

826
THE

pp.
FLOSS. 828

and

630 616

pp.

RADICAL. HOLT, THE 900 pp. ROMOLA. SCENES CLERICAL LIFE. OF MARNER SILAS ; BROTHER LIFTED VEIL. 560 pp.

pp. 718 pp.

DANIEL

DERONDA.

vols.

and

624

pp. JACOB ;

THE

636 pp. THE SPANISH GYPSY ; JUBAL. ESSAYS SUCH. ; THEOPHRASTUS 626 and 580 pp. LIFE. 2 vols.,

Works
crown

of
8vo.

George Eliot (Standard Edition).

In

21
or

volumes,
in

buckram binding, 3s. 6d. per vol.

cloth, gilt top,

2s.

6d.

per

vol. ;

roxburghe

2 vols." FELIX ADAM 2 vols." THE HOLT, THX BEDE. FLOSS. MILL THE ON 2 vols." LIFE. CLERICAL RADICAL. 2 vols." ROMOLA. 2 vols." SCENES OF 1 vol. SILAS MARNER. 3 vols." 3 vols. DERONDA. MIDDLEMARCH. DANIEL 1 vol." THEOPHRAS 1 vol."THE JUBAL. SPANISH 1 vol." ESSAYS. GYPSY. SUCH. 1 vol. TUS
" "

Life

and
The

Works
crown

of

George

Eliot

(Cabinet
handsomely
in

Edition).
in half

24
full

volumes,
calf.

Volumes

Also to be had 8vo, price"6. are sold se;wately, bound

bound
5s.

and

cloth, price

eacb.

Novels

by George Eliot. Popular

new

CopyrightEdition.
the

Monthly

Issue, in
-

uniform

Adam Bede. June. Romn)". July." The Lifted Veil; Brother Deronda. November.

binding, price 3s. 6d. each. Ready." The Mill on the ifloss. Ready. "Scenes
Feint

Holt,

Jacob.

of Clerical Life. ; Radical August." Silas Marnet October. -Daniel September." Middlemarch.

Crown Essays. New Edition. 8vo, Such. of Theophrastns Impressions

8vo,
5s.

5s.

New Crown

Edition.

Crown

The The

Spanish Gypsy. New Edition. Legend of Jubal, and other

New

8vo,
Old

5g.

Poems,

and

New.

Edition.

Crown

8vo.

5s

Silas Marner.
Birch. Crown

New
8vo, 6s.

Edition, with

Illustrations

by Reginald
price 6d.

People's Edition, royal 8vo, paper

cover,

William

Blackwood

"

Sons.

ELIOT. Scenes
Is. net

of
each

Clerical
; bound in

Life.

Pocket

Edition, 3
each. 2s. ; paper

vols.

pott 8vo,

leather,Is. 6d. net Illustrations Svo, by H. R. Millar,crown tion, royal Svo, in paper cover, price 6d.

Illustrated

Edition, with 20 People's Edi covers, Is.

Adam
bound price

Bede.
in 6d.

Pocket
Edition,

Edition.
net.
crown

leather. 4s. fid.

New

In 3 vols. pott Svo, 3s. People's Edition, royal 8vo, in paper

cover,

net;
cover, Illus

Svo, paper

Is.;

crown

Svo, with

trations,cloth, 2s.

Mill on the Floss. Pocket Edition, 2 vols. pott Svo, cloth, 3s. net ; limp leather,4s. 6d. net. People's Edition, royal Svo, in paper New Edition, paper covers, Is. ; cloth, 2s. cover, price 6d. Selected Wise, Witty, and Tender Sayings, in Prose and Versa The
from the

Works

of GEORGE

ELIOT.

New
"

Edition.

Fcap. Svo,

Bs. 6d.

ELTON.

The
ture.1' By Manchester.

Augustan
OLIVER Crown

Ages.

Periods
in

of

European Litera
College,

ELTON, B.A., Lecturer Svo, 5s. net.

English Literature, Owen's

FAHIE.

History

of Wireless

Telegraphy. Including some

of the Bare-wire Proposals for Subaqueous Telegraphs. By J. J. FAHIE, Member of Electrical Institution Engineers, London, and of the Societe Internationale des Electricians, of 'A Paris; Author History of Electric Telegraphy to the Crown to date. Year 1837,'"c. With Illustrations. Second Edition, Revised

Svo, 6s.

FAITHS
Great

OF

THE The

WORLD,
of the

The.
World.

Concise
Authors.

History of the
Crown

Religious Systems

By

various

Svo, 5s.

FALKNER.
Author
of
'

Lost
'

Stradivarius.
Second Edition.

By J. MEADE
Crown

FALKNEK,
Sir

M'vjnfleet

"c.

Svo, 6s.

FAYKER
JOSEPH

RecoUections

of

My

Life.

By Surgeon-General

FAVRER, Bart., K.C.S.I., LL.D., M.D., F.R.S., ^.H.P., "c. ; Honorary of Edin Physician to the Prince of Wales, Physician in Ordinary to the Duke With Portraits and other Illustrations. burgh, "c. Demy Svo, 21s.

FERGUSSON.
FERRIER,

Scots

Poems.
Pott

By ROBERT
bound
in

FERGUSSON.
cloth, Is. net.

With

Photogravure Portrait.

Svo, gilttop,

Works Philosophical
Oxon., Professor
New Edition. LUSHINOTON.
of

of
by Sir

the
ALEXANDER

late

James

F.

Ferrier, B.A.
Andrews. Professor

Moral
crown

Philosophy
Svo, 34s. 6d.

Edited 3 vols.

St and Political Economy, GRAJTT. Bart., D.C.L., and

10s. 6d. Metaphysic. Third Edition. Lectures on the Early Greek Philosophy. 4th Edition. on Remains, including the Lectures Philosophical

Institutes of

10s. 6d.

Eariv

Greek

Philosophy.

New

Edition.

2 vols

24s

FLINT. Historical

Philosophy
By
Member
ROBERT

Switzerland. France, Hon.

and French FLINT, Corresponding Member in

Royal Society of Palermo,
21s.

France

Belgium

and

of the

of of the Institute Professor in the Univer

sity of Edinburgh, "c.

Svo,

Agnosticism.
Theism.
Revised.

Being the Croal! Lecture for 1887-88. Being the Baird Lecture for 1876. Tenth
Crown

[in the press.

Edition,
for
1877.

Svo, 7s. 6d.

Anti-Theistic
Fifth Edition.

Theories.
Crowe

Being the Baird

10s. 6d.

Lecture

Svo,

Sermons

and

Addresses.

Demy

8vos 7s. 6d.

12

List of Books

Published

by

FORD. Crown FORD. 'Postle Farm. By GEORGE 8vo, 6s. Crown Edition. The Larramys. Second 8vo, 6s. A History of Cambridge University Cricket FORD.
W. J. FORD, Illustrations.
Author In

Club.

By
With

of 'A

1 vol.

History of Middlesex demy 8vo.

County

Cricket,'"c.

[In the press.

FOREIGN
by Mrs

CLASSICS
OLIPHANT. Price

FOR
Is. each.

ENGLISH
For

READERS.
Folumf.s,see page 2.

Edited

List of

FORREST.
W.

Sepoy Generals:
Director

Wellington
of

to

Roberts.
of India.

By
With

G.
Por

FORREST, C.I.E., Extraits. Crown 8vo, 6s.

Records, Government

FRANCIS.
the

Among
Soil.'
'

the

Untrodden

Ways.

By M. E. FRANCIS
' A Village,'

(Mrs Francis

Blundell),Author

Frieze and

of ' In a North Country Crown Fustian,' "c. 8vo, 8s. 6d.

Daughter

of

FRANKLIN.
Second

My
Impression.
before the

Brilliant
Crown

Career.

By

MILES

FRANKLIN.

8vo, 6s.

FRASER.
delivered CAMPBELL

Philosophy

of Theism.
of

Being the Gifford Lectures

Edinburgh in 1894-96. University By ALEXANDER Professor Emeritus of Logic and Meta Oxford; FRASER, D.C.L. Post 8vo, Second Edition, Revised. physics in the University of Edinburgh.

6s. 6d. net.

FRENCH FULTON.

COOKERY
pression. Crown

FOR

ENGLISH
Also
in

HOMES. A

Third

Im-

8vo, limp cloth, 2s. 6d.

limp leather,3s.

The

Sovereignty of the Sea.

Historical

Account

of the Claims to the Exclusive of the British Seas and of the Evolution Dominion of the Territorial Waters, with to the Rights of Fishing. By special reference T. WEMYSS FULTON, M.D., F.R.S.E., "c., "c., Scientific Superintendent of In 1 vol. demy 8vo. Fisheries. With numerous Illustrations and Maps. [In the press.

GALT.

Novels

by JOHN

GALT.

With

General

Introduction
Edited

and

Text and The by D. by 8. R. CROCKETT. ' STORRAR With Author of ' The Photogravure MELDRUM, Story of Margredel. Illustrations from Drawings by John Wallace. Fcap. 8vo, 3s. net each vol.

Prefatory Notes

Revised

ANNALS OF WYLIE. VOST,

THE

PARISH,
"

2 vols.

and

THE

2 vols. SIR ANDREW AYRSHIRE LEGATEES. and THE PRO 2 vols. THE of Grippy. THE ENTAIL ; or, The Lairds 2 vols. LAST LAIRDS. OF THE See also STANDARD NOVELS, p. 5.
" "

GENERAL
Scottish
for
use

ASSEMBLY

Hymnal,
in Churches

OF With

THE

CHURCH
of the General

OF

SCOTLAND.

Appendix

Incorporated. Published

1. Large type, Assembly. by Authority cloth,red edges, 2s. Gd.; French morocco, 4s. 2. Bourgeois type, limp cloth,Is.; French 2s. 3. Nonpareil type, cloth, rod edges, 6d.; French morocco, morocco, Is. 4d. 5. Sunday-School 4. Paper Edition, paper covers, Id., covers, 3d. and 8s. Paraphrases, French morocco, cloth, 2d. No. 1, bound with the Psalms 3s. No. 2, bound with the Psalms and Paraphrases, cloth,2s.; French morocco,

Prayers for Social

Special Committee
New Edition,

and

Family
A

Worship.
Selection

Prepared by
of Four Weeks'

of Scotland. of the General Assembly of the Church Revised and Enlarged. Fcap. Svo, red edges, 2s.

