Biology Reviewer Cell Theory 1. All living things are structurally made up of cells.

(Matthias Scheliden, Theodor Schwann) 2. The cell is the fundamental unit of life. ( enry !utrochet) ". #ells come from the division of pre$e%isting cells. (&udolf 'irchow) &o(ert oo)e$ coined the term cell; *nglish +ather of Microscopy Anton 'an ,eeuwenhoe)$ discovered (acteria and other microscopic organisms in rainwater- studied structure of plant and animal cells- +ather of Microscopy +rancesco &edi and ,a..aro Spallan.ani- disproved Theory of Spontaneous /eneration &o(ert 0rown$ discovered nuclei within cells +eli% !u1ardin$ noted that all living things contain a thic) 1elly fluid (sarcode) Matthias Schleiden ((otanist) and Theodor Schwann (.oologist)$ all plants and animals are made up of cells 2ohannes 3ur)in1e$ coined the term protoplasm, the living matter of the cell &udolf 'irchow$ 4omnia cellula e cellula5 or cells come from pre$e%isting cells ,ouis 3asteur$ proof of 'irchow6s Theory of 0iogenesis 7accharias 2anssen$ first compound microscope Microscopy ,ight Microscope$ image is formed (y a(sorption of light in the specimen and its transmission through a set of lenses

a. 0right$field$ (right, lighted microscopic field (. !ar)$field$ (right image of the specimen against a dar) field of view at an o(li8ue angle c. 3hase$contrast$ enhances the density differences in the organelles causing certain structures to appear (righter or dar)er than the others- for o(serving living cells in their natural condition d. !ifferential$interference$contrast$ contrasting (righter or dar)er appearance of various organelles through technical optical methods e. 9mmuno$fluorescent$ certain type of protein can (e determined f. #onfocal$ use laser (eams and special optics for :optical sectioning6- "!

*lectron Microscope$ uses a (eam of electrons and magnetic or electrostatic fields as lenses a. Transmission electron microscope$ a (eam of electrons is aimed through a very thin specimen- magnetic fields (end the (eam of electrons (. Scanning electron microscope$ specimen is thinly coated (y a metal and then (om(arded with electrons +ractionation$ ta)es cells to separate ma1or organelles for the study of their individual functions omogeni.ation$ disruptions of cells Cellular Structure

Three Ma1or 3arts; #ytoplasm$ main meta(olic life activities- largely water- reservoir for the entry and e%it of materials in the cell- consists of; a. A thic), semifluid aggregate of chemical compounds ( cytosol) (. 9nternal mem(rane (cytomembrane) 3rotein$ most a(undant among the organic components of the cytoplasmprovides materials for the growth and development of the cell #ell mem(rane$ outer (oundary of the cell- consists of a dou(le layer of fats or lipid (phospolipid or glycolipid) with scattered proteins- differentially permea(le- has three ma1or functions; a. Separates the contents of the cell from the e%ternal environment (. &egulates the passage of materials into and out of the cell c. Allows communication with other cells <ucleus$ :control center6 of the cell- regulates and coordinates all the activities of the cell- consists of; a. <ucleoplasm$ semifluid medium separated from the cytoplasm (y nuclear mem(rane- consists of nucleoproteins, granules and fi(rils (. <uclear mem(rane$ a dou(le mem(rane, each a phospholipid (ilayer, with nuclear pores c. <uclear pores$ pathways for the e%change of materials (etween the nucleus and the cytoplasm

d. <ucleolus$ suspended in the nucleoplasm- composed of &<A and protein molecules- site where the su(units of ri(osomes are formed e. #hromatin$ composed of !<A- coils and (ecomes condensed into chromosomes =rganelles in the #ytoplasm; Mitochondria$ largest organelle in cell- :powerhouse6 of eu)aryotic cells- sites of cellular respiration- made up of; a. #ristae$ folds- provide more surface area for greater cellular respiratory productivity (. Matri%$ inner cavity into which the cristae pro1ect c. 9ntermem(rane space$ narrow region (etween the inner and outer mem(ranes &i(osomes$ sites of protein synthesis- of two types; a. Bound$ attached to the endoplasmic reticulum- ma)e secretory proteins (. Free$ suspended in the cytosol- produce proteins that are locali.ed in the cytosol

!ifferent )inds of protein; a. #hannel 3rotein$ allows a particular molecule>ion to cross the cell mem(rane freely as it enters>e%its the cell *%. #ystic fi(rosis

(. #arrier 3rotein$ selectively interacts with a specific molecule>ion so that it can cross the cell mem(rane to enter>e%it the celltransports sodium ions and potassium ions across the cell mem(rane- re8uires AT3 energy c. #ell &ecognition 3rotein$ a glycoprotein that identifies the cell *%. M # (ma1or histocompa(ility comple%) d. &eceptor 3rotein$ a protein that is shaped in such a way that a specific molecule can (ind to it *%. 3ygmies are short not (ecause they do not produce growth hormones (ut (ecause their cell mem(rane growth hormone receptions are faulty and cannot interact with growth hormone. e. *n.ymatic 3rotein$ a protein that cataly.es a specific reaction *%. Adenylate cyclase that is involved in meta(olism m&<A copies code of !<A nucleus cytoplasm? t&<A translates message ri(osomes?amino acids protein #ytomem(rane System$ networ) of pathways through which materials flow to the different parts of the cytoplasm- passage for the entry and e%it of certain su(stances in the cell Endoplasmic Reticulum$ transport of lipids and mem(rane proteins- has two )inds; a. &ough *&$ protein synthesis (. Smooth *&$ fat meta(olism- forms vesicles for transporting large molecules to other cell parts

Golgi Apparatus$ named after #amillo /olgi- modifying, sorting and pac)aging macromolecules for secretion or for delivery to other organelles Lysosomes$ produced (y the /olgi apparatus- :digestive sacs6- destruction or repair of defective parts of the cell Peroxisomes$ contain o%idative en.ymes- convert fatty acids into sugar in seed germination acuoles$ large mem(ranos storage sacs in cells (smaller ones are called !esicles)- storage of water or food- e%cretion of waste materials- intracellular digestion- space filling, cell turgor Cell Cycle Stages Mitosis$ division of nucleus- 2 diploid cells in one division (@A chromosomes) 3rophase$ no pairing of chromosomes- nuclei and nuclear mem(rane disappearspindle fi(ers are formed- homologous chromosomes (synapsis) Metaphase$ diploid num(er of dyads- alignment- tetrads at e8uator Anaphase$ sister chromatids separate- migration Telophase$ 2 diploid daughter cells- reverse prophase 9nterphase$ stage (etween two successive divisions /ap 1 or /1 phase$ cells increase in si.e- &<A synthesis Synthesis or S phase$ !<A synthesis- chromosomes are replicated (sister chromatids) /ap 2 or /2 phase$ continuation of &<A synthesis and protein synthesis- increase in si.e

