Organ Systems Form meets Function

The organ systems of the human body and other vertebrates help to maintain balance and perform a variety of functions. The Body Worlds exhibit of preserved human bodies and allows visitors to view the amazing human body in never before seen ways. This unit will introduce the major parts and functions of each of the body systems.

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Levels of Organization
The levels of organization in a multicellular organism include cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems Cells the basic unit in living things; specialized cells perform particular functions (EX heart cell) Tissues are groups of similar cells that perform a single function (EX connecting muscle to bone) An Organ is a group of tissues that work together to perform a complex function (EX Eyes for sight) An organ system is a group of organs that perform closely related functions (EX the digestive system)
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Cells
Cells can be specialized (have a certain function Function = job Function is related to the cell structure Structure = how parts of the cell are put together Shape Material its made from Structure of a brain cell is different from muscle cell Can you tell which cells are neurons, fat, leukocytes, bone (osteocytes, skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, cubodial (roll up to make tubes)

Types of Tissues There are four basic types of tissues in the human body
Epithelial tissue - Glands and tissues that cover interior and exterior body surfaces Connective tissue - Provides support for the body and connects its parts Nervous tissue - Transmits nerve impulses throughout the body Muscle Tissue - Along with bones, helps the body to move

Examples of Epithelium Tissue

Examples of Connective Tissue

Examples of Nervous Tissue

Examples of Muscle Tissue

Organs

 There are 11 organ systems of the human body that work together to maintain homeostasis in the body Homeostasis is the process by which organisms keep internal conditions relatively stable despite changes in external environments
Muscular system Skeletal system Nervous system Circulatory system Respiratory system Endocrine system Lymphatic/Immune system Digestive system Excretory system Integumentary system Reproductive system
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Organ Systems

Muscular System
Function:
Works with the skeletal system to produce voluntary movement; helps to circulate blood and move food through the digestive system
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Major Structures:
Skeletal Muscles usually attached to bones and help with voluntary movement Smooth Muscles found in the walls of hollow structures (stomach, blood vessels, intestines) and NOT under voluntary control Cardiac Muscles found only in the heart and NOT under voluntary control

Works Closely With: the skeletal system to move the body, with the help of signals from the nervous system

Organization of the Skeletal Muscle

Muscle Anatomy
If you were to take one whole muscle and cut through it, you would find the muscle is covered in a layer of connective muscle tissue known as the Epimysium that protects the muscle from friction against other muscles and bones.

Organization of the Skeletal Muscle

Surrounding the muscle fiber is the Sarcolemma = fibers cell membrane then the Sarcoplasm = cells cytoplasm, containing Glycogen, Fats and Mitochondria for energy. Each muscle fiber itself contains cylindrical organelles known as Myofibrils. Myofibrils made up of bundles of Actin and Myosin proteins which run the length of the muscle fiber and are Important in muscle contraction known as the sliding filament theory.

Muscles in Action

SKELETAL SYSTEM
Three types of Skeletal systems are:

Hydrostatic

Exoskeleton

Endoskeleton

Skeletal System

Function: Supports the body; locomotion of voluntary muscles, protection of organs; helps to maintain calcium levels; provides a site for blood cell formation Major Structures: Bones, joints, cartilage, ligaments, tendons Types of Cells: Osteoblasts build and produce new bone Osteoclasts break down bone Bone Marrow within the hollow center of bones, produces red and white blood cells and platelets Works Closely With: the 206 bones in the adult body works with the muscular system to move the body

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Skeletal System
In the outline of the Homo sapien on your Skeletal Systems page draw and label the following structures: clavicle, femur, fibula, humerus, patella, pelvis, radius, ribs, scapula, skull, sternum, tibia and ulna.

Work on your worksheets!