Entirely

Prayers for Family Worship.

Prayers.
Scotland. New

Edition. Authorised by the General Fcap. Svo, red edges, Is. 6d.

Assembly

of the Church

of

One

Hundred
to Devotion.

Prayers. Prepared by the Committee

16mo, cloth limp, 8d.

on

Aids

Morning
by
on

and

Evening Prayersfor Affixingto Bibles.

on

Prepared

the Committee

Aids

to Devotion.

Id. for 6,

or

Is. per 100.

Prayers for Soldiers and Sailors.

Aids to Devotion. Thirtieth Thousand.

Prepared by

the Committee
2d. net.

16mo, cloth limp.

William

Blackivood

"

Sons.

13

GERARD.
Reata
:

What's
Crown

in
8vo,

Name,

By

E.

D.

GERARD.
Crown

Cheap

Edition.

Ss. 6d.

Beggar
The

my

Neighbour.
of Hercules.

Cheap Edition.

Waters

Cheap
8vo,
:

Edition.

8vo, 3s. 6d. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.

A Sensitive Plant. GERARD. The Extermination

By
B. GERARD

Crown of Love
de

3s. 6d.

Fragmentary Study in Erotics.

Crown

(Madame

Laszowska).

8vo, 6s.

Foreigner. An Anglo-German Study. Crown 8vo, 6s. The Land beyond the Forest. Facts, Figures, and Fancies
from

Transylvania. With

Maps and Illustrations

2 vols.

post 8vo, 25s.

Crown Tales Retold. Bis : Some 8vo, 6s. 2 vols. crown A Secret Mission. 8vo, 17s. Crown An Electric Shock, and other Stories. GERARD. One Year.

8vo, 6s.

By
Crown

DOROTHEA
Svo,
6s.

GERARD

(Madame

Longard

de

Longgarde).

The Impediment. Crown 8vo, 6s. Crown A Forgotten Sin. 8yo,6s. Third A SpotlessReputation. Edition. Crown 8vo, 6s. Second The Wrong Man. Edition. Crown 6s. 8vo, Crown 8vo, 3s, 6d. Lady Baby, Cheap Edition. Recha. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, 6s. Second Edition. Crown The Rich Miss RiddelL 8vo, 6s. GERARD.
Second

Stonyhurst Latin Grammar.

Edition.

By Rev. JOHN
GOODALL.
Fcap. 8vo, Is

GERARD Edited

Fcap. 8vo,
DE

3s.

GOODALL.
by 8.

Association Football.
ARCHIBALD

By JOHN

BEAR.

With

Diagrams.

GORDON At A

CUMMING.
Home
in

Fiji. By
Svo.

C.

F.

GORDON
6s.

CUMMING.

Cheap

Edition, post
8vo.

With

Illustrations.
a

Lady's Cruise
With

in

French
Map.
6s.

Man-of-War.

Cheap Edition.
Illustra Illus

Illustrations

and

Wanderings
tions, 6s.

in China.
:

Cheap Edition.
Yo-semit^
Cheap Edition.
Svo, 6s.

8vo, with

Granite

Crags
8

The The

Region of California.
of Hawaii: Its
Map and Illustrations.
Act
of 2 vols.

trated with

Engravings.

Fire-Fountains.
and the

Kingdom
With

Volcanoes,
Svo, 25s.

History of its Missions.

GRAHAM.

Manual

of the Elections

(Scot.) (Corrupt

and

Illegal

Practices)Act, 1890. With Analysis, Relative taining the Corrupt Practices Acts of 1883 and EDWARD GRAHAM, Advocate. Svo, 4s. 6d.

con Sederunt, Appendix By J 1885, and Copious Index

GRAHAM.
of
'

Harlaw
Nesera.' Crown

of Sendle.
Svo, 6s.

By JOHN

W.

GRAHAM,

Author

GRAND.
A

Domestic
1

Experiment.
'

By
A

SARAH

GRAND,
Crown

Author

of

The

Heavenly Twins,

'

Ideala

Deluded. Singularly

Crown

Study from Life.1 Svo, 6s.

Svo, fl".

14
GRAY. Old
Edinburgh.

List

of
and

Books

Published

by
H.

Creeds
Crown

New

Beliefs.

By W.

GRAY, D.D.,

Svo, 5s.

GREEN.
of Adam

The

End

of
the

an

Epoch.
By
A.

Being the Personal Narrative

LINCOLN

Godwin,

Survivor.

GREEN.

Crown

Svo, 6s.

GRIER.
In Furthest Ind. The Narrative of Mr -EDWARD CARLYON of
Bast India in the County of Northampton, and late of the Honourable Ellswether, Wrote by his own hand in the year of grace 1697. Company's Service,Gentleman. C. GBIER. Post Svo, 6s. Edited, with a few Explanatory Notes, by SYDNEY

Cheap Edition, 2s.

His An

Excellency'sEnglish Governess.
8vo, 6s.
Edition.

Third of

Edition.

Crown Second

Cheap Edition, 2s.

Uncrowned
Crown

King
Svo, 6s.

A Romance

High Politics.
Crown

Cheap Edition, 2s.

Peace A

with

Honour.

Second The

Edition.
of

Svo,

6s.

Cheap
State.

Edition, 2s.

Crowned
Second

Queen:
Helen.

Romance
Cheap

Minister

of

Impression.

Crown

Svo, 6s.

Edition, 2s.

Like The The The

Another

Second East
:

Edition Romance

Crown of the

Svo, 6s. Cheap

near

Edition, 2s.

Kings of the
Second

Future.

Impression.

Crown

Svo, 6s.

Cheap Edition, 2s.

Warden
8vo, 6s.

of the of the

Marches.

Second

Impression.

Crown

Cheap Edition, 2a.

Prince

Captivity. Crown
By J, MORGAN-DESvo,
we

8vo, 6s. GROOT.

Crown

GROOT.
A Lotus Flower. Even If. Crown HALDANE.
AYLMER

Svo, 6s.

6s.

How

Escaped
2nd
numerous

from

Pretoria.

By
New

Captain
Edition,
Crown

HALDANE, D.S.O., revised and enlarged. With Svo, 5s.

Battalion

Highlanders. Plans, and Illustrations,

Gordon

Map.

HALIBURTON.
A

Horace
Post

in

Homespun.
Poems.

By HUGH
With

HALIBURTON.
by A. S.

New

Edition, containing
Svo, 6s. net.

additional

26 Illustrations

Boyd.

HAMERTON. Wenderholme
8vo, 3s. 6d.

Story of Lancashire
Author of 'A Painter's

and
Camp.1

Yorkshire
New Edition.

Life.
Crown

By P. G. HAMERTON,

Marmorne.

New

Edition.

Crown

Svo, 3s. 6d" Sir

WILLIAM

HAMILTON. Lectures

on

Metaphysics.

By

HAMILTON,

of Logic and Metaphysica in the University of Edinburgh. of St Paul's; and JOHN Edited by the Rev. H. L. MANSEL, B.D., LL.D., Dean Seventh VEITCH, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Logic and Rhetoric, Glasgow. Edition. 2 vols. 8vo, 24s.

Bart., Professor

Lectures
Revised.

on
2

Logic.
vols.,24s.
on

Edited

by the SAME,
Svo, 21s. and

Third

Edition,
and

Discussions HAMLEY. The

Philosophy and
Third Edition.

Literature, Education
Illustrated.

University Reform.

Operations of

War

Explained

By
of

General

Sir EDWARD BRUCK Fifth With Edition. Maps 10s. 6d.; Part II., 21s.

K.C.B., K.C.M.G. HAMLEY, Also and Plans. 4to, 30s.

Edition in 2 parts: Part

Second

I.,

William

Blackwood

"

Sons,

15

HAMLEY.
National
Post

Defence; Articles and

Speeches. Cheap Edition.

6d.

Svo, 2s. 6d.

Shakespeare'sFuneral, and other Papers. Post 8vo, 7s. Crown Edition. Thomas Carlyle : An Essay. Second
2s. 6d.

8vo,

On

Outposts. Second Edition. 8vo, 2s. Wellington's Career : A Military and Political Summary.
Grown

8vo, 2s.

Lady
Oar H ANN

Lee's Widowhood. New Edition. Crown Poor Relations. A Philozoic Essay. With
Grtset. Crown
3s. 6d. 8vo, cloth gilt,

8vo, 2s.

Illustrations,
of

chieflyby Ernest

AY.
Literature.'

The
By

Later
DAVID

Renaissance,
HANNAY. Grown

'Periods
5s. net.

European

8vo,

HARRADEN.

Ships that
Illustrated

Pass
Edition.

in

the

Night.
8vo,
3s. 6d.

By

BEATRICE

HARRADEN.

Crown

The In
,

Fowler.

Varying
Crown Stories.

Illustrated Edition. Crown Moods Short Stories. : The Remittance

Crown

8vo, 3s. 6d.

Illustrated Two Edition.

8vo, 3s. 6d.

Hilda Untold

and Straftbrd,
Illustrated

Man,

Californian

Edition.

8vo, 3s. 6d.

Tales of the Past. With

or own

40 Illustrations

by H. R. Millar.
Persian
of and
an

Square

Svo,

gilttop,

6s.

HARRIS, From

Batum

to

Baghdad, vid Tiflis, Tabriz,

B.
in

and

Kurdistan. By WALTKR African Sultan ; Travels Maps. Demy 8vcs 12".

HARRIS,
'

F.B.G.S., Author
"e. With
numerous

of

Morocco,

'The Land Illustrations

Tafilet.

The

Narrative
the

of

Journey of Exploration

to

the

Atlas Mountains and by Maurice Romberg

Sahara. Oases of the North-West With Illustrations from Sketches and Photographs by the Author, and Two

Maps. A

Demy

8vo, 12s.

Journey through
The Works

the

Yemen, and Right

iiev. Dr

some

General
by

Remarks
Foresticr
and

With 3 Maps and numerous upon that Country. Wallace and Photographs taken from Sketches

by

Illustrations the Author

Demy

Svo, 16s.