Meiosis$ 2 haploid daughter cells (2" chromosomes)- for male gonads to produce sperm cell Meiosis 9 3rophase$ pairing of homologous chromosomes- formation of tetrads Metaphase$ tetrads at e8uator Anaphase$ homologous chromosomes separate Telophase$ haploid daughter cells Meiosis 99 3rophase$ dyads are present (one dyad per homologous chromosome) Metaphase$ dyads at e8uator (haploid num(er) Anaphase$ sister chromatids separate (chromosomes) Telophase$ four daughter cells Cell Reproduction &eproduction$ a(ility of an organism to increase in num(er and produce their own )indprocess in which living things can perpetuate their species Se%ual &eproduction$ involves union of gametes Ase%ual &eproduction$ offspring is genetically identical with its single parent- results in the formation of clones 0udding$ :(uds6 or outgrowths from the parent cell>(ody grow into new individuals *%. Beast, "ydra

Spore +ormation$ spores (haploid) germinate into new individuals without fertili.ation *%. 0read molds, mosses and ferns +ission$ single$celled organisms *%. 0acteria, some proto.oans +ragmentation$ parent (ody (rea)s up into several pieces that develop into new organisms *%. Sponges, flatworms &egeneration$ growth of lost (ody part of an animal *%. Sea star Skeletal System S)eleton +unctions of 0ones; a) Support () 3rotection c) #alcium storage d) 0lood cell production e) Serves as (ody framewor) Shapes of 0ones; a) +lat$ red marrow- scapula, s)ull, ri(s

() 9rregular$ verte(ra c) ,ong$ yellow marrow (fatty su(stances) d) Short The human (ody has 2AC (ones; Axial #$eleton S)ull$ protects the (rain 0ac)(one$ or verte(ral column- protects the spinal cord- gently curved li)e a dou(le S- consists of; 2@ mova(le verte(rae?D cervical verte(rae (nec) region), 12 thoracic verte(rae (chest region), E lum(ar verte(rae F fused verte(rae?sacrum (E verte(rae fused into one), coccy% (@ verte(rae fused into one) &i( cage$ protects the heart and lungs Appendicular #$eleton 0ones of the forelim( Shoulder girdle 0ones of the hind lim(s 3elvic girdle 2oints 1. 9mmova(le$ no movement, e%. suture

2. Slightly>3artially mova(le$ e%. #ervical verte(rae ". Mova(le a) 0all and soc)et$ one (one is cup$li)e and the other is rounded- rotation *%. Shoulder, hips () inge$ forward and (ac)ward movement *%. *l(ow, )nee c) 3ivot$ rotate 1GCH *%. Atlas, a%is d) /liding$ (ones slide with one another *%. Irist and an)le 0one Tissue 1. 3eriosteum$ tough mem(rane covering of a (one 2. *piphysis$ spongy end part of long (ones ". #ompact (ones$ hard outer part of long (ones- gives (one resiliency #alcium phosphate$ gives hardness and strength of (ones @. !iaphysis$ the shaft E. Spongy (one$ or cancellous- softer part of the (one containing small spacesma)es up most of the volume of (one- contains (one marrow 2 Types of 0one Marrow;

a) &ed (one marrow$ fat and (lood$producing cellsproduce &0# All the (one marrow during infancy is red. () Bellow (one marrow$ fatty tissue- produce I0# A. 2oint$ point where two (ones meet D. aversian system$ circular$patterned units in the cross$section of the (one

1. 9ntramem(ranous =ssification$ mainly occurs during formation of the flat (ones of the s)ull- (one is formed from mesenchyma tissue Steps; a) !evelopment of ossification center () #alcification c) +ormation of tra(eculae d) !evelopment of periosteum 2. *ndochondral =ssification$ occurs in long (ones, e.g., lim(s- (one formed from cartilage Steps; a) !evelopment of cartilage model () /rowth of cartilage model c) !evelopment of primary ossification center d) !evelopment of secondary ossification center e) +ormation of articular cartilage and epiphyseal plate =ssification$ hardening of (ones is mainly postnatal, (eginning in the first year and ending during pu(erty- (egins at the ossification center- dependent upon secretion of a hormone from the thyroid glands 9mportance of =ssification; a) 0ecause the (ones of (a(ies are soft, they can easily (e deformed

G. ,amellae$ rings within the averian system F. ,acunae$ small cavities (etween ad1acent lamellae 1C. #analiculi$ small (ranching canals interconnected to lacunae 11. aversian canal$ interconnecting channels containing nerves and (lood vessels that supply the (ody cells

12. Synovial fluid$ lu(ricant secreted (y a connective tissue mem(rane surrounding a 1oint 1". 0ursae$ sacs of fluid that cushion a 1oint against shoc) 1@. =steocytes$ mature (one cells that secrete the hard (ony matri% 1E. =steo(lasts$ (one$forming cells (secrete protein matri% of (one) 1A. =steoclasts$ (one$a(sor(ing cells (removing (ony su(stances) 0one /rowth and !evelopment 0one development consists of change in number o% bones, gro&th in bone si'e and change o% composition( =steogenesis or =ssification$ process of (one formation

() 0ones in childhood are less su(1ect to fracture or (rea)s than they will (e after ossification #hange in the <um(er of 0ones; At (irth the human (ody has a(out "EC (ones, (ut (y the time adulthood rolls around, some of our (ones have fused together to give us a total of 2CA (ones Muscular System Types of Muscles; S)eletal <um(er of nuclei>cell 3resence of striations #ell shape Movement Multinucleated Striated #ylindrical 'oluntary =ne +ew striations or none Spindle 9nvoluntary Smooth #ardiac =ne or two Striated 0ranching 9nvoluntary Mouth Structures of Muscles 1. Sarcolemma$ muscle cell mem(rane- acts as cover 2. Sarcoplasm$ muscle cytoplasm- holds organelles ". Sarcoplasmic reticulum$ muscle endoplasmic reticulum- transport unit @. Myofi(rils$ muscle filaments- muscle cell contractile su(unit a) Actin$ thin filaments with troponin and tropomyosin for muscle contraction Teeth ("2)

() Myosin$ thic) filament- crosses (ridges>heads that holds actin filament during muscle contraction E. Sarcomere$ functional unit of myofi(ril 4sarco5$ 1elly$li)e 4myo5$ muscle Digestive System$ for energy production 9ngestion Two 3hases of 9ngestion 1. Mechanical$ physical change in food 2. #hemical$ en.ymes (organic catalysts that speed up chemical reaction) act on food A(sorption *limination or defecation

Tongue$ smooth muscle- contains taste (uds (detects chemical) Salivary glands Mucus mem(rane <asal cavity 3alade

Jvula *sophagus *pidymis !ymis 3eristalsis$ rhythmic movement 0olus Mastecation$ constant grinding of food Sphincter$ cardiac>esophoseal (ul( at the end of the esophagus- regulates entry and e%it Stomach$ contains strongest acid$ #l acid- contains gastric acids 3epsin en.yme K #l L peptide (ond Three ,ayers; 1. ,ongitudinal 2. #ircular ". Angled>=(li8ue

1. +ood nutrients 2. &espiratory gases ". #ellular wastes =rgans of #irculatory System; A. eart$ dou(le pumping organ>machine- right side pumps deo%ygenated (lood and left side pumps o%ygenated (lood 3ericardium$ outer covering Septum$ structure that separates right side to left side ,ayers of eart Iall 1. *picardium$ protects the (arriers of the heart 2. Myocardium$ muscle contraction and propulsion of (lood ". *ndocardium$ lines the cham(ers of the heart where (lood passes through Tra(eculae$ fi(er in muscles found in endocardium 'isceral pericardium$ a cavity filled with fluid that avoids friction due to contraction Pericarditis- disease &here there is &ater in the heart 0. 'alves

Circulatory System$ process in which (lood is delivered to the capillaries where e%change of molecules ta)e place 9mportance; transport of

1. Antrioventricular valves$ (etween atria and ventricles a. Tricuspid$ has three cups>flaps at the right side of the heart (. 0icuspid (or mitral)$ has two flaps at the left side of the heart

2. Semilunar valves a. 3ulmonary semilunar valve$ (etween right ventricle to pulmonary arteries (. Aortic semilunar valve$ (etween left ventricle to aorta #ardiac #ycle (lasts .GE seconds) Time .1E seconds ."C seconds .@C seconds Atria S ! ! 'entricle ! S !