Nervous System
Function: Recognizes and coordinates the bodys responses to changes in its internal and external environment Major Structures: Central Nervous System = brain & spinal cord and Peripheral Nervous System = cranial nerves, ganglia and spinal nerves Types of Cells: Neurons send the messages of the nervous system though electrical impulses Works Closely With: sensory receptors and the five senses (sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch) to interpret stimuli from the environment

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Central and Peripheral Systems

Central Nervous System (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord.
- sensory information goes down the dorsal roots - motor information goes down the ventral roots to the muscles and glands
dorsal root ganglion (ganglia, plural) "Gray matter" in middle = cell bodies "White matter" surrounding = insulated axons

Central and Peripheral Systems

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) receives signals from the spinal cord
and transmits the message by way of peripheral nerves. Peripheral nerves in the cervical region serve the neck and arms; those in the thoracic region serve the trunk; those in the lumbar region serve the legs; and those in the sacral region serve the bowels and bladder. The PNS consists of somatic nervous system that connects voluntary skeletal muscles with cells specialized to respond to sensations, such as touch and pain autonomic nervous system is made of neurons connecting the CNS with internal organs. It is divided into - sympathetic nervous system which prepares the body for action: fight or flight -parasympathetic nervous system helps to restore the body, build up energy & supplies needed in the future, and relax

Typical Neuron and Synapse

Typical Neuron and Synapse cont

Read the excerpts from the article entitled Neuron and very briefly describe the four steps of a nerve impulse down a neuron.

Reflex Arc
A reflex arc is the pathway that a nerve reflex, such as the knee jerk reflex, follows. A tap on the knee stimulates sensory receptors, generating a nerve signal. The signal travels along a nerve to the spinal cord. In the spinal cord, the signal is transmitted from the sensory nerve to a motor nerve. The motor nerve sends the signal back to a muscle in the thigh. The muscle contracts, causing the lower leg to jerk upward.

The entire reflex occurs without involving the brain.

Place the number next to the FUNCTION correct part Occipital Lobe Center for processing visual and spatial information Medulla Temporal Lobe Limbic System Thalamus Cerebral Cortex Parietal Lobe Hypothalamus Cerebellum The Frontal Lobes Cerebo-spinal Fluid the end of the spinal chord is where many involuntary actions, heart beating, breathing, digestion, are regulated Center for processing auditory and temporal (time-related) information Manages the transition between sleep and arousal Involved in the processing of emotion and strong drives like sex, fear and hunger. A region of high neuron concentration, divided into the following lobes, (one on each side of the brain). Various functions, including processing of physical sensation and new movements. Bottom of parietal lobe contains olfactory bulb, = taste/smell Helps control what information reaches the frontal lobes, regulates flow of consciousness and attention Where information for performing learned movements are stored. Where thought occurs. Both are centers for memory, learning, problem-solving, feeling, awareness, and decision-making. The left side = analytical; right side = "openended" understanding and thinking Produced by glands in the brain to act as a protective cushion.

Circulatory System
Function - Brings oxygen, nutrients, and hormones to cells; fights infection; removes cells wastes; helps to regulate body temperature Major Structures - Heart, vascular system made up of blood vessels (arteries & veins), blood Heart Video Types of Cells Red blood cells transport O2 & CO2 White blood cells fight infection Platelets allow blood to clot and stop bleeding

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Works Closely With: the respiratory system in gas exchange; digestive system to pick up and carry nutrients to the cells of the body the excretory system to filter and clean the blood the endocrine system to deliver hormones

Close Up of a Blood Vessel

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The connective blood vessels of the body carry the cells of the circulatory system The vessels can sometimes become blocked with plaque (fatty buildup) shown in yellow

Sounds of the Circulatory System

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The heart muscle contacts an average of 72 times per minute, sending blood throughout the body through a series of blood vessels. Sound File

Respiratory System
Function: Provides oxygen needed for cellular respiration and removes excess carbon dioxide from the body Major Structures: Upper respiratory tract the nasal cavity, pharynx and larynx Lower respiratory tract the trachea, bronchi and lungs Key Parts: Nose and nasal cavities, mouth, larynx, trachea, bronchi and their branches, diaphragm, and the alveoli Works Closely With: the circulatory system in gas exchange and the muscular system for inhalation and exhalation.

Parts of the Respiratory System

With each breath, air enters our body through the air passageways and fills up our lungs.