HAY.

of the
under Portrait

George Hay, Bishop

"

of

the Supervision of the Right llev. Bishop STRAIN. With Memoir and of the Author. 5 vols. crown in extra Svo, bound eloth,"1, Is. The following Volumes may be had separately viz. : The Devout Christian Instructed in the Law of Christ from the Written 2 vols., 8s." The Pious Christian Instructed Word. In the Nature and Practice of the Principal Bzerciaea of Piety, 1 vol., 3s.

Edinburgh.

Edited

HEMANS. The

Poetical

Works of Mrs The

of

Mrs

Heinans.

Copyright Edition.

Royal Svo, with Engravings, cloth,giltedges, 7s. 6d.

Select Poems HENDERSON.

RICHARD

Hemans.

Young

Estate

Fcap., cloth,giltedges,3a Manager's Guide. By

Member HENDERSON, (by Examination) of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, and the With Introduction Surveyors' Institution. an by R. Patrick Wright, of Scotland P.R.S.E., Professor of Agriculture, Glasgow and West Technical College. With Plans anri Diagrams. Crown Svo, 5s.

HENDERSON.
WALTER SCOTT.

The
A

Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border.

New Edition. and

By Sir
[In the press.

Casquet Letters,'"c., post Svo

Edited of Co-Editor

by T.
'The

Henderson, Author of 'The In 3 vols. Centenary Burns.'

F.

16

List

of

Books

Published

by

HENSMAN.
A

History of Rhodesia.
HOWARD HENSMAN. :

Compiled from Official Sources.

a

By

With

Map.

Crown
a

8vo, 6s.

Cecil
Demy

Rhodes The

Study of

Career.

With Time.

Illustrations. With Illus

Svo, 12s. 6d. net.

HEWISON.

isle of Bute

in the Olden

KING HEWISON, By JAMES M.A., F.8.A. (Scot.), trations,Maps, and Plans. Crown Minister of Rothesay. Vol. I., Celtic Saints and Heroes. 4to, 15s. net. Crown and the Brandanes. 4to, 15s. net. Vol. II.,The Royal Stewards

HOME
and

PRAYERS.
Members

By Ministers
of the Church Service

of the A

Church
Edition.

of Scotland
Pcap. 8vo,
3s.

Society. Second

HUEFFER.
Record. Nineteen

The
By

Cinque

Ports.

Historical

and

Descriptive

With Fourteen HUEFFER. F. MADOX Photogravure Plates and HYDE. Hand Page and Text Illustrations from Drawings by WILLIAM somely bound in art canvas, gilttop, with specialdesign in gold on side board by Mr Hyde. Royal 4to,"3, 3s. net.

HUNT.
HUNT.

Handy Vocabulary
For the

AfrikanderEnglish-Afrikander,
in South

English.

Use

of

English-speaking People
:
an

Africa.

By G. M. G.

Small

Svo, Is.

KURD.

The

British Fleet

Is it Sufficient and
Introduction by Admiral Second Impression. Is.

Efficient ?

By
G.

With S. HURD. ARCHIBALD R. Fremantle, G.C.B., C.M.G.

the Hon.

Sir Edmund

HUTCHINSON.
HUTCHINSON.

Hints
Eleventh

on

the Game

of Golf. EDWARD

By HORACE

Edition, Enlarged.

Fcap. Svo, cloth, Is.

HUTTON.
Svo,
6s.

Frederic The

Uvedale.

By

BUTTON. JAMES H.

Crown

HYSLOP.

Elements

of Ethics.

By

HYSLOP,
of 'The

College, New Ph.D., Instructor in Ethics, Columbia of Logic.1 Post 8vo, 7s. 6d. net. Elements

York, Author

IDDESLEIGH.

Life,Letters,and Diaries of Sir Stafford NorthPortraits and 7s. 6d. Syo,

011
a

LANG. With Three cote, First Earl of Iddesleigh. By ANDREW 2 vols. post Svo, 31e. 6d. Third Edition. View of Pynes With Portrait and View of Pynes, Post EDITION. POPULAR

INNES. IRONS.
8vo.

The

Law

of Creeds
in

in

Scotland.
and
not

Treatise

the

Relations of Churches Law. By A. TAYLOR

Scotland, Established Demy INNES, Advocate.

Established,to the Civil

Svo, 10s. net.

The
Ph.D.,
'

Psychology
of

of Ethics.

By DAVID
College,Penn.

IRONS, M.A.,
In 1 vol. crown [In the press.

Professor

Philosophy in Bryn Mawr

JAMES.
P S.C

Modern
late
,

Strategy.
With
Plans.

By
Life

Major
royal

WALTER

H.

JAMES,
[In the press.

R.E.

In 1 vol.

Svo.

JEBB. A

Strange

Career.
JEBB,

The

and

Adventures

of

JOHN

With an Introduction by H. RIDER HAGGARD, GLADWYN By Third Edition. Demy Svo, 10s. 6d. and an Electrogravure Portrait of Mr Jebb. Crown Svo, 3s. 6d. With Illustrations by John Wallace. EDITIOS. CHEAP
his Widow.

Some

Unconventional

People.
of J. G.

By
Jebb.'

Mrs
With

GLADWYN
Illustrations.

JEBB,
Cheap

of 'Life and Adventures Author Edition. Paper covers, Is,

JOHNSTON.
The

Chemistry of Common

Life.

By

Professor
CHURCH,
With

J. F.
M.A.

W.
10S

New By ARTHUR Edition, Revised. JOHNSTON. of ' Food : its Sources, Constituents, and Author Engravings. Crown Svo, 7s. 6d.

HERBERT

Oxon.;
and

Uses,1 "c.

Maps

Elements

of

Agricultural Chemistry.

An

entirely New

A. CAMERON, M.D.j F.R.C.S.I., "c. Edition from the Edition by Sir CHARLES to date by C. M. AIKMAN, M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S.E., and brought down Revised Crown Svo, Professor of Chemistry, Glasgow Veterinary College. 17th Edition. 68. 6d.

List of Books

Published

by

LANG.
The

Expansion
for 1897,

of
Rev,

the

Christian
LANO,

Life.
D.D.

The
Crown

Duff
8vo. 5s.

Lecture

By the

J. MARSHALL

The

Church
for 1901.

and
Crown

its Social Mission.

8vo, Cs. net.

Being the Baird Lecture LAWSON, Author

of Peace of

LAWSON.
The
'

Country I Come
While

From.

By HENRY
Svo, 6s.

the HillyBoils,' "fec. Crown

Joo Wilson and his Mates. Crown Svo, 6s. LEES. A Handbook of the Sheriff and Justice
Debt Courts.

Small

With Notes, References, and Forms. By J. M. Sheriff of Stirling, and Clackmannan. Dumbarton, Svo, 7s. 6d.

LEES, Advocate,

LEIGHTON.
Local

The

Life

History of British Serpents,and their

Distribution in the British Isles. M.D. R. LEIGHTON, By GERALD (Thesis "The on Reptilia of the Moimow Valley," Edin. Univ., 1901). Fellow of the 50 Illustrations. With Crown Society of Science, Letters, and Art, London. Svo, 5s. net.

LEISHMAN.
duction
and

The Westminster Dr South wood

C.

Directory.Edited,with
Crown
:

an

Intro

Notes, by the Very Rev. T. LEISHMAN, D.D.

Svo, 4s. net.

LEWES.

Smith
With

Retrospect. By
and other

his Grand
Post

daughter, Mrs
Svo, 6s.

L.

LEWIS.

Portraits

Illustrations.

LINDSAY. Eecent Advances

The

in Theistic

of Religion. By Philosophy
of the

Rev.
of

JAMES LINDSAY, M.A., B.D., B.Sc.,F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Minister St Andrew's, Kilmarnock. Demy Svo, 12s. 6d. net.

Parish

Progressivenessof Modern
Svo, 6s.

Christian

Thought.
Svo, 3s. 6d.

Crown

Essays, Literaryand Philosophical.Crown

The The
"

of the Old Significance

Crown

Testament

for Modern

Theology.
Svo,

Svo, Is. net.

Teaching Function

of the Modern

Pulpit. Crown By
"

LINESMAN." Words by
MAN."

an

Eyewitness
Impression.

The

Struggle in Natal.
Svo, 3s. 6d.
W. M. LOCKHART.

LINES
paper

Tenth

Crown

Svo, 6s.

People's Edition, royal Svo,

covers, 6d.

The

Mechanism and

of War.

Crown

LOCKHART.
Doubles

Quits. By LAUEKNCK
A New

Crown

Svo, 3s. 6d.

Edition, Crown

Svo, 2s.

Fair to See. New Edition. Crown Svo, 3s. 6d. Mine is Thine. Crown New Edition, Svo, 3s. 6d.

LOCKHART.
The Church
Life and

of

Scotland

in

the

Thirteenth

Century.
1239

The
to 1253.

of David de Bernham of St Andrews Times (Bishop),A.D. Liat of Churches dedicated With By WILLIAM by him, and Dates. 2d Edition. A.M., D.D., F.S.A. Scot.,Minister of Colinton Parish.

LOCKHART, 8vo, 6s.

Dies Tristes Sermons LORIMER. The Institutes of Law

prudence
as

for Seasons
:

of Sorrow.

Crown

Svo,

6s.

A Treatise of the

of Principles

Juris

determined by Nature. By the late JAMES LORIMER, Professor of and of the Law of Nature and Nations iu the University of Edin Public Law burgh. New Edition, Revised and much Enlarged. Svo, 18s.

The

Institutes
Jural

of the

Law

of Nations.

Treatise

of the
Volume

Relation of Separate Political Communities. II.,price 20s. price 16a. Volume

In 2 vols. Svo.

I.,

William

Blackwood

"

Sons.

19

LYNDEN-BELL.
graphy,
Crown
and

Primer

of

Fortification Topo Tactics,

With Diagrams

Military Law.

By Capt. C. P. LYNDEN-BELL.

8vo, 3s. net.

MABIE.

Essayson
With

Nature

and

Culture.
3s. 6d.

By HAMILTON

WRIGHT

MABIE.

Portrait.

Fcap.

8vo.

Books and Culture. Fcap. 8vo, .3s. 6d. The Life of the Spirit. Fcap. Svo, 3s. 6d.

MCCHESNEY.
Miriam
lion.

Cromwell, Royalist :
By DORA
GREENWELL
:

A Romance
Crown

of the Great
Svo, 6s

Rebel

MCCHESNKY.