2. Antrioventricular node (A')$ signals ventricles to contract (y way of a special fi(er, 3ur)in1e fi(er 3ur)in1e fi(er causes ventricles to contract. *lectrocardiogram$ electrical recording device to study heart(eat (y recording voltage changes occurring during heart contraction *#/$ record results- has waves; 1. 3 wave$ e%citation and contraction of atria 2. M&S wave$ ventricular e%citation and contraction ". T wave$ recovery of ventricles from contraction a. Sinus tachycardia$ fast heart(eat due to fast pacema)er

S$ Systole !$ !iastole eart contracts (y DC%>min. or heart(eat lasts a(out .GEseconds. eart Sounds; 1. ,u($ vi(ration of heart when atrioventricular valves closes 2. !upp$ vi(rations of the heart when the semilunar valves closes #ardiac #onduction System <odal Tissue$ has muscular and nervous characteristics which causes heart to (eat independently of any nervous stimulation 1. Sinoatrial node (SA)$ initiates heart(eat and automatically send out an e%citation impulse every .GE seconds to cause atria to contract. 9t is called as the pacema)er (ecause it )eeps heart(eat regular.

(. 'entricular fi(rillation$ irregular heart(eat due to irregular stimulation of ventricles c. Mitral stenosis$ mitral>(icuspid o(structed

The very muscular wall with many elastic fi(ers allows the artery to withstand and maintain a high (lood pressure.

3oc)et valves close to prevent (ac) flow of (lood. This is essential to get (lood (ac) to heart. As capillary is one cell thic), it is very lea)y as su(stances li)e o%ygen and glucose can pass out and car(on dio%ide move in.

Respiratory System$ complete process of getting o%ygen to (ody cells for cellular respiration and the reverse process of ridding the (ody of car(on dio%ide (y the cells Air passages; 1. <ose$ has two nasal cavities separated (y a septum- ciliated cells at the upper portion as odor receptors lacrimal (tear gland) duct and communicates with cranial sinuses during cold or allergic reactions causing inflammation, mucus accumulation and sinus headache. As air entered, it is filtered (y cilia, warmed (y heat given off (y (lood vessels lying close to surface lining of air passages, and moistened (y wet surface of the passages. 9ts air moves out, if loses moisture. <asopharyn%$ passage of air from nose through throat 2. 3haryn%$ connection point of air and food passages found at the (ac) of the throat /lottis$ a slitli)e opening (etween the vocal cords (elastic ligaments) at the top of the laryn% and is covered (y a flap of tissue (epiglottis) to prevent the passing of food ". ,aryn% (voice (o%)$ sound is produced. 3itch of voice depends upon the length, thic)ness, degree of elasticity of vocal cords and the tension at which they are held. 'oice growth of laryn% is much rapid and accentuated in males producing 4Adam6s apple5. Their voice (rea)s due to ina(ility to control vocal cords. @. Trachea (wind pipe)$ has #$shaped cartilaginous rings and ciliated mucus mem(rane. 9f an o(1ect (loc)ed this passage, a tu(e is inserted in an incision on the throat as an artificial air inta)e and e%haust duct through the operation called tracheoctomy E. 0ronchi$ two divided tu(es from the trachea that are (ranched into (ronchioles A. 0ronchioles$ smaller (rances with thinner walls and terminates in alveoli

7. Alveoli$ air pac)ets>sacs ("CCM, with total cross$sectional area of EC$DCm 2) where gasses are e%changed in its one layered s8uamous epithelium surrounded (y (lood capillaries and lipoprotein lining that lowers lung surface tension that prevents them from closing. 3remature (a(ies die when lipoprotein is not present in their lungs (9nfant respiratory distress syndrome). ,ungs$ coneshaped organ lying on (oth sides of the heart within thoracic cavity (ri(s, sternum and muscles) a(ove the dome$shaped hori.ontal muscle, diaphragm and are enclosed (y the pleural mem(ranes (outer and inner). <ormally, intrapleural pressure is less than atmospheric pressure that causes air to enter. ,ung capacities; 1. Tidal volume$ amount of air moved in and out of the lungs (ECC ml) that can (e increased (y deep (reathing 2. 'ital capacity$ total volume of air that can (e moved in and out during a single (reath. 9t is the total sum of tidal, inspiratory reserve and e%piratory reserve volumes ". 9nspiratory reserve volume$ increased inspiration (",1CC ml) (y contrasting the thoracic muscles. @. *%piratory reserve volume$ increased e%piration (y 1, @CC ml of air E. &esidual volume$ remain air in the lungs that is no longer useful for gas e%change purposes +actors Affecting ,ung #apacity; 1. Activity 2. ". ealth condition igher altitude

@. /ender

!ead space$ air passages that are filled with air that never reaches the lungs. 0reathing through a tu(e increases the amount of dead space (eyond ma%imal inhaling capacity that can cause death to the individual (ecause the air inhaled never reaches the alveoli. #omponents of &espiration; A. 0reathing$ entrance and e%it of air in and out of lungs 9mportance; To supply the (ody with o%ygen and the meta(olic end product car(on dio%ide must also (e eliminated (y (reathing process #A
12

a. The e%panded lungs with stretched alveoli stimulate special receptors in the alveolar walls to initiate nerve impulses to travel to the (reathing center. (. Medulla o(longata inhi(its and stops sending signals to the diaphragm and the ri( cage causing it to rela% and resume its shape. The a(dominal organs press up against the diaphragm, ri( cage moves down and inward and the lungs recoil as air is pushed out. 0. *%ternal &espiration$ e%change of gases (etween air in the alveoli and (lood in the pulmonary capillaries through diffusion determined (y the pressure or tension gradient carried as (icar(onate ion ( #= ").
K