Within each lung, the tiny alveoli are surrounded by blood vessels and oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse in and out of the vessels.

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Digestive System
Function: Converts foods into simpler molecules that can be used by the cells of the body; absorbs nutrients; eliminates fecal matter Major Structures: Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, rectum Key Parts: Villi folded structures within the walls of the intestines which allow for nutrient exchange Works Closely With: circulatory system to deliver nutrients to the cells of the body

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Close UP of Digestive Villi

The villi projections allow as much of the nutrients in the digestive system to move in to the circulatory system, providing energy for cells.

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Digestive Enzymes
The pH in the human digestive tract varies greatly. The pH of saliva is usually between 6.5 - 7.5. After we chew and swallow food it enters the stomach, pH 4.0 - 6.5. This is where "predigestion" occurs. Just before leaving the stomach, near the pyloric sphincter, hydrochloric acid (HCI) and pepsin are secreted reaching a pH between 1.5 - 4.0. Food mixes with these juices and enters the small intestine where the pH changes to 7.0 8.5. This is where 90% of the nutrients are absorbed and the waste products are passed out through the large intestine, pH 4.0 - 7.0.

Excretory System
Function: Eliminates urine and other byproducts from the body while maintaining homeostasis Major Structures: Skin, lungs, kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra Key Parts: Kidneys remove waste products from the blood Bladder collects urine (wastes filtered through the kidney) Works Closely With: the circulatory system to filter and clean the blood

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Fighting the Enemy Within!

phagocytic leukocyte

Immune / Lymphatic System

AP Biology

lymphocytes attacking cancer cell

lymph system

2007-2008

 Attack from outside

Why an immune system?

lots of organisms want you for lunch! animals are a tasty nutrient- & vitamin-packed meal animals must defend themselves against invaders (pathogens) Viruses, bacteria, Fungi, Protists cancers (abnormal body cells)

Attack from inside

Function

protects body from disease collects fluid lost from blood vessels &
returns it to the circulatory system
Mmmmm, Whats in your lunchbox?

AP Biology

Lymph system
Major Structures:

Works closely with the

circulatory system to fight infection and collect excess fluids

lymph vessels
(intertwined amongst blood vessels)

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lymph node

Development of Red & White blood cells

Red blood cells

inflammatory response

fight parasites

Leukocytes Lymphocytes
AP Biology
White blood cells develop into macrophages short-lived phagocytes 60-70% WBC

Innate vs Acquired Immunity

INNATE
present before any exposure to pathogens effective from the time of birth largely nonspecific and slow to respond to specific microbes External: Skin, Mucous membranes, Secretions Internal: Phagocytic Cells, Antimicrobial proteins, Inflammatory response and Natural Killers

ACQUIRED

develops only after exposure to microbes, abnormal body cells, toxins or other foreign substances highly specific because Lymphocytes (white blood cells) produce two types of immune responses
Humoral: cells derived from B cells secrete defensive proteins call antibodies Cell-mediated: T cells directly destroy infected body and cancer cells, and foreign tissue

AP Biology

Lines of defense
1st line: Non-specific barriers

broad, external defense

walls & moats

skin & mucous membranes

broad, internal defense
patrolling soldiers

2nd line: Non-specific patrols

leukocytes = phagocytic WBC specific, acquired immunity

elite trained units

3rd line: True immune system

lymphocytes & antibodies

B cells & T cells

Bacteria & insects inherit resistance. Vertebrates

AP Biology

acquire immunity.