Kathleen
five

Clare

Her

Book,

1637-41.
A.

With

and Frontispiece,
8vo, 6s;

full-pageIllustrations by James

Shearman.

Crown

M'COMBIE.
Urown

Cattle and Cattle-Breeders. By WILLIAM

Memoir
and of the avo, 3s. od.

M'COMBIE,

Tillyfour. New Edition, Enlarged, with Highland Secretary MACDONALD, F.R.".E.,

by JAMES Agricultural Society of Scotland.

Author

M'CRIE. Works
4
_

of the Rev.
crown

Thomas

M'Crie, D.D.

Uniform

Edition.

vols.

Svo, 24s.

Life of John Knox. Crown Svo, 3s. 6d. Life of Andrew Melville. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d. of the and Progress History Suppressionof the
in
f

Reformation

Italy in
Spain

the

Sixteenth

Century.
Century.

Crown

8vo, 4s.
Svo. 3s. 6d.

History of
in

the

Progress and
A

Suppression of the Reformation

Crown

in the Sixteenth

MACDONALD.

Manual

of the Criminal
DORAN

Law

Pro(Scotland)
Revised

ssss^sfs j%j*sr"
MACDOUGALL
ment J. M. y }DwXVi DODDS. AND

MACD"NALD-

b? the

L"-

DODDS.
1894.

Manual

of the Local

Govern

Act, (Scotland)

^A" Tenth

Introduction, Explanatory Notes, and Copious MACDOUGALL, Legal Secretaryto the Lord Advocate, and
Revised.
:

With

Thousand,

Crown

Svo,

2s. 6d

net

MACINTOSH.
ILLACIT0'A''

Rabbi

Jesus
Ph'D''
:

Sage
"f
'

and
Through

Saviour.
Doubt's Dark

By
Vale,
on

Autnor

MACIN1TRE.
and

Hindu-koh Wanderings and

the

Wild

Sports

beyond
of New

Himalayas.
Own

By Major-General
F.R.G.S.

Prince
Wales.

Wales'
and

Goorkhas,

Revised Cheaper Edition,

DONALD MACINTYRE, V.C., late Dedicated to H.R.H. the Prince oj with numerous Illustrations. Post

MACKENZIE.
Views
one

Studies
of the

in

Roman
of Session

Law.

With
Seventh

Comparative
MACKENZIE Edited Edition
"

Laws

of

Prance, England, and

of the

Judges

of the Court

Scotland. in Scotland.

By LORD

MAGNUS

AND

HEADLAM.
the Poets.
M.A., Author

Prayers from
by LAURIE

Calendar
of
'

of Devotion.
of Wordsworth
'

Edited
"

MAGNUS,

Primer

"c

and

CECIL

Eco^^
Flowers of the Cave. MAIN. Three Hundred
by DAVID
M. MAIN. New

Fcap. Svo, 5s. EngJish Sonnets.

Edition.

Chosen

and

Edited

Fcap. Svo,

3s. 6d.

20

List of Books

Published

by

MAIR. A

Digest of Laws

and

Decisions,Ecclesiastical and

Civil

of Scotland. relatingto the Constitution,Practice, and Affairs of the Church of Procedure. With Notes and Forms By the Rev. WILLIAM MAIR, D.D., Minis New Crown ter of the Parish of Earlston. Edition, Revised. 8vo, 9s. net.

Speaking
MALCOLM.

Voice ; or, From Pulpit. Third Edition, Revised. The Calendar

Production
Crown

to

the

Platform
to

and

8vo, 3s.

of

Empire.

Tribute

Lives,
By

that have Deeds, and Words gained Glory for Great and Greater Small M.P. IAN MALCOLM, Svo, vellum covers, 5s. net. square

Britain.

LARGE

PAPER

EDITION.

15s. net.

MARSHMAN.

History of India.

From
MARSHMAN,

the Earliest Period

C.S.I. Third and

to

CLARK the present time. By JOHN Post Svo, with Map, 6s. Edition.

Cheaper

MARTIN. The ^Eneid

DORE

of

Virgil. Books
Post

I.-VI. Translated
Translated into into

by Sir THEO

MARTIN, K.C.B.

Svo, 7s. 6d.

Goethe's
Second

Faust.
Edition, crown

Part Part

I. II.

English Verse. English Verse.

Svo, 6s.

Ninth

Edition, fcap.Svo, 3s. 6d.

Goethe's
Second

Faust.

Translated
into

Edition, Revised.

Fcap. Svo, 6s.

The Poems

Works
Life and

of Horace.
2 vols.

Translated
New Edition. Crown

English Verse,with
Done into

Notes.

Svo, 21s.

and
Third

Ballads
Edition.

of Heinrich
Small
crown

Heine.
5s.

English Schiller,
Crown

Verse.

Svo,

The

Song of the Bell,and

Goethe, Uhland, and Others.

other

Translations Other

from

Crown

Svo, 7s. 6d.

Madonna

Pia

Tragedy
Life
'

; and Three

Dramas.

Svo, 7s. 6d.

Catullus.
and

With
Post

and

Notes.

Second

Edition, Revised
an

Corrected.

Svo, 7s. 6d.

The

Vita Nuova
Notes. Fourth

of Dante.
Edition. Small

with Translated,
crown

Introduction

and

Svo, 5s.

Aladdin:
Fcap.

A
5s, Syo,

Dramatic

Poem.

By ADAM

OEHLENSCHLAEGER. With

Correggio : A Tragedy. By OEHLENSCHLAEGER.

Fcap. Svo,
3s.

Notes.

Helena

Faucit

(Lady Martin). By Sir THEODORE

With Five

MARTIN,
Demy Svo,

K.C.B., K.C.V.O.
10s. 6d. net.

Photogravure Plates.

Second

Edition.

On

some

of

Shakespeare's Female

Characters.

By HELENA
Majesty
Preface.

Dedicated FAUCIT, Lady MARTIN. by permission to Her Most Gracious With the Queen. Sixth Edition, with a new a Portrait by Lehmann, Demy Svo, 7s. 6d.

MARWICK.
to

and the Law Practice in on and the Conduct of the Business of Town Councils and of Police in Scotland. Commissioners D. MARWICK, LL.D., By Sir JAMES Town-Clerk of Glasgow. Royal Svo. 30a
Municipal Elections

Observations

regard

MATHESOJS. Can the Old

Evolution and Crown tion.

Faith

Live

with

the New
GKORGK or.

f or, The
MATHESON,

Problem
D.D. Third

of
Edi

Revelation. Svo, 7s. 6d. Third

By the Rev.

The

Psalmist

and the Scientist ;

Edition. Crown

Modern

Value

of the Reli

gious Sentiment.

Svo, 5s.

Spiritual Development of St Paul. Fourth Edition. Cr. Svo, 5s. The Distinctive Messages of the Old Religions. Second Edi
tion. Crown

Svo, 5s.

Sacred Songs. New

and

Cheaper Edition.

Crown

Svo, 2s. 6d.

William

Blackwood

"

Sons.

21

MAXWELL. Honourable The

By the Right Hon.
'

Sir

Charles

Murray,
William

K.C.B.

Memoir.

Passages

in

Sir HERBERT of MAXWELL, Bart., M.P., F.S.A., "c., Author the Life of Sir Lucian Elphin.1 With Five Portraits. Demy 8vo, 18s.

Life and

Times

of the Rt. Hon.

numerous

Henry Smith, M.P.

Railton, G. L. Seymour,
Crown

With Portraits and 2 vols. and Others. EDITION. POPULAR

Illustrations

by Herbert

demy
With

8vo, 25s.
a

Portrait

and

other one

Illustrations.

8vo, 3s. 6d.

Dumfries
7s. 6d. net.

and

Galloway.
of Scotland. :

Being
With Four

of the Volumes
Second Edition.

of the
Demy
8vo,

County Histories

Maps.

Scottish Land-Names
the Rhind Lectures in

Their A

Origin and
Post

Meaning.
Fourth Edition.

Being

Archaeology for 1893.

8vo, 6s.

Duke
Fourth

of

Britain.
Crown
8vo

Romance
6s.

of the Third

Century.
Crown

Edition.

The

Chevalier of the Splendid Crest.

8vo, 6s.

MELDRUM. The Conquest of Charlotte.

crown

By

DAVID With
6s. a

S. MELDRUM.
numerous

In 1 vol.
[In the press.

8vo.

Holland
and
a

and
Map.

the
Second

Hollanders.
Edition.
:

Illustrations

Square 8vo,

The

Story of Margr^del
shire

Being
Crown

Fireside

History of

Fife-

Family.

Cheap

Edition

8vo, 3s. 6d.

Grey Mantle
MELLONE. Studies
SYDNEY

and

Gold

Fringe. Crown

8vo, 6s.
and Construction.
Post
8vo.

in

Philosophical Criticism
MELLONE,
M.A.

By

HERBERT

Lond., D.Sc. Edin.

10s. 6d. net.

Leaders
Crown

of

Religious Thought
THEODORE MERZ. Vol.

in

the

Nineteenth

Century.
Cen

8vo, 6s. net.

MERZ.

A
tury,

History of European Thought

By JOHN

in the Nineteenth
10s. 6d. net.

I.,post 8vo,

[Vol.II. in the press.

MEYNELL.
MEYNELL.

John
Third

Ruskin.
Impression.

"

Modern

English Writers."

By

Mrs Era.

Crown

8vo, 2s. 6d.

MICHIE.
As

The
Illustrated

Englishman

in China

during the Victorian

in the Life of Sir Rutherford Aleock, K.C.B., D.C.L., many years Consul and Minister in China and of Japan. By ALEXANDER MICHIE, Author in China,' "c. 'The Siberian Overland With Route,' 'Missionaries numerous and Illustrations, Portraits,

Maps.

2 vols.

demy 8vo,
"

38s. net.

MILLAR.

The

Mid-EighteenthCentury.
By J.
H. MILLAR. In 1 vol.
crown

Periods

of

European
[In the press.

Literature."

8vo.

MITCHELL. The Scottish

and Distinctive

Reformation.
Characteristics.