=A K A=2 A

= K A#=2

<ormal (reathing is 1@$2C%>min. 3erson at rest utili.es 2ECml of =2>min. and ECCml>min. with mild e%ercise. Mechanism of 0reathing; Ihen (reathing, there is a continuous column of air from the pharyn% to the alveoli of the lungs (ecause air passages are open. 1. 9nspiration$ active phase of (reathing- induced (y; a. #oncentrated #=2 and ions in the (lood causing the respiratory center in the medulla o(longata to (e stimulated, and (. #hemoreceptors in the carotid (odies (in carotid arteries) and aortic (odies (in aorta) to respond to K ion concentration, #=2 and =2 in (lood c. <erve impulses causes diaphragm to contract and lowers, ri( cage muscles contract and move upward and outward increasing the si.e of the thoracic cavity and lungs to e%pand. As the lungs e%pand, air pressure within enlarged alveoli lowers. 2. *%piration$ happens when;
K

K #=$"

#="

= K #=2 (#=2 leaves the (ody)

The en.yme car(onic anhydrase present in the &0# speeds up the reaction. The respiratory pigment hemoglo(in gives up the ions it has (een carrying causing ( to (e ( (hemoglo(in). emoglo(in more readily ta)es up =2 and (ecomes o%yhemoglo(in ( (=2). ( K =2 (=2 (=2 is entering the (ody) emoglo(in ta)es up =2 more readily at the warmer and more acidic p f the tissues. #. 9nternal &espiration$ e%change of gases (etween (lood in systematic capillaries and tissue fluid (y reducing hemoglo(in from o%yhemoglo(in as o%ygen diffuses out of (lood into the tissues. (=2 ( K =2 !iffusion of =2 out of (lood into the tissues occur (ecause the = 2 concentration of tissue fluid is low (the cells continuously use up =2 in the cellular respiration). !iffusion of #=2 into (lood from the tissues occur (ecause #=2 concentration of tissue fluid is high. #=2 enters the (lood ta)en (y haemoglo(in forming

car(ominohemoglo(in ( (#=2) which disassociates to ( #="$). #ar(onic Anhydrase speeds up the reaction. #=2 K
2

ions and (icar(onate ions

1. Medulla sends stimulatory messages to the diaphragm and ri( muscles. 2. !iaphragm contracts and flattens. ". &i( cage moves up and out. @. ,ungs e%pand. E. <egative pressure (uilds in lungs (air does not force the lungs open (ecause lungs are pulled open as air comes in). A. Air is pulled in.

1. Stretch receptors in lungs send inhi(itory messages in medulla. 2. !iaphragm rela%es and resumes a dome position. ". &i( cage moves down and in. @. ,ungs recoil. E. 3ositive pressure (uilds up in lungs.

#="

K #="$

The glo(in portion ( com(ines with e%cess K ions produced (y the reaction, and ( (ecomes ( ma)ing (lood p fairly constant. The (icar(onate ion diffuses out of the &0# cells and is carried in the plasma. !. #ellular respiration$ production of AT3 in cells *%ternal &espiration 3rocess; alveoli to (lood 1. 2. 3.
K

#="$

#="

= K #=2

(#=2 ( K #=2 ( K =2 (=2 #omponents of Air <itrogen =%ygen #ar(on !io%ide

K

9nspired Air (N volume) DF.CC 2C.FA C.C@

*%pired Air (N volume) DF.AC 1A.C2 @."G

9nternal &espiration 3rocess; (lood to cells>tissues 1. 2. 3. (=2 ( K =2 ( K #=2 (#=2 (#=2

2

#="

K #=$" Mechanism of 0reathing

+ive Types of #irculation; 1. 3ulmonary$ lungs *%piration 2. #oronary$ heart ". *phatic portal$ :pancreas6, :stomach6, digestive system @. &enal$ )idney

9nspiration

E. Systemic$ intar(ody &espiratory 9nfections and !iseases 1. #ommon cold$ viral infection- scratchy throat, watery mucus discharge from nasal cavities 2. 9nfluen.a (flu)$ viral infection- fever, aches and pains in the 1oints ". 0ronchitis$ viral infection from nasal cavities to sinuses (sinusitis), to middle ears (otitis media), to the laryn% (laryngitis), and (ronchi. Acute (ronchitis is caused (y secondary (acterial infection with heavy mucus discharge and coughing and responds to anti(iotic therapy. #hronic (ronchitis is caused (y constant irritation of (ronchi lining resulting to loss of cilia and normal cleansing action- caused (y smo)ing @. Strep throat$ (acterium streptococcus pyogenes infection- difficulty swallowing and fever- can lead to rheumatic fever if not treated with anti(iotics E. 3neumonia$ (acterial>viral infection- lo(es of lungs are filled with mucus and pus A. Tu(erculosis$ tu(ercle (acillus infection D. *mphysema$ caused (y smo)ing that leads to the destruction of lung tissue with (allooning>inflation of the lungs due to the trapped air. The (ronchioles collapse causing cutting off of renewed o%ygen supply in alveoli. The trapped air ma)es alveolar walls to rupture, thus e%change of gases are reduced and insufficient amount of o%ygen reaches the heart and the (rain. G. 3ulmonary fi(rosis$ caused (y inhalation of silica (sand), coal dust and as(estos leading to (uilding of fi(rous connective tissues in the lungs that ena(les (reathing capacity to (e seriously impaired. Excretory System$ involves the ridding off of unwanted su(stances such as the end product of meta(olism

1. Ammonia (< ") O amino acid meta(olism e%creted (y )idneys 2. Jrea O ammonia meta(olism e%creted (y )idneys and s)in ". Jric acid O nucleotide meta(olism created (y the )idneys. *%cess uric acid precipitates out of the plasma. /out is a painful ailment caused (y crystals of uric acid collected in 1oints. @. #reatinine O creatine phosphate meta(olism e%creted (y the )idneys E. 0ile pigment O haemoglo(in meta(olism e%creted (y the liver. 2aundice is a s)in discolour condition caused (y (ile pills from a (loc)ed (ile duct A. #ar(on dio%ide O (icar(onate ions ( #="$) e%creted (y the )idneys as end product of cellular respiration D. 9ons O important to the p , the osmotic pressure, and the electrolyte (alance of (lood. The (alance of potassium and sodium ions is important to nerve conduction, calcium ions to muscle contraction, iron ions in haemoglo(in meta(olism e%creted (y the large intestine, magnesium ions help many en.ymes to function properly. G. Iater O e%creted (y the )idneys =rgans of e%cretion; 1. Pidneys O primary e%cretory organ and consistently rid the (ody of urea. 9t has regulatory functions; 1. +or the ad1ustment of (lood p and ion (alance (e%cretion of hydrogen ions ( K) and ammonia (< ") and rea(sorption of sodium ions and (icar(onate ions ( #="$) if (lood is acidic. 9f (lood is (asic only, few hydrogen ions are e%creted and few sodium ions and (icar(onate ions are rea(sor(ed)- thus ma)ing ions (alance 2. Maintains (lood volume under the control of hormones A! (increases the permea(ility of collecting duct to a(sor( water) !iuresis O increased amount of urine, less A! secretion Antidiuresis O decreased amount of urine, more A! secretion