1st line: Non-specific External defense

Barrier
skin
Lining of trachea:
ciliated cells & mucus secreting cells

Traps
mucous membranes, cilia,

hair, earwax

Elimination
coughing, sneezing, urination,

diarrhea

Unfavorable pH
stomach acid, sweat, saliva, urine

Lysosome enzyme
AP Biology

digests bacterial cell walls tears, sweat

2nd line: Non-specific patrolling cells bacteria Patrolling cells & proteins

attack pathogens, but dont remember for next time

leukocytes phagocytic white blood cells macrophages, neutrophils,
natural killer cells

macrophage

AP Biology

complement system proteins that destroy cells inflammatory response increase in body temp. (fever) increase capillary permeability attract macrophages

yeast

Inflammatory response (local non

specific trigger when tissue is damaged)

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3rd line: Acquired (active) Immunity B cell Specific defense with memory

lymphocytes
B cells T cells

antibodies
immunoglobulins

Responds to

antigens
cellular name tags specific pathogens specific toxins abnormal body cells (cancer)

AP Biology

Y Y Y Y

Y Y Y Y

antigenbinding site on antibody

antigen

AP Biology

each B cell has ~50,000 antibodies

variable binding region

this is foreigngotcha!

multi-chain proteins binding region matches molecular shape of antigens Y each antibody is unique & specific tagging handcuffs

Proteins that bind to a specific antigen

Antibodies

Y Y Y Y

bone marrow

Lymphocytes
B cells

mature in bone marrow humoral response system

humors = body fluids attack pathogens still circulating

in blood & lymph

produce antibodies Types: Plasma and Memory cells

T cells

mature in thymus cellular response system

recognize and attack invading cells

Types: Helper, Killer and Memory T Cells

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Vaccinations Immune system exposed

to harmless version of pathogen

stimulates B cell system to produce antibodies to pathogen

active immunity

rapid response on future exposure creates immunity without getting disease!

Most successful
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against viruses

April 12, 1955 Jonas Salk Developed first vaccine

1914 1995

against polio
attacks motor neurons

Albert Sabin
1962 oral vaccine AP Biology

Polio epidemics

1994: Americas polio free

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Passive immunity Obtaining antibodies from another

individual

maternal immunity
antibodies pass from mother to baby across

placenta or in mothers milk critical role of breastfeeding in infant health

mother is creating antibodies against pathogens baby
is being exposed to

Injection
injection of antibodies short-term immunity (rabies shot)

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HIV & AIDS Human Immunodeficiency Virus

virus infects helper T cells

helper T cells dont activate rest of immune system:

killer T cells & B cells also destroys helper T cells

AIDS: Acquired ImmunoDeficiency Syndrome

infections by opportunistic diseases death usually from opportunistic infections

AP Biology

pneumonia, cancers

HIV infected T cell

Endocrine System
Function: Controls growth, development, and metabolism; maintains homeostasis Major Structures: Hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenals, pancreas, and gonads (ovaries in females, & testes in males) Key Parts: Hormones chemicals released in one part of the body and travel to affect other parts Works Closely With: the nervous system which controls the release of hormones and the circulatory system to deliver them

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GLAND: Hypothalamus
LOCATION: Ventral part of the forebrain. HORMONE: Secretes releasing or inhibiting hormones that act directly on the tissues of the pituitary gland. FUNCTION: It is the control center for many autonomic functions of the peripheral nervous system. Connections with structures of the endocrine and nervous systems enable the hypothalamus to play a vital role in maintaining homeostasis. As a limbic system structure, it influences various emotional responses.

LOCATION: Bean sized structure that dangles on a slender stalk of tissue at the base of the skull. The gland is divided into two parts: anterior and posterior HORMONE: Secretes hormones that directly regulate many body functions and controls the actions of several other endocrine glands. FUNCTION:
Posterior Oxytocin Contraction of uterus and releases milk Pituitary Antidiuretic (Vasoperssin) Tells kidneys to reabsorb water Growth Protein synthesis and growth in bones Prolactin Production of Breast Milk Anterior FSH (Follicle-stimulating) Stimulates production of ova and sperm Pituitary LH (Luteinizing) Ovaries and testes TSH (Thyroid-stimulating) Stimulates the thyroid gland ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic) Tells adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids

GLAND: Pituitary

GLAND: THYROID & PARATHYROID

LOCATION: Base of neck and wraps around the upper part of the trachea. HORMONE: Thyroid Hormone (Triiodothyronine (T3) and Thyroxine (T4) Calcitonin FUNCTION: Stimulate and maintain Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR), which is the amount of energy the body uses Lowers blood calcium level LOCATION: The four glands are found on the back surface of the thyroid gland. HORMONE: Parathyroid hormone FUNCTION: Raises blood calcium level