Its

Epochs, Episodes, Leaders,

Lecture for 1899. Being the Baird By the late ALEXANDER F. MITCHELL, of Church Professor D.D., LL.D., Emeritus With History in St Andrews University. Edited FLEMING, LL.D. by D. HAY of the Author, by James Crown a Biographical Sketch Christie,D.D. 8vo, 6s.

MODERN Matthew
.

ENGLISH Arnold.

WRITERS.
2s.

In
6d. each.

handy

crown

8vo

volumes, tastefullybound, price

By

Professor

SAINTSBURY. Second

Second

Im-

Eession. Stevenson.
John Ruskin.

By L, COPE

By Mrs

CORNFORD. MEYNELL. Third

Impression. Impression.

22

List

of Books
WRITERS.

Published

by

MODERN

ENGLISH

Second LANG. By ANDREW Tennyson. CLODD. Huxley. By EDWARD WHIBLEY. CHARLES Thackeray. By
GEOKGE
BROWNING. ELIOT. In Preparation. By A. T. Quiller-Couch. I FROUDE.

Edition.

[In the press.

Oliver E, Hobbes.

By John
By W.

By Prof. C.

H.

Herford.

DICKKNS.

Henley.

Life of Mansie

Wauch,

Tailor

in Dalkeith,

By D. M.
a

Mom.

Crown Illustrations. Cheaper Edition. With CRUIKSHANK'S Illustrations, fcap. 8vo, Is. 6d. Another Edition, without

8vo, 2s. 6d.

Domestic
8vo,

Verses.

Centenary Edition.

With

Portrait.

Crown

2s. 6d. net.

MOMERIE

Immortality, and other Sermons.

HOMERS, M.A., D.Se.,
LL.D. Crown

By Rev. ALFRED
8vo, 5s.

WILLIAMS Fifth Natural

Defects
Edition

of Modern
Crown

Christianity, and
an

other

Sermons.
or

8vo, 5s.

The The

Basis

of

Religion, Being
Edition. Crown

Examination
6d.

Religion. Third Enlarged.

cessary Crown

2s. 8vo',

Origin of Evil, and

8vo,
5s.

other

Sermons, of

Eighth
Ed., Revised.

Edition,
a

Personality. The Beginning and End

Assumption
in all Positive

Metaphysics, ana

Ne

Philosophy.

Fifth

Cr. 8vo, 3s.

^

Crown 8vo, 5s. Agnosticism. Fourth Edition,Revised. Fourth other Sermons. and Edition, Preaching and Hearing ;
Enlarged.
Crown

8vo, 5s.

Crown Edition. Fourth 8vo, 3s. Second Edition, Enlarged Inspiration; and other Sermons?.

Belief in God.
Crown

8vo, 5s.

Church
The The

Third Edition. and Creed. Future of Religion, and other

8vo, 3s. 6d.

Crown

8vo, 4s. 6d.

Edition. Edition. Second

Essays. Second
Schism,

Grown

English Church
Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d.

and

the Romish

MONCREIFF.
The
the

Provost-Marshal.
Hon FREDERICK

Romance
Crown

of the Middle
8vo, 6s.

Shires,

By

MONCREIFF.

The

X Jewel.
Examples
of
a

A Romance
Practical

of the

Days

MONTAGUE.
ing in South

Military Topography.
Subject.
Instructor With

VI. Cr. 8vo, 6s. of James Illustrated by Practical

P.S.C., late Garrison

Africa.1

C.B., By Major-General W. E, MONTAGUE, of ' Campaign IntelligenceDepartment, Author Crown 8vo, 5a. Forty-one Diagrams.

MORISON.
Rifts in the Reek.
Frontispiece.
Crown

By JEANIE
8vo, 5s.
Bound

MORISON.
in buckram

With
for

Photogravure

Doorside
^Eolus. There as
%*
A

With a Frontispiece. Ditties. in Lyrics. Crown Romance A 8vo, 3s. Crown Here. 8vo, 3s.
limited

presentation, 6s. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.

impression on

hand-made

paper,

bound

in

vellum, 7s. M.

Selections

Sordello.
Crown

from An

Poems. Outline

8vo, 4s. 6d. Analysis of Mr

Crown

Browning's

Poem.

8vo, 8s.

William

Blackwood

"

Sons.

2$

MORISOK
Of
"

Fitine
other

at

the

Fair,"" Christmas
Poems. Crown

Eve

and

Easter

Day,"

and

of Mr

Browning's

Svo, 3a.

The Purpose of the Ages. Crown 8vo. 9s. Crown An Gordon Idyll. 8vo, 3s. : Our-day Crown Saint Isadora, and other Poems. 8vo, Is. 6d. 3s. Snatches of Song. Paper, Is. 6d. ; cloth, Pontius Pilate. Paper, Is. 6d. ; cloth, 3s. Mill o' Forres. Crown 8vo, Is. Ane Booke of Ballades. Fcap. 4to, Is.

MOWBRAY.
and his
Notes

Seventy Years
of

at Westminster.
Sir JOHN MOWBRAY, other Illustrations.

With

other Letters
Edited

Daughter.

the late Right Hon. With Portraits and

Bart, M.P. Large crown

by

Svo, 7s. 6d.

MUNRO. Doom
sion.

Castle
Crown

A Romance.
The

By NEIL
a

MUNRO. Gentleman

Second and

Impres
the Little Fourth
cover,

Svo, 6s.

John
Wars

Splendid.
of Lorn.

Tale of
Impression.

Poor

Sixth

Crown

8vo,

6s.

The

Lost
Impression.

Pibroch,
Crown

and
3s. 6d.

other

Sheiling Stories.

Svo,

People's Edition, royal Svo, paper

6d.

MUNRO. Rambles
With
an

and

Studies
of the
held at

in

Bosnia-Herzegovina and
of
the

Dalmatia.

Account

proceedings

Congress

of

Anthropologists
LL.D.,
Revised
and

P.R.S.E., Author

in Sarajevo of the ' Lake With

numerous

1894.

Enlarged.

By ROBERT Dwellings of Europe,' "c. Second Edition, illustrations. Demy 8vo, 12s. 6d. net.

Archaeologists and M.A., M.D., MUNRO,

Prehistoric Prehistoric
Being
numerous a

Problems. Scotland
Illustrations.

With and

numerous

Illustrations,
in

Demy
With

8vo, 10s. net.

its Place
to the
"

European
Histories

Civilisation.

General

Introduction Crown

County Svo, 7s. 6d. net.

of Scotland."

MUNRO.

On

Valuation

of

Property.

By
Canals

WILLIAM
for Scotland.

MUNRO,
Second

of Railways and M.A., Her Majesty's Assessor Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 8vo, 3s. 6d.

M URDOCH.
Composition

Manual
a
-

of the Law
-

of Insolvency and
Law of

Bankruptcy

Comprehending

of the Summary Deeds, Contracts, Trust

Notour Bankruptcy, Insolvency, the Sequestrations; and Cession, and

the on of Joint-Stock Companies in Scotland : with Annotations Wiuding-up of Procedure Forms with Statutes ; and various Insolvency a-id Bankruptcy Member of the Faculty of MURDOCH, By JAMES applicable to these Subjects. snd Enlarged. Fifth Edition, Revised Procurators iu Glasgow. Svo, 12s. net.

MUSINGS
MY

WITHOUT
from
'

METHOD.
Blackwood's

A Record
In 1 vol.

of 1900
Svo.

and

1901.

Reprinted

Magazine.'
WOMAN.

post

[In the press.

TRIVIAL
no

LIFE
in Particular.

AND
By A PLAIN

MISFORTUNE:
SAMB
AUTHOR.

Plot

A Cheap Edition. Crown

Gossip
Crowu

with

Svo, 3s. 6d.

By
POOR NELLIE.

the

Cheap

Edition.

Svo,

3s. 6d.

NEAVES.

Songs and Verses, Social

to

and
Lord

Scientific.
NEAVES. Fifth

By An
Edition.

Old
Fcap.

Contributor ftvo, 48.

'Maga.1

By

the

Hon.

NEUMAN.
Author of

The
'The

Uttermost

Farthing.
'The

By

B.

PAUL
'A

NEUMAN,
of

Interpreter's House,'

Supplanter,'

Villain

Parts.'

Crown

Svo, 6s.

24
NICHOLSON. A Manual
General

List

of Books

Published

by

of

Zoology, for the Use

on

of Students.
By

With

Principles of Zoology. NICHOLSON, M.D., D.Sc., F.L.S., F.G.S., Regius Professor the University of Aberdeen. Seventh Edition, Rewritten 8vo, pp. 956, with 555 Engravings on Wood, 18s.
Introduction the

ALLEYNE HENRY of Natural History in and Enlarged. Post

Text-Book
Rewritten

of
and

Zoology, for Junior

Enlarged.
Crown

Students.

Fifth
on

Edition.
10s. 6d

8vo, with 358 Engravings

Wood,

Manual
General

of

for the Use Palaeontology,

of Students.

With

Introduction the Principles of Palaeontology. on Third ALLEYNE B.A. NICHOLSON and RICHARD LYDEKKER, Rewritten and greatly Enlarged. 2 vols. 8vo, "3, 3s.

H. By Professor Edition, entirety

NICHOLSON. Thoth.

Romance.

By JOSEPH
and

SHIELD
Economy
Crown

NICHOLSON, M.A..,
and Mercantile Law
in

D.Sc., Professor of Commercial the University of Edinburgh.

Third

Political Edition.

8vo, 4s. 6d.

Dreamer
tion. Crown

of Dreams.
8vo, 6s.

Modern the

Romance. Bible.

Second

Edi

NICOL.

Recent

Archaeology and

Being the Croall

of
'

Lectures for 1898. NICOL, D.D., Professor By the Rev. THOMAS and Biblical Criticism in the University of Aberdeen of ; Author plorations in Bible Lands.' Demy 8vo, 9s. net.

Divinity
Ex

Recent

NOVELS

OF

MILITARY

LIFE.

Re-issue
By

of Six

Popular
George

Novels. Printed on LEE'S WIDOWHOOD. LADY Sir E. B. Hamley. DOUBLES AND QUITS. W. M. Lockhart. PENINSULAR SCENES. Hardman.

fine-laid paper By General

bound. and tastefully THE DILEMMA.

Price 2s. each. General Sir

Chesney. By Colonel
L. THE SUBALTERN. By G. R. Gleig. SIR FRIZZLE PUMPKIN. White.