And aldosterone (maintains <aK and PK- increases <aK in (lood causes water to rea(sor( that leads to increase (lood volume and (lood pressure) 2. S)in O has sweat glands to e%crete sweat (water, salt and urea) to )eep (ody temperature within normal range ". ,iver O e%cretes (ile pigments @. ,ungs O e%crete car(on dio%ide and water (moisture (y (lowing onto cool mirror) E. ,arge 9ntestine O e%crete salts, iron and calcium directly into its cavity (y the epithelial cells lining it Jrinary System (3ath); 1. Pidneys O 2 (ean$shaped reddish (rown organ at fist si.e that forms urine compound of meta(olic waste products. 9t6s e%ternal structure features a depression where renal (lood vessels and ureters enter. 9nternal structure involves; o #orte% O outer granulated layer which dips down in (etween
o

!istal convoluted tu(ule O cells are cu(oidal, with mitochondria (ut no (rush (order at the corte% #ollecting duct O a tu(e that receives urine from several distal convoluted tu(ule are located at the medulla

2. Jreters O muscular tu(es that convey urine from the )idneys toward the (ladder (y peristaltic action ". Jrinary (ladder O hollow, muscular organ that holds ACC m, of urine. 9n males, it lies ventral to the rectum, the seminal vesicles, and the vas deferens. 9n females, it is ventral to the uterus and the upper vagina @. Jrethra O e%tends from urinary (ladder to the e%ternal opening. 9n males, its length averages 1E cm when penis is rela%ed. 9n females, it is only a(out 2.E cm long ma)ing (acterial invasion possi(le Steps in Jrine formation 1. 3ressure filtration O (lood pressure forces small molecules (water, glucose, amino acids, salts, urea, uric acid, creatine) form the glomerulus into 0owman6s capsule 2. Selective a(sorption O diffusion and active transport return molecules (water, glucose, amino acids, salts) to (lood at pro%imal convoluted tu(ule ". Tu(ular e%cretion O active transport moves molecules (uric acid, creatine, hydrogen ions, ammonia, penicillin) from (lood into the distal convoluted tu(ule @. &ea(sorption of water O along the length of the nephron and nota(ly at loop of enle and collecting duct, water returns (y osmosis following active rea(soprtion of salt E. *%cretion O urine formation rids (ody of meta(olic wastes (water, salts, urea, uric acid, ammonia, creatinine) 3ro(lems with )idney functions; 1. Jrethritis O infection of the urethra 2. #ystisis O infection of the urinary (ladder

Medulla O radially striated or lined layer that contains conical masses of tissue called renal pyramids. At the tip of each pyramid there is a tu(e that 1oins with others to form the renal pelvis. &enal pelvis O inner space>cavity that is continuous with the ureter

<ephron O )nown as the renal>)idney tu(ules. 9t is made up of;

0owman6s capsule O dou(le$walled cup of speciali.ed cells that allow easy passage of molecules located at the corte% that contains a capillary tuft called glomerulus. 3ro%imal convoluted tu(ule O highly coiled region of nephron6s corte% with cells that are cu(oidal with many mitochondria and inner (rush (order ,oop of enle O cells are flat and tu(es (ecome narrow ma)ing a J$turn located at the medulla

". 3yelonephritis O infection of the )idney @. /lomerulus damage O glomerulus (loc)age O no fluid moves into the tu(ules, or glomerulus are more permea(le even (lood cells and al(umin is present in urine E. Jremia O e%tensive glomerulus damage and waste su(stances are accumulated in (lood A. *dema O fluid concentration in (ody tissues due to retention of water and salts D. ,oss of consciousness and heart failure im(alance of ionic composition in (ody fluids Pidney failure replacement>remedies 1. Pidney transplant O survival rate from a relative is FDN and FEN from a non$relative 2. !ialysis O utili.ing a )idney machine > #A3! (continuous am(ulatory peritoneal>a(dominal dialysis) which diffuses dissolved molecules through a semipermea(le mem(rane. A fresh amount of dialysate is introduces directly into the a(dominal cavity from a (ag attached to a permanently implanted plastic tu(e. Iastes and water molecules pass into the dialysate from the surrounding organs (efore the fluid is collected @ or G hours later. 9ndividuals can go a(out his>her normal activities during #A3! ". emodialysis O patient6s (lood is passed through a semipermea(le mem(ranous tu(e that is in contact with a (alanced salt (dialysis) solution (dialysate). 9n a Ahr hemodialysis, EC$2ECg of urea are removed from a patient, which greatly e%ceeds the urea clearance of normal )idneys. 3atient needs to undergo treatment only a(out twice a wee) and cannot do any activities during the treatment.

2. 9ntegration$ #<S integrates and formulates appropriate reaction from the sensory input ". Motor =utput$ facilitates the action in the efferent nerves (muscles and glands) 3arts of the <ervous System 9. #entral <ervous System$ the (ody6s main control center A. 0rain$ control center of the nervous system- responsi(le for (ehaviour 3arts of the 0rain; a. +ore(rain$ where ma1or processing centers are found a1. #ere(rum$ most anterior or most dorsal region of the nervous system (memory and intelligence) a2. Thalamus$ sorts out all information from the sense organs as well as the other parts of the (rain (efore relaying them to the cere(rum (sends information towards cere(rum) a". ypothalamus$ controls the secretion of many hormonesregulates (lood pressure, (ody temperature, and responses to satisfy physiological needs- controls emotions (. Mid(rain$ connected to sensory nerves of eyes c. ind(rain c1. 3ons and medulla o(longata c2. #ere(ellum$ (alance, coordination of movement

Nervous System$ accounta(le for 8uic) reaction to e%ternal and internal stimuli +unctions; 1. Sensory 9nput$ sends signals through sensory receptors to the central nervous system (#<S)

c". 0rain stem 0. Spinal #ord$ pathway towards the (rain 99. 3eripheral <ervous System or 3<S$ nerves that pro1ect from #<S 1. Somatic <ervous System$ sensory and motor neurons 2. Automatic <ervous System$ motor neurons only- involves the; (1. Sympathetic <ervous System$ controls the internal organs during stressful situations and increased activity (2. 3arasympathetic <ervous System$ controls the internal organs during routine conditions The Twelve #ranial <erves; 1. =lfactory (smell) 2. =ptic (vision) ". =culomotor (eye movements) @. Trochlear (eye movements) E. Trigeminal (facial sensation and 1aw movements) A. A(ducent (eye movements) D. +acial (facial e%pression and taste) G. Acoustic or 'esti(ulocochlear (hearing and (alance) F. /lossopharyngeal (taste and throat sensation)

1C. 'agus ((reathing, circulation and digestion) 11. Spinal Accessory (movement of nec) and (ac) muscles) 12. ypoglossal (tongue movement)

!rugs and the <ervous System; 1. Stimulants$ drugs that e%ert their action through e%citation of the #<S- used to enhance mental alertness and reduce drowsiness and fatigue a. #offee$ 9f the dosage of caffeine is increased a(ove 2CCg (a(out two cups of coffee), it does not increase mental performance (ut may increase nervousness, irrita(ility, tremors and headaches (. Amphetamines$ lose weight- increase alertness- elevate mood, reduce feelings of fatigue and hunger, facilitate powers of concentration , and increase the desire and capacity to carry out wor)- induce e%hilarating feelings of power, strength, energy, self$assertion, focus and enhanced motivation- need to sleep or eat is diminished c. #ocaine$ in nucleus accum(ens- local anesthetics 2. Sedative$ induce sleep a. 0ar(iturates$ depress the reticular formation (thus promoting sleep) and in high doses L, the medulla o(longata (thus stopping (reathing) ". =piates$ effective pain)illers- control coughing, (reathing and intestinal motilitye%ceedingly addictive, 8uic)ly producing tolerance and dependence a. Morphine$ used as pain)iller