GLAND: Pancreas
LOCATION: Just behind the stomach; upper left quadrant
Insulin Glucagon HORMONE:

FUNCTION: Cluster of cells called islets of Langerhans contain beta cells which secrete insulin and lower blood glucose levels and alpha cells which secrete glucagon and raise blood glucose levels

GLAND:
LOCATION:

Adrenal
and an

Two pyramid-shaped structures that sit on top of the kidneys; each gland has an outer part, adrenal cortex, inner part, adrenal medulla Epinephrine and norepinephrine Glucocorticoids and Mineralocorticoids

HORMONE: FUNCTION:

Adrenal Epinephrine Medulla (adrenalin) and Norepinephrine (noradrenalin) Adrenal Aldosterone Cortex (Glucocorticoids

Mineralocorticoids

Raise blood glucose level, increase metabolic activities, constricts some blood vessels; prepares the body for fright, fight or flight Raise blood glucose levels Promote reabsorption of Na+ and excretion of K+ in kidneys

GLAND:
LOCATION: HORMONE: FUNCTION:

Gonads

Female inside pelvis cavity Male outside pelvic cavity Androgens, Estrogen, Progesterone Production of gametes and secretion of sex hormones
Support sperm formation, promote development and maintenance of male secondary sex characteristics Stimulate uterine lining growth, promote development and maintenance of female secondary sex characteristics Promotes uterine lining growth

Testes

Androgen (Testosterone) Estrogen

Ovaries

Progesterone

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Integumentary System
Function: Protection is the most important function. It serves as a barrier against infection and injury Major Structures: Skin, hair, and nails Key Parts: Epidermis outer layer of skin Dermis inner layer of skin Hair protects the skin and filters particles Nails extension of the skin, grow 3 mm per day on average Works Closely With: nervous system through the five senses

Integumentary System cont.

The Skin is the human body's Largest Organ. The word INTEGUMENT comes from a LATIN word that means to COVER. FIVE Other Functions of the Integumentary System
1. Serves as a barrier against infection and injury. 2. Helps to regulate body temperature. 3. Removes waste products from the body. 4. Provides protection against UV radiation from the sun. 5. Produces vitamin D.

The skin contains sensory receptors through which sensations such as pressure, heat, cold, and pain are transmitted to the nervous system.
The skin is made up of two main layers the epidermis and the dermis. Beneath the dermis is a subcutaneous layer of fat.

1. The outer most layer of skin , composed of five layers and four types of cells. 2. Most of the cells of the Epidermis undergo rapid cell division (MITOSIS) and are shed or washed away once every 14 to 28 days. 3. As new cells are produced, they push older cells to the surface of the skin. The older cells become flattened, lose their cellular contents and begin making Keratin. 4. Keratin is a tough fibrous protein and forms the basic structure of hair, nails and calluses. In animals it forms horns, scales, feathers, and quills. 5. The Epidermis contains melanocytes, cells that produce melanin, a dark brown pigment. 6. There are no blood vessel in the epidermis, which is why a small scratch will not cause bleeding.

EPIDERMIS

1. Second layer of skin composed of living cells. 2. Connective tissue layer composed of collagen and elastic fibers, fibroblasts, macrophage and fat cells, hair follicles, glands, nerves and blood vessels. 4. Beneath the Dermis is the Hypodermis, (Subcutaneous layer), a layer of fat and loose connective tissue that insulate the body and acts as an energy reserve. 5. The Dermis contains TWO major types of GLANDS: Sudiferous (sweat) and Sebaceous (oil) Glands. 6. Oil Glands are connected by Tiny Ducts (Exocrine Glands) to Hair Follicles. Sebum coats the surface of the skin and the shafts of hair, preventing excess water loss and lubricating and softening the skin and hair.

DERMIS

HAIR
1. Hair is produced by cells at the base of structures called Hair Follicles. Hair protects and insulates the body. 2. Hair Follicles are tube-like pockets of epidermal cells that extend into the dermis. Tiny Muscle fibers attach to Hair Follicles contract and pull hair
upright when you are cold or afraid, producing Goose Bumps.