Chaplain-General By
Rev. James

By Frederick

OLIPHANT.
Masollam
OLIPHANT.
:

A Problem
3 vols.

of the Period.

A Novel.

By LAURENCE
of
Edition.

post 8vo, 25s. 6d.

Scientific
Practice

Religion ; or, Higher through the Operation of Natural Cheap

Illustrated

Possibilities
Forces. Second

Life

and

Altiora

Peto.

Edition.
Edition. Crown

Crown

8vo, boards,

8vo, 16s. 2s. 6d.;

cloth, 3s. 6d. tion, 3s. 6d.

8vo, cloth, 6s.

With Piccadilly.

Illustrations

.by Richard
2s. 6d.

Doyle. New

Edi

Cheap Edition, boards,

Traits and Travesties ; Social and Political. Post 8vo, 10s. 6d. Episodes in a Life of Adventure; or, Moss from a Rolling
Stone.

Cheaper Edition.

Post

8vo, 3s. 6d.

Haifa : Life in Modern The Land of Gilead.

With Illustrations and

Palestine. Second Edition. 8vo, 7s. 6d. in the Lebanon. With Excursions
Demy
0.

Maps.

8vo, 21s.

Memoir

of the

Life

of

Laurence
W.

Oliphant, and
Seventh Post

of

Alice
2 vols.

Oliphant, his Wife. By Mrs M. 21s. post 8vo, with Portraits.

POPULAR EDITION. With
a

OLIPHANT.

Edition.

New

Preface.

8vo, with Portraits.

7s. 6d.

OLIPHANT. The Autobiography

Arranged
Edition.
and

and
by
Mrs

Letters
HARRY

of Mrs

M. O. W.
With Two

Oliphant.
Cheap

Edited

COGHILL.

Portraits.

Crown
a

8vo, 6s.

Annals

of

Publishing House.
and
8vo.

William
OLIPHANT.

Black wood
With Four

and

his

Sons ; Their Magazine Third Edition. Demy

Friends. By Mrs Vols. I. and II.

Portraits.

"2,

2s.

26

List

of Books

Published

by
Biographical. By
Bar' and

PKESTWICH.
GRACE,
Memoir

Essays: Descriptive and

Lady PRF.STWICH, Author
E. of MILNK. 'The Harbour With

by her sister,LOUISA

Illustrations.

'Enga.1 With a Demy Svo, 10s. 6d.

PKESTWICH.
D.C.L., F.R.S.
Written
and

Life and

Letters

of Sir
of

Joseph Prestwich, M.A.,

in

Formerly Professor Edited by his WIFE.

Geology

With

Portraits

the University of Oxford. other and Illustrations.

Demy

Svo, 21s.

PRINGLE.

The

Live
Edition.

Stock
Revised

of the
and Edited

Farm.
by JAMES

By

ROBERT

O.
Crown

PRINGLE. Third Svo, 7s. 6d.

MACDONALP.

PUBLIC
from

GENERAL
1707 to

STATUTES STATUTES
OF. Published

AFFECTING
and

SCOTLAND
3 vols.

1847,with Chronological Table

Annually,

Index.

large Svo, "3,

3s.

PUBLIC PULLIN.
PULLIN

GENERAL
COLLECTION

AFFECTING
with General Index.

SCOTLAND, By By
A. W.
8vo, 6s.

Talks

with

Old
With

English Cricketers.
Portraits. Crown

("Old Ebor").

numerous

RANJITSINHJI.

The

Jubilee

Book

of Cricket.

PRINCE

RANJITSINHJI. LUXE. EDITION DE bound handsomely

hand-made Limited to 350 Copies, printed on paper, and in buckram. Crown 4to, with 22 Photogravures and 85 Each copy signed by Prince Ranjitsinhji. Price "5, 5s. net. full-pagePlates. 106 Medium EDITION. PAPER FINE Svo, with Photogravure Frontispiece and 25s. net. full-pagePlates on art paper. Sixth Edition. 107 full-page Illustrations, With EDITION. Large POPULAR
crown

Svo, 6p.
EDITION.

SIXPENNY

With

selection of the Illustrations.

RANKIJS. A Handbook

of the Church
An

of Scotland.
entirelyNew
and much

By JAMES
the Devout

RANKIN,
Crown

D.D., Minister of Muthill. Svo. with 2 Maps, 7s. Gd,

Enlarged Edition.

The The

Worthy Communicant.
vance

A
Limp

Guide
on

to

Obser

of the

Lord's

Supper.
of

cloth, Is. 3d.

Young
mandments,

Churchman.
the Means

Lessons

the

Creed, the Com Paper Cover, 2d.

Memoir
of Rev.

Grace, and the Church.

Limp cloth, Is. 3d.

RANKINE.

25th Edition. Lessons. First Communion A Hero of the Dark Continent.

of Scotland Wm. Affleck Scott,M. A., M.B., C.M., Church Missionary at Blantyre, Africa. British Central By W. HENRY RANKINE, B.D., Minister at Titwood. Crown With a Portrait and other Illustrations. Cheap Edition. Svo, 2s.

ROBERTSON.
The

Poetry and
1893-94.

the

Religion of the

Psalms.

The

Croall
Languages

ROBERTSON, D.D., Professor By Lectures, in the University of Glasgow. Demy Svo, 12s.
JAMES

of Oriental

The

Early Religionof Israel. As

Critical Historians. and Modern Edition. Crown Svo, 10s. 6d.

set forth by Biblical Writers Being the Baird Lecture for 1888-89. Fourth

ROBINSON. RONALDSHAY.
the
In EARL 1 vol.
OF

Wild

Traits

in

Tame

Animals.

Being
With

some

in Evolution. Studies Familiar By Louis ROBINSON, M.D. T. DADD. Demy Svo, 6s. bv STEPHEN Cheaper Edition.

Illustrations

Sport and Politics under

RONALDSHAY,
on 10

an

Eastern

Sky.
and

By
Maps.

F.R.G.S.

With

numerous

Illustrations

royal Svo.

[In the press.

ROPER.
Dorado.

A
Canada/

Claim
By
EDWARD

Klondyke.
A

A Romance
of
'

of the Arctic
and Trail

El

"fec. With

ROPER, F.R.G.S., Author Full-page Illustrations.

By Track

through

Crown

Svo, 6s.

ROSSLYN.
the Boer

Twice
War. Edition. Post

Captured.
Svo,
10s. 6d.

Record
OF

of Adventure
ROSSLYN. With

during

By the Right Hon.

the EARL

60 Illustrations.

Third

William

Blackwood

"

Sons.

27

RUTLAND. Notes
G.C.B.

of

an

Irish Tour
MANNERS).

in 1846.
New

By the DUKE
Crown

OF

RUTLAND,
Pitt
With

(LORD JOHN

Edition.

8vo, 2s. 6d.

Correspondence
and

between
of

the

Right Honble.
of

William

Duke Introductory Note

Charles

Rutland,

by JOHN

Lord-Lieutenant RUTLAND. DUKK OF

Ireland, 1781-1787.
6d

8vo, 7s

RUTLAND.
The Collected
and

Writingsof Janetta,Duchess
2 vols.

of Rutland.
a

With

Portrait

Illustrations.

post 8vo,

15s. net.

Impressions
Some
of

of

Bad-Homburg.

Comprising

Short

Account

of Germany under of the Women's the Red Cross. Associations RUTLAND Crown OF (LADY JOHN MANNERS). Svo, Is. ud.

By the DUCHESS

Personal

Recollections of the Later

Sixth Edition.
6d.

Years

of the

Earl

Beaconsfield, K.G.

Employment
Some of the
Recreation

of Women
and

in the Public Service. 6d. Advantages of Easily Accessible Reading

Free Libraries. Edition. Crown With Remarks
on

and
Main

Rooms

Starting

and

Second taining them. Sequel to Rich Men's Svo, 2s. fid. Papers. Crown Aims Crown

Svo, Is.

Dwellings, acd
of

other

Occasional

Encouraging Experiences
of

Reading

and

Recreation
Institutions,

Rooms,
"c
,

Guilds, Nottingham

Social

Guide, Existing

"c

Svo, Is.

SAINTSBURY.
A

History of Criticism
the

and

LiteraryTaste

in

Europe.

From

Present Day. By GEORGE SAINTSBURY, M.A. (Oxon.), (Aberd.),Professor of Rhetoric and English Literature in the Univer In 3 vols. demy Svo. Criti Vol. I." Classical and Medieval sity of Edinburgh. cism. 16s. net. Vol. II." From the Renaissance to the Decline of Eighteenth Century Orthoto

Earliest Hon. LL.D.

Texts

the

Matthew

Arnold.

"Modern
Crown

English Writers."
and
2s.

By GEORGE
in

SAINTSBURY, M.A., Professor University. Second Edition.

of Rhetoric

Svo,

English 6d.'

Literature

Edinburgh

The
and

Flourishing of Romance
13th

Centuries). "Periods
5s. net.

of
"

and the Rise of Allegory (12th Crown European Literature." Svo, 5s. net,

The SCOTT.

Earlier Renaissance.
Crown

Periods

of

European Literature."
SCOTT. New Edition. SCUDAand

Svo,

Tom
With
19

Cringle's Log. By MICHAEL

Crown

Full-page Illustrations.

Svo, 3s. 6d.

SCUDAMORE.
MORE.

Belgium and
With Illustrations.

the
crown

Belgians. By CYRIL
Svo, 6s.

Square

SELKIRK.
Esthetics and

Poems.
of Modern

By J. B. SELKIRK, Author
Poetry,1'Bible
Truths with

of

'

Ethics

"c. Shakespearian Parallels,' *Jew Enlarged Edition. Crown Svo, printed on antique paper, 6s. Manual of the Acts relating to Education in ScotbKLLARS land- By J- EDWARD Ninth Edition. GRAHAM, B. A. Oxon., Advocate. 8vo,12s.6d.

Scottish
German

Philosophy.
Answers
to in

Comparison

of

the

Scottish

and

Edinburgh. By Logic and Metaphysics

8vo, 5s,

Hume. Balfour ANDREW SETH (A. S.

Edinburgh

Philosophical Lectures University of of Pringle Pattison, LL.D.), Professor Crown University. Third Edition.