(. #odeine$ used as pain)iller and in cough medicine c. eroin$ more effective as a pain)iller than morphine and codeine- so highly addictive that its use is illegal

1. ypothalamus $ regulates internal environment (water level, temperature, (lood pressure, etc.) 2. 3ituitary /land$ connected to hypothalamus a) 3osterior R Antidiuretic ormone>'asopressin (A! )$ promotes 2= rea(sorption in the )idney R =%ytocin$ uterine contraction- artificially induce la(or- produce mil) in mammary glands () Anterior $ Smaster glandS- controls secretion of other endocrine glands- produces hypothalamic$releasing Q inhi(iting hormones R /rowth ormone>Somatotropin (/ )$ cell division, protein synthesis, (one growth R ,actogenic ormone>3rolactin (,T )$ mammary gland development- mil) production R Melanocyte$Stimulating ormone (MS ) R Thyroid$Stimulating ormone (TS )$ stimulates thyroid gland R Adrenocottinocotropic ormone (A#T )$ stimulates adrenal (cortisol) R /onodotropic ormones$ stimulates the gonads

@. Mari1uana$ drowsiness, dulling of pain, perception distorting effects of the psychedelics Endocrine System$ utili.es chemical messengers that (ring a(out the coordination of (ody parts. ormones$ chemical messengers that influence the meta(olism of the receiving cell #ategories of #hemical messengers; 1. 3heromones $ act a distance (etween individuals 2. Traditional *ndocrine ormones Q Secretions of <eurosecretory cells $ act a distance within the individual. ". 3rostaglandin Q <eurotransmitter su(stances $ local messengers Types of ormones 1. 3eptide>3olypeptide>3rotein>Amino acid hormones$ coded (y genes Q synthesi.ed at the ri(osomes- activates e%citing en.yme in the cell (com(ines with receptors, produces cAM3, activates a certain cell and so on)- acts on the target cell with a lesser period of effect 2. Steroid ormones$ produced (y adrenal corte%, testes, ovaries (com(ines with receptors, enters the nucleus, (inds with chromatin, activates a particular gene and synthesis of certain en.ymes), e%. Ana(olic>Synthetic Steroids (1F"C)- prevents muscle atrophy to (urn victims and surgery patients- prolonged use leads to stunted growth, high (lood cholesterol, liver cancer and mood swings. *ndocrine /lands and ormones

,utini.ing ormone +ollicle$Stimulating ormone

". Thyroid /land $ iodine is actively transported

R Thyro%in$ increases meta(olic rate R #alcitonin$ regulates the calcium level in the (lood and opposes the action of the parathyroid hormone. @. 3arathyroid /land

D. /onads $ determines se%ual characteristic a) Testes $ male R Androgen (Testosterone)$ develops and maintains male se% characteristics () =varies $ female

R 3arathyroid ormone>3arathormone (3T )$increases calcium level and decreases phosphate level in (lood E. Adrenal gland a) #orte% R /lucocorticoids>#ortisol$ Amino acid to glucose- raises (lood glucose level R Mineralocorticoids>Aldosterone$ regulates level of sodium Q potassium R Se% hormones () Medulla R <orepinephrine$ responses associated with fight or flight response- (lood glucose level and meta(olic rate increases. R *pinephrine$ responses associated with fight or flight response- (lood glucose level and meta(olic rate increases. A. 3ancreas $ )slets o% Langerhans produces Q secretes hormones R 9nsulin$ secreted when there is a high level of glucose in the (lood R /lucagon$ stimulates (rea)down of stored nutrients- causes (lood level to rise

R *strogen$ development and maintains female se% characteristics R 3rogesterone$ stimulate growth of uterine lining G. Thymus $ active and largest during childhood. R Thymosin$ aids in the differentiation of T cells and stimulates immune cells F. 3ineal /land $ receives nerve impulses via eyes (optic tract) R Melatonin$ #ircadian rhythms in sleep cycle 1C. =ther glands a) eart R Atrial <atriuretic ormone () Stomach R /astric 1uice ( #, Q 3epsin ) c) Small 9ntestine R 9ntestinal 2uices !iseases &elated to the *ndocrine System

!ia(etes 9nsipidus $ ina(ility to produce A! /iantism $ associated with / (too much) !warfism $ associated with / (too little) Acromegaly $ associated with / (a(normal growths in the (ody) ypothyroidism $ low level of thyro%in in the (lood

() 3ositive +eed(ac) $ last step stimulates the first step Types of !ia(etes 1. Type 9 (2uvenile$=nset !ia(etes)$ not producing insulin 2. Type 99 (Maturity$=nset !ia(etes)$ produces insulin (ut cells donTt respond due to faulty receptor or lac) of glucose &enin $ en.yme from the )idney that converts;

yperthyroidism $ high level of thyro%in in (lood a) Angiostensinogen to Angiostenin 9 Simple /oiter $ lac) of thyro%in () Angiostenin 9 to Angiostenin 99 #retinism $ e%treme hypothyroidism during infancy>childhood My%edema $ lethargy, weight gain *%opathalmic goiter $ too much thyro%in Tetany $ drop in calcium level AddisonTs disease $ ina(ility to maintain glucose level in the (lood #ushingTs Syndrome $ high$level hormone secretion !ia(etes Melitus $ high level of cortisol, deficiency of insulin Acidosis $ (uildup of acids in (lood +eed(ac) Mechanism$ regulates the activities of most endocrine glands in the secretion of hormones a) <egative +eed(ac) O omeostasis- last step is against the first step $ releases Aldosterone to raise 0lood 3ressure (y constricting arteries and a(sor(ing sodium and 2= Reproductive System 9mportance 1. 3roduction and development of egg cell for possi(le fertili.ation 2. 3reparation of the uterus for implantation of em(ryo ". 3roduction of progesterone and estrogen 3arts 1. =vary$ main organ- there are two ovaries- contains hundreds of thousands of follicles, as a girl- pu(erty is when the first meiotic division occurs- coitus$ second meiotic division