3. Individual hairs are actually large columns of dead cells filled with Keratin. 4. Rapid cell growth in the Hair Root causes hair to grow longer. Hair gets its color from Melanin. 5. Hair Follicles are in close contact with Sebaceous Glands.

NAILS
Nails grow from an area of rapidly dividing cells know as the Nail Matrix or Nail Root and is located near the tips of the fingers and toes. Nails rest on a bed of tissue filled with blood vessels, giving the nails a pinkish color. Nails grow at a rate of 0.5 to 1.2 mm per day, with fingernails growing faster than toenails.

Place the number on the diagram on your worksheet

Reproductive Systems
Function: Produces reproductive cells; in females, nurtures and protects developing embryo Major Structures: Testes, epididymis, vas deferens, urethra, and penis (in males); ovaries, Fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina (in females)
fetus at 8 weeks Types of Cells: Sperm Cells male reproductive cells created in the male reproductive system Ova female egg cells created in the female reproductive system Works Closely With: endocrine system to receive sex hormones Slideshow of Conception

Reproductive Anatomy of the Male

The mammalian male reproductive system includes the external genitalia and the internal reproductive organs
The scrotum and the penis are the external components of the reproductive system. The internal reproductive organs consist of the gonads (testes) that produce gametes (sperm cells) and hormones accessory sex glands that secrete products essential to sperm movement A set of ducts that carry the sperm and glandular secretion.

Copyright 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Scrotum - fold of the body wall which aids the

reproductive process in different ways:
Testes develop in the abdomen and descend into the scrotum just before birth. This is important since sperm can not develop at normal body temperature and must be kept approximately 2 C lower.

Internal Male Reproductive Organs

The gonads/testes (singular testis) highly coiled tubules surrounded by layers of connective tissue. These tubules are the seminferous tubules where sperm is formed.

Sperm pass from the seminferous tubules into the epididymis. It takes 20 days for sperms to pass During this passage the sperm become motile and gain the ability to fertilize.

 Sperm are forced through the vas deference (muscular duct running from epididymis and out of the scrotum) around and behind the urinary bladder into the urethra.

The urethra is the tube that: Drains both the excretory and reproductive systems

Runs through the penis and opens to the outside of the body.

Reproductive Anatomy of the Female

External reproductive structures consists of two sets of labia surrounding the clitoris and vaginal opening. Internal reproductive organs consist of a pair of gonads (ovaries) and a system of ducts and chambers.

Copyright 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Fig. 46.9

Ovaries are the female gonads. Located in the abdominal cavity and enclosed in a tough protective capsule. Attached by mesentery to the uterus. Each ovary contains follicles.

 Each follicle consists of one egg cell surrounded by one or more layers of follicle cells. Follicles produce the primary female sex hormones: estrogen Follicle cells nourish and protect the developing egg cell. A woman is born with about 400,000 follicles. Only several hundred of which will release eggs during a females reproductive years.

Starting at puberty and continuing to menopause, in each ovary one follicle matures and releases its egg cell during each menstrual cycle.

Copyright 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 During ovulation, the egg is expelled from the follicle. After ovulation the remaining follicular tissue develops into the corpus luteum. Secretes estrogen and progesterone Maintains the uterine lining during pregnancy. If the egg is not fertilized (pregnancy does not occur) the corpus luteum degenerates and a new follicle matures during the next cycle.
Fig. 46.10
Copyright 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 At ovulation the egg is expelled into the abdominal cavity near the funnel-shaped opening of the oviduct or fallopian tube.
The cilia-lining the oviduct draws in the egg. Cilia convey the egg through the oviduct to the uterus.

The uterus (or Womb) is a thick muscular organ that can expand to accommodate a 4 kg fetus. The inner uterine lining , the Endometrium, is richly supplied with blood vessels

 The remaining female reproductive structures are: Cervix: neck of the uterus, that opens into the vagina.

Vagina: thinwalled chamber that forms the birth canal.