Lectures. Hegelianismand Personality.Balfour Philosophical

Second Series. Second Edition. Crown

8vo,

5s.

28

List

of Books

Published

by

SETH Man's Two

Place in the Lectures A

on

Cosmos, and other Essays. Second Edition,

[In the press.

Enlarged.

In 1 vol. po't 8vo.

Theism.

Delivered
of Princeton

on

the occasion

of the

Sesquicenteunial Celebration

University. Crown
of

8vo, 2s. 6d.

SETH. SIMPSON.

BY JAMES Study of Ethical Principles.

University
a

SETH, M.A.,
Fourth Edi

Professor of Moral Philosophy in the tion. Revised. Post 8vo, 7s. 6d.

Edinburgh. or,

The

Wild

Rabbit

in

New

Aspect;

Rabbit-

A book for Landowners, Sportsmen, Land Agents, Farmers, of Recent A Record Holders. Gamekeepers, and Allotment Experiments con ducted on the Estate of the Right Hon. the Earl of Wharncliffe at Wortley Hall. Second Edition, Enlarged. Small crown By J. SIMPSON. 8vo, 5s.

Warrens

that Pay.

SIMPSON. SINCLAIR.
Mr and
3s. 6d.

on Side-Lights

Siberia.

Some

Siberian Iron Road: B.Sc. With numerous

The Prisons and Exile System. Illustrations and a Map. Demy

of the Great account By J. T. SIMPSON, M.A.,

8vo, 16s.

Mrs

Nevill Tyson.

By

MAY

SINCLAIR.

Crown

8vo,

Audrey
SINJOHN.
Crown

Craven. A Man
Author

Second Edition. Crown 8vo, 6s. of Devon, and other Sketches.

of 'Villa

By

JOHN

SIKJOHN,

Rubein,'

'

Jocelyn,' 'From

the

Four

Winds,' "c.

8vo, 6s.

SKELTON.
The Table-Talk of

Shirley. By Sir JOHN

Essays
Post Second
of

SKELTON, K.C.B.,
With of Illustra Stuart.

LL.D., Author of "The Revised and Enlarged

Shirley.1 With

Frontispiece. Sixth Edition,

8vo, 7s. 6d.

The

Table-Talk
Two

of

Shirley. Second
Edition. Post

Series.
8vo, 10s. net.

tions.

Volumes.

Maitland
A

of

Lethington
Limited

History.

the ; and Edition, with Portraits.

Scotland
Demy

Mary

28s. net. 8vo, 2 vols.,

The

Handbook

of Public Health.

A New

Edition, Revised

by

JAMES

PATTEN MACDOUOALL, Advocate, Secretary of the Local Government Board for Scotland, for Scotland, Joint- Author of 'The Parish Council Guide and ABU Board for Scotland. Chief Clerk of the Local Government AH MURRAY, Part I." The Public Health In Two Parts. 8vo. Crown (Scotland) Act, 1897, with Notes. 3s. 6d. net. Part II. Circulars of the Local Government [In preparation. Board, "c.
"

The

Local
Health.
A

Government

(Scotland)Act

in Relation

to

Public

Medical Officers, Handy Guide for County and District Councillors, With Second Edition. of Parochial Boards. Sanitary Inspectors,and Members Preface on appointment of Sanitary Officers. Crown a new 8vo, 2s.

SMITH.
ture."

The

Transition

Period.
SMITH. Crown

"

Periods

of

European Litera By Lieutenant-

By G. GREGORY

8vo, 5s. net.

SMITH.

Retrievers,and

how

to

Break

them.

Colcnel Sir HENRY With an Introduction by Mr S. E. SHIRLEY, SMITH, K.C.B. the of the Kennel President Dedicated Club. by special permission to H.R.H. of Cornwall Duke and York. New Edition, enlarged. With additional Illus trations. Crown 8vo. 2s.

SNELL.

The
Literature."

Fourteenth
By
on F. J. SNELL.

Century.
Crown

"Periods LISLE

of SOLBE.

European English
Is.

8vo, 5s. net.

SOLBE.

Hints
International

Hockey.
:

By

F. DE
With

Team

1897, 1898, 1899, 1900.

Diagrams.

Fcap. 8vo,
"

"SON A." OF THE MARSHES, From Spring to Fall ; or, When

THE

Life Stirs.
Crown
:

By
Wild

SON

OF

MARSHES."
an

Cheap
Edited

Uniform

Edition.

8vo,

3s. 6d.

Within

Hour

of London
by J. A. OWEN.

Town

Among

Birds

and

their Haunts.

Cheap Uniform

Edition.

Cr. 8vo, 3s. 6d.

William

Blackwood

"

Sons.

29

"SON'
With On

A." OF THE MARSHES, and by the Woodlanders

Crown

the

Tide.

Cheap
Crown

Uniform

Edition.

8vo,

3s. 6d.

Surrey Hills. Cheap Uniform Edition. Annals of a FishingVillage. Cheap Uniform

8vo, 3s. 6d.

8vo, Ss. 6d. Edition. Crown

Fellow

SORLEY.

The

Ethics
1884.

of Naturalism.
By
W. R.

Being the Shaw

ship Lectures, bridge Professor

of Moral

SORLEY, M.A., Fellow of Trinity College, CamCrown Philosophy, University of Aberdeen. 8vo, 6s.

SPROTT.
The The

Worship
GEORGE W.

and

Offices of the
of North

Church
Berwick.

of Scotland.
Crown

By
Illus

SPROTT, D.D., Minister

8vo, 6s.

Book
monly

of Common
as

Order
Knox's

of the Church
With Historical

of

Scotland,com
and

known

John

Liturgy.

Introduction

trative Notes.

Crown

8vo, 4s. 6d. net.

Scottish
an

Liturgies of the Reign of James

and Notes. Crown

VI.

Edited,with
Books.

Introduction

Svo, 4s. net.

STEEVENS.

Things Seen
late G.

and Impressions of Men, Cities,

By the

With Memoir Edited W. STEEVENS. a by G. S. STREET. by W. E. Edi HENLEY, and a Photogravure reproduction of Collier's Portrait. Memorial Crown tion. Svo, 6s.

From

Capetown
Crown

to

Lady smith, and Egypt in

Memorial
to

1898.

Memorial

Edition.

Svo, 6s.

In India,

With The

With Kitchener
Edition.

Map.
Crown

Khartum.
8vo, 6s.

Edition. With 8

Crown

Svo, 6s.
and Plans. Svo, 6s. Crown

Maps

Memorial

Land
8vo, 6s.

Glimpses

Edition. Crown Memorial of the Dollar. Memorial Nations. Edition. of Three

Monologues of the Dead. Memorial Edition. Crown Svo, 3s. 6d. With 4 Maps. Cheap Edition. With the Conquering Turke
Crown

Svo, 6s,

From

Capetown
War.

to

Ladysmith
Edited

An

Unfinished
With

Record
Maps.

of the
Crown Svo,

South African 3s. 6d.

by

VERNON

BLACKBURN.

STEPHENS. The Book

of the Farm
Ploughman,

detailingthe Labours
Shepherd, Hedger,

of the

Farmer,

Field-Worker, Illustrated with numerous Portraits of Animals and Engravings and Cattle-man. Plans of Farm of Implements, and Edition. Buildings. Fourth Revised, and in great part Re-written, by JAMES MACDONALD, F.R.S.E., Secretary Highland and Complete in Six Divisional Volumes, Agricultural Society of Scotland. in cloth, each 10s. 6d., or handsomely bound, in 8 volumes, with leather bound back and gilttop, "3, 3s. Farm-Steward,

Farm-Labourer,

Catechism
by JAMES

of Practical
MACDONALD,

Agriculture.
With
numerous

22d

Thousand.

Revised
Crown

F.R.S.E.

Illustrations.

8vo, Is.

The
and

Book

of Farm

Implements Fungi.
of

and

Machines.
STEPHENS.

By J. SLIGHT
Large 8vo, "2, 2s.

R. SCOTT

BUKN, Engineers. Edited

by HENRY

STEVENSON.
JOHN of Scotland.

British
STEVENSON,
Author Vols. I. and

(Hymenomycetes.)
Hon. Scotica,' Sec.

By

Rev!

'Mycologia

II.,post Svo, with

Cryptogamic Society price 12s. 6d. net each. Illustrations,

STEWART.
10

Haud

Immemor.
arid

Reminiscences
By CHARLES

of

Legal and
STEWART. With

Social Life in

Edinburgh Photogravure Plates.

London, 1850-1900. Royal Svo, 7s. 6d

30
STEWAKT
Matron

List of Books

Published

by

AND
of St

CUFF.

Practical

Nursing. By ISLA STEWART,

F.R.C.S.,
London.
3s. 6d. net.

E. CUFF, M.D., and HERBERT Bartholomew's Hospital, London; Fever Medical Hospital, Tottenham, Superintendent North-Easteru 8vo. Vol. I. Second Edition. In 2 vols. crown With Diagrams.

STODDART.
M. STODDART.

John

Stuart

Blackie

Biography.
Crown

By ANNA

POPULAR

EDITION, with Portrait.

8vo, 6s.

STORMONTH.

Dictionary of the English Language, Pronouncing, Etymo

logical,and
STORMONTH. Revised Explanatory. By the Rev. JAMES New and Cheaper Edition, with Rev. P. H. PHELP. Library Edition. 18s. net. ment. Imperial 8vo, handsomely bound in half morocco,

by the Supple

Etymological and
Language.

Pronouncing

Dictionary of the English

in For use Including a very Copious Selection of Scientific Terms. The Pronunciation Schools and Colleges,and as a Book of General Reference. Thirteenth Edition, carefullyrevised by the Rev. P. H. PHELP, M.A. Cantab. Crown 7s. 6d. with Supplement. 8vo, pp. 800.

Handy
WILLIAM

Dictionary. New
BAYNE.

Edition, thoroughly Revised.

in the Scottish
HERBERT

By
(The

16mo, Is.

STORY.
Baird

The

ApostolicMinistry

Church

for 1897). By ROBERT Scot., Principal of the University of Assembly, and Chaplain to the Queen. Lecture

STORY, D.D. (Edin.), F.S.A. Glasgow, Principal Clerk of the General Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d.

STORY.
Poems.

By

W.

W.