2. =viduct$ of fallopian tu(e (2)- has finger$li)e pro1ections at the end (fim(rae) that sweeps the egg cell towards the fallopian tu(e- sight for fertili.ation- where egg cell and sperm cell meets U*ctopic 3regnancy$fertili.ation occurs outside the fallopian tu(e- development of fetus on a(domen- cuts off nourishment of fetus U2 egg cell K 2 sperm cellL fraternal twins ". Jterus$ where the em(ryo develops- most glandular and most vascular organ due to num(er of (lood vessels- mostly made up of tissue and muscles Menstruation$ uterine lining (endometrium) thic)ens with estrogen and progesteronewithout fertili.ation, it sheds @. #ervi%$ vaginal canal- elastic- opens so that the (a(y may go out E. 'agina$ (irth canal- receives the sperm cell- site of ovulation- e%it of menstrual flow A. 'ulva$ e%ternal structure of female D. ,a(ia Ma1ora G. ,a(ia Minora +olds with pu(ic hairprotection from dirt 1C. Mons 3u(is$ fatty prominence underlying the pu(ic hair 11. #litoris$ has erectile tissue homologous to penis and is capped (y a pea$shaped glanshas sensitive receptors (se%ually sensitive organ) &egulations of ormone ,evels 1. =varian #ycle a. +ollicular 3hase (1$1" days)$ +S promotes the development of the follicle and it secretes estrogen (. =vulation (day 1@)$ mature egg cell is released followed (y menstruation
Meiosis 9 3rimary +ollicles 3rimary =ocytes 2,CCC,CCC Secondary +ollicles Secondary =ocytes (efore pu(erty, "CC,CCC$ @CC,CCC /raafian +ollicles $contains mature mature egg cellwill (urst when it #orpus ,uteum $produces progesterone that thic)ens lining of uterus- disintegrates if

can no longer hold no fertili.ation occursmature egg cell "$A months in mother Meiosis 99

F. 'esti(ule$ cleft (etween la(ia minora which contains the urethra and the vaginal opening U ymen$ ring of tissue that partially closes the vagina- 4indication of virginity5- can (e destroyed during childhood

c. ,utheal 3hase (1E$2G days)$ , promotes the development of the corpus luteum as it secretes progesterone until it regenerates and menstruation occurs again 2. Jterine #ycle$ +S starts to increase production for maturation of follicle a. Menstruation (1$E days)$ uterine lining disintegrates and (lood vessel rupture (. 3roliferative phase (A$1" days)$ increased production of estrogen to thic)en the endometrium and (ecome vascular and glandular c. =vulation (day 1@) d. Secretory phase (1E$2G days)$ increased production of progesterone (y corpus luteum for endometrium thic)ness and uterine glands to mature producing a thic) mucoid secretion. 9f pregnancy does not occur, corpus luteum disintegrates UIithin five days, fertili.ed egg must (e in fallopian tu(e. U +emales have four hormones; estrogen, progesterone, , and +S UAndrophose$ diminish of progesterone +etal Stages !evelopment$ concerns with the events and processes that occurs as a single cell (ecomes a comple% organism. 3rocesses of !evelopment 1. /rowth$ cell divides gets larger and divides again 2. !ifferentiation$ when cells (ecome speciali.ed in structure Q function ". Morphogenesis$ when (ody parts are shaped and patterned into a certain form

*+ntogeny Recapitulate Phylogeny*$ ,atin saying which means the development of the em(ryo retraces the evolution of its species. *%ample; /ill #lefts are developed pharyngeal pouches in advanced verte(ration. 1st pair$ auditory cavity "rd pair$ thymus 2nd pair$ tonsils @th pair$ parathyroids !evelopmental Stages A. *m(ryonic !evelopment ,st -ee$- early de!elopmental stages 1. .lea!age$ cell division w>o growth (from fallopian tu(es to uterus) 2. /orula$ solid (all of cells (em(ryo reacts at "rd day) ". Blastula$ (Eth day) cavity is formed called (lastocysts having 2 main parts; tropo(lasts (outer and (ecomes the chorion) and inner mass ((ecomes the fetus) @ Gastrula$ (2nd wee)) implantation of the em(ryo at the uterine wall due to the en.yme secreted (y the tropo(last that digest away some of the tissue and (lood vessels of the uterine wall Q secretion of #/ ( uman #horion /onadotropin) as (asis for pregnancy test that appears in the urine Q maintains the corpus luteum in secreting estrogen and progesterone that lasts for " mos. At E mos. the placenta (egins to secrete estrogen and progesterone in greater amount as corpus luteum degenerates, formation of the " em(ryonic layers$ ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm E. 0eurula $ ("rd Iee)) appearance of the nerve cord and heart- development of the <ervous System $ (@th$Eth wee)s) formation of the @th e%traem(ryonic em(rane (allantois) that later (ecomes the um(ilical cord connecting the developing em(ryo to the placenta- human features appear (head, arms, legs) $ (Ath$Gth wee)s) (rain development- nec) formation- <S development for refle% actions- all

organ systems are esta(lished- placenta is mature and fully functioning- 1 1>2 inches long and weighs li)e an aspirin ta(let 0. +etal !evelopment 1-2 mos( $ large head, flat nose, eyes apart and ears distinctively present, se% are determined- heart (eat is felt- s)eleton ossified- A 1>2 inches long and 1>2 l( 3-4 mos( $ movement, eye lids open, pin)$colored s)in, have lanugs covered with greasy cheese li)e su(stance (verni% caseosa) for protection from amniotic fluid, 12 inches long and " l(s. 5-6 mos( $ fetus rotates so head is towards the cervi%$ 21 inches long and Dl(s /estation$ period of pregnancy, normally lasts for "G wee)s (2AA days) 3arturition$ la(or and e%pulsion of the fetus- contraction of the uterine wall every 1E$2C minutes for every 2C$"C seconds or 1E minutes for @C seconds or more. Stages of ,a(or; 1.) 7ilation o% the cer!ix$ e%pulsion of the mucus plug from the cervical canal which prevents (acteria and sperm from entering the uterus during pregnancy 2.) Expulsion o% the baby$ epinotony is done or incision to enlarge the vaginal openingstitched later then healed ".) Expulsion o% a%terbirth$ placenta is e%pelled after 1E minutes of delivery- (uterus) uterine muscles contract and uterus shrin)s uman !evelopment After 0irth 9nfancy #hildhood Adulthood Aging

/erontology$ study of aging #auses of Aging; 1. /enetic in =rigin; life span in species is specific (humans, 11C years). #hildren of long$lived parents tend to live longer than those of short$lived parents. The num(er of times a cell divides is specific (EC%). Mutation can lead to the production of non$ functional protein thus contri(utes to the aging process. 2. Ihole 0ody 3rocess; decline in hormonal system as the cell lac) receptors that ena(le them to respond. *%ample; &eproductive System and 9mmune System. &eason; 3rotein collagen (ecome increasingly cross$lin)ed as people age causing stiffening and loss of elasticity of organs. &esearchers now have found that glucose has the tendency to attach to any type of protein that is the first step in cross$lin)ing process and ends with the formation of Advanced /lycosylation *nd products (A/*s). This e%plains why cataracts develop, artherosclerosis, dia(etes, etc. Solution; &esearchers presently are e%perimenting a drug aminoguanidine which can prevent development of A/*s. ". *%trinsic +actors; due to poor health ha(its- diet and e%ercise, cigarette smo)ing, alcohol, inade8uate calcium inta)e Menopause$ se% hormones declined>fall in amount- uterus and cervi% reduced in si.ewalls of oviducts and vagina (ecome thin- e%ternal genitals (ecome less pronounced Andropause$ in males, androgen falls gradually at EC$FC years (ut sperm production continues U+emales have longer lives than males (ecause estrogen offers protection against circulatory disorders li)e heart disease and stro)e in males at @Cs (ut females only after menopause.

