Chapter 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Related Literature

Capacitors Two conductors that are not connected and are separated by an insulator constitute a capacitor. When a source of EMF such as a cell is connected to such an arrangement, current flows momentarily and transfers change from one conducting plate to other. When a quantity of charge (Q) that is measured in coulombs has been transferred, the voltage (V) across the plates equals the voltage across the source. For a fixed arrangement of conductors and insulator, the ratio Q/V is a constant called the capacitance (C). (Sinclair, 2007) Construction of capacitors Like resistors, capacitors can be obtained in the older wireconnected style, or, more commonly now, as SMD components. Small value capacitors can be made using thin plates of insulating material (a dielectric) metallized on each side to form the conductors. Thin plates can be stacked and interconnected, to form larger capacitance values up to 1000 pF or more. (Sinclair, 2007)

Three major dielectric types of capacitors a. Film dielectrics Film dielectrics are used mostly for power factor correction and R/C snubbers. These capacitors are rated by kilovar (kvar) at rated voltage and are available both as single units and three-phase assemblies in one can. They are always fused, either with standard medium-voltage fuses or with expulsion fuses in outdoor installations. The latter discharge a plume of water vapor when ablative material in the fuse tube is evaporated as the fuse clears a fault. b. Electrolytic type The electrolytics have a much higher energy storage for a given volume, but they are not available in voltages above about 500 V and are generally rated for DC service only. They further have leakage currents and limited ratings for ripple current. Still, their high energy density makes them popular for filters on DC power supplies. c. Ceramic type Ceramic type is made from ceramic material with a high dielectric constant, ceramic capacitors generally have smaller capacitances but are available in high voltage ratings. Such capacitors have a very low self-inductance and

may be desirable for some types of snubbers. (Sueker, 2005) Resistors A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. Resistors act to reduce current flow, and at the same time, act to lower voltage levels within circuits. Resistors may have fixed resistances or variable resistances, such as those found in thermistors, varistors, trimmers, photo resistors and potentiometers. (http://en.wikepedia.org/wik/Resistor) One of the components that can be found in almost all electric appliances and equipment is the resistor. We find resistors in small amplifiers, in big public address system, in high fidelity stereophonic and quadrophonic amplifiers, in radio receivers set, tape recorders, etc. 1. Types of resistors a. Variable Resistor Variable resistors are those types of resistors whose resistance value can be adjusted manually. Variable resistors are also called adjustable resistors.

a.1. Classification of variable resistors a.1.1. Linear variable resistor The linear variable resistor has a resistance that varies proportionally with the adjustment of the rotating shaft. a.1.2. Non-linear variable resistor The resistance value of this type of resistor does not vary proportionally with the adjustment of its taper or the sliding contact element. b. Fixed Resistors Fixed resistors have fixed resistance values. Fuses Fuses are protective elements that are integral components of power electronics design. They range from the tiny glass cartridge fuses for control circuits to long, medium-voltage types. Each has characteristics that are tailored for particular applications. Control fuses should be rated for about 125% of the expected load current. Standard types can be used for most control circuits, but slo-blo fuses should be used for loads such as small motors and contactor coils that may draw inrush currents. (Sueker, 2005)

Transformers Transformers make use of the effect of mutual induction, whether they are the multiple winding type of transformer or the autotransformer, in which one single winding is used, with connections tapped for different connections. 1. Types of transformers a. Signal-matching transformers Many types of signal-matching transformers can be bought ready-made. a.1.Microphone transformer An audio application which is intended to match a low-impedance microphone into a high-impedance amplifier. General purpose of this type are designed for moving-coil microphones in the impedance range 20 to 30 ohms, or dynamic microphones in the 200 to 600 ohms region, and more specialized types can be obtained for ribbon microphones, usually from the manufacturers of the microphones. The primary winding of a microphone is usually centre-tapped so that the microphone cable can be balanced above ground, greatly reducing hum pickup, and the whole transformer is encased in metal shielding to minimize hum pickup in the transformer windings.