Story, Author

of

'

Roba

di Roma,' "fec. 2

vols. 7s. 6d.

A Summer Fiammetta. Idyl. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d. in a Studio. Conversations 2 vols. crown 8vo, 12s. 6d. in Art and Letters. Crown Excursions 8vo, 7s. 6d. Later A Poet's Portfolio : ? Readings. 18mo, 3s. 6d.

STRACHEY.
By Sir EDWARD 4s. fid.net.

Talk

at

Country
Bart. With
a

House.

Fact

and

Fiction.
Crown

STRACHEY,

portraitof the Author.

8vo,

TAYLOR.

The

Story

of

my

Life.
Confessions

By

the

late
"c., "c.
Crown

Colonel
Edited

MEADOWS TAYLOR, Author and New his Daughter.

of 'The

Cheaper

of a Thug,' Edition, being the Fourth.

by

8vo, 6s.

THOMSON.

Handy

Book

of the

Flower- Garden

Being Practical Direc

of Plants in Flowertions for the Propagation, Culture, and Arrangement all the year round. With Gardens THOMSON, Engraved Plans. By DAVID Fourth of Buccleuch, K.T., at Drumlanrig. Gardener the Duke to his Grace and Cheaper Edition. Crown 8vo, 5s.

The

Handy
series

Book

of Fruit-Culture
Practical Treatises
on

under

Glass

Being

the Cultivation and Forcing of Pines, With Engravings Vines, Peaches, Figs, Melons, Strawberries, and Cucumbers. Crown Second of Hothouses, "c. 8vo, 7s. 6d. Edition, Revised and Enlarged. of Elaborate

THOMSON.
Grape Vine.

Practical
By WILLIAM

Treatise
Tweed

on

the and

Cultivation
Tenth Edition.

of the
8vo, 5s.

THOMSON,

Vineyards.

THOMSON.
Directions THOMSON.

Cookery
for the

for

the
of

Sick

Convalescent.

With

Preparation Fcap. 8vo, Is. 6d.

Poultices, Fomentations, Ac.

By BARBARA

THORBURN.
Civil

Asiatic

Neighbours.
'

By S. S. THORBURN, Bengal

Leslie: of 'Bannu; Afghan Frontier,' 'David or, Our Service, Author and A Story of the Afghan Frontier,' Musalmans Money-Lenders in the Panjab.' With Two Maps. Demy 8vo, 10s, 6d. net.

William

Blackwood

"

Sons.

31

TIELE.

Elements
logical.
Part II.
"

of the Science

of

Religion. Part

I."

Morpho

Outological. Being the Gifford Lectures delivered before the By C. P. TIELE, Theol. D., Litt.D. (Bouon.), University of Edinburgh in 1890-98. Hon. M.R.A.S., "c., Professor of the Science of Religion,in the University of
In 2 vols. post 8vo. 7s. 6d. net. each.

Leiden.

TRANSACTIONS
TURAL

OF
SOCIETY
OF

THE
SCOTLAND.

HIGHLAND
Published

AND

AGRICUL
5s.

annually, price

The Mona

Way
tion.

of

Escape.
Second

Novel. Student.

By GRAHAM
Crown

TR

AVERS

(Mar
Edi

garet Todd, M.D.)

Crown

Impression.

Svo,

Os.

Maclean, Medical
Svo, 6s.

Novel.

Fourteenth

Cheaper

Edition, 2s. 6d.

Windyhaugh.
Fellow

TROTTER.

Crown Fourth Edition. Svo, 6s. Fourth Edition. Travellers. Crown 8vo, 6s. of Light Horse. A Leader Life of Hodson
'

of

Horse. of Life of John Nicholson By Captain L. J. TROTTER, Author With 2 Maps. Soldier and Statesman." a Portrait and Demy Svo 10s
Hodson's

TEYON. TULLOCH,
Rational

Life

of Vice-Admiral

Sir

George Tryon,
Cheap Edition.

K.C.B.
Portrait

By
and

FITZGIRALD. Rear- Admiral C. C. PENROSE Illustrations. numerous Demy Svo, 6s.

With

Theology

and

Christian

Philosophy in England
2 vols.

in

the Seventeenth

lege in the Ordinary in Scotland.

Century. By JOHN TULLOCH, D.D., Principal of St Mary's Col University of St Andrews, and one of her Majesty's Chaplains in
Second Edition.

8vo, 10s.

Modern

Luther,
Memoir
Author

Theories in Philosophyand Religion. Svo, 15s. of the Reformation. Third and other Leaders
Crown

Edi

tion,Enlarged.

Svo, 3s. 6d.

of

D.D, Principal Tulloch,

of

LL.D.
and

By Mrs OLIPHANT,
Cheaper
Edition,

of ' Life Portrait,7s. 6d.

Edward

Irving.' Third

Svo, with

TWEEDIE.
By

The

Arabian

Horse:

His

Country

and

People.

Major -General W. TWEEDIE, C.S.I., Bengal Staff Corps; for many years K.B.M.'s Consul-General, Baghdad, and Political Resident for the Government In one Plates vol. royal 4to, with Seven Coloured of India in Turkish Arabia. and a Map of the Country. Price "3, 3s. net. and other Illustrations,

VANDERVELL.
Months
DERVELL.

A
before

Shuttle
a

of

an

Empire's Loom
Cargo-Boat. By

; or,
HARRY

Five
VAN

the Mast on Second Edition.

Modern Steam Crown Svo, 6s.

VEITCH.
Main and

The
Features

History and Poetry of

and Relations.

the Scottish Border

VEITCH,
and

their
Logic
voi*.

By

JOHN

Rhetoric, University of Glasgow. ilflmy Svo. 1 fis.

New

LL.D., Professor Enlarged Edition.

of
2

VETCH.
Gerald

Life, Letters, and

Diaries

of

Lieut. -General

Sir

Graham, V.C., G.C.B., R.E. By Colonel R. 11. VETCH, C.B., late Royal Engineers. With Portraits, Plans, and his PrincipalDespatches. Demy Svo, 21s.

WAGE.

and Agnosticism. Reviews Christianity

Attacks
on

of

some

Recent

the Christian Faith. WAGE, D.D., late Principal of King's By HENRY Second College,London ; Preacher of Lincoln's Inn ; Chaplain to the Queen Post Svo, 10s. Gd. net. Edition.

WADDELL. Old An
1850. Small

Kirk
and

Chronicle
Whitekirk,
P. in

Being

History
From

of

Auldhame,
Records,
1615 to

Tyninghame,
By

East

Lothian.

Session

Rev.

HATELY
200

Paper Edition Price,"1, 10s.

an

Parish. B.D., Minister of the United WADDELL, Large Paper Edition, 50 Copies. Copies. Price "1.

as Christianity

Ideal.

Crown

Svo,

3s. 6d.

32

Books

Published

by

William

Blackwood

"

Sons.

WARREN'S

(SAMUEL)

WORKS

:"

2s. Diary of a Late Physician. Cloth,2s. 6d. ; boards, Ten Thousand A- Year. 2s. 6d. Cloth,3s. 6d. ; boards, Intellectual and and Then. The Lily and the Bee. Now
Moral

Development of the Present

:

Age.

4s. 6d.

Essays WATSON.
upon

Imaginative,and Juridical. Critical,

Sir

5s

Sergeant.
By W.

Story of Adventure
Crown

that ensued

"The

'45."

L. WATSON.

8vo, 6s.

WENLEY.
WHIBLEY.
CHARLES

Aspects of Pessimism. Thackeray.

WHIBLEY.
In 1 vol.

By R. M. WENLEY, M.A., English Writers."

WHITE.

D.Sc., D.Phil.,Professor of Philosophy in the" Universityof Michigan, U.S.A. Crown 8vo, 6s.

"Modern
crown

By

8vo.

[In the press.

WHITE. WHITE.

Mountains
8vo, Cs.

of

Necessity. By HESTEE
Survey of the United
Survey.

Crown

The
Colonel
Onwn

Ordnance Lucian's

Kinsrdom.
A

By
of

T. P. WHITE, 8vo, S"

R.E., of the Ordnance

Popular Account.

WILLSON. WILSON.
Works

Wonderland.

Being

Translation
With
numerous

the 'Vera Historia.' By ST J. B. WYNNE WILLSON, M.A. Illustrations by A. Payne Garnett. Fcap. 4to,6s.

of Professor

Wilson.
crown

Edited
8vo, "2, 8s.

by his Son

-in

-Law,

Professor FERRIER.

12 vols.

Jacket. 2 vols., 8s. Christopherin his SportingIsle of Palms,City of the Plague,and other Poems. 4s. Shadows Scottish and of other Tales. and 4s. Lights Life, Critical and 16s. Essays, Imaginative. 4 vols., The Noctes Ambrosianse. 4 vols., 16s. Homer and his Translators, and the Greek Drama. Crown
8vo, 4s.

WORSLEY. Homer's
Edition.

Odyssey.
Iliad.

Translated
STANHOPE

into

English Verse
Now and

in

the

Spenserian Stanza.

By PHILIP

WORSLHY, M.A.

Cheaper

Post 8vo, 7s. 6d. net.

Homer's
ington.

Translated
8vo, 21s.

by P. S. Worsley and Prof. ConA Manual of Private

2 vols. crown

WOTHERSPOON.

Kyrie Eleison (" Lord, have Mercy ").

Prayers. With
of St Oswald's,

Notes and Edinburgh.

Additional Matter. By H. J. WOTHERSPOON, M.A., Cloth, red edges,Is. net ; limp leather, Is. (id. net.

Before YATE.

and

After.

Being Part I. of 'Kyrie Eleison.' Cloth, By Lieut.-Col. C. E. YATE, C.S.I.,

limp, 6d. net.

Khurasan
C.M.G., F.R.G

and Sistan.

and Chief 8.,Indian Staff Corps, Agent to the Governor-General for Baluchistan, Commissioner late Agent to the Governor-General of India, and Her Britannic Majesty's Consul-General for Khurasan and Sistau. With Map and 25 Illustrations, and Portraits. Demy 8vo, 21s.

ZACK. On

Trial.
Crown

By ZACK.

Life is
6/02.

Life, and
8vo, 6s

Second Edition. Crown 8vo, 6s. other Tales and Episodes. Second Edition.

f\