0irth !efect !etections 1. Amniocentesis$ fetus is tested (y getting amniotic fluid in a syringe centrifuge cell culture for (iochem studies and chromosome analysis 2. #horionic 'illi Sampling$ em(ryo is tested (y getting cells from chorionic villi (placenta) using a suction tu(e and ultrasound scanner ". ,aparoscopy$ o(taining eggs for screening for 9'+ usinf laparoscope (telescope) and aspirator for (iochem studies and chromosome analysis

1. #ri$du$chat (deletion E)$4cry of the cat5- intellectual disa(ility and delayed development, destructive facial features, small head si.e (microcephaly), low (irth weight, wea) muscle tone (hypotonia), in infancy, most common in female (1;2C,CCC$EC,CCC) 2. 3atau Syndrome (trisomy 1")$ disrupts normal development and can result to heart and )idney defects, motor and mental retardation, e%tra digits, microcephaly, low$set ears, failure of fore(rain to divide properly, eye defects, cleft palate, spinal defects, a(normal genitalia ". *dward6s Syndrome (trisomy 1G)$ growth deficiency, a(normal s)ull shape and facial features, clenched hands, &oc)er (ottom feet and cardio and renal a(normalities @. 3hiladelphian Sydrome (translocation F Q 22)$ chromosomal a(normality associated with chronic mycelogenous leu)emia (#M, leu)emia and unregulated growth of predominantly myeloid cells in the (one marrow and accumulation of these cells in the (lood E. !own Syndrome (trisomy 21)$ has mental retardation and other conditions, low muscle tone which ma)es difficulty in gross motor and fine motor s)ills along with articulating speech 0. Se% A(erration 1. Turner Syndrome (V=)$ monosomy @EV, short stature, underdevelop se%ual features, mental retardation 2. Plinefelter6s Syndrome (VVB)$ @DVB, tall male with normal stature (ut small testes, sterile, trisomy 2" ". Metafemale (VVV)$ trisomy 2", @DV, super female with short stature, mental retardation and underdevelop reproductive structures- sterile +orms of #hromosomal A(erration;

Molecular !enetics Mendelian !enetics Mutations Types of Mutations; (. 3oint Mutation$ change in very small segment of !<A (single nucleotide>pair) c. /ene Mutation$ change in chemical nature of !<A d. #hromosomal Mutation$ change in the structure>num(er of chromosome #ell Type Mutation; 1". Somatic #ell Mutation$ produces a mutant phenotype in only a part of the organism- not a herita(le trait 1@. /erm #ell Mutation$ producing a herita(le change A. #hromosomal A(errations

1. !uplication 2. !eletion ". 9nversion @. Translocation$ non$homologous chromosomes /ene !isorder !etection; 1. Amniocentesis$ involves the insertion of a needle through the a(dominal wall and uterus of mother and into the amniotic fluid surrounding the fetus 2. Jltrasomography$ involves the use of high$fre8uency sound waves to produce the image of a fetus on a monitor ". +etoscopy$ an instrument, endoscope, is used to view fetus inside the uterus

#odominance$ alleles that lac) dominant and recessive relationships and are (oth o(served phenotypically- the phenotypic effect of each allele is o(serva(le in the hetero.ygous condition Sex"Related &nheritance Se%$lin)ed traits$ genes located on the % chromosome only (%$lin)ed genes)recessive trait, e%. color(lindness, hemophilia Se%$influenced traits$ trait that is dominant in one se% and recessive in the other, e%. (aldness Se%$limited traits$ trait that develops only in the presence of se% chromosomes, e%. 3lumages, s)in color of animals DN' Technology Evidences o$ Evolution

Non"Mendelian #atterns o$ %eredity Multiple Alleles$ involves more than two alleles are identified at a gene locus. !ominant hierarchy should (e defined; !ominant; capital letter &ecessive; lowercase letter Alleles (etween two e%tremes; lowercase letter with suita(le superscript 3olygenes$ several genes are involved in a given trait, e%. eye color, strand of hair trait 9ncomplete !ominance$ alleles that lac) dominance relationships and result in hetero.ygous that have an intermediate phenotype that is distinct from either homo.ygous parent

*volution$ the process of change (y which new species develop from pre$e%isting species Types; 1. #onvergent evolution$ there is an increase in similarities among species derived from different ancestors and resulting from similar adaptations to similar environments 2. !ivergent evolution$ there is an increase in the differences among descendants of a single ancestral species as time passes *vidences of *volution; e. +ossils$ remains and traces of organisms that once lived- imprints of animal and plant parts mostly found in sedimentary roc)s (strata). Age is determined (y using radioactive dating. The time in which half the radioactive atoms of a

certain )ind in roc)s or fossils will (rea) down into atoms of another element is called the half$life. f. #omparative anatomy$ similarities and differences in structures of living things. omologous structures$ parts of different organisms that are similar in structure (ut serve different functions. 9t shows evolutionary descent from a common ancestor. 'estigial organs$ parts of many animals that serve little or no function at all. 0elieved as remnants of organs that were once functional in an ancestral form. Analogous structures$ parts that are similar in function (ut differ in internal structure. This does not suggest evolution from a common ancestor. g. #omparative em(ryology$ verte(ral em(ryo have notochord and gill puches at some time. *m(ryological development suggests that organisms have descended from a common ancestor. h. #omparative (iochemistry$ similarities in the se8uences of (ases in !<A result in similarities in the proteins made. The greater the (iochemical similarities among different groups of organisms, the closer is the evolutionary relationships. Types of *volution; 1E. 2ean$0aptiste ,amarc)6s a) Theory of <eed$ production of new (ody part results from a need. () Theory of Jse and !isuse$ organs remain active and strong as long as they are used (ut disappear gradually with disuse.

c) Theory of 9nheritance and Ac8uired #haracteristics$ all that has (een ac8uired or changed in structure of individuals during their life is transmitted (y heredity to the ne%t generation. 1A. #harles !arwin6s <atural Selection Theory$ involves =verproduction$ favoura(le conditions allow a population to increase in si.e and pressures can limit the num(er that can survive. 'ariation$ organisms differ in si.e, (ehaviour and other features. #ompetition$ due to pressures, organisms compete to survive. Survival of the fittest$ (est adapted organism to the environment survive. &eproduction$ survivors reproduce and pass their traits to their offspring. Speciation$ population changes when some traits are not passed on and differs enough from the original population and new species arise. This is (rought a(out (y; a) /eographic isolation$ a situation in which inter(reeding (etween two populations of a species is prevented (y a physical (arrier. () &eproductive isolation$ a situation in which two populations can no longer inter(reed and produce fertile offspring.

Adaptive radiation$ a (ranching out of a population through variation and adaptation to occupy many environments. Artificial Selection$ changes of organisms with man6s intervention (artificial (reeding). *%ample; use of tissue culture and genetic engineering processes. *volution of Man; Australophitecus africanus$ discovered in 1F"@ and named (y !r. !art in Africa omo ha(ilis$ 1FA@ (y !r. ,ea)y 3ithecanthropus erectus$ 1F"D in 2ava omo neanderthalensis omo sapiens (#ro$Magnon man) omo sapiens (modern man) Mechanism o$ Evolution