a.2. Isolating transformers Isolating transformers which are used to isolate telephone users equipment, particularly mainsconnected equipment and computers, from the telephone lines in order to ensure that it would be impossible for mains voltage ever to be connected to the telephone line. b. Mains transformers Mains transformers for power supplies conform to a fairly standard pattern. These transformers use laminated cores, and the older types use the familiar I and E core pieces which can be fitted together with an air gap. The size of the air gap is a very important feature of the transformer, and is the reason for the difficulties that many users experience when they rebuild a transformer for another purpose, such as rewinding the secondary for a different voltage. c. Autotransformers Autotransformers consist of a single tapped winding, so they offer no isolation unlike the double-wound form of transformer. Fixed ratio autotransformers are intended to allow the use of electrical equipment on different main voltages. (Sinclair, 2007)

Oscillators An oscillator can be made by connecting the output of an amplifier to its own input through something that delays the signal. If the delay is arranged so that at just one frequency the rising and falling voltages at the input and output of the amplifier stay in step, they will reinforce each other and build up into a continually repeating pattern. Only a little power is needed to keep this pattern going. The amplifier can deliver the rest to do useful work in other circuits. 1. Types of Oscillators a. Relaxation Oscillators Relaxation Oscillators accumulate energy until it causes a switch to operate, dumping the energy and starting the cycle again. Their frequency is not very constant. b. Harmonic Oscillators Harmonic Oscillators accumulate energy in one form at the expense of another, then swap it back. An amplifier replaces any energy lost. Although it produces wave of only one shape, this kind of oscillator is accurate and widely used in electronics. (Bridgman,1993) Amplifiers Amplifiers turn weak electrical signals into stronger ones. They allow a small amount of power, representing information, to control a much larger amount of power that can do useful work. In this way amplifiers make the vital

link between information and energy. Making vacuum tubes or transistors amplify requires care if their output is not to be distorted version of their input. Further, an amplifier driven hard enough, so that its output is forced to one extreme or the other, can act as an electrically controlled switch. (Bridgman, 1993) Subwoofer A subwoofer is a woofer, or a complete loudspeaker, which is dedicated to the reproduction of low-pitched audio frequencies known asbass. The typical frequency range for a subwoofer is about 20 to 200 Hz for consumer products, below 100 Hz for professional live sound, and below 80 Hz in THX-approved systems. Subwoofers are intended to augment the low frequency range of loudspeakers covering high frequency bands. Subwoofers are made up of one or more woofers mounted in a loudspeaker enclosure- often made of wood-capable of withstanding air pressure while resisting deformation. Subwoofer enclosures come in a variety f designs, including bass reflex, infinite baffle, horn-loaded, and bandpass designs, representing unique tradeoffs with respect to efficiency, bandwith, size and cost.

Related Studies In the study Audio Power Amplifier Design by Jingjie Sung and Yingjun Chen (2011) was a study in University of Cavle. In this study, a good performance audio power amplifier with tonality control is designed. It consists of three parts: pre-amplifier unit, the tonality control unit and the power amplifier unit. In the pre-amplifier unit, a TL071CP operational amplifier is applied, to amplify the low signal to be suitable for the tonality control unit. For the tonality control unit, a filter is used to achieve bass and treble control, resulting in different frequency response. In the last part, the low voltage power amplifier LM386N-1 is used. The results of simulation in Multisim show a good output waveform and different frequency response with the tonality control. Also the pure sound can be heard by ear clearly. The good simulation result offers the encouragement to build the circuit on the board and do the measurement. The measured results show a good output waveform, the output power 256mW, THD 4.7%, the maximum voltage gain 40 etc. Meanwhile, sound can be heard by ear clearly with the tonality control. Judging from the results, the audio power amplifier is designed successfully.

Justification Of The Study

The related literature in this chapter discussed the materials that will be used in assembling the power amplifier. The materials are identified and defined by parts so that the researchers will understand as to where it will be used in the device. The related studies focused on research about different assembly of an amplifier and it gave ideas and recommendations as to how a power amplifier can be modify. According to Sung and Chen, they have designed an audio power amplifier with tonality control. It is literally the same to the power amplifier that the researchers will be assembling but the difference is the researchers has an additional microphone.